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37,445 | 1,107,892,435 | Kannada | [
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"plaintext": "Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ) is a classical Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in the southwestern region of India. The language is also spoken by linguistic minorities in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala and Goa; and also by Kannadigas abroad. The language had roughly 43 million native speakers by 2011. Kannada is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12.9 million non-native speakers in Karnataka, which adds up to 56.9 million speakers. Kannada was the court language of some of the most powerful dynasties of south and central India, namely the Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Yadava Dynasty or Seunas, Western Ganga dynasty, Wodeyars of Mysore, Nayakas of Keladi Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire. It is one of the scheduled languages of India and the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka.",
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"plaintext": "The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script. Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years. Kannada literature has been presented with 8 Jnanapith awards, the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, the government of India designated Kannada a classical language of India. In July 2011, a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages in Mysore to facilitate research related to the language.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language and according to scholar Sanford B. Steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three stages: Old Kannada (Haḷegannaḍa) from 450–1200 AD, Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa) from 1200–1700 and Modern Kannada (Hosagannaḍa) from 1700 to the present. Kannada is influenced to a considerable degree by Sanskrit and Kannada also influenced Sanskrit. Influences of other languages such as Prakrit can also be found in Kannada. The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period, Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population. The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language, with lesser influence from other languages.",
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"plaintext": "The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three-fold: Pāṇini's grammar, non-Pāṇinian schools of Sanskrit grammar, particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools, and Prakrit grammar. Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times. The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages.",
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"plaintext": "Some naturalised (tadbhava) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are: baṇṇa (colour) derived from vaṇṇa, huṇṇime (full moon) from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are: varṇa (colour), pūrṇime, and rāya from rāja (king).",
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"plaintext": "Kannada also has borrowed (Tatsama) words such as dina (day), kōpa (anger), sūrya (sun), mukha (face), nimiṣa (minute).",
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"plaintext": "Poorvada Halagannada or Purva Halagannada (Pre-Old Kannada) is a Kannada term which literally translated means \"Previous form of Old Kannada\" which is dated by scholars from the early days of 1st century AD to the 8th century AD. It was the language of Banavasi in the late ancient period, the Satavahana, Chutu Satakarni (Naga) and Kadamba periods and thus has a history of over 2500 years. Scholar Sham. Ba. Joshi traced the antiquity of Kannada/Karnataka and proved through ethnic, historical and linguistic evidences that the Kannada speaking communities were present in regions towards the North of Godavari River. He pointed out that the languages spoken by essentially nomadic cowherd and shepherd tribes such as Kurkhs, Malers, Golari, Holiya and Halaba contain many Kannada words. He dated the antiquity of Kannada as early as the Pre-Christian era.",
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"plaintext": "Iravatam Mahadevan, author of a work on Early Tamil Epigraphy, proved that the oral traditions in Kannada and Telugu existed much before written documents were produced. Although the rock inscriptions of Ashoka were written in Prakrit, the spoken language in those regions was Kannada as the case may be. He can be quoted as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Some scholars trace the antiquity of Kannada to the Vedic Age (1500-600 BC when the Vedas were said to be compiled) as native Kannada origin words such as 'mitachi' (midate), 'chen' (Chandra) are found in one of the oldest Vedic literatures - the Chhandogya Upanishad of the Sama Veda. D. R. Bhandarkar states that at least one Dravidian word, is known from the Vedic literature, which is admitted to be composed in the language actually spoken by the people (Vedic Sanskrit), in the form of matachi, found in Chandogya Upanishad (embedded in the Sama Veda), one of the oldest Upanishads dated to 800-600 BC, which is a Sanskritised form of the well-known Kannada word midiche, which means \"a grasshopper, a locust\". This makes Kannada at least 2,600-2,800 years old at present with concrete historical proof. Since the Chhandogya Upanishad was put together in the North of India, especially the Punjab, in Vedic Sanskrit, which was the current speech of the people of the day, he further summarises and concludes that the presence of a Kannada (Dravidian) word in the spoken language of the people in Punjab during the 800-600 BC period supports the conclusion that the Dravidian tongue (Kannada) was prevalent in North India (including Punjab) before and during the period of arrival or migration of the Indo-Aryan language speakers to the Indian subcontinent during the 2000 BC-1600 BC period. An Old-Kannada word Urol (or Ooralli in modern Kannada, meaning 'in the town') is inscribed on a wall of the new library Bibliotheca Alexandrina completed in 2002 in Egypt conceived and built on the idea of the ancient Alexandria Library established by Ptolemy II Philadelphus during his reign from c. 285–246 BC. The Library of Alexandria caught fire during Julius Caesar’s siege of the city in 48 BC, burning some 36,000 palm-leaf manuscripts from across the world. Caesar directed his army chief to construct a memorial on the spot and engrave all the letters visible on the few saved manuscripts on a wall. The wall has Sanskrit, Hebrew, Greek, Latin and other language letters along with Kannada. Kannada linguist, historian and researcher B. A. Viveka Rai and Kannada writer, lyricist, and linguist Doddarangegowda assert that due to the extensive trade relations that existed between the ancient Kannada lands (Kuntalas, Mahishakas, Punnatas, Mahabanas, Asmakas, etc.) and Greece, Egypt, the Hellenistic and Roman empires and others, there was exchange of people, ideas, literature, etc. and a Kannada book existed in the form of a palm-leaf manuscript in the old Alexandria library which was subsequently lost in the fire. They state that this also proves that the Kannada language and literature must have flourished much before the library was established in between c. 285-48 BC. This document played a vital role in getting the classical status to Kannada from the Indian Central Government. The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated to 250 BC) has been suggested to contain words (Isila, meaning to throw, viz. an arrow, etc.) in identifiable Kannada.",
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"plaintext": "In some 3rd–1st century BC Tamil inscriptions, words of Kannada influence such as Naliyura, kavuDi and posil were found. In a 3rd-century AD Tamil inscription there is usage of oppanappa vIran. Here the honorific appa to a person's name is an influence from Kannada. Another word of Kannada origin is taayviru and is found in a 4th-century AD Tamil inscription. S. Settar studied the sittanavAsal inscription of first century AD as also the inscriptions at tirupparamkunram, adakala and neDanUpatti. The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also. Mahadevan argues that the words erumi, kavuDi, and tAyiyar have their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available. Settar adds the words nADu and iLayar to this list. Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil. Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions. These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BC and fourth century AD. These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in early Tamil inscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era.",
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"plaintext": "Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, wrote about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias (Netravati River), called Nitran by Ptolemy. He also mentions Barace (Barcelore), referring to the modern port city of Mangaluru, upon its mouth. Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century AD.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek geographer Ptolemy (150 AD) mentions places such as Badiamaioi (Badami), Inde (Indi), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai), Soubouttou or Sabatha (Savadi), Banaouase (Banavasi), Thogorum (Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige). He mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios, who is identified with Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi), whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli, meaning tiger. Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada's 'Puli Maiyi' or 'One with the body of a tiger' indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas. Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy (100-170 AD) as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei (Banavasi) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde (Indi), Tiripangalida (Gadhinglaj), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Soubouttou (Savadi), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudgal) and Petirgala (Pattadakal), as being located in Northern Karnataka which signify the existence of Kannada place names (and the language and culture) in the southern Kuntala region during the reign of Vasishtiputra Pulumayi (c. 85-125 AD, i.e., late 1st century - early 2nd century AD) who was ruling from Paithan in the north and his son, prince Vilivaya-kura or Pulumayi Kumara was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka in the south.",
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"plaintext": "A possibly more definite reference to Kannada is found in the 'Charition Mime' ascribed to the late 4th century BC to early 2nd century AD. The farce, written by an unknown author, is concerned with a Greek lady named Charition who has been stranded on the coast of a country bordering the Indian Ocean. The king of this region, and his countrymen, sometimes use their own language, and the sentences they speak could be interpreted as Kannada, including (\"Having poured a little wine into the cup separately\") and (\"Having taken up the cup separately and having covered (it), I shall take wine separately.\"). The language employed in the papyrus indicates that the play is set in one of the numerous small ports on the western coast of India, between Karwar and Kanhangad (presently in Kerala). D. R. Bhandarkar concludes that Kannada was at least imperfectly understood in that part of Egypt where the farce was composed and acted (Oxyrhynchus or Al-Bahnasa), for if the Greek audience in Egypt did not understand even a bit of Kannada, the scene of the drinking bout would be denuded of all its humour and would be entirely out of place. There were commercial relations of an intimate nature between Egypt and the west coast of India in the early centuries of the Christian era, and it is not strange if some people of Egypt understood Kannada. The papyrus clearly shows that, in the 2nd century AD, Kannada was spoken in Southern India even by princes, who most probably were Dravidian (Kannadiga) by extraction. The character of the king in this farce refers to himself as 'the Nayaka of Malpe (Malpi-naik)'. B. A. Saletore identifies the site of this play as Odabhandeshwara or Vadabhandeshwara (ship-vessel-Ishwara or God), situated about a mile from Malpe, which was a Shaivite centre originally surrounded by a forest with a small river passing through it. He rejects M. Govinda Pai's opinion that it must have occurred at Udyavara (Odora in Greek), the capital of Alupas.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest examples of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (śilāśāsana) containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto-Kannada in Haḷe Kannaḍa (lit Old Kannada) script can be found in the Halmidi inscription, usually dated c. AD 450, indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time. The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka. A set of five copper plate inscriptions discovered in Mudiyanur, though in the Sanskrit language, is in the Pre-Old Kannada script older than the Halmidi edict date of 450 AD, as per palaeographers. Followed by B. L. Rice, leading epigrapher and historian, K. R. Narasimhan following a detailed study and comparison, declared that the plates belong to the 4th century, i.e., 338 AD. The Kannada Lion balustrade inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 AD is now considered the earliest Kannada inscriptions replacing the Halmidi inscription of 450 AD. The 5th century poetic Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga and the Siragunda inscription from Chikkamagaluru Taluk of 500 AD are further examples. Recent reports indicate that the Old Kannada Gunabhushitana Nishadi inscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill, Shravanabelagola, is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350–400. The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the Western Ganga King Kongunivarma Madhava (c. 350–370) found at Tagarthi (Tyagarthi) in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 AD and is also older than the Halmidi inscription.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada inscriptions are not only discovered in Karnataka but also quite commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Some inscriptions were also found in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages, especially during the rule of large Kannada empires.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language, dated to the early 8th century AD, are associated with Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu (the Dakshina Kannada district), and display the double crested fish, his royal emblem. The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript in Old Kannada is that of Dhavala. It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, Dakshina Kannada district. The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink.",
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"plaintext": "Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara collectorate. A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha's name called bhagi (c. AD 390–420) in old Kannada exists. A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi, Uttara Kannada district. Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Badami Chalukyas, the Alupas, the Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom, the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery. The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate, a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of AD 7th century. Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I (AD 850) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD. Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier. An early extant prose work, the Vaḍḍārādhane (ವಡ್ಡಾರಾಧನೆ) by Shivakotiacharya of AD 900 provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the early writers of prose and verse mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, numbering 8-10, stating these are but a few of many, but whose works are lost, are Vimala or Vimalachandra (c. 777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, Durvinita (6th century), and poets including Kaviswara, Srivijaya, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (c. 634) and Lokapala. For fragmentary information on these writers, we can refer the work Karnataka Kavi Charite. Ancient indigenous Kannada literary compositions of (folk) poetry like the Chattana and Bedande which preferred to use the Desi metre are said to have survived at least until the date of the Kavirajamarga in 850 AD and had their roots in the early Kannada folk literature. These Kannada verse-compositions might have been representative of folk songs containing influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit metrical patterns to some extent. \"Kavirajamarga\" also discusses earlier composition forms peculiar to Kannada, the \"gadyakatha\", a mixture of prose and poetry, the \"chattana\" and the \"bedande\", poems of several stanzas that were meant to be sung with the optional use of a musical instrument. Amoghavarsha Nripatunga compares the puratana-kavigal (old Kannada poets) who wrote the great Chattana poems in Kannada to the likes of the great Sanskrit poets like Gunasuri, Narayana, Bharavi, Kalidasa, Magha, etc. This Old Kannada work, Kavirajamarga, itself in turn refers to a Palagannada (Old Kannada) of much ancient times, which is nothing but the Pre-Old Kannada and also warns aspiring Kannada writers to avoid its archaisms, as per R. S. Hukkerikar. Regarding earlier poems in Kannada, the author of \"Kavirajamarga\" states that old Kannada is appropriate in ancient poems but insipid in contemporaneous works as per R. Narasimhacharya. Gunanandi (900 AD), quoted by the grammarian Bhattakalanka and always addressed as Bhagawan (the adorable), was the author of a logic, grammar and sahitya. Durvinita (529-579 AD), the Ganga king, was the pupil of the author of Sabdavatara, i.e., Devanandi Pujyapada. Durvinita is said to have written a commentary on the difficult 15th sarga of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya in Kannada. Early Kannada writers regularly mention 3 poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors - Samanta-bhadra, Kavi Parameshthi and Pujyapada. Since later Kannada poets so uniformly name these 3 as eminent poets, it is probable that they wrote in Kannada also. Samantabhadra is placed in 2nd century AD by Jain tradition. Old Kannada commentaries on some of his works exist. He was said to have born in Utkalikagrama and while performing penance in Manuvakahalli, he was attacked by a disease called Bhasmaka. Pujyapada also called Devanandi, was the preceptor of Ganga king Durvinita and belonged to the late 5th to early 6th century AD. Kaviparameshthi probably lived in the 4th century AD. He may possibly be the same as the Kaviswara referred to in the Kavirajamarga, and the Kaviparameswara praised by Chavunda Raya (978 AD) and his spiritual teacher, Nemichandra (10th century AD), all the names possibly being only epithets.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced. Some ancient Kannada texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are Prabhrita (AD 650) by Syamakundacharya, Chudamani (Crest Jewel—AD 650 or earlier) by Srivaradhadeva, also known as Tumbuluracharya, which is a work of 96,000 verse-measures and a commentary on logic (Tatwartha-mahashastra). Other sources date Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier. An inscription of AD 1128, quotes a couplet by the famous Sanskrit poet Dandin (active 680-720 AD), highly praising Srivaradhadeva, for his Kannada work Chudamani, as having \"produced Saraswati (i.e., learning and eloquence) from the tip of his tongue, as Siva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top-knot.\" Bhattakalanka (1604 CE), the great Kannada grammarian, refers to Srivaradhadeva's Chudamani as the greatest work in Kannada, and as incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value of Kannada literature. This makes Srivaradhadeva's time earlier than the 6th-7th century AD. Other writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references such as Indranandi's \"Srutavatara\", Devachandra's \"Rajavalikathe\", Bhattakalanka's \"Sabdanusasana\" of 1604, writings of Jayakirthi are Syamakundacharya (650), who authored the \"Prabhrita\", and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), who wrote the \"Chudamani\" (\"Crest Jewel\"), a 96,000-verse commentary on logic. The Karnateshwara Katha, a eulogy for King Pulakesi II, is said to have belonged to the 7th century; the Gajastaka, a lost \"ashtaka\" (eight line verse) composition and a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II, belonged to the 8th century, this served as the basis for 2 popular folk songs Ovanige and Onakevadu, which were sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit (\"Ovam\"). The Chandraprabha-purana by Sri Vijaya, a court poet of emperor Amoghavarsha I, is ascribed to the early 9th century. His writing has been mentioned by Vijayanagara poets Mangarasa III and Doddiah (also spelt Doddayya, c. 1550 AD) and praised by Durgasimha (c. 1025 AD). During the 9th century period, the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka) authored, among other writings, \"Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya\" and \"Varadamana Charitra\". His works have been praised by later poets, although none of his works are available today. \"Gunagankiyam\", the earliest known prosody in Kannada, was referenced in a Tamil work dated to 10th century or earlier (\"Yapparungalakkarigai\" by Amritasagara). Gunanandi, an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose, flourished in the 9th century AD. Around 900 AD, Gunavarma I wrote \"Sudraka\" and \"Harivamsa\" (also known as \"Neminatha Purana\"). In \"Sudraka\" he compared his patron, Ganga king Ereganga Neetimarga II (c. 907-921 AD), to a noted king called Sudraka. Jinachandra, who is referred to by Sri Ponna (c. 950 AD) as the author of \"Pujyapada Charita\", had earned the honorific \"modern Samantha Bhadra\". Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD (in the commentary on Neminatham, a Tamil grammatical work) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the BC 4th century.",
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"plaintext": "Around the beginning of the 9th century, Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari. The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled.",
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"plaintext": "The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including Ragale (a form of blank verse) and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi. The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles. Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi (six-lined stanza) meter. A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works.",
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"plaintext": "The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature, and the sum of contributions by all sections of society. Vachanas were pithy poems on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi.",
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"plaintext": "Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 AD recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi (formal or written form of language) and Desi (folk or spoken form of language) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada. In 1112 AD, Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda, Dharwad district, in his Champu work Dharmamrita (ಧರ್ಮಾಮೃತ), a book on morals, warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil. He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada. In 1235 AD, Jain poet Andayya, wrote Kabbigara Kava- ಕಬ್ಬಿಗರ ಕಾವ (Poet's Defender), also called Sobagina Suggi (Harvest of Beauty) or Madana-Vijaya and Kavana-Gella (Cupid's Conquest), a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous (desya) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – tadbhavas, without the admixture of Sanskrit words. He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words. Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates. Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature (like Tamil), but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary (like Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu, etc.) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.",
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"plaintext": "During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries, Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa- ನಡುಗನ್ನಡ) language and literature. Kumara Vyasa, who wrote the Karṇāṭa Bhārata Kathāman̄jari (ಕರ್ಣಾಟ ಭಾರತ ಕಥಾಮಂಜರಿ), was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period. His work, entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi (hexa-meter), is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata. ",
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"plaintext": "During this period, the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract, religious, scientific and rhetorical terms. During this period, several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada, chiefly relating to feudalism and militia.",
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"plaintext": "Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa, Purandaradasa, Naraharitirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, Vijaya Dasa, Gopala Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period. Kanakadasa's Rāmadhānya Charite (ರಾಮಧಾನ್ಯ ಚರಿತೆ ) is a rare work, concerning with the issue of class struggle. This period saw the advent of Haridasa Sahitya (lit Dasa literature) which made rich contributions to Bhakti literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa is widely considered the Father of Carnatic music.",
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"plaintext": "The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannaḍa or Modern Kannada. Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the \"Dawn of Modern Kannada\", though generally, linguists treat Indira Bai or Saddharma Vijayavu by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada. The first modern movable type printing of \"Canarese\" appears to be the Canarese Grammar of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817, and the \"Bible in Canarese\" of John Hands in 1820. The first novel printed was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, along with other texts including Canarese Proverbs, The History of Little Henry and his Bearer by Mary Martha Sherwood, Christian Gottlob Barth's Bible Stories and \"a Canarese hymn book.\"",
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"plaintext": "Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notably Navodaya, Navya, Navyottara, Dalita and Bandaya. Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society. Further, Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu, Bendre, and V K Gokak. Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards, the highest number awarded to any Indian language.",
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"plaintext": "Besides being the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka, Kannada language is present in other areas:",
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"plaintext": "Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu's 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1.23 million which is 2.2% of Tamil Nadu's total population. ",
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"plaintext": "Goa has 7% Kannada speakers which accounts for 94,360 Kannadigas.",
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"plaintext": "The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has many Kannada words.",
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"plaintext": "There are about 150,000 Kannadigas in North America (USA and Canada).",
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"plaintext": "There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. The Ethnologue reports \"about 20 dialects\" of Kannada. Among them are Kundagannada (spoken exclusively in Kundapura, Brahmavara, Bynduru and Hebri), Nadavar-Kannada (spoken by Nadavaru), Havigannada (spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins), Are Bhashe (spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada), Malenadu Kannada (Sakaleshpur, Coorg, Shimoga, Chikmagalur), Sholaga, Gulbarga Kannada, Dharawad Kannada etc. All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background. The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada, known as Halegannada. They are settled throughout Goa state, throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district, Karnataka. The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada. Their population estimate is about 75,000.",
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"plaintext": "Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada, which are, besides Kannada proper, Badaga, Holiya, Kurumba and Urali. The Golars or Golkars are a nomadic herdsmen tribe present in Nagpur, Chanda, Bhandara, Seoni and Balaghat districts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh speak the Golari dialect of Kannada which is identical to the Holiya dialect spoken by their tribal offshoot Holiyas present in Seoni, Nagpur and Bhandara of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. There were around 3,600 speakers of this dialect as per the 1901 census. Matthew A. Sherring describes the Golars and Holars as a pastoral tribe from the Godavari banks established in the districts around Nagpur, in the stony tracts of Ambagarh, forests around Ramplee and Sahangadhee. Along the banks of the Wainganga, they dwell in the Chakurhaitee and Keenee subdivisions. The Kurumvars of Chanda district of Maharashtra, a wild pastoral tribe, 2,200 in number as per the 1901 census, spoke a Kannada dialect called Kurumvari. The Kurumbas or Kurubas, a nomadic shepherd tribe were spread across the Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Salem, North and South Arcots, Trichinopoly, Tanjore and Pudukottai of Tamil Nadu, Cuddapah and Anantapur of Andhra Pradesh, Malabar and Cochin of Kerala and South Canara and Coorg of Karnataka and spoke the Kurumba Kannada dialect. The Kurumba and Kurumvari dialect (both closely related with each other) speakers were estimated to be around 11,400 in total as per the 1901 census. There were about 34,250 Badaga speakers as per the 1901 census.",
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"plaintext": "Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called 'Hatkar Kaanadi' people who speak a Kannada (Kaanadi) dialect with lot of old Kannada words. Per Chidananda Murthy, they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times, which shows that North Maharashtra's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada speakers formed 0.12% of Nasik district's population as per 1961 census.",
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"plaintext": "The Director of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Udaya Narayana Singh, submitted a report in 2006 to the Indian government arguing for Kannada to be made a classical language of India. In 2008 the Indian government announced that Kannada was to be designated as one of the classical languages of India.",
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"plaintext": "The language uses forty-nine phonemic letters, divided into three groups: swaragalu (vowels – thirteen letters); vyanjanagalu (consonants – thirty-four letters); and yogavaahakagalu (neither vowel nor consonant – two letters: anusvara and visarga ). The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages. The Kannada script is almost entirely phonetic, but for the sound of a \"half n\" (which becomes a half m). The number of written symbols, however, is far more than the forty-nine characters in the alphabet, because different characters can be combined to form compound characters (ottakshara). Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable, as opposed to one phoneme in languages like English—the Kannada script is syllabic.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada–Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar. The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet 'Ranna' called 'Ranna Kanda' (ರನ್ನ ಕಂದ) in 996 AD. Other dictionaries are 'Abhidhana Vastukosha' (ಅಭಿದಾನ ವಾಸ್ತುಕೋಶ) by Nagavarma (1045 AD), 'Amarakoshada Teeku'(ಅಮರಕೋಶದ ತೀಕು) by Vittala (1300), 'Abhinavaabhidaana'(ಅಭಿನವಾಭಿದಾನ) by Abhinava Mangaraja (1398 AD) and many more. A Kannada–English dictionary consisting of more than 70,000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel.",
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"plaintext": "G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada–Kannada dictionary, a 9,000-page, 8-volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat. He also wrote a Kannada–English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōśa (ಕ್ಲಿಷ್ಟಪಾದಕೋಶ), a dictionary of difficult words.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada has 34 consonants and 10 vowels.",
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"plaintext": " Most consonants can be geminated.",
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"plaintext": " Aspirated consonants never occur in native vocabulary. The only exception is the number 9, which can be written with a /bʱ/, as in \"ಒಂಭತ್ತು\". However, it is usually written with a /b/, as in \"ಒಂಬತ್ತು\".",
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"plaintext": " The aspiration of consonants depends entirely on the speaker and many do not do it in non-formal situations.",
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"plaintext": " The alveolar trill /r/ may be pronounced as an alveolar tap [ɾ].",
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"plaintext": " The voiceless retroflex sibilant /ʂ/ is commonly pronounced as a /ʃ/ except in consonant clusters with retroflex consonants. ",
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"plaintext": " There are also the consonants /f, z/ which occur in recent English and Perso-Arabic loans but they may be replaced by the consonants /pʰ, dʒ/ respectively by speakers.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, Kannada included the following phonemes, which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively:",
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"plaintext": " // ಱ (ṟ), the alveolar trill.",
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"plaintext": " // ೞ (ḻ), the retroflex central approximant.",
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"plaintext": "Old Kannada had an archaic phoneme /ɻ/ under retroflexes in early inscriptions which merged with /ɭ/ and it maintained the contrast between /r/ (< PD ∗t̠) and /ɾ/ from (< PD ∗r). Both merged in Medieval Kannada.",
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"plaintext": "In old Kannada at around 10th-14th century, many of the initial /p/ debuccalized into a /h/ e.g. OlKn. pattu, MdKn. hattu \"ten\".",
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"plaintext": "Kannada lacks the palatalization of k's before front vowels which was done by Tamil-Malayalam languages and independently by Telugu, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi \"ear\".",
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"plaintext": " and are phonetically central . may be as open as () or higher .",
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"plaintext": " The vowels /i iː e eː/ may be preceded by /j/ and the vowels /u uː o oː/ may be preceded by /ʋ/ when they are in an initial position. ",
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"plaintext": " The short vowels /a i u e o/, when in an initial or a medial position tend to be pronounced as [ɐ ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ]. In a final position, this phenomenon occurs less frequently.",
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"plaintext": " /æː/ occurs in English loans but can be switched with /aː/ or /ja:/.",
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"plaintext": "At around the 8th century, Kannada raised the vowels e, o to i, u when next to high vowels, before written literature emerged in the language, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi \"ear\".",
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"plaintext": "The canonical word order of Kannada is SOV (subject–object–verb), typical of Dravidian languages.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada is a highly inflected language with three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter or common) and two numbers (singular and plural). It is inflected for gender, number and tense, among other things. The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is Shabdhamanidarpana by Keshiraja. The first available Kannada book, a treatise on poetics, rhetoric and basic grammar is the Kavirajamarga from 850 AD.",
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"plaintext": "The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja's Shabdamanidarpana (c. AD 1260). The earlier grammatical works include portions of Kavirajamarga (a treatise on alańkāra) of the 9th century, and Kavyavalokana and Karnatakabhashabhushana (both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century).",
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"plaintext": "Compound bases, called samāsa in Kannada, are a set of two or more words compounded together. There are several types of compound bases, based on the rules followed for compounding. The types of compound bases or samāsas: tatpurusha, karmadhāraya, dvigu, bahuvreehi, anshi, dvandva, kriya and gamaka samāsa. Examples: taṅgāḷi, hemmara, kannusanne.",
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"plaintext": "In many ways the third-person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns. They are pluralised like nouns and the first- and second-person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number.",
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"plaintext": "The given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.",
"section_idx": 12,
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"plaintext": " Bangalore Kannada",
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"plaintext": " Gokak agitation",
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"plaintext": " Hermann Mögling",
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"plaintext": " Kannada cinema",
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},
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"plaintext": " Kannada dialects",
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},
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"plaintext": " Kannada flag",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Kannada in computing",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kuvempu",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of Kannada-language radio stations",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
22366862
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
40
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]
},
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"plaintext": " List of Karnataka literature",
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"target_page_ids": [
3887661
],
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1,
29
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]
},
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"plaintext": " List of languages by number of native speakers in India",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
650743
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},
{
"plaintext": " Siribhoovalaya",
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"target_page_ids": [
9877537
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15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Timeline of Karnataka",
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},
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"plaintext": " Yakshagana",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Narasimhacharya, R. (1934) History of Kannada Language. University of Mysore. ",
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"section_name": "Notes",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " George M. Moraes (1931), The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1990 ",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Robert Zydenbos (2020): A Manual of Modern Kannada. Heidelberg: XAsia Books (Open Access publication in PDF format)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Languages_attested_from_the_5th_century",
"Classical_Language_in_India",
"Dravidian_languages",
"Kannada_language",
"Languages_of_Andhra_Pradesh",
"Languages_of_Karnataka",
"Languages_of_Kerala",
"Languages_of_Tamil_Nadu",
"Languages_of_Telangana",
"Languages_written_in_Indic_scripts",
"Official_languages_of_India"
] | 33,673 | 74,087 | 6,897 | 257 | 0 | 0 | Kannada | South Dravidian language of India | [
"Kannada language",
"Kanarese",
"kn"
] |
37,447 | 1,102,427,194 | Latin_square | [
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"plaintext": "In combinatorics and in experimental design, a Latin square is ann×n array filled withn different symbols, each occurring exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column. An example of a 3×3 Latin square is",
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"plaintext": "The name \"Latin square\" was inspired by mathematical papers by Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who used Latin characters as symbols, but any set of symbols can be used: in the above example, the alphabetic sequence A,B,C can be replaced by the integer sequence 1,2,3. Euler began the general theory of Latin squares.",
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"plaintext": "The Korean mathematician Choi Seok-jeong was the first to publish an example of Latin squares of order nine, in order to construct a magic square in 1700, predating Leonhard Euler by 67 years.",
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"plaintext": "A Latin square is said to be reduced (also, normalized or in standard form) if both its first row and its first column are in their natural order. For example, the Latin square above is not reduced because its first column is A,C,B rather than A,B,C.",
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"plaintext": "Any Latin square can be reduced by permuting (that is, reordering) the rows and columns. Here switching the above matrix's second and third rows yields the following square:",
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"plaintext": "This Latin square is reduced; both its first row and its first column are alphabetically ordered A,B,C.",
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"plaintext": "If each entry of an n × n Latin square is written as a triple (r,c,s), where r is the row, c is the column, and s is the symbol, we obtain a set of n2 triples called the orthogonal array representation of the square. For example, the orthogonal array representation of the Latin square",
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"plaintext": "is",
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"plaintext": " { (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 2), (1, 3, 3), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 3), (3, 2, 1), (3, 3, 2) },",
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"plaintext": "where for example the triple (2, 3, 1) means that in row 2 and column 3 there is the symbol 1. Orthogonal arrays are usually written in array form where the triples are the rows, such as:",
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"plaintext": "The definition of a Latin square can be written in terms of orthogonal arrays: ",
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"plaintext": " A Latin square is a set of n2 triples (r, c, s), where 1 ≤ r, c, s ≤ n, such that all ordered pairs (r, c) are distinct, all ordered pairs (r, s) are distinct, and all ordered pairs (c, s) are distinct.",
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"plaintext": "This means that the n2 ordered pairs (r, c) are all the pairs (i, j) with 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n, once each. The same is true of the ordered pairs (r, s) and the ordered pairs (c, s).",
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"plaintext": "The orthogonal array representation shows that rows, columns and symbols play rather similar roles, as will be made clear below.",
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"plaintext": "Many operations on a Latin square produce another Latin square (for example, turning it upside down).",
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"plaintext": "If we permute the rows, permute the columns, and permute the names of the symbols of a Latin square, we obtain a new Latin square said to be isotopic to the first. Isotopism is an equivalence relation, so the set of all Latin squares is divided into subsets, called isotopy classes, such that two squares in the same class are isotopic and two squares in different classes are not isotopic.",
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"plaintext": "Another type of operation is easiest to explain using the orthogonal array representation of the Latin square. If we systematically and consistently reorder the three items in each triple (that is, permute the three columns in the array form), another orthogonal array (and, thus, another Latin square) is obtained. For example, we can replace each triple (r,c,s) by (c,r,s) which corresponds to transposing the square (reflecting about its main diagonal), or we could replace each triple (r,c,s) by (c,s,r), which is a more complicated operation. Altogether there are 6 possibilities including \"do nothing\", giving us 6 Latin squares called the conjugates (also parastrophes) of the original square.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, we can combine these two equivalence operations: two Latin squares are said to be paratopic, also main class isotopic, if one of them is isotopic to a conjugate of the other. This is again an equivalence relation, with the equivalence classes called main classes, species, or paratopy classes. Each main class contains up to six isotopy classes.",
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"plaintext": "There is no known easily computable formula for the number of Latin squares with symbols . The most accurate upper and lower bounds known for large are far apart. One classic result is that",
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"plaintext": "A simple and explicit formula for the number of Latin squares was published in 1992, but it is still not easily computable due to the exponential increase in the number of terms. This formula for the number of Latin squares is",
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"plaintext": "where is the set of all {0, 1} matrices, is the number of zero entries in matrix , and is the permanent of matrix .",
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"plaintext": "The table below contains all known exact values. It can be seen that the numbers grow exceedingly quickly. For each , the number of Latin squares altogether is times the number of reduced Latin squares .",
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"plaintext": "For each , each isotopy class contains up to Latin squares (the exact number varies), while each main class contains either 1, 2, 3 or 6 isotopy classes.",
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"plaintext": "The number of structurally distinct Latin squares (i.e. the squares cannot be made identical by means of rotation, reflection, and/or permutation of the symbols) for = 1 up to 7 is 1, 1, 1, 12, 192, 145164, 1524901344 respectively .",
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"plaintext": "We give one example of a Latin square from each main class up to order five.",
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"plaintext": "They present, respectively, the multiplication tables of the following groups:",
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"plaintext": "{0} – the trivial 1-element group",
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"plaintext": " – the binary group",
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"plaintext": " – cyclic group of order 3",
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"plaintext": " – the Klein four-group",
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"plaintext": " – cyclic group of order 4",
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"plaintext": " – cyclic group of order 5",
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"plaintext": " the last one is an example of a quasigroup, or rather a loop, which is not associative.",
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"plaintext": "A transversal in a Latin square is a choice of n cells, where each row contains one cell, each column contains one cell, and there is one cell containing each symbol.",
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"plaintext": "One can consider a Latin square as a complete bipartite graph in which the rows are vertices of one part, the columns are vertices of the other part, each cell is an edge (between its row and its column), and the symbols are colors. The rules of the Latin squares imply that this is a proper edge coloring. With this definition, a Latin transversal is a matching in which each edge has a different color; such a matching is called a rainbow matching.",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, many results on Latin squares/rectangles are contained in papers with the term \"rainbow matching\" in their title, and vice versa.",
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"plaintext": "Some Latin squares have no transversal. For example, when n is even, an n-by-n Latin square in which the value of cell i,j is (i+j) mod n has no transversal. Here are two examples:In 1967, H. J. Ryser conjectured that, when n is odd, every n-by-n Latin square has a transversal.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, S. K. Stein and Brualdi conjectured that, when n is even, every n-by-n Latin square has a partial transversal of size n−1.",
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"plaintext": "A more general conjecture of Stein is that a transversal of size n−1 exists not only in Latin squares but also in any n-by-n array of n symbols, as long as each symbol appears exactly n times.",
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"plaintext": "Some weaker versions of these conjectures have been proved:",
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"plaintext": " Every n-by-n Latin square has a partial transversal of size 2n/3.",
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"plaintext": " Every n-by-n Latin square has a partial transversal of size n − sqrt(n).",
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"plaintext": " Every n-by-n Latin square has a partial transversal of size n − 11 log(n).",
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"plaintext": "For small squares it is possible to generate permutations and test whether the Latin square property is met. For larger squares, Jacobson and Matthews' algorithm allows sampling from a uniform distribution over the space of n×n Latin squares.",
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"plaintext": "In the design of experiments, Latin squares are a special case of row-column designs for two blocking factors.",
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"plaintext": "In algebra, Latin squares are related to generalizations of groups; in particular, Latin squares are characterized as being the multiplication tables (Cayley tables) of quasigroups. A binary operation whose table of values forms a Latin square is said to obey the Latin square property.",
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"plaintext": "Sets of Latin squares that are orthogonal to each other have found an application as error correcting codes in situations where communication is disturbed by more types of noise than simple white noise, such as when attempting to transmit broadband Internet over powerlines.",
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"plaintext": "The encoding of the twelve letters are formed from three Latin squares that are orthogonal to each other. Now imagine that there's added noise in channels 1 and 2 during the whole transmission. The letter A would then be picked up as:",
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"plaintext": "In other words, in the first slot we receive signals from both frequency 1 and frequency 2; while the third slot has signals from frequencies 1, 2 and 3. Because of the noise, we can no longer tell if the first two slots were 1,1 or 1,2 or 2,1 or 2,2. But the 1,2 case is the only one that yields a sequence matching a letter in the above table, the letter A. ",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, we may imagine a burst of static over all frequencies in the third slot:",
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"plaintext": "Again, we are able to infer from the table of encodings that it must have been the letter A being transmitted. The number of errors this code can spot is one less than the number of time slots. It has also been proven that if the number of frequencies is a prime or a power of a prime, the orthogonal Latin squares produce error detecting codes that are as efficient as possible.",
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"plaintext": "The problem of determining if a partially filled square can be completed to form a Latin square is NP-complete.",
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"plaintext": "The popular Sudoku puzzles are a special case of Latin squares; any solution to a Sudoku puzzle is a Latin square. Sudoku imposes the additional restriction that nine particular 3×3 adjacent subsquares must also contain the digits 1–9 (in the standard version). See also Mathematics of Sudoku.",
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"plaintext": "The Latin square also figures in the arms of the Statistical Society of Canada, being specifically mentioned in its blazon. Also, it appears in the logo of the International Biometric Society.",
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"plaintext": " A Latin rectangle is a generalization of a Latin square in which there are n columns and n possible values, but the number of rows may be smaller than n. Each value still appears at most once in each row and column.",
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"plaintext": " A Graeco-Latin square is a pair of two Latin squares such that, when one is laid on top of the other, each ordered pair of symbols appears exactly once.",
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"plaintext": " A Latin hypercube is a generalization of a Latin square from two dimensions to multiple dimensions.",
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[
181,
194
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Infrared Radiometer (IRR) team was led by Professor Gerald Neugebauer from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).",
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"plaintext": "To control for errors in the reception of the grayscale image data sent by Mariner 9 (caused by a low signal-to-noise ratio), the data had to be encoded before transmission using a so-called forward error-correcting code (FEC). Without FEC, noise would have made up roughly a quarter of a received image, while the FEC encoded the data in a redundant way which allowed for the reconstruction of most of the sent image data at reception.",
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"plaintext": "Since the flown hardware was constrained with regards to weight, power consumption, storage, and computing power, some considerations had to be put into choosing an FEC, and it was decided to use a Hadamard code for Mariner 9. Each image pixel was represented as a six-bit binary value, which had 64 possible grayscale levels. Because of limitations of the transmitter, the maximum useful data length was about 30 bits. Instead of using a repetition code, a [32, 6, 16] Hadamard code was used, which is also a 1st-order Reed-Muller code. Errors of up to seven bits per each 32-bit word could be corrected using this scheme. Compared to a five-repetition code, the error correcting properties of this Hadamard code were much better, yet its data rate was comparable. The efficient decoding algorithm was an important factor in the decision to use this code. The circuitry used was called the \"Green Machine\", which employed the fast Fourier transform, increasing the decoding speed by a factor of three.",
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"section_name": "Error-correction codes achievements",
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"plaintext": "As of February 2022, Mariner 9's location is unknown; it is either still in orbit, or has already burned up in the Martian atmosphere or crashed into the surface of Mars.",
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"section_name": "Present location",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "NASA has provided multiple dates for when Mariner 9 could enter the Martian atmosphere. In 2011, NASA predicted that Mariner 9 would burn up or crash into Mars around 2022. However, a 2018 revision to the Mariner 9 mission page by NASA expected Mariner 9 would crash into Mars \"sometime around 2020\". At the time of the mission, Mariner 9 was left in an orbit that would not decay for at least 50 years, which placed the earliest date of atmospheric entry to October 2022.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Exploration of Mars",
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"plaintext": " List of Mars orbiters",
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48469754
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"plaintext": " List of missions to Mars",
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"plaintext": " Space exploration",
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28431
],
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1,
18
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
58955
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},
{
"plaintext": " Unmanned space missions",
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"plaintext": " Mars flyby",
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},
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"plaintext": "Mariner 9 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "NSSDC Master Catalog: Spacecraft – Mariner 9",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "NASA-JPL Guide to Mariner 9",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "some Mariner 9 images of Mars",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mariner 9 approaching Mars movie",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Mariner 9 images, including dust storm",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Mariner 9 view of Phobos (hosted by The Planetary Society)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Mariner 9 image compared to MGS image, helps determine if Dunes moved in decades",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "P.418 Correct DN values appear to be 512, not 64 i.e. 9bits per pixel",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
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"Derelict_space_probes",
"Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Centaur_rockets",
"Spacecraft_launched_in_1971",
"Geography_of_Mars"
] | 203,801 | 1,875 | 162 | 74 | 0 | 0 | Mariner 9 | Mars Orbiter | [] |
37,453 | 1,092,269,358 | Funeral_home | [
{
"plaintext": "A funeral home, funeral parlor or mortuary, is a business that provides burial and funeral services for the dead and their families. These services may include a prepared wake and funeral, and the provision of a chapel for the funeral.",
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"plaintext": "Funeral homes arrange services in accordance with the wishes of surviving friends and family, whether immediate next of kin or an executor so named in a legal will. The funeral home often takes care of the necessary paperwork, permits, and other details, such as making arrangements with the cemetery, and providing obituaries to the news media. The funeral business has a history that dates to the age of the Egyptians who mastered the science of preservation. In recent years many funeral homes have started posting obituaries online and use materials submitted by families to create memorial websites.",
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"plaintext": "There are certain common types of services in North America.",
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"plaintext": "A traditional funeral service consists of a viewing (sometimes referred to as a visitation), a funeral service in a place of worship or the funeral home chapel and a graveside committal service. ",
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"plaintext": "Direct cremation consists of the funeral home receiving the body, preparing it for the crematory and filing the necessary legal paperwork.",
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"plaintext": "Direct/immediate burial is the forgoing of a funeral ceremony for a prompt, simple burial.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Moving a body between mortuaries involves preparing it for shipment in a coffin strapped into an arbitrary or a combination unit (mac pac / airtray). This is common when it is to be buried in a different locality than where the person died.",
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"plaintext": "When a body is brought to a funeral home, it is sometimes embalmed to delay decomposition or to make the viewing of the body more pleasant. The procedure typically involves removing sufficient blood material to accommodate the preservative chemicals and dyes, aspirating the internal organs and setting the facial features. Cosmetics are used with the consent of the family to improve the appearance of face and hands for a more natural look. If the face or hands are disfigured by accident, illness or decomposition, the embalmer may utilize restorative techniques to make them presentable for an \"open casket\" service. If this is not possible, or the family wishes, the funeral home can perform a \"closed casket\" service.",
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"plaintext": "The funeral home often sets aside one or more large areas for people to gather at a visitation. This area may contain a space to display the body in a casket to visitors who may pay their respects. Funeral and memorial services may also take place at the funeral home. Many funeral homes offer prearrangement options for those who wish to plan their own funerals.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Services",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Several large multi-national corporations in this service field have received exposure from high-profile litigation. The Loewen Group, Inc., received a particularly large jury verdict in Mississippi, which was later found to be in error, as the allegations against Loewen Group proved false. The Canadian-based company then brought suit against the United States alleging violations under NAFTA.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Houston based Service Corporation International has also had its share of legal troubles in its operations of both funeral homes and cemeteries. In 2009, a class-action lawsuit was filed against SCI and Eden Memorial Park, one of the cemeteries the corporation manages, based on allegations that remains were being moved around to create additional space for future interments. A settlement of $80 million was reached in 2014.",
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"plaintext": " Funeral Consumers Alliance",
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] | [
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"Funerals",
"Burials"
] | 1,466,031 | 3,521 | 310 | 19 | 0 | 0 | funeral home | place where bodies are prepared for burial | [
"funeral parlor",
"mortuary",
"funeral homes"
] |
37,454 | 1,097,171,379 | Overhand_knot | [
{
"plaintext": "The overhand knot is one of the most fundamental knots, and it forms the basis of many others, including the simple noose, overhand loop, angler's loop, reef knot, fisherman's knot, Half hitch, and water knot. The overhand knot is a stopper, especially when used alone, and hence it is very secure, to the point of jamming badly. It should be used if the knot is intended to be permanent. It is often used to prevent the end of a rope from unraveling. An overhand knot becomes a trefoil knot, a true knot in the mathematical sense, by joining the ends. It can also be adjusted, faired, or mis-tied as a half hitch",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of ways to tie the Overhand knot.",
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"plaintext": " Thumb method – create a loop and push the working end through the loop with your thumb.",
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"plaintext": " Overhand method – create a bight, by twisting the hand over at the wrist and sticking your hand in the hole, pinch the working end with your fingers and pull through the loop.",
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"plaintext": "In heraldry, the overhand knot is known as a \"Stafford knot\", owing to a representation of it being used first as a heraldic badge by the Earls of Stafford, and later as a general symbol of Staffordshire.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "As a defensive measure, hagfishes, which resemble eels, produce large volumes of thick slime when disturbed. A hagfish can dislodge large quantities of slime on its skin, which it uses to evade predation, by tying its own body into an overhand knot, then sliding the knot from its head down to the tail. This action scrapes the slime off the fish's body. Hagfish also tie their bodies into overhand knots in order to create leverage to rip off chunks of their prey's flesh, but do so \"in reverse\" (starting at the tail, and sliding the knot towards the head for mechanical advantage).",
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"section_name": "In nature",
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},
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"plaintext": "If the two loose ends of an overhand knot are joined together (without creating additional crossings), this becomes equivalent to the trefoil knot of mathematical knot theory.",
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"section_name": "Knot theory",
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},
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"plaintext": "If a flat ribbon or strip is tightly folded into a flattened overhand knot, it assumes a regular pentagonal shape.",
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"section_name": "In paper-folding",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " List of knots",
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"section_name": "See also",
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59024
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trefoil knot, the mathematical treatment of the overhand knot",
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"section_name": "See also",
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404773
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},
{
"plaintext": " Double overhand knot",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4676317
],
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1,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slip knot",
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"target_page_ids": [
523836
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
}
] | [] | 332,491 | 2,950 | 59 | 26 | 0 | 0 | overhand knot | type of knot | [] |
37,457 | 1,100,807,059 | Granny_knot | [
{
"plaintext": "The granny knot is a binding knot, used to secure a rope or line around an object. It is considered inferior to the reef knot (square knot), which it superficially resembles. Neither of these knots should be used as a bend knot for attaching two ropes together.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Called the \"granny's knot\" with references going back to at least 1849, the knot was so-called because it is \"the natural knot tied by women or landsmen\".",
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"section_name": "Etymology",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "When attempting to tie a reef knot (square knot), it is easy to produce a granny knot accidentally. This is dangerous because the granny knot can slip when heavily loaded. A tightened granny knot can also jam and is often more difficult to untie than the reef knot. It is better to tie a reef knot in nearly all circumstances. One way to distinguish them is that in the reef knot each loop passes completely over, or completely under (not through) the neck of the other.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The reef knot is commonly taught as left over right, tuck under then right over left, tuck under. The granny knot is the first step repeated twice, left over right, tuck under. This is a very common mistake made by people learning to tie a reef knot.",
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"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "In heraldry, the granny knot is known as the Bourchier knot, due to being a heraldic badge of the Bourchier family.",
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"section_name": "Heraldry",
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45,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of binding knots",
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61022
],
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of knots",
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59024
],
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0,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " \"The Reef Knot Family\", NotableKnotIndex.webs.com.",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [] | 339,791 | 2,037 | 20 | 10 | 0 | 0 | granny knot | type of knot | [] |
37,459 | 1,104,109,391 | Service_Corporation_International | [
{
"plaintext": "Service Corporation International is an American provider of funeral goods and services as well as cemetery property and services. It is headquartered in Neartown, Houston, Texas, and operates secondary corporate offices in Jefferson (New Orleans), Louisiana. SCI operates more than 1500 funeral homes and 400 cemeteries.",
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224,
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249,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Robert L. Waltrip founded the company in 1962. SCI began as a small network of funeral homes and cemeteries in the Houston area.",
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},
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"plaintext": "SCI, Alderwoods Group, and Stewart Enterprises emerged from the 1990s as the three largest companies in the industry. On , SCI owned and operated 3,823 funeral service locations, 525 cemeteries, 198 crematoria and two insurance operations located in 20 countries on five continents.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 1999, SCI also introduced Dignity Memorial. By unifying its network of funeral homes and cemeteries under one brand name, SCI believed it could establish recognizable and communicable brand values.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Between 2002 and 2006, SCI reduced its net debt (total debt minus cash) by more than , increased operating cash flow, and simplified its field management organization to enhance efficiency, performance, and accountability. It also changed business and sales processes, tightened internal controls following the protocols, strengthened corporate governance standards, and established a new training and development system. For its shareholders, SCI returned value through more than in share repurchases and it resumed payment of a regular quarterly dividend in early 2005, the first since 1999.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 2006, SCI merged with Alderwoods Group, its nearest competitor in terms of size. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) blocked the merger, citing concerns over consumer choice. After agreeing to divest funeral home and cemetery locations in several markets and end licensing agreements with other funeral homes, the FTC allowed the merger to continue. By 2007, the integration of Alderwoods's locations and operations was complete.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 2009, SCI put in a bid to purchase Keystone North America for ( million as of ). The purchase was completed in 2010 and added about 200 locations.",
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"section_name": "Recent acquisitions",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In May 2013, SCI signed a deal to purchase Stewart Enterprises, the second-largest death care company. In December 2013, the FTC imposed conditions on the acquisition, requiring the two companies to sell 53 funeral homes and 38 cemeteries in 59 local markets, and requiring the merged company to be subject to a ten-year period during which the FTC will review any attempt by the company to acquire funeral or cemetery assets in those local markets.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "SCI operates the following brands in the United States and Canada:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Advantage",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dignity Memorial",
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"plaintext": "Writing in an , issue of Bloomberg Businessweek, journalist Paul M. Barrett found, despite its lower overhead, SCI has higher prices than independent funeral home operators. Barrett quoted \"data compiled\" by a \"'concierge' funeral planning service\" Everest Funeral Package, which found that for \"traditional funerals, SCI charges on average (excluding casket and cemetery plot), 42 percent more than independents.\" In reply, SCI points to \"overwhelmingly positive responses\" on customer surveys, below market wages paid to staff and management, and states they provide \"top value\" at a variety of funeral price points.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1990s, SCI was involved in a controversy involving alleged violations of Texas State embalming laws. The proceedings took a political slant due to Robert Waltrip's friendship with the family of then-governor George W. Bush and Waltrip's campaign contributions to various members of the Bush family.",
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"plaintext": "Referred to as \"Funeralgate\" or \"Formaldegate\" in the media, the controversy was widely publicized when Eliza May, a director with the Texas Funeral Service Commission (TFSC), was fired while investigating SCI. May alleged in a civil suit that she was fired because she refused to halt her investigation despite pressure to do so from Governor Bush.",
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"plaintext": "May's lawyers subpoenaed President Bush to testify at the trial, but Texas judge John K. Dietz threw out the subpoena on the grounds that the then-governor was not in a position to have enough specialized information to require his involvement.",
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"plaintext": "The lawsuit was settled in 2001 for more than (equivalent to in ). SCI and the state of Texas were required to jointly pay the decision. On , the TFSC fined SCI an additional for administrative penalties.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, it was reported that employees of the Memorial Gardens cemetery near Fort Lauderdale, Florida, had oversold the cemetery, so bodies were buried in the wrong places, separating husbands from wives; vaults were cracked open by a backhoe, bodies were exhumed, with bones, skulls and shrouds thrown into nearby woods, bodies were stacked on top of each other, and remains were relocated without notifying relatives.",
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"plaintext": "The allegations were particularly appalling to the Jewish cemetery's more religiously observant customers, The Miami Herald reported. Traditional Jewish law requires bodies to be buried intact and prohibits disturbing the dead. SCI reached a agreement with the Florida attorney general's office in 2003 that required it to repair plots and reorganize the cemeteries to ensure all graves were properly marked and the grounds could accommodate all plots sold. SCI also settled a separate class-action lawsuit on behalf of 350 families for .",
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"plaintext": "On , The Washington Post reported that an SCI cemetery in Alexandria, Virginia, had improperly buried the remains of the stillborn daughter of Nsombi Hale in a grave too shallow (in a grave about deep). Nsombi Hale was filing suit against SCI.",
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"plaintext": "On , The Washington Post reported that the National Funeral Home, a facility owned by SCI in the Falls Church area of Fairfax County, Virginia, which also acts as a centralized embalming and dressing station for embalming and body preparation for other nearby SCI-owned operations (Arlington Funeral Home, Danzansky-Goldberg Memorial Chapel, and Demaine Funeral Home), was storing naked bodies in various stages of decomposition in conditions described as \"disgusting, degrading and humiliating\". The story went on to report that as many as 200 bodies were stored on \"makeshift gurneys in the garage\" and \"at least half a dozen veterans destined for the hallowed ground at Arlington National Cemetery were left in their coffins on a garage rack\". The Post reported that documentation describing these conditions had been reported to the Virginia Board of Funeral Directors and Embalmers.",
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"plaintext": "The Los Angeles Times reported that state officials found no evidence of mass grave disturbances. Russ Heimerich, a spokesman for the state Department of Consumer Affairs, said, \"We have not seen any evidence of the kind of massive desecration that is being alleged. The kind of activity they're alleging is not easily hidden, especially on a willful, large-scale basis.\" The plaintiff's attorney rejected the findings of the state's investigation.",
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"plaintext": "SCI denied all charges. After the lawsuit was filed, the Consumer Affairs Department reviewed five to six years of the cemetery's annual inspection records and found no indication that graves had been disturbed. According to the Los Angeles Times article, \"The agency also asked the dozens of families that contacted officials to look for signs of disturbancesshifted or cracked gravestones or anything else that appeared different from previous visitsand didn't receive a single call back, he said.\" ",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the State Board of Registration charged the SCI-owned Stanetsky Chapel, a Jewish funeral home in Brookline with serious violations of state law and regulations in connection with an incident where a woman was buried in the wrong grave, then disinterred without a legal permit and reburied in the correct grave with the woman's family not being notified of the mistake and the corrective procedure. As a result, in December 2011, the State Board announced a Consent Agreement and levied the biggest fine in its history, , against Stanetsky and SCI, and suspended the license of the Stanetsky general manager for a year. Other staff members involved in the incident were subject to punitive actions ranging from additional professional training to license revocation. The incident received widespread local media coverage. The Board's action was also published on the its website.",
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"plaintext": "In a case first reported on , The Boston Globe reported J.S. Waterman's & Sons, also owned by SCI, was found by the Board to have accidentally cremated the body of a stillborn infant in 2003. The infant's body was apparently placed on a gurney that held an adult woman's body that was scheduled for cremation. As a result of a civil suit brought by the infant's family, Waterman's was ordered to pay the parents (equivalent to in ), with a pending legal claim that the mortuary violated the state's consumer protection law that could triple the damages, The Boston Globe reported. The family's lawyer, Gordon T. Walker, said SCI could be hit with additional costs, as there is a pending claim that the company violated the state's consumer protection law. The civil verdict was made in Suffolk Superior Court on . The jury awarded because of emotional distress and because it found the funeral home was negligent and intentionally inflicted emotional harm.",
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"plaintext": "Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a \"sea\" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron \"sea\" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.",
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"plaintext": "A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are \"free\", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma.",
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"plaintext": "The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. The Sun's corona, some types of flame, and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.",
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"plaintext": "A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states. The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties.",
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"plaintext": "When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology.",
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"plaintext": "The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms.",
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"plaintext": "Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples.",
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"plaintext": "In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used it is symbolized as (p).",
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"plaintext": "Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid material that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers.",
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"plaintext": "Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.",
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"plaintext": "A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen.",
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"plaintext": "Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid, but exhibiting long-range order. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range . In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light.",
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"plaintext": "Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.",
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"plaintext": "Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.",
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"plaintext": "In a ferromagnet—for instance, solid iron—the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point, which for iron is .",
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"plaintext": "An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.",
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"plaintext": "In a ferrimagnet, the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is magnetite (FeO), which contains Fe and Fe ions with different magnetic moments.",
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"plaintext": "A quantum spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name \"liquid\" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet, where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet, where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must \"choose\" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order.",
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"plaintext": " Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometre-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.",
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"plaintext": "Ionic liquids also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.",
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"plaintext": "Superconductors are materials which have zero electrical resistivity, and therefore perfect conductivity. This is a distinct physical state which exists at low temperature, and the resistivity increases discontinuously to a finite value at a sharply-defined transition temperature for each superconductor.",
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"plaintext": "A superconductor also excludes all magnetic fields from its interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect or perfect diamagnetism. Superconducting magnets are used as electromagnets in magnetic resonance imaging machines.",
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"plaintext": "The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered in 1911, and for 75 years was only known in some metals and metallic alloys at temperatures below 30 K. In 1986 so-called high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in certain ceramic oxides, and has now been observed in temperatures as high as 164 K.",
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"plaintext": "Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state described as superfluid because it has zero viscosity (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for helium, which forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of . In this state it will attempt to \"climb\" out of its container. It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will result in quantized vortices.",
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"plaintext": "These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope helium-4 forms a Bose–Einstein condensate (see next section) in the superfluid state. More recently, Fermionic condensate superfluids have been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope helium-3 and by lithium-6.",
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"plaintext": "In 1924, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the \"Bose–Einstein condensate\" (BEC), sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state that can be described with a single, uniform wavefunction.",
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"plaintext": "In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, of JILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder, produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose–Einstein condensate is \"colder\" than a solid. It may occur when atoms have very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute zero, .",
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"plaintext": "A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.",
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"plaintext": "One of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma are condensates of excited atoms, called Rydberg matter. These atoms can also turn into ions and electrons if they reach a certain temperature. In April 2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom, confirming that such a state of matter could exist. The experiment was performed using ultracold rubidium atoms.",
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"plaintext": "A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.",
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"plaintext": "Photonic matter is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic \"molecules\". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no rest mass, and cannot interact.",
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"plaintext": "A \"quantum fog\" of electrons and holes that flow around each other and even ripple like a liquid, rather than existing as discrete pairs.",
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"plaintext": "Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter, which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, \"degenerate\" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents two fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally.",
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"plaintext": "Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found in neutron stars. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of approximately 10 minutes, but in a neutron star, the decay is overtaken by inverse decay. Cold degenerate matter is also present in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brown dwarfs, which are expected to have a core with metallic hydrogen. Because of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons can be modeled as a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions.",
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"plaintext": "In regular cold matter, quarks, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the strong force into hadrons that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactive decay.",
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"plaintext": "Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as strange quarks, a heavier analogue of the common down quark. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known.",
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"plaintext": "Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of gluons, subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks, and not just theorize. Quark–gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000. Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions within QGP are strong and it flows like a liquid.",
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"plaintext": "At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct color-flavor locked (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is superconductive for color charge. These phases may occur in neutron stars but they are presently theoretical.",
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"plaintext": "Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a \"gluonic wall\" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider as well.",
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"plaintext": "Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, but little is known about it. In string theory, a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at about 1030 K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (1032 K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these states and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these states are important in cosmology because the universe may have passed through these states in the Big Bang.",
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"plaintext": "The gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center of a black hole is not a phase of matter; it is not a material object at all (although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of spacetime. Because spacetime breaks down there, the singularity should not be thought of as a localized structure, but as a global, topological feature of spacetime. It has been argued that elementary particles are fundamentally not material, either, but are localized properties of spacetime. In quantum gravity, singularities may in fact mark transitions to a new phase of matter.",
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"plaintext": "A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.",
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"plaintext": "In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.",
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"plaintext": "Although multiple attempts have been made to create a unified account, ultimately the definitions of what states of matter exist and the point at which states change are arbitrary. Some authors have suggested that states of matter are better thought of as a spectrum between a solid and plasma instead of being rigidly defined.",
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"plaintext": " Cooling curve",
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"plaintext": " 2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new form of matter Citat: \"...They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity.\"",
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"plaintext": " 2003-10-10, Science Daily: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter",
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"plaintext": " 2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter Citat: \"...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing...\"",
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"plaintext": " 2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate",
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"plaintext": " Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex",
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37,462 | 1,107,069,211 | Paul_Molitor | [
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"plaintext": "Paul Leo Molitor (born August 22, 1956), nicknamed \"Molly\" and \"the Ignitor\", is an American former Major League Baseball (MLB) player and former manager of the Minnesota Twins, who is in the Baseball Hall of Fame. During his 21-year baseball career, he played for the Milwaukee Brewers (1978–1992), Toronto Blue Jays (1993–1995), and Minnesota Twins (1996–1998). He was known for his exceptional hitting and speed. He made seven All-Star Game appearances, and was the World Series MVP in 1993. Molitor currently ranks tenth on the all-time MLB career hits list with 3,319. He is one of only five players in history with 3,000+ hits, a lifetime .300+ batting average and 500+ career stolen bases.",
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"plaintext": "Molitor attracted national media attention in 1987 during his 39-game hitting streak. Near the end of the streak, columnist Mike Downey wrote that \"the amazing thing about Paul Molitor's recent bat-o-rama is not that he has hit in 33 straight games but that he has played in 33 straight games.\" The streak ended with Molitor in the on-deck circle when Rick Manning got a game-ending hit to beat the Cleveland Indians on August 26, 1987. Fans booed Manning for driving in the winning run and thus depriving Molitor of one last chance to reach 40 games. The streak stands as the fifth-longest in modern-day baseball history, and remains the longest since Pete Rose's 44-game hit streak in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "Molitor quickly became an offensive juggernaut. In 1993, Molitor led the AL in plate appearances (725) and hits (211) and hit .332 with 22 home runs and 111 RBI. Returning to the playoffs for the first time since 1982, he was a key part of the Blue Jays' second World Championship. Molitor hit 2 doubles, 2 triples, and 2 home runs in the Series, earning the World Series MVP Award and tied a World Series record by batting .500 (12-for-24) in the six-game series. In addition, after playing as a DH all season, Molitor played Game 3 of the World Series at first base and Games 4 and 5 at third base in the games played at Philadelphia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, a strike-shortened season, Molitor hit .341 and led the AL in games played (115) and singles (107). He also stole 20 bases that season without ever being caught, one short of Kevin McReynolds' 1988 major league record of 21. Molitor's average dropped to .270 in 1995, his lowest mark in more than ten years.",
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"plaintext": "Molitor hit .305 in 1997, his twelfth season to finish with a batting average higher than .300. In 1998, he hit .281 with 4 home runs, 69 RBI and 9 stolen bases. Other than his very brief 1984 season, the 1998 season was the first in Molitor's career in which he did not reach double-digit stolen base totals. He retired in December, saying, \"My heart tells me I've done what I can do on the field and in this game\", Molitor said. \"I'm happy to leave it playing my last season in a Twins uniform... Now I'm going to redirect my efforts to find out what else the future holds.\"",
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"plaintext": "After retiring as a player, Molitor remained with the Twins as a bench coach for three seasons. He was considered a leading candidate to manage the team when Tom Kelly retired after 2001, but he declined in part because the Twins were still being targeted for potential contraction. Molitor was a hitting coach with the Mariners in 2004. He then spent the 2005 to 2013 seasons in the Twins organization as a minor league baserunning and fielding instructor. Molitor joined the Twins coaching staff in 2014 to oversee baserunning, bunting, infield instruction, and positioning.",
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12181006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
58
]
]
}
] | [
"1956_births",
"Living_people",
"All-American_college_baseball_players",
"American_expatriate_baseball_players_in_Canada",
"American_League_All-Stars",
"Baseball_coaches_from_Minnesota",
"Baseball_players_from_Saint_Paul,_Minnesota",
"Beloit_Brewers_players",
"Burlington_Bees_players",
"Major_League_Baseball_bench_coaches",
"Major_League_Baseball_designated_hitters",
"Major_League_Baseball_first_basemen",
"Major_League_Baseball_players_with_retired_numbers",
"Major_League_Baseball_third_basemen",
"Manager_of_the_Year_Award_winners",
"Minnesota_Twins_coaches",
"Minnesota_Twins_managers",
"Milwaukee_Brewers_players",
"Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_baseball_players",
"Minnesota_Twins_players",
"National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame_inductees",
"National_College_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame_inductees",
"Salt_Lake_Buzz_players",
"Seattle_Mariners_coaches",
"Silver_Slugger_Award_winners",
"Toronto_Blue_Jays_players",
"World_Series_Most_Valuable_Player_Award_winners"
] | 1,972,377 | 15,270 | 228 | 95 | 0 | 0 | Paul Molitor | Minnesota Twins manager | [
"Paul Leo Molitor"
] |
37,463 | 1,096,303,035 | Miller's_knot | [
{
"plaintext": "A miller's knot (also sack knot or bag knot) is a binding knot used to secure the opening of a sack or bag. Historically, large sacks often contained grains; thus the association of these knots with the miller's trade. Several knots are known interchangeably by these three names.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
61022,
6700,
2159644
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
50,
62
],
[
151,
157
],
[
204,
212
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Constrictor makes a fiercer binding knot, but Miller's/Bag is suitable for most applications, and is easier to tie/untie. Miller's/Bag makes a great hitch, like the similar Ground-Line. Binding usage has force emanating from inside rope ring evenly, hitch usage has force input from one side, then reducing around.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "As noted above, several other distinct knots have historically been known as miller's, sack, or bag knots; namely ABOK-1241, ABOK-1242, ABOK-1243 (Ground line hitch), ABOK-1674, ABOK-11 and their slipped versions. These fit the short description \"two crossing turns – ends tucked under\".",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [
17006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The following 3 knots do not fit the simple \"two crossing turns – ends tucked under\" definition but are very secure:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A slipped constrictor knot where the ends are passed through the opposing slips for security is quite secure as a bag knot. Unslipped, it is even more secure, but it may have to be cut at the bridge to open the bag.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [
37469
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " A slipped strangle knot where the ends are passed through the opposing slips for security is also quite secure as a bag knot. ",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [
7980223
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " A bottle sling around a swirled and folded neck of the bag (elbow of the neck) is also a very solid and reliable bag knot. The fold provides the slight bulge a bottle sling needs for a secure hold. The bag may be hanged fully loaded by the ends of the Bottle sling tied together.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [
4022449,
4022449
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
3,
15
],
[
253,
265
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The common aspects of the most common bag knots are two crossing turns, and both ends tucked under some turns near the crossing point. Two ends, and two turns one can tuck under, gives a limited number of alternatives. All of these knots can also be made in a slipped form by starting with a bight and/or by completing the final tuck with a bight instead of the end.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "To avoid ambiguity, versions of these knots that are not slipped are pictured below with the reference numbers found in The Ashley Book of Knots.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
120,
144
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "This is to tie a Constrictor knot version of the miller's knot:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
37469
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grip the neck of the bag with the left hand,",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fix / immobilize one end of the rope tucked upwards over the left hand long finger and under the index finger (option 1 : double folded as a bight to prepare a start-side-slip for the final knot)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
9066654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
142,
147
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Make two crossing turns around the neck of the bag. Detailed steps:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cross over the hand downwards and take one turn around (front, then back) the neck of the bag at the sack side of the hand (under the hand)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cross over the hand upwards as well as over the immobilized other end,",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Take a second turn around the neck of the bag at the opening side of the hand (over the hand)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cross over the immobilized other end of the rope, then cross back tucking under the crossing point of step 3.2 (of the immobilized other end, and the part between the two turns), (option 2 : this last tuck with a bight instead of the end as an end-side-slip for the final knot).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
9066654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
214,
219
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "To tie the other variants:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " If at the last step one chooses not to cross the immobilized other end and tuck only inwards under the part between the two turns, the knot will be an ABoK #11 or Clove hitch. ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
2595895,
38835
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
152,
156
],
[
164,
175
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " If at the last step one chooses to cross the immobilized other end and tuck only under the part between the two turns, the knot will be an ABoK #1242 (tuck inwards) ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
141,
145
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " or a ground-line hitch (ABoK #1243 - tuck outwards) pictured. It should be tightened by pulling the end first. It is also called Spar hitch",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
6106953,
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
23
],
[
25,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " If at the last step one chooses to cross over the crossing point, and then tuck outwards under the first turn, the knot will be an ABoK #1241 pictured.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
132,
136
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " If at the last step one chooses to cross over the crossing point, and then tuck inwards under the first turn, the knot will be an ABoK #1674 pictured. Shown in a slipped form at entry #1244, this variation is noted by Ashley as having better binding characteristics than the others.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
2595895,
1658488
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
131,
135
],
[
219,
225
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tying other knots that also may function very well as a bag knot but are slightly different from above descriptions:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Strangle knot (two non crossing turns with one end crossing over both and tucked under both)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
7980223
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grip the neck of the bag with the left hand,",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fix / immobilize one end of the rope tucked upwards over the left hand long and under the index finger (option 1 : double folded as a bight to prepare a start-side-slip for the final knot)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
9066654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
135,
140
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Make two parallel turns around the neck of the bag. Detailed steps:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cross over the hand downwards and take one turn around (front, then back) the neck of the bag first at the sack side of the hand (under the hand), then over the hand and behind the immobilized other end.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Take another turn crossing over the immobilized other end, crossing downwards over the hand around (front, then back) the neck of the bag parallel to the first turn ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cross over the immobilized other end of the rope, then cross back tucking under both turns, (option 2 : this last tuck with a bight instead of the end as an end-side-slip for the final knot). ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
9066654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
127,
132
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bottle sling (sides of a bight form one turn each, pleat between all 4 enter and exit points inside of two turns)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [
4022449
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of binding knots",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
61022
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of knots",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
59024
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
}
] | [] | 3,817,811 | 573 | 7 | 26 | 0 | 0 | Miller's knot | type of knot | [
"bag knot"
] |
37,466 | 1,076,465,823 | Butterfly_loop | [
{
"plaintext": "The butterfly loop, also known as lineman's loop, butterfly knot, alpine butterfly knot, Swiss loop and lineman's rider, is a knot used to form a fixed loop in the middle of a rope. Tied in the bight, it can be made in a rope without access to either of the ends; this is a distinct advantage when working with long climbing ropes. The butterfly loop is an excellent mid-line rigging knot; it handles multi-directional loading well and has a symmetrical shape that makes it easy to inspect. In a climbing context it is also useful for traverse lines, some anchors, shortening rope slings, and for isolating damaged sections of rope.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
17006,
60946,
334990,
9066654,
5857,
31161776,
3419483,
2462983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
126,
130
],
[
152,
156
],
[
176,
180
],
[
187,
199
],
[
316,
324
],
[
536,
544
],
[
557,
564
],
[
577,
588
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The earliest known presentation of the knot was in A.A. Burger's 1914 work Rope and Its Uses, included in an agricultural extension bulletin from what is now Iowa State University. Burger called the knot a lineman's rider stating it was often used by \"linemen and especially telephone men\". The knot's security and ability to withstand tension in any direction are both discussed.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
1464343,
14875,
1536956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
109,
131
],
[
158,
179
],
[
254,
261
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The knot's association with mountaineering—and with butterflies—originates from a 1928 article in Alpine Journal by C.E.I. Wright and J.E. Magowan. The authors claim to have developed the butterfly noose themselves while attempting to improve the selection of knots available to climbers. The name is \"so styled on the basis of a more or less fanciful resemblance imagined in the form of the knot.\" In the second part of the article they express dissatisfaction regarding their earlier use of the word \"noose,\" since the knot is non-collapsing, and refer to the knot as butterfly loop or simply butterfly. Wright and Magowan call the butterfly loop \"new,\" along with several other of their knots, in the sense they were unable to identify any earlier record of them. However, they prudently added that it \"might be rash to claim they have never been used before.\"",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
20341,
48338,
15106478
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
28,
42
],
[
52,
63
],
[
98,
112
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "When Clifford Ashley covered the knot in 1944, calling it the lineman's loop, he attributed its first publication to J.M. Drew but made no specific reference as to the source of this claim. A 1912 article called \"Some Knots and Splices\" by Drew appears in the bibliography of The Ashley Book of Knots. A 1913 reprint of this Drew article does not mention the butterfly loop.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
1658488,
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
20
],
[
277,
301
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The loop is typically attached to a climbing harness by 2 carabiners together with gates to opposite sides from each other.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
5898
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
58,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "It can also be used to isolate a worn section of rope, where the knot is tied such that the worn section is isolated in the loop (which of course does not receive a carabiner nor bear any loads in this case). The loop portion is isolated when the other two legs are loaded, and in fact the butterfly can be tied as a bend with the ends emerging where the loop would be.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Errors in tying the butterfly loop can produce a similar looking but inferior knot, the so-called \"false butterfly\", which is prone to slipping. However, some sources suggest this behavior can be exploited purposely for shock absorption. Wright and Magowan called this less secure loop knot the \"half-hitch noose\".",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Forms stable, secure loop after initial setting.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Allows for the knot to be loaded three ways; by each end of the main line and the loop.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Relatively easy to untie after loading (more difficult if wet).",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Size of loop can be adjusted more easily than with bulkier or more complex loop knots.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Easy to inspect.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Can easily be tied with gloves on.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Can easily be tied one-handed.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Advantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Difficult to tie around a solid ring or similar object, as when a rethreaded figure eight is needed.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Disadvantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Improper tying can result in similar looking but inferior \"false butterfly\" knot.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Disadvantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Works best with softer ropes.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Disadvantages",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The double butterfly loop has two non-collapsing loops, allowing for two clip in points, both of which have the same advantages and disadvantages of a single-loop butterfly.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Variations",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "List of knots",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
59024
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Butterfly Loop",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Butterfly Loop animation",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Climbing_knots",
"Knots_of_modern_origin"
] | 1,503,006 | 1,721 | 19 | 18 | 0 | 0 | Butterfly Loop | knot used to form a fixed loop in the middle of a rope | [
"Alpine butterfly knot"
] |
37,469 | 1,100,831,083 | Constrictor_knot | [
{
"plaintext": "The constrictor knot is one of the most effective binding knots. Simple and secure, it is a harsh knot that can be difficult or impossible to untie once tightened. It is made similarly to a clove hitch but with one end passed under the other, forming an overhand knot under a riding turn. The double constrictor knot is an even more robust variation that features two riding turns.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
61022,
17006,
38835,
37454,
7733977
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
50,
63
],
[
100,
104
],
[
193,
204
],
[
257,
270
],
[
279,
290
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "First called \"constrictor knot\" in Clifford Ashley's 1944 work The Ashley Book of Knots, this knot likely dates back much further. Although Ashley seemed to imply that he had invented the constrictor knot over 25 years before publishing The Ashley Book of Knots, research indicates that he was not its only originator, but his Book of Knots does seem to be the source of subsequent knowledge and awareness of the knot.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
1658488,
2595895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
35,
50
],
[
63,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Although the description is not entirely without ambiguity, the constrictor knot is thought to have appeared under the name \"gunner's knot\" in the 1866 work The Book of Knots, written under the pseudonym Tom Bowling. The knot is described in relation to the clove hitch, which he illustrated and called the \"builder's knot\". He wrote, \"The Gunner's knot (of which we do not give a diagram) only differs from the builder's knot, by the ends of the cords being simply knotted before being brought from under the loop which crosses them.\" But Bowling is simply an extraction and translation of the knotting work contained in the huge French , first published in 1841, which says \"\" When J. T. Burgess copied from Bowling, he changed this text to merely state \"when the ends are knotted, the builder's knot becomes the gunner's Knot.\" Although a clove hitch with knotted ends is a workable binding knot, Burgess was not actually describing the constrictor knot. In 1917, A. Hyatt Verrill illustrated Burgess's clove hitch variation in Knots, Splices and Rope Work.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
38835,
4338049
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
258,
269
],
[
969,
985
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The constrictor knot was clearly described but not pictured as the \"\" (\"timber knot\") in the 1916 (2nd) edition of the Swedish book (\"On Knots\") by Hjalmar Öhrvall. Finnish scout leader Martta Ropponen presented the knot in her 1931 scouting handbook (\"Knot Book\"), one of the first published works known to contain an illustration of the constrictor knot. Cyrus L. Day relates that, \"she had never seen it in Finland, she wrote to me in 1954, but had learned about it from a Spaniard named Raphael Gaston, who called it a whip knot, and told her it was used in the mountains of Spain by muleteers and herdsmen.\" The Finnish name \"\" (\"whip knot\") was a translation from Esperanto, the language Ropponen used to correspond with Gaston. But even this explicit occurrence of the constrictor remains in doubt, as the name \"whip knot\" is not applied to the constrictor in other works, and otherwise is used for the strangle knot, tied in the ends of whip tails. Also in 1931 – and so of essentially same date as for Ropponen – James Drew presented the constrictor (as a strangle knot that can be tied in the bight) in Lester Griswold's Handicrafts book; but Drew did not show it in his on book of knots later published. (As Drew knew Clifford Ashley, it is suspected that he might have learned the knot from him; Ashley does praise Handicrafts in his Book of Knots.)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
27918,
19984080,
9248,
9066654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
235,
243
],
[
622,
629
],
[
675,
684
],
[
1102,
1114
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The method shown below is the most basic way to tie the knot around a post (that is, using a working end).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Make a turn around the object and bring the working end back over the standing part.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Continue around behind the object.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Pass the working end over the standing part and then under the riding turn and standing part, forming an overhand knot under a riding turn.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Be sure the ends emerge between the two turns as shown. Pull firmly on the ends to tighten.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Tying",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "There are also at least three methods to tie the constrictor knot in the bight and slip it over the end of an object to be bound.",
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"plaintext": "Using both hands when the end of the object to tie to is available:",
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"plaintext": "If one or both of the ends are folded in between the two loops and lead in the opposite direction, the knot becomes slipped.",
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"plaintext": "Using one hand when the end of the object to tie to is available:",
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"plaintext": "If the rope is to be stretched in tension, the grabbing at stage 2 may first tighten the top side rope, the bottom side rope may be pulled to tighten the knot itself, and the bottom rope side may be tightened by the knot at the next pole. If one or both of the ends are folded and led in the opposite direction before the last loop is folded over the objects end, the knot becomes slipped and therefore easier to untie: It also makes it possible to stretch either side rope tight by pulling at the slip loops.",
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"plaintext": "If a stronger and even more secure knot is required an extra riding turn can be added to the basic knot to form a double constrictor knot. It is particularly useful when tying the knot with very slippery twine, especially when waxed. Adding more than one extra riding turn does not add to its security and makes the knot more difficult to tighten evenly.",
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"plaintext": "Make a turn around the object and bring the working end back over the standing part.",
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"plaintext": "Make a second turn following the same path as the first",
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"plaintext": "Pass the working end over the standing part, then thread it back under the standing part and both riding turns, forming an overhand knot under two riding turns.",
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"plaintext": "Be sure the ends emerge between the turns as shown. The double constrictor may require more careful dressing to distribute the tension throughout the knot. After working up fairly tight, pull firmly on the ends to finish.",
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"plaintext": "This variation is useful if it is known beforehand that the constrictor will need to be released. Depending on the knotting material and how tightly it is cinched, the slipped form can still be very difficult to release.",
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"plaintext": "Make a turn around the object and bring the working end back over the standing part.",
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"plaintext": "Continue around behind the object, and then again over the standing part back to the side of the first turn.",
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"plaintext": "Pass a bight of the working end under the point where the first riding pass and the standing part cross to form a slip loop.",
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"plaintext": "Be sure the slip loop bight and both ends emerge from in between the two turns as shown.",
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"plaintext": "To release, tug on the working end so that the bight passes back through the knot.",
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"plaintext": "The slipped constrictor can also be tied in the bight and slipped over the object to constrict. Despite its advertised advantage (quick release), the slipped constrictor knot can also be hard to release when worked extremely tight in certain rope materials.",
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"plaintext": "This variation is similar to the double constrictor knot but has the two riding turns crossing each other rather than riding along. It is unclear whether it is more secure than the double constrictor, and has the unhelpful aspect of being thicker at the bridge of the knot, with three rope diameters. ",
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"plaintext": "There are two types depending on which direction the two riding turns cross. When the bottom riding turn is along the grove of the ends wrapping around each other on their way out, it gives a slightly lower knot height and may be seen as a strangle knot with an extra riding turn across.",
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"plaintext": "The constrictor knot is appropriate for situations where secure temporary or semi-permanent binding is needed. Made with small-stuff it is especially effective, as the binding force is concentrated over a smaller area. When tying over soft material such as the neck of a bag, take care to keep the wraps of the knot together. The constrictor knot can damage or disfigure items it is tied around. To exert extreme tension on the knot without injuring the hands, one can fashion handles using marlinespike hitches made around two rods.",
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"plaintext": "Constrictor knots can be used for temporarily binding the fibres of a rope (or strand ends) together while splicing, or when cutting to length and before properly whipping the ends. Constrictor knots can also be quite effective as improvised hose clamps or cable ties. The knot has also been recommended as a surgical knot for ligatures in human and veterinary surgery, where it has been shown to be far superior to any of the knots commonly used for ligation. Noted master-rigger Brion Toss says of the constrictor: \"To know the knot is to constantly find uses for it\"",
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"plaintext": "For spearguns, the constrictor knot is the usual knot used to secure modern, toggled, Dyneema, cord wishbones into the hollow, bulk-rubber loops, which are used to power the spear. Usually tied with braid, Kevlar or Dyneema cord of approximately 1.4-2mm diameter.",
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"plaintext": "A heavily tightened constrictor knot will likely jam. If the ends are long enough, one can sometimes untie it by pulling one end generally parallel to the bound object and a bit up away from it, and prying it into the opposite end's part to open the knot. Tools that can be forced between parts of the knot (such as picks and marlinespikes) may help.",
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"plaintext": "If the ends have been trimmed short, or the knot is otherwise hopelessly jammed, it can be easily released by cutting the riding turn with a sharp knife. The knot will spring apart as soon as the riding turn is cut. If care is taken not to cut too deeply, the underlying wraps will protect the bound object from being damaged by the knife.",
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"plaintext": "The constrictor and double constrictor are both extremely secure when tied tightly around convex objects with cord scaled for the task at hand. If binding around a not fully convex, or square-edged object, arrange the knot so the overhand knot portion is stretched across a convex portion, or a corner, with the riding turn squarely on top of it. In situations where the object leaves gaps under the knot and there are no corners, it is possible to finish the constrictor knot off with an additional overhand knot, in the fashion of a reef knot, to help stabilize it. Those recommendations aside, constrictor knots do function best on fully convex objects.",
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"plaintext": "If the constricted object (such as a temporarily whipped rope) ends very close to where a constrictor binds it, a boa knot may prove a more stable solution.",
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"plaintext": "Constrictor Knot animated and illustrated",
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] | [] | 1,749,239 | 5,658 | 21 | 29 | 0 | 0 | Constrictor knot | similar to a clove hitch but with one end passed under the other, forming an overhand knot under a riding turn | [] |
37,472 | 1,107,227,424 | Trondheim | [
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"plaintext": "Trondheim (, , ; ; ), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. It has a population of 205,332 as of 2020, and is the third most populous municipality in Norway, although the fourth largest urban area. Trondheim lies on the south shore of Trondheim Fjord at the mouth of the River Nidelva. Among the major technology-oriented institutions headquartered in Trondheim are the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), the Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research (SINTEF), and St. Olavs University Hospital.",
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"plaintext": "The settlement was founded in 997 as a trading post, and it served as the capital of Norway during the Viking Age until 1217. From 1152 to 1537, the city was the seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros; since then, it has remained the seat of the Lutheran Diocese of Nidaros and the Nidaros Cathedral. It was incorporated in 1838. The current municipality dates from 1964, when Trondheim merged with Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda and Tiller, and the municipality was further expanded 1 January 2020 when Trondheim merged with Klæbu.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim has a mild climate for its northerly latitude, resulting in moderate summers and winters that often remain above the freezing point in seaside areas. At higher elevations, though, the microclimate is colder and snowier.",
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"plaintext": "The city functions as the seat of the County Mayor of Trøndelag county, but not as the administrative centre, which is Steinkjer. This is to make the county administration not too centralized.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim is home to football club Rosenborg, one of Norway's most successful teams, as well as Granåsen Ski Centre which has hosted the World Championship in Nordic Skiing.",
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"plaintext": "The city was originally given the name by Olav Tryggvason. It was for a long time called (), or in the Old Norse spelling. But it was also just called (\"city\") or, more specifically, (\"the city in the district \", i.e. Trøndelag). The name Trøndelag, Norse Þrǿndalǫg, originally meant «the law area of the Trønder (people)» (literally Trønder-law). The first part is the genitive plural of the popular name þrǿndr, «trøndere», which is an old present participle of the verb þróask, «to grow» (with the same root as in «thrive»), (Peterson, Lena. 2007. Nordiskt runnamnslexikon. Femte, reviderade utgåvan, p237) .and thus can be translated as «the strong, fertile. (Trondheim byleksikon Arkivert 22. desember 2015 hos Wayback Machine. /; bokmal wiki, ",
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"plaintext": "During the late Middle Ages people started to call the city just . In the Dano-Norwegian period, during the years as a provincial town in the united kingdoms of Denmark–Norway, the city name was spelt .",
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"plaintext": "Following the example set by the renaming of the capital to Oslo, was reintroduced as the official name of the city for a brief period from 1 January 1930 until 6 March 1931. The name was restored in order to reaffirm the city's link with its glorious past, despite the fact that a 1928 referendum on the name of the city had resulted in 17,163 votes in favour of and only 1,508 votes in favour of Nidaros. Public outrage later in the same year, even taking the form of riots, forced the Storting to settle for the medieval city name Trondheim. The name of the diocese was, however, changed from to () in 1918.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim was named Kaupangen () by Viking King Olav Tryggvason in 997 CE. Shortly thereafter it came to be called Nidaros. In the beginning it was frequently used as a military retainer (Old Norse: \"hird\"-man) of King Olav I. It was frequently used as the seat of the king, and was the capital of Norway until 1217.",
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"plaintext": "People have been living in the region for thousands of years as evidenced by the rock carvings in central Norway, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and the Corded Ware culture. In ancient times, the Kings of Norway were hailed at Øretinget in Trondheim, the place for the assembly of all free men by the mouth of the River Nidelva. Harald Fairhair (865–933) was hailed as the king here, as was his son, Haakon I, called 'the Good'. The battle of Kalvskinnet took place in Trondheim in 1179: King Sverre Sigurdsson and his Birkebeiner warriors were victorious against Erling Skakke (a rival to the throne). Some scholars believe that the famous Lewis chessmen, 12th century chess pieces carved from walrus ivory found in the Hebrides and now at the British Museum, may have been made in Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim was the seat of the Archbishop of Nidaros for Norway from 1152, which operated from the Archbishop's Palace. Due to the introduction of Lutheran Protestantism in 1537, the last Archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, had to flee from the city to the Netherlands, where he died in present-day Lier, Belgium.",
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"plaintext": "The city has experienced several major fires. Since much of the city was made of wooden buildings, many of the fires caused severe damage. Great fires ravaged the city in 1598, 1651, 1681, 1708, twice in 1717, 1742, 1788, 1841 and 1842; however, these were only the worst cases and there have been several smaller fires in the city. The 1651 fire destroyed 90% of all buildings within the city limits. The fire in 1681 (the \"Horneman Fire\") led to an almost total reconstruction of the city, overseen by General Johan Caspar von Cicignon, originally from Luxembourg. Broad avenues like Munkegata were created, with no regard for property rights, in order to stop the next fire. At the time, the city had a population of under 10,000 inhabitants, with most living in the downtown area.",
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"plaintext": "After the Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658, Trondheim and the rest of Trøndelag, became Swedish territory for a brief period, but the area was reconquered 10 months later. The conflict was finally settled by the Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660.",
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"plaintext": "During the Second World War, Trondheim was occupied by Nazi Germany from 9 April 1940, the first day of the invasion of Norway, until the end of the war in Europe, 8 May 1945. The German invasion force consisted of the German cruiser Admiral Hipper, 4 destroyers and 1700 Austrian Mountain troops. Other than a coastal battery opening fire, there was no resistance to the invasion on 9 April at 5 AM. On 14 and 17 April, British and French forces landed near Trondheim in a failed attempt to liberate Trondheim as part of the Namsos Campaign. During the occupation, Trondheim was the home of the notorious Norwegian Gestapo agent, Henry Rinnan, who operated from a nearby villa and infiltrated Norwegian Resistance groups. The city and its citizens were also subject to harsh treatment by the occupying powers, including the imposition of martial law in October 1942. During this time the Germans turned the city and its environs into a major base for submarines (which included building the large submarine base and bunker DORA I), and also contemplated a scheme to build a new city for 300,000 inhabitants, Nordstern (\"Northern Star\"), centred southwest of Trondheim, near the wetlands of Øysand in the outskirts of Melhus municipality. This new metropolis was to be accompanied by a massively expanded version of the already existing naval base, which was intended to become the primary future stronghold of the German Kriegsmarine. Today, there are few physical remains of this enormous construction project.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Trondheim was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 January 1864, part of Strinda (population: 1,229) was amalgamated with Trondheim. Then, on 1 January 1893, another part of Strinda (population: 4,097) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1952, the Lade area of Strinda (population: 2,230) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1964, a major municipal merger took place: the neighbouring municipalities of Leinstrand (population: 4,193), Byneset (population: 2,049), Strinda (population: 44,600), and Tiller (population: 3,595) were all merged with the city of Trondheim (population: 56,982), which nearly doubled the population of the municipality. On 1 January 2020, the neighboring Klæbu Municipality (population: 6,050) was merged with Trondheim Municipality.",
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"plaintext": "The coat of arms dates back to the 13th century. To the left, there is an archbishop with his staff and mitre in a church archway. On the right, a crowned king holding scales in a castle archway. These two pictures rest on a base which forms an arch. Underneath that arch, are three male heads which symbolise the city's rank as Norway's first capital and the archbishop's place of residence. The scales symbolise justice and the motif is based on the political philosophy of the 13th century, where the balance of power between king and church was an important issue. The three heads at the bottom may symbolise the city council. The motif is unique in Norwegian municipal heraldry, but similar motifs are found in bishopric cities on the continent. The design of the coat-of-arms that was adopted in 1897, and is still used today, was made by Håkon Thorsen.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim is situated where the River Nidelva meets Trondheim Fjord with an excellent harbour and sheltered condition. The river used to be deep enough for most boats in the Middle Ages. An avalanche of mud and stones made it less navigable and partly ruined the harbour in the mid-17th century.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality's top elevation is the Storheia hill, above sea level. At the summer solstice, the sun rises at 03:00 and sets at 23:40, but stays just below the horizon–there is no darkness (no need for artificial lighting outdoors) from 23 May to 19 July under cloud-free conditions. At the winter solstice, the sun rises at 10:01, stays very low above the horizon (at midday its altitude is slightly more than 3 degrees over the horizon), and sets at 14:31.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim city has an oceanic climate (Cfb) or humid continental climate (Dfb), depending on the winter threshold used (0°C or −3°C). The part of the municipality further away from the fjord has slightly colder winters, while the part close to the fjord has the mildest winters. Trondheim is mostly sheltered from the strong south and southwesterly winds which can occur along the outer seaboard but is more exposed to northwesterly winds. As with the rest of Norway, the weather is dependent on the weather pattern. High pressure over Central Norway or to the east gives sunny weather which can last for weeks. Conversely, Atlantic Lows can also dominate for weeks, and both patterns can happen all year. This was demonstrated in 2020 when May saw northwesterlies with cold air from the Greenland Sea lasting three weeks into the month, and snowfall in mid-May, setting a new record for snow in May. The next month, high pressure and weeks with southeasterlies gave the warmest June on record, with 345 sun hours and Trondheim Airport recording a new record high , Norway's warmest high in 2020. ",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim experiences moderate snowfall from November to March, but mixed with mild weather and rainfall. There are on average 14 days each winter with at least of snow cover on the ground and 22 days with a daily minimum temperature of or less (1971–2000, airport). There is often more snow and later snowmelt in suburban areas at a higher elevation, with good skiing conditions in Bymarka. All the monthly record lows are from 1955 or older, with half of them from before 1920. The last overnight frost in June was in 1958, and the coldest night in May after year 2000 had low −2.7°C. The May record low is from 1900, 3.7°C colder than the second coldest May night. The all-time low was recorded February 1899. The all-time high was recorded 22 July 1901. The warmest month on record is July 2014 with mean and average daily high (airport). The coldest month on record is February 1966 with mean and average daily low (airport). The average date for the first overnight freeze (below ) in autumn is 9 October (1981–2010 average, airport). ",
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"plaintext": "The earliest weather stations were located closer to the city centre, from 1945 onwards the weather station has been located at a higher elevation (Voll, 127 m and Tyholt, 113 m), therefore being slightly colder.",
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"plaintext": "A new sunrecorder was established by met.no in the city at Gløshaugen (NTNU) December 2015, recording more sunhrs than earlier sunrecorder, which had terrain blocking issues. There are on average 229 sunhours in July (based 2016–2020). Trondheim recorded 197 sunhours in October 2016 beating the previous national record for October. In April 2019, Trondheim recorded 308 sunhours, setting a new national record for April. In contrast, December 2016 only recorded 10 sunhours. ",
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"plaintext": "The city has various wetland habitats. among which there is the Gaulosen. The observation tower accommodates for birdwatching and providing information about birdlife.",
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"plaintext": "Despite Trondheim being Norway's third largest city, wild animals can be seen. Otters and beavers thrive in Nidelva and Bymarka. Badgers and red foxes are not uncommon sights. Moose and deer are common in the hills surrounding the city, and might wander into the city, especially in May when the one-year-olds are chased away by their mothers, or in late winter when food grows scarce in the snow-covered higher regions. From 2002 until 2017, a wolverine lived in Bymarka.",
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"plaintext": "Most of Trondheim city centre is scattered with small speciality shops. However, the main shopping area is concentrated around the pedestrianised streets Nordre gate (), Olav Tryggvasons gate and Thomas Angells gate even though the rest of the city centre is provided with everything from old, well-established companies to new, hip and trendy shops.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-to-late 1990s, the area surrounding the old drydock and ship construction buildings of the defunct Trondhjems mekaniske Værksted shipbuilding company at the Nedre Elvehavn was renovated and old industrial buildings were torn down to make way for condominiums. A shopping centre was also built, known as Solsiden (The Sunny Side). This is a popular residential and shopping area, especially for young people.",
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"plaintext": "DORA 1 is a German submarine base that housed the 13th U-boat Flotilla during the Second World War occupation of Norway. Today the bunker houses various archives, among them the city archives, the university and state archives. More recently, DORA has been used as a concert venue.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansten Fortress, built 1681–1684, is located on a hill east of Trondheim. It repelled the invading Swedes in 1718, but was decommissioned in 1816 by Crown Prince Regent Charles John.",
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"plaintext": "A statue of Olav Tryggvason, the founder of Trondheim, is located in the city's central square, mounted on top of an obelisk. The statue base is also a sun dial, but it is calibrated to UTC+1 so that the reading is inaccurate by one hour in the summer.",
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"plaintext": "The islet Munkholmen is a popular tourist attraction and recreation site. The islet has served as a place of execution, a monastery, a fortress, prison, and a Second World War anti-aircraft gun station.",
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"plaintext": "Stiftsgården is the royal residence in Trondheim, originally constructed in 1774 by Cecilie Christine Schøller. At 140 rooms constituting , it is possibly the largest wooden building in Northern Europe and has been used by royals and their guests since 1800.",
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"plaintext": "A statue of Leif Ericson is located at the seaside, close to the old Customs Building, the cruise ship facilities and the new swimming hall. The statue is a replica, the original being located at a Seattle marina.",
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"plaintext": "The Nidaros Cathedral and the Archbishop's Palace are located side by side in the middle of the city centre. The cathedral, built from 1070 on, is the most important Gothic monument in Norway and was Northern Europe's most important Christian pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages, with pilgrimage routes leading to it from Oslo in southern Norway and from the Jämtland and Värmland regions of Sweden. Today, it is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world, and the second-largest in Scandinavia.",
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"plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, and again after independence was restored in 1814, the Nidaros Cathedral was the coronation church of the Norwegian kings. King Haakon VII was the last monarch to be crowned there, in 1906. Starting with King Olav V in 1957, coronation was replaced by consecration. In 1991, the present King Harald V and Queen Sonja were consecrated in the cathedral. On 24 May 2002, their daughter Princess Märtha Louise married the writer Ari Behn in the cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "The Pilgrim's Route (Pilegrimsleden) to the site of Saint Olufs's tomb at Nidaros Cathedral, has recently been re-instated. Also known as St. Olav's Way, (Sankt Olavs vei), the main route, which is approximately long, starts in Oslo and heads North, along Lake Mjøsa, up the valley Gudbrandsdalen, over the mountain range Dovrefjell and down the Oppdal valley to end at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. There is a Pilgrim's Office in Oslo which gives advice to pilgrims and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the cathedral, which awards certificates to successful pilgrims upon the completion of their journey.",
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"plaintext": "The Lutheran Church of Norway has 21 churches within the municipality of Trondheim. They are all a part of the Diocese of Nidaros, which is based in Trondheim at the Nidaros Cathedral. Many of the churches are several hundred years old, with a couple which were built almost 1,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman Catholic Sankt Olav domkirke is the cathedral episcopal see of the exempt Territorial Prelature of Trondheim. Being located across the street from the Nidaros Cathedral, the two of them form an unofficial religious quarter along with a synagogue, a Baptist church, a Salvation Army office, and the 8-auditorium cinema Prinsen kinosenter.",
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"plaintext": "Sverresborg, also named Zion after King David's castle in Jerusalem, was a fortification built by Sverre Sigurdsson. It is now an open-air museum, consisting of more than 60 buildings. The castle was originally built in 1182–1183, but did not last for long as it was burned down in 1188. However, the Sverresaga indicates it had been restored by 1197.",
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"plaintext": "The Trondheim Science Center () is a scientific hands-on experience center. The NTNU University Museum (Norwegian: NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet) is part of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. There are also a variety of small history, science and natural history museums, such as the Trondheim Maritime Museum, the Armoury, adjacent to the Archbishops's Palace, Kristiansten Fortress, the music and musical instrument museum Ringve National Museum, Ringve Botanical Garden, the Trondheim Tramway Museum, and the Jewish Museum, co-located with the city's synagogue, which is among the northernmost in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Rockheim (, The National Discovery Center for Pop and Rock) opened at the Pier in August 2010. It is located inside an old warehouse, but characterised by an easily recognisable roof in the shape of a box. \"The box\" is decorated by thousands of tiny lights that change in a variety of colours and patterns, and is a landmark in the cityscape – especially on dark winter evenings.",
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"plaintext": "Vollan District Jail (Norwegian: Vollan kretsfengsel) was a jail during the nazi occupation of Norway and was used to imprison both prisoners of war and criminals. Vollan was not considered a concentration camp. In a summary of prisoners of war in Norway, numerous prisoners were registered at Vollan. One of its roles was as a transit camp for political prisoners. Many prisoners were taken from Vollan to Kristiansten Fortress and shot. The prisoners at Vollan were interrogated at the Mission Hotel in Trondheim. Some were also interrogated by Henry Rinnan and his gang. It was closed in 1971 after the opening of Trondheim Prison at Tunga.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim Prison (Norwegian: Trondheim fengsel) is a prison that belongs to the Northern Region of the Norwegian Correctional Services. The prison can house 184 inmates.",
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"plaintext": "It consists of four main departments: ",
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"plaintext": "Nermarka (\"Tunga\") – closed department",
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"plaintext": "Detention department (no: Forvaringsavdelingen) at Nermarka",
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"plaintext": "Leira – open division. Through joint positive activities, the individual inmate on certain conditions teaches to be responsible with other people.",
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"plaintext": "division Kongens gt. – halfway house, located in downtown Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 January 2005, the city was reorganized from five boroughs into four, with each of these having separate social services offices. The current boroughs are Midtbyen (44,967 inhabitants), Østbyen (42,707 inhabitants), Lerkendal (46,603 inhabitants) and Heimdal (30,744) inhabitants. The Population statistics listed are as of 1 January 2008. Prior to 2005, Trondheim was divided into the boroughs Sentrum, Strinda, Nardo, Byåsen and Heimdal.",
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"plaintext": "The city council (Bystyret) of Trondheim is made up of 67 representatives that are elected every four years. Prior to 2011, there were 85 city council members, but this number was reduced to 67 in 2011. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "See also the list of primary schools in Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim is home to both the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) with its many technical lab facilities and disciplines, and BI-Trondheim, a satellite campus for the Norwegian Business School (BI). Both universities welcome a number of international students on a yearly basis and offer various scholarships.",
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"plaintext": "St. Olavs University Hospital, a regional hospital for Central Norway, is located in downtown Trondheim. St. Olav's is a teaching hospital and cooperates closely with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) on both research and medical education.",
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"plaintext": "SINTEF, the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia, has 1,800 employees with 1,300 of these located in Trondheim. The Air Force Academy of the Royal Norwegian Air Force is located at Kuhaugen in Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "The Geological Survey of Norway is located at Lade in Trondheim and is a major geoscientific institution with 220 employees of which 70% are scientists.",
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"plaintext": "There are 11 high schools in the city. Trondheim katedralskole (\"Trondheim Cathedral School\") was founded in 1152 and is the oldest upper secondary school (gymnasium) in Norway, while Charlottenlund videregående skole is the largest in Sør-Trøndelag with its 1,100 students and 275 employees. Brundalen Skole, has big festivals each year, and is building out to increase space.",
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"plaintext": "Ila skole was founded in 1770 and is the oldest primary school in Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "Adresseavisen is the largest regional newspaper and the oldest active newspaper in Norway, having been established in 1767. The two headquarters of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) are located at Tyholt in Trondheim, and in Oslo. On 31 December 2019 the fully digital and local newspaper Nidaros was launched as a competitor to Adresseavisen. The student press of Trondheim features three types of media. Under Dusken is the student paper, Radio Revolt is the student radio, and Student-TV broadcasts videos online.",
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"plaintext": "Radio stations established in Trondheim include Trøndelag-focused opt-out feeds of NRK P1 and NRK P1+, local versions of NRK Trafikk and P5 Hits, Radio Trondheim, and Radio 247. Along with Norway's national radio stations, they can be listened to on DAB+ across most of Trøndelag, as well as on internet radio.",
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"plaintext": "The Trondheim Art Museum has Norway's third largest public art collection, mainly Norwegian art from the last 150 years.",
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"plaintext": "The boasts a large collection of decorative arts and design, including a great number of tapestries from the Norwegian tapestry artist Hannah Ryggen, as well as Norway's only permanent exhibibition of Japanese arts and crafts.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim is also a key location in the Tiberian Sun universe, as it is a critical battleground for both factions.",
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"plaintext": "Granåsen Ski Centre, a Nordic skiing venue located in Byåsen, regularly hosts World Cup competitions in ski jumping, biathlon and cross-country skiing, as well as the 1997 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. Trondheim attempted but failed to become the Norwegian candidate for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Hiking and recreational skiing is available around the city, particularly in Bymarka, which can be reached by the tramway. Trondheim Golfklubb has a nine-hole golf course in Byåsen.",
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"plaintext": "Rosenborg BK is one of the city's two premier football clubs and plays their home matches at Lerkendal Stadion. They have won the Norwegian Premier League 26 times between 1967 and 2018, have reached the UEFA Champions League group stage 12 times, and made it to the last 8 on one occasion. Ranheim Fotball is the city's second premier football club having been promoted from the Norwegian First Division to join Eliteserien in 2018, coming in at seventh place out of 16 in its first season. Byåsen IL plays in the women's handball league, and is a regular in the EHF Women's Champions League, playing their home games at Trondheim Spektrum.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim and Trøndelag is also regarded as the home of the basse game.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim has an international airport, Trondheim Airport, Værnes, situated in Stjørdal, which is Norway's fourth largest airport in terms of passenger traffic. Værnes has non-stop connections to cities such as London, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, and Stockholm, among others. The domestic route Trondheim – Oslo is among the busiest air routes in Europe with around 2 million passengers annually.",
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"plaintext": "Major railway connections are the northbound Nordland Line, the eastbound Meråker Line to Åre and Östersund in Sweden, and two southbound connections to Oslo, the Røros Line and Dovre Line.",
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"plaintext": "The Coastal Express ships (Hurtigruten: Covering the Bergen–Kirkenes stretch of the coast) call at Trondheim, as do many cruise ships during the summer season. Since 1994 there is also a fast commuter boat service to Kristiansund, the closest coastal city to the southwest. Every morning the Hurtigruten ships have one southbound and one northbound arrival and departure in Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "A car ferry route from the port of Flakk in the northwest of the municipality, connects Trondheim with Fosen. Various bridge projects over the Trondheim Fjord to replace the ferry have been planned, but none have begun construction.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim also boasts the northernmost (since closure of Arkhangelsk tram in 2004) tramway line in the world: the Gråkallen Line, the last remaining segment of the Trondheim Tramway, is an route (which is mostly single-track outside the innermost parts of the city; except the stretch between Breidablikk and Nordre Hoem stations) which runs from the city centre, through the Byåsen district, and up to Lian, in the large recreation area Bymarka. Trondheim boasts the world's only bicycle lift, Trampe.",
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"plaintext": "The bus network, operated by AtB, runs throughout most of the city and its suburbs. A new metro line system went public 3 August 2019. The new transportation system covers the Trondheim area (Trondheim, Malvik, and Melhus). The three metro lines and the city lines that link the city across. The new public transport system becomes flexible, with buses running more often and accommodating more passengers. Fewer travelers must take a detour through the center of Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the Nattbuss (Night Bus) service ensures cheap and effective transport for those enjoying nightlife in the city centre during the weekends. The Nattbus has other prices than ordinary buses. The European route E6 highway passes through the city centre of Trondheim in addition to a motorway bypass along the eastern rim of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Trondheim is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Darmstadt, Germany (1968)",
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"plaintext": " Klaksvík, Faroe Islands (1987)",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (which applies only to mainland China, not to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from Mainland China, has its own Constitution.",
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"plaintext": "The Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply to persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech and expression are applicable only to the citizens of India (including non-resident Indian citizens). The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.",
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"plaintext": "Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, but some rights are enforceable against private individuals too. For instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on State action and actions of private individuals. Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of national interest. In the Kesavananda Bharati vs. state of Kerala case, the Supreme Court ruled that all provisions of the constitution, including Fundamental Rights can be amended. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution like secularism, democracy, federalism, separation of powers. Often called the \"Basic structure doctrine\", this decision is widely regarded as an important part of Indian history. In the 1978 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court extended the doctrine's importance as superior to any parliamentary legislation. According to the verdict, no act of parliament can be considered a law if it violated the basic structure of the constitution. This landmark guarantee of Fundamental Rights was regarded as a unique example of judicial independence in preserving the sanctity of Fundamental Rights.",
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"plaintext": "The Fundamental Rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, hence their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch, but also on the Parliament and state legislatures. The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension of the rights conferred by Article 19 (including freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) to preserve national security and public order. The President can, by order, suspend the constitutional written remedies as well.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1947, Japan, a country with a constitutional monarchy and known for its socially \"conservative society where change is gradual,\" has a constitution with a seemingly strong bill of rights at its core (Chapter III. Rights and Duties of the People). In many ways, it resembles the U.S. Constitution prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and that is because it came into life during the Allied occupation of Japan. This constitution may have felt like a foreign imposition to the governing elites, but not to the ordinary people \"who lacked faith in their discredited leaders and supported meaningful change.\" In the abstract, the constitution strives to secure fundamental individual liberties and rights, which are covered pointedly in articles 10 to 40. Most salient of the human dignity articles is article 25, section 1, which guarantees that all \"people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite the adoption of this liberal constitution, often referred as the \"Postwar Constitution\" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the \"Peace Constitution\" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), the Japanese governing elites have struggled to usher in an inclusive, open and Pluralist society. Even after the end of World War II and the departure of the Allied government of occupation in 1952, Japan has been the target of international criticism for failing to admit to war crimes, institutional religious discrimination and maintaining a weak freedom of the press, the treatment of children, minorities, foreigners, and women, its punitive criminal justice system, and more recently, the systematic bias against LGBT people.",
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"plaintext": "The first Japanese attempt to a bill of rights was in the 19th century Meiji constitution (1890), which took both the Prussian (1850) and British constitutions as basic models. However, it had but a meager influence in the practice of the rule of law as well as in people's daily living. So, the short and deliberately gradual history of struggles for personal rights and protection against government/society's impositions has yet to transform Japan into a champion of universal and individual freedom. According to constitutional scholar, Shigenori Matsui,",
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"plaintext": "Despite the divergences between Japan's social culture and the Liberal Constitutionalism that it purports to have adopted, the country has moved toward closing the gap between the notion and the practice of the law. The trend is more evident in the long term. Among several examples, the Diet (bicameral legislature) ratified the International Bill of Human Rights in 1979 and then it passed the Law for Equal Opportunity in Employment for Men and Women in 1985, measures that were heralded as major steps toward a democratic and participatory society. In 2015, moreover, it reached an agreement with Korea to compensate for abuses related to the so-called \"women of comfort\" that took place during the Japanese occupation of the peninsula. However, human rights group, and families of the survivors condemned the agreement as patronizing and insulting.",
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"plaintext": "On its official site, the Japanese government has identified various human rights problems. Among these are child abuses (e.g., bullying, corporal punishment, child sexual abuse, child prostitution, and child pornography), frequent neglect and ill-treatment of elderly persons and individuals with disabilities, Dowa claims (discrimination against the Burakumin), Ainu people (indigenous people in Japan), foreign nationals, HIV/AIDS carriers, Hansen's disease patients, persons released from prison after serving their sentence, crime victims, people whose human rights are violated using the Internet, the homeless, individuals with gender identity disorders, and women. Also, the government lists systematic problems with gender biases and the standard reference to sexual preferences for jobs and other functions in society.",
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"plaintext": "Human rights organizations, national and foreign, expand the list to include human rights violations that relate to government policies, as in the case of daiyo kangoku system (substitute prison) and the methods of interrogating crime suspects. The effort of these agencies and ordinary people seem to pay off. In 2016, the U.S. Department of State released a report stating that Japan's human right record is showing signs of improvement.",
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"plaintext": "Whilst Australia does not have an enshrined Bill of Rights or similar binding legal document, civil liberties are assumed as protected through a series of rules and conventions. Australia had primary involvement in and was a key signatory to the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of Australia (1900) does offer very limited protection of rights:",
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"plaintext": " the right to freedom of religion and;",
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},
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"plaintext": " the right to freedom from discrimination based on out-of-state residence (historical prejudice based upon residence within one state affecting treatment within another)",
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"plaintext": "Certain High Court interpretations of the Constitution have allowed for implied rights such as freedom of political communication (which is construed broadly) and the right to vote to be established, however others such as freedom of assembly and freedom of association are yet to be identified.",
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"plaintext": "Refugee issues",
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"plaintext": "Within the past decade Australia has experienced increasing contention regarding its treatment of those seeking asylum. Although Australia is a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention (1951), successive governments have demonstrated an increasing tightening of borders; particularly against those who seek passage via small water vessels.",
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"plaintext": "The Abbott Government (2013) like its predecessors (the Gillard and Howard Governments) has encountered particular difficulty curbing asylum seekers via sea, increasingly identified as \"illegal immigration\". The recent involvement of the Australian Navy in refugee rescue operations has many human rights groups such as Amnesty International concerned over the \"militarisation\" of treatment to the refugee and the issue of their human rights in Australia. The current \"turn-back\" policy is particularly divisive, as it involves placing refugees in government lifeboats and turning them towards Indonesia. Despite opposition however, the Abbott government's response has so far seen a reduction in the number of potential refugees undertaking the hazardous cross to Australia, which is argued by the government as an indicator for its policy success.",
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"plaintext": "The European Convention on Human Rights, to which almost all European countries belong (apart from Belarus), enumerates a number of civil liberties and is of varying constitutional force in different European states.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Velvet Revolution, a constitutional overhaul took place in Czechoslovakia. In 1991, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms was adopted, having the same legal standing as the Constitution. The Czech Republic has kept the Charter in its entirety following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as Act No. 2/1993 Coll. (Constitution being No. 1).",
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"plaintext": "France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen listed many civil liberties and is of constitutional force.",
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"plaintext": "The German constitution, the \"Grundgesetz\" (lit. \"Base Law\"), starts with an elaborate listing of civil liberties and states in sec. 1 \"The dignity of man is inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all public authority.\" Following the \"Austrian System\", the people have the right to appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany (\"Bundesverfassungsgericht\") if they feel their civil rights are being violated. This procedure has shaped German law considerably over the years.",
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"plaintext": "Civil liberties in the United Kingdom date back to Magna Carta in 1215 and 17th century common law and statute law, such as the 1628 Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Bill of Rights 1689. Parts of these laws remain in statute today and are supplemented by other legislation and conventions that collectively form the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom. In addition, the United Kingdom is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights which covers both human rights and civil liberties. The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the great majority of Convention rights directly into UK law.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2008 the then Shadow Home Secretary David Davis resigned his parliamentary seat over what he described as the \"erosion of civil liberties\" by the then Labour government, and was re-elected on a civil liberties platform (although he was not opposed by candidates of other major parties). This was in reference to anti-terrorism laws and in particular the extension to pre-trial detention, that is perceived by many to be an infringement of habeas corpus established in Magna Carta.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees in theory many of the same rights and civil liberties as the U.S. except to bear arms, i.e.: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of association and assembly, freedom to choose language, to due process, to a fair trial, privacy, freedom to vote, right for education, etc. However, human rights groups like Amnesty International have warned that Vladimir Putin has seriously curtailed freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association amidst growing authoritarianism.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of Canada includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which guarantees many of the same rights as the U.S. constitution. The Charter omits any mention of, or protection for, property.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Constitution, especially its Bill of Rights, protects civil liberties. The passage of the Fourteenth Amendment further protected civil liberties by introducing the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause. Human rights within the United States are often called civil rights, which are those rights, privileges and immunities held by all people, in distinction to political rights, which are the rights that inhere to those who are entitled to participate in elections, as candidates or voters. Before universal suffrage, this distinction was important, since many people were ineligible to vote but still were considered to have the fundamental freedoms derived from the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. This distinction is less important now that Americans enjoy near universal suffrage, and civil liberties are now taken to include the political rights to vote and participate in elections. Because Native American tribal governments retain sovereignty over tribal members, the U.S. Congress in 1968 enacted a law that essentially applies most of the protections of the Bill of Rights to tribal members, to be enforced mainly by tribal courts.",
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"plaintext": "The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was signed into effect by President Ronald Reagan on August 10, 1988. The act was passed by Congress to issue a public apology for those of Japanese ancestry who lost their property and liberty due to discriminatory actions by the United States Government during the internment period. This act also provided many other benefits within various sectors of the government. Within the treasury it established a civil liberties public education fund. It directed the Attorney General to identify and locate each individual affected by this act and to pay them $20,000 from the civil liberties public education fund. It also established a board of directors who is responsible for making disbursements from this fund. Finally, it required that all documents and records that are created or received by the commission be kept by the Archivist of the United States.",
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"plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union",
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"plaintext": " Canadian Civil Liberties Association",
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},
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"plaintext": " Civil libertarianism",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Drug liberalization",
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"plaintext": " Equality and Human Rights Commission",
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"plaintext": " Fundamental freedoms",
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},
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"plaintext": " Human rights",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Libertarianism",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Liberalism",
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19280734
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liberty (pressure group)",
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539748
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of civil rights leaders",
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295019
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Privacy",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
25009
],
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1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Proactive policing",
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"target_page_ids": [
26769877
],
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rule according to higher law",
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28648059
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rutherford Institute",
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518611
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Teaching for social justice",
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48990
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " State of World Liberty Index",
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"target_page_ids": [
7720337
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Statewatch",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dershowitz, Alan. \"Preserving Civil Liberties.\" Reflections on the Fractured Landscape, spec. sec. of Chronicle of Higher Education, Chronicle Review, September 28, 2001. Accessed August 11, 2006.",
"section_idx": 8,
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Smith, Jean Edward, and Herbert M. Levine. Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Debated. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Court cases involving Civil Liberties held at the National Archives at Atlanta",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Leading Civil Liberties Organizations in the United States",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Rights, Civil Liberties and Freedoms in Russia",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Cato Institute: Civil Liberties",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " USDOJ: Privacy and Civil Liberties Office",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Občanské svobody",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
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"Individualism"
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37,479 | 1,089,582,005 | Jamie_Zawinski | [
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"plaintext": "In 1990 he began working at Lucid Inc., first working on Lucid Common Lisp, and then on Lucid's Energize C++ IDE. Lucid decided to use GNU Emacs as the text editor for their IDE due to its free license, popularity, and extensibility, and Zawinski led that project. As Zawinski and the other programmers made fundamental changes to GNU Emacs to add new functionality, tensions over how to merge these patches into the main tree eventually led to the fork of the project into GNU Emacs and Lucid Emacs (now XEmacs).",
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"plaintext": "screensavers. Initially released for Unix, it now supports macOS, iOS and Android as well. On Unix systems, it also provides the framework for blanking and locking the screen. He still maintains it, with new releases coming out several times a year.",
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"plaintext": "An easter egg he coded in the Netscape browser became quite well known during the early days of the World Wide Web: typing \"about:jwz\" into the address box would take the user to his home page, and would change the browser's logo animation to a fire-breathing dragon.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after leaving Mozilla, he announced his purchase of DNA Lounge, a nightclub in San Francisco. Zawinski purchased the nightclub in 1999 for approximately 5 million dollars and it was re-opened in July 2001, a process which he documented extensively in a blog named \"DNA Sequencing\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Zawinski starred in the 60-minute-long PBS documentary Code Rush, which chronicles the creation of Mozilla.org and the release of the browser source code over the course of 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Zawinski features extensively in Josh Quittner's 1998 book Speeding the Net: The Inside Story of Netscape and How It Challenged Microsoft,",
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"plaintext": "and in Glyn Moody's 2001 book, Linux and the Open Source Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "And in 2001, he was featured in California Dreamin': The Gold Rush, a documentary for German public television.",
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"plaintext": "He was also featured in Sleep Mode: The Art of the Screensaver, a gallery exhibition curated by Rafaël Rozendaal at Rotterdam's Het Nieuwe Instituut in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Zawinski's Law of Software Envelopment, also known as Zawinski's Law, states:",
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"plaintext": "Zawinski first attained prominence as a Lisp programmer, but most of his larger projects are written in C. Despite that, he has long been critical of languages lacking memory safety and automatic memory management. He has particularly proselytized against C++. In Peter Seibel's book Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming, Zawinski calls C++ an \"abomination... the PDP-11 assembler that thinks it's an object system\".",
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"plaintext": "Though he has written and published many utilities in Perl, he is not without his criticisms, characterizing Perl as \"combining all the worst aspects of C and Lisp: a billion different sublanguages in one monolithic executable. It combines the power of C with the readability of PostScript.\"",
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"plaintext": "He has criticized several language and library deficiencies he encountered while programming in Java, specifically the overhead of certain fundamental classes but especially the marketing and politics behind it that led Sun to conflate the language, the class library, the virtual machine, and the security model all under the same name, \"Java\" to, he says, the detriment of them all. Despite the positive aspects, ultimately Zawinski returned to programming in C \"since it's still the only way to ship portable programs\".",
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37,481 | 1,106,445,704 | Intranet | [
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"plaintext": "An intranet is a computer network for sharing information, easier communication, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other computing services within an organization, usually to the exclusion of access by outsiders. The term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet, but uses most of the same technology based on the Internet protocol suite.",
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"plaintext": "A company-wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form, an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). Many modern intranets have search engines, user profiles, blogs, mobile apps with notifications, and events planning within their infrastructure.",
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"plaintext": "An intranet is sometimes contrasted to an extranet. While an intranet is generally restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties. Extranets extend a private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA protocol).",
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"plaintext": "Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools, e.g. collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc.,",
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"plaintext": "Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms. For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management, productivity, quality, and other corporate issues.",
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"plaintext": "In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website effectiveness.",
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"plaintext": "Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability to screen messages coming and going, keeping security intact. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, it becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.",
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"plaintext": "Intranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the scope and variety of content and the number of system interfaces, intranets of many organizations are much more complex than their respective public websites. Intranets and their use are growing rapidly. According to the Intranet Design Annual 2007 from Nielsen Norman Group, the number of pages on participants' intranets averaged 200,000 over the years 2001 to 2003 and has grown to an average of 6 million pages over 2005–2007.",
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"plaintext": "Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make available, anytime and— subject to security provisions— from anywhere within the company workstations, increasing the employees ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.",
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"plaintext": "Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-needed basis; Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted indiscriminately by email.",
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"plaintext": "Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization, vertically strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and whom to speak to for more information. By providing this information on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some examples of communication would be chat, email, and/or blogs. A great real-world example of where an intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia. Their central support system had to deal with a number of queries every day.\tWhen Nestle decided to invest in an intranet, they quickly realized the savings.\tMcGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.",
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"plaintext": "Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies.Examples include employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and even training, can be accessed using common Internet standards (Acrobat files, Flash files, CGI applications). Because each business unit can update the online copy of a document, the most recent version is usually available to employees using the intranet.",
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"plaintext": "Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the internetworked enterprise.",
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"plaintext": "Workflow: a collective term that reduces delay, such as automating meeting scheduling and vacation planning",
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"plaintext": "Cost-effectiveness: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This can potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance overhead. For example, the HRM company PeopleSoft \"derived significant cost savings by shifting HR processes to the intranet\". McGovern goes on to say the manual cost of enrolling in benefits was found to be US$109.48 per enrollment. \"Shifting this process to the intranet reduced the cost per enrollment to $21.79; a saving of 80 percent\". Another company that saved money on expense reports was Cisco. \"In 1996, Cisco processed 54,000 reports and the amount of dollars processed was USD19 million\".",
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"plaintext": "Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which enables teamwork. Being able to communicate in real-time through integrated third party tools, such as an instant messenger, promotes the sharing of ideas and removes blockages to communication to help boost a business' productivity.",
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"plaintext": "Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac, and UNIX.",
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"plaintext": "Built for one audience: Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn, may allow Intranet developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser (no cross-browser compatibility issues). Being able to specifically address one's \"viewer\" is a great advantage. Since intranets are user-specific (requiring database/network authentication prior to access), users know exactly who they are interfacing with and can personalize their intranet based on role (job title, department) or individual (\"Congratulations Jane, on your 3rd year with our company!\").",
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"plaintext": "Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same information within the intranet.",
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"plaintext": "Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can also be linked to a company's management information system, for example a time keeping system.",
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"plaintext": "Employee Engagement: Since \"involvement in decision making\" is one of the main drivers of employee engagement, offering tools (like forums or surveys) that foster peer-to-peer collaboration and employee participation can make employees feel more valued and involved.",
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"plaintext": "Most organizations devote considerable resources into the planning and implementation of their intranet as it is of strategic importance to the organization's success. Some of the planning would include topics such as determining the purpose and goals of the intranet, identifying persons or departments responsible for implementation and management and devising functional plans, page layouts and designs.",
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"plaintext": "The appropriate staff would also ensure that implementation schedules and phase-out of existing systems were organized, while defining and implementing security of the intranet and ensuring it lies within legal boundaries and other constraints. In order to produce a high-value end product, systems planners should determine the level of interactivity (e.g. wikis, on-line forms) desired.",
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"plaintext": "Planners may also consider whether the input of new data and updating of existing data is to be centrally controlled or devolve. These decisions sit alongside to the hardware and software considerations (like content management systems), participation issues (like good taste, harassment, confidentiality), and features to be supported.",
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"plaintext": "Intranets are often static sites; they are a shared drive, serving up centrally stored documents alongside internal articles or communications (often one-way communication). By leveraging firms which specialise in 'social' intranets, organisations are beginning to think of how their intranets can become a 'communication hub' for their entire team. The actual implementation would include steps such as securing senior management support and funding, conducting a business requirement analysis and identifying users' information needs.",
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"plaintext": "From the technical perspective, there would need to be a co-ordinated installation of the web server and user access network, the required user/client applications and the creation of document framework (or template) for the content to be hosted.",
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"plaintext": "The end-user should be involved in testing and promoting use of the company intranet, possibly through a parallel adoption methodology or pilot programme. In the long term, the company should carry out ongoing measurement and evaluation, including through benchmarking against other company services.",
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"plaintext": "An intranet structure needs key personnel committed to maintaining the intranet and keeping content current. For feedback on the intranet, social networking can be done through a forum for users to indicate what they want and what they do not like.",
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"plaintext": "The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation went into effect May 2018.",
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"plaintext": "An enterprise private network''' is a computer network built by a business to interconnect its various company sites (such as production sites, offices and shops) in order to share computer resources.",
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"plaintext": "But with the Internet in the 1990s came a new type of network, virtual private networks, built over this public infrastructure, using encryption to protect the data traffic from eaves-dropping. So the enterprise networks are now commonly referred to as enterprise private networks'' in order to clarify that these are private networks, in contrast to public networks.",
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37,483 | 1,091,349,512 | Womyn | [
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"plaintext": "Womyn is one of several alternative political spellings of the English word women, used by some feminists. There are other spellings, including womban (a reference to the womb or uterus) or womon (singular), and wombyn or wimmin (plural). Some writers who use such alternative spellings, avoiding the suffix or , see them as an expression of female independence and a repudiation of traditions that define women by reference to a male norm. Recently, the term womxn has been used by intersectional feminists to indicate the same ideas while foregrounding or more explicitly including transgender women and women of color.",
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"plaintext": "Old English had a system of grammatical gender, whereby every noun was treated as either masculine, feminine or neuter, similar to modern German. In Old English sources, the word man was grammatically masculine but gender-neutral in meaning. One of its meanings was similar to the modern English usage of \"one\" as a gender-neutral indefinite pronoun (compare with mankind (man+ kind), which means the human race, and German , which has retained the indefinite pronoun meaning to the modern day). The words wer and wīf were used, when necessary, to specify a man or woman, respectively. Combining them into werman or wīfman expressed the concept of \"any man\" or \"any woman\". Some feminist writers have suggested that this more symmetrical usage reflected more egalitarian notions of gender at the time.",
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"plaintext": "The term wimmin was considered by George P. Krapp (1872–1934), an American scholar of English, to be eye dialect, the literary technique of using nonstandard spelling that implies a pronunciation of the given word that is actually standard. The spelling indicates that the character's speech overall is dialectal, foreign, or uneducated. This form of nonstandard spelling differs from others in that a difference in spelling does not indicate a difference in pronunciation of a word. That is, it is dialect to the eye rather than to the ear. It suggests that a character \"would use a vulgar pronunciation if there were one\" and \"is at the level of ignorance where one misspells in this fashion, hence mispronounces as well.\"",
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"plaintext": "The word womyn appeared as an Older Scots spelling of woman in the Scots poetry of James Hogg. The word wimmin appeared in 19th-century renderings of Black American English, without any feminist significance.",
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"plaintext": "The usage of \"womyn\" as a feminist spelling of women (with womon as the singular form) first appeared in print in 1976 referring to the first Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. This is just after the founding of the Mountain Moving Coffeehouse for Womyn and Children, a lesbian feminist social event centred around women's music. Both the annual \"MichFest\" and the weekly coffeehouse operated a womyn-born womyn (cisgender women-only) policy. Womyn's land was another usage of the term, associated with separatist feminism.",
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"plaintext": "Z. Budapest promoted the use of word wimmin (singular womon) in the 1970s as part of her Dianic Wicca movement, which claims that present-day patriarchy represents a fall from a matriarchal golden age.",
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"plaintext": "These re-spellings existed alongside the use of herstory, a feminist re-examination and re-telling of history. Later, another wave of female-produced music was known as the riot grrrl movement.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"womyn\" has been criticized by trans activists due to its usage in radical feminist circles which exclude trans women from identifying into the category of \"woman\" and consequently prevent them from accessing spaces and resources for women; the term wombyn has been particularly criticized for this since it implies that a woman must have a womb to be a woman.",
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"plaintext": "\"Womxn\" has been used in a similar manner as womyn and wimmin. Due to transgender women's perceived exclusion from the usage of these respellings, an \"x\" is used to \"broaden the scope of womanhood,\" to include them. The Womxn's March on Seattle chose the spelling of its title for this reason.",
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"plaintext": "Sol Steinmetz. \"Womyn: The Evidence,\" American Speech, Vol. 70, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp.429–437",
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37,484 | 1,057,306,656 | Clit_(disambiguation) | [
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37,486 | 1,106,009,677 | Nuke | [
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the Latin nōmen includes both nouns (substantives) and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective (or substantive nouns and adjective nouns, or short substantives and adjectives). (The word nominal is now sometimes used to denote a class that includes both nouns and adjectives.)",
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"plaintext": "Many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun (for example, Spanish sustantivo, \"noun\"). Nouns in the dictionaries of such languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n., which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some modern authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns (single words) and noun phrases (multiword units, also called noun equivalents). It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between a noun being used as the head (main word) of a noun phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the noun knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts, but attributively in the patient needed knee replacement.",
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"plaintext": " Please hand in your assignments by the end of the week.",
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"plaintext": " Cleanliness is next to godliness.",
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"plaintext": " Plato was an influential philosopher in ancient Greece.",
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"plaintext": " Revel the night, rob, murder, and commit/The oldest sins the newest kind of ways? Henry IV Part 2, act 4 scene 5.",
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"plaintext": "A noun can co-occur with an article or an attributive adjective. Verbs and adjectives cannot. In the following, an asterisk (*) in front of an example means that this example is ungrammatical.",
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"plaintext": " constant circulation (circulation is a noun: can co-occur with the attributive adjective constant)",
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"plaintext": " *constant circulate (circulate is a verb: cannot co-occur with the attributive adjective constant)",
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"plaintext": " a fright (fright is a noun: can co-occur with the indefinite article a)",
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"plaintext": " terrible fright (the noun fright can co-occur with the adjective terrible)",
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"plaintext": "Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the grammatical categories to which they are subject (classed by gender, inflected for case and number). Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the same categories in all languages.",
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"plaintext": "Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of their semantic properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, etc. However this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being uninformative.",
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"plaintext": "There are several instances of English-language nouns which do not have any reference: drought, enjoyment, finesse, behalf (as found in on behalf of), dint (in dint of), and sake (for the sake of). Moreover, there may be a relationship similar to reference in the case of other parts of speech: the verbs to rain or to mother; many adjectives, like red; and there is little difference between the adverb gleefully and the noun-based phrase with glee.",
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"plaintext": "Linguists often prefer to define nouns (and other lexical categories) in terms of their formal properties. These include morphological information, such as what prefixes or suffixes they take, and also their syntax– how they combine with other words and expressions of particular types. Such definitions may nonetheless still be language-specific since syntax as well as morphology varies between languages. For example, in English, it might be noted that nouns are words that can co-occur with definite articles (as stated at the start of this article), but this would not apply in Russian, which has no definite articles.",
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"plaintext": "A functional approach defines a noun as a word that can be the head of a nominal phrase, i.e. a phrase with referential function, without needing to go through morphological transformation.",
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"plaintext": "Nouns can have a number of different properties and are often subcategorized based on various of these criteria, depending on their occurence in a language.",
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"plaintext": "In some languages, genders are assigned to nouns, such as masculine, feminine and neuter. The gender of a noun (as well as its number and case, where applicable) will often entail agreement in words that modify or are related to it. For example, in French, the singular form of the definite article is le for masculine nouns and la for feminine; adjectives and certain verb forms also change (with the addition of for feminine). Grammatical gender often correlates with the form of the noun and the inflection pattern it follows; for example, in both Italian and Russian most nouns ending are feminine. Gender can also correlate with the sex of the noun's referent, particularly in the case of nouns denoting people (and sometimes animals). Nouns arguably do not have gender in Modern English, although many of them denote people or animals of a specific sex (or social gender), and pronouns that refer to nouns must take the appropriate gender for that noun. (The girl lost her spectacles.)",
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"plaintext": "A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing unique entities (such as India, Pegasus, Jupiter, Confucius, or Pequod), as distinguished from common nouns, which describe a class of entities (such as country, animal, planet, person or ship).",
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"plaintext": "Count nouns or countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or counting quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article such as a or an (in languages which have such articles). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.",
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"plaintext": "Mass nouns or uncountable (or non-count) nouns differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers. For example, it is not possible to refer to a furniture or three furnitures. This is true even though the pieces of furniture comprising furniture could be counted. Thus the distinction between mass and count nouns should not be made in terms of what sorts of things the nouns refer to, but rather in terms of how the nouns present these entities.",
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"plaintext": "Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, soda is countable in \"give me three sodas\", but uncountable in \"he likes soda\".",
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"plaintext": "Collective nouns are nouns that – even when they are inflected for the singular – refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples include committee, government, and police. In English these nouns may be followed by a singular or a plural verb and referred to by a singular or plural pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a unit and the plural often being preferred, especially in British English, when emphasizing the individual members. Examples of acceptable and unacceptable use given by Gowers in Plain Words include:",
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"plaintext": "Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least (i.e. different schools of philosophy and sciences may question the assumption, but, for the most part, people agree to the existence of something. E.g. a rock, a tree, universe), be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom). Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred). While this distinction is sometimes exclusive, some nouns have multiple senses, including both concrete and abstract ones: for example, the noun art, which usually refers to a concept (e.g., Art is an important element of human culture.) but which can refer to a specific artwork in certain contexts (e.g., I put my daughter's art up on the fridge.)",
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"plaintext": "Some abstract nouns developed etymologically by figurative extension from literal roots. These include drawback, fraction, holdout and uptake. Similarly, some nouns have both abstract and concrete senses, with the latter having developed by figurative extension from the former. These include view, filter, structure and key.",
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"plaintext": "In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding a suffix (-ness, -ity, -ion) to adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the adjective happy), circulation (from the verb circulate) and serenity (from the adjective serene).",
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"plaintext": "Some languages, such as the Awa language spoken in Papua New Guinea, refer to nouns differently, depending on how ownership is being given for the given noun. This can be broken into two categories: alienable possession and inalienable possession. An alienably possessed noun is something that can exist independent of a possessor: for example 'tree' can be possessed ('Lucy's tree') but need not be ('the tree'), and likewise for 'shirt' ('Mike's shirt', 'that shirt') and 'roads' ('London's roads', 'those roads') . Inalienablly possessed nouns, on the other hand, refer to something that does not exist independently of a possessor; this includes kin terms such as 'father', body-part nouns such as 'shadow' or 'hair', and part-whole nouns such as 'top' and 'bottom'.",
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"plaintext": "A noun phrase is a phrase based on a noun, pronoun, or other noun-like words (nominal) optionally accompanied by modifiers such as determiners and adjectives. A noun phrase functions within a clause or sentence in a role such as that of subject, object, or complement of a verb or preposition. For example, in the sentence \"The black cat sat on a dear friend of mine\", the noun phrase the black cat serves as the subject, and the noun phrase a dear friend of mine serves as the complement of the preposition on.",
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"plaintext": "Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns, such as he, it, which, and those, in order to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or for other reasons. For example, in the sentence Gareth thought that he was weird, the word he is a pronoun standing in place of the person's name. The word one can replace parts of noun phrases, and it sometimes stands in for a noun. An example is given below:",
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"plaintext": "But one can also stand in for larger parts of a noun phrase. For example, in the following example, one can stand in for new car.",
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"plaintext": "Nominalization is a process whereby a word that belongs to another part of speech comes to be used as a noun. This can be a way to create new nouns, or to use other words in ways that resemble nouns. In French and Spanish, for example, adjectives frequently act as nouns referring to people who have the characteristics denoted by the adjective. This sometimes happens in English as well, as in the following examples:",
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"plaintext": " Punctuation",
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"plaintext": " Laycock, Henry (2005). \"Mass nouns, Count nouns and Non-count nouns\", Draft version of entry in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics Oxford: Elsevier.",
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"plaintext": "For definitions of nouns based on the concept of \"identity criteria\":",
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"plaintext": " Geach, Peter. 1962. Reference and Generality. Cornell University Press.",
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},
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"plaintext": "For more on identity criteria:",
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},
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"plaintext": " Gupta, Anil. 1980, The logic of common nouns. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.",
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"plaintext": "For the concept that nouns are \"prototypically referential\":",
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},
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"plaintext": " Croft, William. 1993. \"A noun is a noun is a noun— or is it? Some reflections on the universality of semantics\". Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, ed. Joshua S. Guenter, Barbara A. Kaiser and Cheryl C. Zoll, 369–80. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society.",
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"plaintext": "For an attempt to relate the concepts of identity criteria and prototypical referentiality:",
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"plaintext": " Baker, Mark. 2003, Lexical Categories: verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": " Nouns – Nouns described by The Idioms Dictionary.",
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"plaintext": "Though the fisherman's knot is associated with fishing, it can slip when tied in nylon monofilament and other slippery lines; however, if more holding strength is required, the overhand knots can be made with more turns, as in the double fisherman's knot, and so on. It is compact, jamming when tightened and the working ends can be cropped very close to the knot. It can also be easily tied with cold, wet hands. Though these properties are well suited to fishing, there are other knots that may provide superior performance, such as the blood knot.",
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"plaintext": "Hauer was an environmentalist. He supported the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and was a member of its board of advisors. He also established an AIDS awareness organization called the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association. In April 2007, he published his autobiography, All Those Moments: Stories of Heroes, Villains, Replicants, and Blade Runners (co-written with Patrick Quinlan), in which he discussed many of his acting roles. Proceeds from the book go to the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association.",
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"plaintext": "Hauer died on 19 July 2019 at his home in Beetsterzwaag, following a short illness. He was 75 years old. A private funeral service was held on 24 July. On 23 January 2020, which would have been Hauer's 76th birthday, a ceremony was held in Beetsterzwaag in his honour. Attendees included Sharon Stone, Miranda Richardson, Diederik van Rooijen, and Prince Pieter-Christiaan of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven.",
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"plaintext": " Lost in the New Real by Arjen Anthony Lucassen (2012) – Narrator/Voight Kampff, lyrics",
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"plaintext": " Paludarium",
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"plaintext": " Vivarium",
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] | 1,131,243 | 14,078 | 109 | 31 | 0 | 0 | terrarium | container typically made of glass, which is used for keeping plants and/or animals | [] |
37,504 | 1,061,119,211 | Stock_(disambiguation) | [
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"plaintext": "Stock (supermarket), an Paraguayan supermarket chain",
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"plaintext": "STOCK Act, the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, an Act of Congress designed to combat insider trading",
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"plaintext": "Tally stick, in ancient financial accounting, the part of a split tally stick used as a receipt in a transaction",
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"plaintext": "Stock tie, a tie worn around the neck of a competitor riding in an equestrian event",
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37,506 | 1,091,018,465 | Garnet | [
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"plaintext": "Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives.",
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"plaintext": "All species of garnets possess similar physical properties and crystal forms, but differ in chemical composition. The different species are pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular (varieties of which are hessonite or cinnamon-stone and tsavorite), uvarovite and andradite. The garnets make up two solid solution series: pyrope-almandine-spessartine (pyralspite), with the composition range ; and uvarovite-grossular-andradite (ugrandite), with the composition range .",
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"plaintext": "The word garnet comes from the 14th-century Middle English word gernet, meaning 'dark red'. It is borrowed from Old French grenate from Latin granatus, from granum ('grain, seed'). This is possibly a reference to mela granatum or even pomum granatum ('pomegranate', Punica granatum), a plant whose fruits contain abundant and vivid red seed covers (arils), which are similar in shape, size, and color to some garnet crystals. ",
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"plaintext": "Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y2()3. The X site is usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)2+ and the Y site by trivalent cations (Al, Fe, Cr)3+ in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO4]4− occupying the tetrahedra. Garnets are most often found in the dodecahedral crystal habit, but are also commonly found in the trapezohedron habit as well as the hexoctahedral habit. They crystallize in the cubic system, having three axes that are all of equal length and perpendicular to each other, but are never actually cubic because, despite being isometric, the {100} and {111} families of planes are depleted. Garnets do not have any cleavage planes, so when they fracture under stress, sharp, irregular (conchoidal) pieces are formed.",
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"plaintext": "Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of hardness on the Mohs scale of about 6.0 to 7.5. The harder species like almandine are often used for abrasive purposes.",
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"plaintext": "For gem identification purposes, a pick-up response to a strong neodymium magnet separates garnet from all other natural transparent gemstones commonly used in the jewelry trade. Magnetic susceptibility measurements in conjunction with refractive index can be used to distinguish garnet species and varieties, and determine the composition of garnets in terms of percentages of end-member species within an individual gem.",
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"plaintext": "Almandine: Fe3Al2(SiO4)3",
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"plaintext": "Pyrope: Mg3Al2(SiO4)3",
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"plaintext": "Almandine, sometimes incorrectly called almandite, is the modern gem known as carbuncle (though originally almost any red gemstone was known by this name). The term \"carbuncle\" is derived from the Latin meaning \"live coal\" or burning charcoal. The name Almandine is a corruption of Alabanda, a region in Asia Minor where these stones were cut in ancient times. Chemically, almandine is an iron-aluminium garnet with the formula Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; the deep red transparent stones are often called precious garnet and are used as gemstones (being the most common of the gem garnets). Almandine occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists, associated with minerals such as staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, and others. Almandine has nicknames of Oriental garnet, almandine ruby, and carbuncle.",
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688
],
[
690,
700
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pyrope (from the Greek pyrōpós meaning \"firelike\") is red in color and chemically an aluminium silicate with the formula Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, though the magnesium can be replaced in part by calcium and ferrous iron. The color of pyrope varies from deep red to black. Pyrope and spessartine gemstones have been recovered from the Sloan diamondiferous kimberlites in Colorado, from the Bishop Conglomerate and in a Tertiary age lamprophyre at Cedar Mountain in Wyoming.",
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407,
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420,
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453,
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"plaintext": "A variety of pyrope from Macon County, North Carolina is a violet-red shade and has been called rhodolite, Greek for \"rose\". In chemical composition it may be considered as essentially an isomorphous mixture of pyrope and almandine, in the proportion of two parts pyrope to one part almandine. Pyrope has tradenames some of which are misnomers; Cape ruby, Arizona ruby, California ruby, Rocky Mountain ruby, and Bohemian ruby from the Czech Republic.",
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435,
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{
"plaintext": "Pyrope is an indicator mineral for high-pressure rocks. Mantle-derived rocks (peridotites and eclogites) commonly contain a pyrope variety.",
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78,
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94,
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{
"plaintext": "Spessartine or spessartite is manganese aluminium garnet, Mn3Al2(SiO4)3. Its name is derived from Spessart in Bavaria. It occurs most often in skarns, granite pegmatite and allied rock types, and in certain low grade metamorphic phyllites. Spessartine of an orange-yellow is found in Madagascar. Violet-red spessartines are found in rhyolites in Colorado ",
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110,
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151,
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159,
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229,
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258,
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333,
341
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346,
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{
"plaintext": "Blue pyrope–spessartine garnets were discovered in the late1990s in Bekily, Madagascar. This type has also been found in parts of the United States, Russia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Turkey. It changes color from blue-green to purple depending on the color temperature of viewing light, as a result of the relatively high amounts of vanadium (about 1 wt.% V2O3).",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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164,
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178,
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[
246,
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328,
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{
"plaintext": "Other varieties of color-changing garnets exist. In daylight, their color ranges from shades of green, beige, brown, gray, and blue, but in incandescent light, they appear a reddish or purplish/pink color.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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},
{
"plaintext": "This is the rarest type of garnet. Because of its color-changing quality, this kind of garnet resembles alexandrite.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Andradite: Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Grossular: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3",
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},
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"plaintext": "Andradite is a calcium-iron garnet, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, is of variable composition and may be red, yellow, brown, green or black. The recognized varieties are demantoid (green), melanite (black), and topazolite (yellow or green). Andradite is found in skarns and in deep-seated igneous rocks like syenite as well as serpentines and greenschists. Demantoid is one of the most prized of garnet varieties.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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],
[
273,
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],
[
292,
299
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327,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Grossular is a calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, though the calcium may in part be replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron. The name grossular is derived from the botanical name for the gooseberry, grossularia, in reference to the green garnet of this composition that is found in Siberia. Other shades include cinnamon brown (cinnamon stone variety), red, and yellow. Because of its inferior hardness to zircon, which the yellow crystals resemble, they have also been called hessonite from the Greek meaning inferior. Grossular is found in skarns, contact metamorphosed limestones with vesuvianite, diopside, wollastonite and wernerite.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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446,
452
],
[
536,
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],
[
612,
621
],
[
628,
639
],
[
641,
649
],
[
651,
663
],
[
668,
677
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Grossular garnet from Kenya and Tanzania has been called tsavorite. Tsavorite was first described in the 1960s in the Tsavo area of Kenya, from which the gem takes its name.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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32,
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},
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"plaintext": "Uvarovite is a calcium chromium garnet with the formula Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3. This is a rather rare garnet, bright green in color, usually found as small crystals associated with chromite in peridotite, serpentinite, and kimberlites. It is found in crystalline marbles and schists in the Ural mountains of Russia and Outokumpu, Finland. Uvarovite is named for Count Uvaro, a Russian imperial statesman.",
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184,
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[
196,
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],
[
254,
260
],
[
281,
295
],
[
310,
328
],
[
353,
364
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Calcium in X site",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Goldmanite: ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kimzeyite: ",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Morimotoite: ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Schorlomite: ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hydroxide bearing – calcium in X site",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hydrogrossular: ",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [
9086166
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Hibschite: (where x is between 0.2 and 1.5)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Katoite: (where x is greater than 1.5)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Magnesium or manganese in X site",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Knorringite: ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Majorite: ",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
"target_page_ids": [
13520435
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Calderite: ",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Knorringite is a magnesium-chromium garnet species with the formula Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3. Pure endmember knorringite never occurs in nature. Pyrope rich in the knorringite component is only formed under high pressure and is often found in kimberlites. It is used as an indicator mineral in the search for diamonds.",
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"section_name": "Garnet group end member species",
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232,
242
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298,
305
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Formula: X3Z2(TO4)3 (X = Ca, Fe, etc., Z = Al, Cr, etc., T = Si, As, V, Fe, Al) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Garnet structural group",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "All are cubic or strongly pseudocubic.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Garnet structural group",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "IMA/CNMNC – Nickel-Strunz – Mineral subclass: 09.A Nesosilicate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Garnet structural group",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Nickel-Strunz classification: 09.AD.25",
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{
"plaintext": "References: Mindat.org; mineral name, chemical formula and space group (American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database) of the IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ RRUFF Project, Univ. of Arizona, was preferred most of the time. Minor components in formulae have been left out to highlight the dominant chemical endmember that defines each species.",
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"section_name": "Garnet structural group",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Also known as rare-earth garnets.",
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"section_name": "Synthetic garnets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The crystallographic structure of garnets has been expanded from the prototype to include chemicals with the general formula A3B2(CO4)3. Besides silicon, a large number of elements have been put on the C site, including germanium, gallium, aluminum, vanadium and iron.",
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"section_name": "Synthetic garnets",
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241,
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251,
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264,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), Y3Al2(AlO4)3, is used for synthetic gemstones. Due to its fairly high refractive index, YAG was used as a diamond simulant in the 1970s until the methods of producing the more advanced simulant cubic zirconia in commercial quantities were developed. When doped with neodymium (Nd3+), YAG may be used as the lasing medium in YAG lasers. When doped with erbium, it can be used as the lasing medium in YAG lasers. When doped with gadolinium, it can be used as the lasing medium in YAG lasers. These doped YAG lasers are used in medical procedures including laser skin resurfacing, dentistry, and ophthalmology.",
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"section_name": "Synthetic garnets",
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298,
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339,
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[
384,
390
],
[
459,
469
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[
510,
520
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[
586,
608
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Interesting magnetic properties arise when the appropriate elements are used. In yttrium iron garnet (YIG), Y3Fe2(FeO4)3, the five iron(III) ions occupy two octahedral and three tetrahedral sites, with the yttrium(III) ions coordinated by eight oxygen ions in an irregular cube. The iron ions in the two coordination sites exhibit different spins, resulting in magnetic behavior. YIG is a ferrimagnetic material having a Curie temperature of 550K. Yttrium iron garnet can be made into YIG spheres, which serve as magnetically tunable filters and resonators for microwave frequencies.",
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389,
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421,
438
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445,
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[
485,
495
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[
534,
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[
546,
556
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[
561,
570
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG), , is an inorganic compound with a unique crystal structure primarily known for its use in high-efficiency laser devices. LuAG is also useful in the synthesis of transparent ceramics. LuAG is particularly favored over other crystals for its high density and thermal conductivity; it has a relatively small lattice constant in comparison to the other rare-earth garnets, which results in a higher density producing a crystal field with narrower linewidths and greater energy level splitting in absorption and emission.",
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195,
215
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339,
355
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[
383,
393
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{
"plaintext": "Terbium gallium garnet (TGG), , is a Faraday rotator material with excellent transparency properties and is very resistant to laser damage. TGG can be used in optical isolators for laser systems, in optical circulators for fiber optic systems, in optical modulators, and in current and magnetic field sensors.",
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286,
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{
"plaintext": "Another example is gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG), which is synthesized for use as a substrate for liquid-phase epitaxy of magnetic garnet films for bubble memory and magneto-optical applications.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Synthetic garnets",
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19,
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"plaintext": "The mineral garnet is commonly found in metamorphic and to a lesser extent, igneous rocks. Most natural garnets are compositionally zoned and contain inclusions. Its crystal lattice structure is stable at high pressures and temperatures and is thus found in green-schist facies metamorphic rocks including gneiss, hornblende schist, and mica schist. The composition that is stable at the pressure and temperature conditions of Earth's mantle is pyrope, which is often found in peridotites and kimberlites, as well as the serpentines that form from them. Garnets are unique in that they can record the pressures and temperatures of peak metamorphism and are used as geobarometers and geothermometers in the study of geothermobarometry which determines \"P-T Paths\", Pressure-Temperature Paths. Garnets are used as an index mineral in the delineation of isograds in metamorphic rocks. Compositional zoning and inclusions can mark the change from growth of the crystals at low temperatures to higher temperatures. Garnets that are not compositionally zoned more than likely experienced ultra high temperatures (above 700°C) that led to diffusion of major elements within the crystal lattice, effectively homogenizing the crystal or they were never zoned. Garnets can also form metamorphic textures that can help interpret structural histories.",
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"section_name": "Geological importance",
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325,
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493,
503
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[
521,
532
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[
715,
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],
[
851,
858
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{
"plaintext": "In addition to being used to devolve conditions of metamorphism, garnets can be used to date certain geologic events. Garnet has been developed as a U-Pb geochronometer, to date the age of crystallization as well as a thermochronometer in the (U-Th)/He system to date timing of cooling below a closure temperature.",
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"section_name": "Geological importance",
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[
154,
168
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218,
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294,
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{
"plaintext": "Garnets can be chemically altered and most often alter to serpentine, talc, and chlorite.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Geological importance",
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31422,
1236472
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[
70,
74
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80,
88
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},
{
"plaintext": "Red garnets were the most commonly used gemstones in the Late Antique Roman world, and the Migration Period art of the \"barbarian\" peoples who took over the territory of the Western Roman Empire. They were especially used inlaid in gold cells in the cloisonné technique, a style often just called garnet cloisonné, found from Anglo-Saxon England, as at Sutton Hoo, to the Black Sea. Thousands of Tamraparniyan gold, silver and red garnet shipments were made in the old world, including to Rome, Greece, the Middle East, Serica and Anglo Saxons; recent findings such as the Staffordshire Hoard and the pendant of the Winfarthing Woman skeleton of Norfolk confirm an established gem trade route with South India and Tamraparni (ancient Sri Lanka), known from antiquity for its production of gemstones.",
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"section_name": "Uses",
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174,
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251,
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327,
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354,
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373,
382
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466,
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521,
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[
574,
593
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[
617,
628
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[
647,
654
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[
699,
710
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715,
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{
"plaintext": "Pure crystals of garnet are still used as gemstones. The gemstone varieties occur in shades of green, red, yellow, and orange. In the US it is known as the birthstone for January. The garnet family is one of the most complex in the gem world. It is not a single species, but is composed of multiple species and varieties. It is the state mineral of Connecticut, New York's gemstone, and star garnet (garnet with rutile asterisms) is the state gemstone of Idaho.",
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349,
360
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362,
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412,
418
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[
455,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica sand in sand blasting. Alluvial garnet grains which are rounder are more suitable for such blasting treatments. Mixed with very high pressure water, garnet is used to cut steel and other materials in water jets. For water jet cutting, garnet extracted from hard rock is suitable since it is more angular in form, therefore more efficient in cutting.",
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"section_name": "Uses",
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"plaintext": "Garnet paper is favored by cabinetmakers for finishing bare wood.",
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"plaintext": "Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media.",
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"plaintext": "As an abrasive, garnet can be broadly divided into two categories; blasting grade and water jet grade. The garnet, as it is mined and collected, is crushed to finer grains; all pieces which are larger than 60mesh (250micrometers) are normally used for sand blasting. The pieces between 60mesh (250micrometers) and 200mesh (74micrometers) are normally used for water jet cutting. The remaining garnet pieces that are finer than 200mesh (74micrometers) are used for glass polishing and lapping. Regardless of the application, the larger grain sizes are used for faster work and the smaller ones are used for finer finishes.",
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"plaintext": "There are different kinds of abrasive garnets which can be divided based on their origin. The largest source of abrasive garnet today is garnet-rich beach sand which is quite abundant on Indian and Australian coasts and the main producers today are Australia and India.",
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"plaintext": "This material is particularly popular due to its consistent supplies, huge quantities and clean material. The common problems with this material are the presence of ilmenite and chloride compounds. Since the material has been naturally crushed and ground on the beaches for past centuries, the material is normally available in fine sizes only. Most of the garnet at the Tuticorin beach in south India is 80mesh, and ranges from 56mesh to 100mesh size.",
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"plaintext": "River garnet is particularly abundant in Australia. The river sand garnet occurs as a placer deposit.",
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"plaintext": "Rock garnet is perhaps the garnet type used for the longest period of time. This type of garnet is produced in America, China and western India. These crystals are crushed in mills and then purified by wind blowing, magnetic separation, sieving and, if required, washing. Being freshly crushed, this garnet has the sharpest edges and therefore performs far better than other kinds of garnet. Both the river and the beach garnet suffer from the tumbling effect of hundreds of thousands of years which rounds off the edges. Gore Mountain Garnet from Warren County, New York, USA is a significant source of rock garnet for use as an industrial abrasive.",
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"plaintext": "Garnet is the birthstone of January. It is also the birthstone of Aquarius and Capricorn in tropical astrology.",
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"plaintext": "In Persia this birth gem was considered a talisman from nature's forces like storm and lightning. It was widely accepted that garnet could signal approaching danger by turning pale.",
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"plaintext": "Garnet is New York State's official gemstone, Connecticut has almandine garnet as its state gemstone, Idaho has star garnet as its state gemstone, and Vermont has grossular garnet as its state gemstone.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2003 New York State has ranked first in industrial garnet-production in the United States. Since there are just a few companies that account for all U.S. industrial garnet production, published detailed production statistics for New York State are not available. However, generally speaking, Barton Mines in Warren County is the largest U.S. garnet producer.",
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"plaintext": "The New York State Museum in Albany, NY houses specimens from significant sites across the state, including 93 mineral species from the Balmat-Edwards mining district in St. Lawrence, super garnets from the Barton Mine in the Adirondack Mountains, and Herkimer diamonds from Herkimer County, New York",
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"plaintext": "The largest garnet mine in the world is located Near North Creek New York and is operated by Barton Mines Corporation who supplies about 90% of the world's garnet.",
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"plaintext": "Barton Mines Corporation is the first and oldest industrial garnet mining operation in the world and the second oldest continuous mining operation in the United States under the same management and mining the same product throughout its history. The Gore Mountain Mine of the Barton Mines Corporation was first mined under the direction of H. H. Barton, Sr. in 1878 to produce garnet as the primary product.",
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"plaintext": "The open-pit Barton Garnet Mine, located at Gore Mountain in the Adirondack Highlands, yields the world's largest single crystals of garnet; diameters range from 5 to 35 cm and commonly average 10–18 cm. ",
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"plaintext": "Gore Mountain garnets are unique in many respects, and considerable effort has been made to determine the timing of garnet growth. The first dating was that of Basu et al. (1989), who used plagioclase-hornblende-garnet to produce a Sm/Nd isochron that yielded an age of 1059 ± 19 Ma. Mezger et al. (1992) conducted their own Sm/Nd investigation using hornblende and the drilled core of a 50 cm garnet to produce an isochron age of 1051 ± 4 Ma. Connelly (2006) utilized 7 different fractions of a Gore Mountain garnet to obtain a Lu-Hf isochron age of 1046.6 ± 6 Ma. We therefore conclude with confidence that the garnets formed at 1049 ± 5 Ma, the average of the three determinations. This is also the local age of peak metamorphism in the 1090–1040 Ma Ottawan phase of the Grenvillian orogeny and serves as a critical data point in ascertaining the evolution of the megacrystic garnet deposits.",
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"plaintext": " Abrasive blasting",
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"plaintext": " Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., Wiley, ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Color Encyclopedia of Gemstones, ",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
{
"plaintext": " contains a comprehensive section about garnets and garnet magnetism.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "USGS Garnet locations – USA",
"section_idx": 12,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Blog post on garnets on the Law Library of Congress's blog",
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"plaintext": " Garnet birthstone stories",
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] | [
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37,508 | 1,097,371,250 | Magma | [
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"plaintext": "Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles.",
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"plaintext": "Magma is produced by melting of the mantle or the crust in various tectonic settings, which on Earth include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During magma's storage in the crust, its composition may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following its ascent through the crust, magma may feed a volcano and be extruded as lava, or it may solidify underground to form an intrusion, such as a dike, a sill, a laccolith, a pluton, or a batholith.",
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"plaintext": "While the study of magma has relied on observing magma after its transition into a lava flow, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects, twice in Iceland (see Use in energy production) and once in Hawaii.",
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"plaintext": "Magma consists of liquid rock that usually contains suspended solid crystals. As magma approaches the surface and the overburden pressure drops, dissolved gases bubble out of the liquid, so that magma near the surface consists of materials in solid, liquid, and gas phases.",
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"plaintext": "Most magma is rich in silica. Rare nonsilicate magma can form by local melting of nonsilicate mineral deposits or by separation of a magma into separate immiscible silicate and nonsilicate liquid phases.",
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"plaintext": "Silicate magmas are molten mixtures dominated by oxygen and silicon, the most abundant chemical elements in the Earth’s crust, with smaller quantities of aluminium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, and potassium, and minor amounts of many other elements. Petrologists routinely express the composition of a silicate magma in terms of the weight or molar mass fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the magma.",
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"plaintext": "Because many of the properties of a magma (such as its viscosity and temperature) are observed to correlate with silica content, silicate magmas are divided into four chemical types based on silica content: Felsic lava, Intermediate lava, Mafic lava, and Ultramafic lava.",
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"plaintext": "Felsic or silicic magmas have a silica content greater than 63%. They include rhyolite and dacite magmas. With such a high silica content, these magmas are extremely viscous, ranging from 108 cP (105 Pa⋅s) for hot rhyolite magma at to 1011 cP (108 Pa⋅s) for cool rhyolite magma at . For comparison, water has a viscosity of about 1 cP (0.001 Pa⋅s). Because of this very high viscosity, felsic lavas usually erupt explosively to produce pyroclastic (fragmental) deposits. However, rhyolite lavas occasionally erupt effusively to form lava spines, lava domes or \"coulees\" (which are thick, short lava flows). The lavas typically fragment as they extrude, producing block lava flows. These often contain obsidian.",
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"plaintext": "Felsic lavas can erupt at temperatures as low as . Unusually hot (>950°C; >1,740°F) rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States.",
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"plaintext": "Intermediate or andesitic magmas contain 52% to 63% silica, and are lower in aluminium and usually somewhat richer in magnesium and iron than felsic magmas. Intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes, such as in the Andes. They are also commonly hotter, in the range of ). Because of their lower silica content and higher eruptive temperatures, they tend to be much less viscous, with a typical viscosity of 3.5 × 106 cP (3,500 Pa⋅s) at . This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth peanut butter. Intermediate magmas show a greater tendency to form phenocrysts, Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass, including amphibole or pyroxene phenocrysts.",
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"plaintext": "Mafic or basaltic magmas have a silica content of 52% to 45%. They are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures of . Viscosities can be relatively low, around 104 to 105 cP (10 to 100 Pa⋅s), although this is still many orders of magnitude higher than water. This viscosity is similar to that of ketchup. Basalt lavas tend to produce low-profile shield volcanoes or flood basalts, because the fluidal lava flows for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a basalt lava, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving lava flow at any one time, because basalt lavas may \"inflate\" by supply of lava beneath a solidified crust. Most basalt lavas are of ʻAʻā or pāhoehoe types, rather than block lavas. Underwater, they can form pillow lavas, which are rather similar to entrail-type pahoehoe lavas on land.",
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"plaintext": "Ultramafic magmas, such as picritic basalt, komatiite, and highly magnesian magmas that form boninite, take the composition and temperatures to the extreme. All have a silica content under 45%. Komatiites contain over 18% magnesium oxide, and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of . At this temperature there is practically no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid. Viscosities of komatiite magmas are thought to have been as low as 100 to 1000 cP (0.1 to 1 Pa⋅s), similar to that of light motor oil. Most ultramafic lavas are no younger than the Proterozoic, with a few ultramafic magmas known from the Phanerozoic in Central America that are attributed to a hot mantle plume. No modern komatiite lavas are known, as the Earth's mantle has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas.",
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"plaintext": "Some silicic magmas have an elevated content of alkali metal oxides (sodium and potassium), particularly in regions of continental rifting, areas overlying deeply subducted plates, or at intraplate hotspots. Their silica content can range from ultramafic (nephelinites, basanites and tephrites) to felsic (trachytes). They are more likely to be generated at greater depths in the mantle than subalkaline magmas. Olivine nephelinite magmas are both ultramafic and highly alkaline, and are thought to have come from much deeper in the mantle of the Earth than other magmas.",
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"plaintext": "Some lavas of unusual composition have erupted onto the surface of the Earth. These include:",
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"plaintext": " Carbonatite and natrocarbonatite lavas are known from Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania, which is the sole example of an active carbonatite volcano. Carbonatites in the geologic record are typically 75% carbonate minerals, with lesser amounts of silica-undersaturated silicate minerals (such as micas and olivine), apatite, magnetite, and pyrochlore. This may not reflect the original composition of the lava, which may have included sodium carbonate that was subsequently removed by hydrothermal activity, though laboratory experiments show that a calcite-rich magma is possible. Carbonatite lavas show stable isotope ratios indicating they are derived from the highly alkaline silicic lavas with which they are always associated, probably by separation of an immiscible phase. Natrocarbonatite lavas of Ol Doinyo Lengai are composed mostly of sodium carbonate, with about half as much calcium carbonate and half again as much potassium carbonate, and minor amounts of halides, fluorides, and sulphates. The lavas are extremely fluid, with viscosities only slightly greater than water, and are very cool, with measured temperatures of .",
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"plaintext": " Iron oxide magmas are thought to be the source of the iron ore at Kiruna, Sweden which formed during the Proterozoic. Iron oxide lavas of Pliocene age occur at the El Laco volcanic complex on the Chile-Argentina border. Iron oxide lavas are thought to be the result of immiscible separation of iron oxide magma from a parental magma of calc-alkaline or alkaline composition.",
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"plaintext": " Sulfur lava flows up to long and wide occur at Lastarria volcano, Chile. They were formed by the melting of sulfur deposits at temperatures as low as .",
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"plaintext": "The concentrations of different gases can vary considerably. Water vapor is typically the most abundant magmatic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Other principal magmatic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride.",
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"plaintext": "The solubility of magmatic gases in magma depends on pressure, magma composition, and temperature. Magma that is extruded as lava is extremely dry, but magma at depth and under great pressure can contain a dissolved water content in excess of 10%. Water is somewhat less soluble in low-silica magma than high-silica magma, so that at 1,100°C and 0.5 GPa, a basaltic magma can dissolve 8% while a granite pegmatite magma can dissolve 11% . However, magmas are not necessarily saturated under typical conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Carbon dioxide is much less soluble in magmas than water, and frequently separates into a distinct fluid phase even at great depth. This explains the presence of carbon dioxide fluid inclusions in crystals formed in magmas at great depth.",
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"plaintext": "Viscosity is a key melt property in understanding the behaviour of magmas. Whereas temperatures in common silicate lavas range from about for felsic lavas to for mafic lavas, the viscosity of the same lavas ranges over seven orders of magnitude, from 104 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for mafic lava to 1011 cP (108 Pa⋅s) for felsic magmas. The viscosity is mostly determined by composition but is also dependent on temperature. The tendency of felsic lava to be cooler than mafic lava increases the viscosity difference.",
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"plaintext": "The silicon ion is small and highly charged, and so it has a strong tendency to coordinate with four oxygen ions, which form a tetrahedral arrangement around the much smaller silicon ion. This is called a silica tetrahedron. In a magma that is low in silicon, these silica tetrahedra are isolated, but as the silicon content increases, silica tetrahedra begin to partially polymerize, forming chains, sheets, and clumps of silica tetrahedra linked by bridging oxygen ions. These greatly increase the viscosity of the magma.",
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"plaintext": "The tendency towards polymerization is expressed as NBO/T, where NBO is the number of non-bridging oxygen ions and T is the number of network-forming ions. Silicon is the main network-forming ion, but in magmas high in sodium, aluminium also acts as a network former, and ferric iron can act as a network former when other network formers are lacking. Most other metallic ions reduce the tendency to polymerize and are described as network modifiers. In a hypothetical magma formed entirely from melted silica, NBO/T would be 0, while in a hypothetical magma so low in network formers that no polymerization takes place, NBO/T would be 4. Neither extreme is common in nature, but basalt magmas typically have NBO/T between 0.6 and 0.9, andesitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.3 to 0.5, and rhyolitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.02 to 0.2. Water acts as a network modifier, and dissolved water drastically reduces melt viscosity. Carbon dioxide neutralizes network modifiers, so dissolved carbon dioxide increases the viscosity. Higher-temperature melts are less viscous, since more thermal energy is available to break bonds between oxygen and network formers.",
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"plaintext": "Most magmas contain solid crystals of various minerals, fragments of exotic rocks known as xenoliths and fragments of previously solidified magma. The crystal content of most magmas gives them thixotropic and shear thinning properties. In other words, most magmas do not behave like Newtonian fluids, in which the rate of flow is proportional to the shear stress. Instead, a typical magma is a Bingham fluid, which shows considerable resistance to flow until a stress threshold, called the yield stress, is crossed. This results in plug flow of partially crystalline magma. A familiar example of plug flow is toothpaste squeezed out of a toothpaste tube. The toothpaste comes out as a semisolid plug, because shear is concentrated in a thin layer in the toothpaste next to the tube, and only here does the toothpaste behave as a fluid. Thixotropic behavior also hinders crystals from settling out of the magma. Once the crystal content reaches about 60%, the magma ceases to behave like a fluid and begins to behave like a solid. Such a mixture of crystals with melted rock is sometimes described as crystal mush.",
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"plaintext": "Magma is typically also viscoelastic, meaning it flows like a liquid under low stresses, but once the applied stress exceeds a critical value, the melt cannot dissipate the stress fast enough through relaxation alone, resulting in transient fracture propagation. Once stresses are reduced below the critical threshold, the melt viscously relaxes once more and heals the fracture.",
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"plaintext": "Temperatures of lava, which is magma extruded onto the surface, are in the range , but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as , and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as . Magma has occasionally been encountered during drilling in geothermal fields, including drilling in Hawaii that penetrated a dacitic magma body at a depth of . The temperature of this magma was estimated at . Temperatures of deeper magmas must be inferred from theoretical computations and the geothermal gradient.",
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"plaintext": "Most magmas contain some solid crystals suspended in the liquid phase. This indicates that the temperature of the magma lies between the solidus, which is defined as the temperature at which the magma completely solidifies, and the liquidus, defined as the temperature at which the magma is completely liquid. Calculations of solidus temperatures at likely depths suggests that magma generated beneath areas of rifting starts at a temperature of about . Magma generated from mantle plumes may be as hot as . The temperature of magma generated in subduction zones, where water vapor lowers the melting temperature, may be as low as .",
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"plaintext": "Magma densities depend mostly on composition, iron content being the most important parameter.",
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"plaintext": "Magma expands slightly at lower pressure or higher temperature. When magma approaches the surface, its dissolved gases begin to bubble out of the liquid. These bubbles had significantly reduced the density of the magma at depth and helped drive it toward the surface in the first place.",
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"plaintext": "The temperature within the interior of the earth is described by the geothermal gradient, which is the rate of temperature change with depth. The geothermal gradient is established by the balance between heating through radioactive decay in the Earth's interior and heat loss from the surface of the earth. The geothermal gradient averages about 25°C/km in the Earth's upper crust, but this varies widely by region, from a low of 5–10°C/km within oceanic trenches and subduction zones to 30–80°C/km along mid-ocean ridges or near mantle plumes. The gradient becomes less steep with depth, dropping to just 0.25 to 0.3 °C/km in the mantle, where slow convection efficiently transports heat. The average geothermal gradient is not normally steep enough to bring rocks to their melting point anywhere in the crust or upper mantle, so magma is produced only where the geothermal gradient is unusually steep or the melting point of the rock is unusually low. However, the ascent of magma towards the surface in such settings is the most important process for transporting heat through the crust of the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition (such as an addition of water), to an increase in temperature, or to a combination of these processes. Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces.",
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"plaintext": "Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure. It is the most important mechanism for producing magma from the upper mantle.",
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"plaintext": "The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. Peridotite at depth in the Earth's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during the convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process, but the cooling is only about 0.3°C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3°C to 4°C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from the upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges, making it by far the most important source of magma on Earth. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. Intraplate volcanism is attributed to the rise of mantle plumes or to intraplate extension, with the importance of each mechanism being a topic of continuing research.",
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"plaintext": "The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800°C in the presence of excess water, but near 1,500°C in the absence of water. Water is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas with the composition of basalt or andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire. These magmas form rocks of the calc-alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust.",
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"plaintext": "The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200°C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450°C to 600°C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide. Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite, carbonatite, and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70km.",
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"plaintext": "Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary. The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected a layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in a subduction zone.",
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"plaintext": "When rocks melt, they do so over a range of temperature, because most rocks are made of several minerals, which all have different melting points. The temperature at which the first melt appears (the solidus) is lower than the melting temperature of any one of the pure minerals. This is similar to the lowering of the melting point of ice when it is mixed with salt. The first melt is called the eutectic and has a composition that depends on the combination of minerals present.",
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"plaintext": "For example, a mixture of anorthite and diopside, which are two of the predominant minerals in basalt, begins to melt at about 1274°C. This is well below the melting temperatures of 1392°C for pure diopside and 1553°C for pure anorthite. The resulting melt is composed of about 43 wt% anorthite. As additional heat is added to the rock, the temperature remains at 1274°C until either the anorthite or diopside is fully melted. The temperature then rises as the remaining mineral continues to melt, which shifts the melt composition away from the eutectic. For example, if the content of anorthite is greater than 43%, the entire supply of diopside will melt at 1274°C., along with enough of the anorthite to keep the melt at the eutectic composition. Further heating causes the temperature to slowly rise as the remaining anorthite gradually melts and the melt becomes increasingly rich in anorthite liquid. If the mixture has only a slight excess of anorthite, this will melt before the temperature rises much above 1274°C. If the mixture is almost all anorthite, the temperature will reach nearly the melting point of pure anorthite before all the anorthite is melted. If the anorthite content of the mixture is less than 43%, then all the anorthite will melt at the eutectic temperature, along with part of the diopside, and the remaining diopside will then gradually melt as the temperature continues to rise.",
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"plaintext": "Because of eutectic melting, the composition of the melt can be quite different from the source rock. For example, a mixture of 10% anorthite with diopside could experience about 23% partial melting before the melt deviated from the eutectic, which has the composition of about 43% anorthite. This effect of partial melting is reflected in the compositions of different magmas. A low degree of partial melting of the upper mantle (2% to 4%) can produce highly alkaline magmas such as melilitites, while a greater degree of partial melting (8% to 11%) can produce alkali olivine basalt. Oceanic magmas likely result from partial melting of 3% to 15% of the source rock. Some calk-alkaline granitoids may be produced by a high degree of partial melting, as much as 15% to 30%.",
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"plaintext": "High-magnesium magmas, such as komatiite and picrite, may also be the products of a high degree of partial melting of mantle rock.",
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"plaintext": "Certain chemical elements, called incompatible elements, have a combination of ionic radius and ionic charge that is unlike that of the more abundant elements in the source rock. The ions of these elements fit rather poorly in the structure of the minerals making up the source rock, and readily leave the solid minerals to become highly concentrated in melts produced by a low degree of partial melting. Incompatible elements commonly include potassium, barium, caesium, and rubidium, which are large and weakly charged (the large-ion lithophile elements, or LILEs), as well as elements whose ions carry a high charge (the high-field-strength elements, or HSFEs), which include such elements as zirconium, niobium, hafnium, tantalum, the rare-earth elements, and the actinides. Potassium can become so enriched in melt produced by a very low degree of partial melting that, when the magma subsequently cools and solidifies, it forms unusual potassic rock such as lamprophyre, lamproite, or kimberlite.",
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"plaintext": "When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt (generally occurring between mineral grains) link up and soften the rock. Under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent of partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. Melt rapidly separates from its source rock once the degree of partial melting exceeds 30%. However, usually much less than 30% of a magma source rock is melted before the heat supply is exhausted.",
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"plaintext": "Pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite-composition magmas are eutectic (or cotectic) melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of partial melting of the crust, as well as by fractional crystallization.",
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"plaintext": "Most magmas are fully melted only for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve.",
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"plaintext": "As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from the melt at different temperatures. This resembles the original melting process in reverse. However, because the melt has usually separated from its original source rock and moved to a shallower depth, the reverse process of crystallization is not precisely identical. For example, if a melt was 50% each of diopside and anorthite, then anorthite would begin crystallizing from the melt at a temperature somewhat higher than the eutectic temperature of 1274°C. This shifts the remaining melt towards its eutectic composition of 43% diopside. The eutectic is reached at 1274°C, the temperature at which diopside and anorthite begin crystallizing together. If the melt was 90% diopside, the diopside would begin crystallizing first until the eutectic was reached.",
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"plaintext": "If the crystals remained suspended in the melt, the crystallization process would not change the overall composition of the melt plus solid minerals. This situation is described as equillibrium crystallization. However, in a series of experiments culminating in his 1915 paper, Crystallization-differentiation in silicate liquids, Norman L. Bowen demonstrated that crystals of olivine and diopside that crystallized out of a cooling melt of forsterite, diopside, and silica would sink through the melt on geologically relevant time scales. Geologists subsequently found considerable field evidence of such fractional crystallization.",
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"plaintext": "When crystals separate from a magma, then the residual magma will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma. Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1,200°C, and the derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700°C. Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.",
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"plaintext": "Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Assimilation near the roof of a magma chamber and fractional crystallization near its base can even take place simultaneously. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions.",
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"plaintext": "When rock melts, the liquid is a primary magma. Primary magmas have not undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of a magma. In practice, it is difficult to unambiguously identify primary magmas, though it has been suggested that boninite is a variety of andesite crystallized from a primary magma. The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe has also been interpreted as rock crystallized from a primary magma. The interpretation of leucosomes of migmatites as primary magmas is contradicted by zircon data, which suggests leucosomes are a residue (a cumulate rock) left by extraction of a primary magma.",
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"plaintext": "When it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to attempt to identify a parental magma. A parental magma is a magma composition from which the observed range of magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of igneous differentiation. It need not be a primitive melt.",
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"plaintext": "For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another. A composition from which they could reasonably be produced by fractional crystallization is termed a parental magma. Fractional crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental magma.",
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"plaintext": "Magma develops within the mantle or crust where the temperature and pressure conditions favor the molten state. After its formation, magma buoyantly rises toward the Earth's surface, due to its lower density than the source rock. As it migrates through the crust, magma may collect and reside in magma chambers (though recent work suggests that magma may be stored in trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones rather than dominantly liquid magma chambers ). Magma can remain in a chamber until it either cools and crystallizes to form intrusive rock, it erupts as a volcano, or it moves into another magma chamber.",
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"plaintext": "When magma cools it begins to form solid mineral phases. Some of these settle at the bottom of the magma chamber forming cumulates that might form mafic layered intrusions. Magma that cools slowly within a magma chamber usually ends up forming bodies of plutonic rocks such as gabbro, diorite and granite, depending upon the composition of the magma. Alternatively, if the magma is erupted it forms volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite and rhyolite (the extrusive equivalents of gabbro, diorite and granite, respectively).",
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"plaintext": "Magma that is extruded onto the surface during a volcanic eruption is called lava. Lava cools and solidifies relatively quickly compared to underground bodies of magma. This fast cooling does not allow crystals to grow large, and a part of the melt does not crystallize at all, becoming glass. Rocks largely composed of volcanic glass include obsidian, scoria and pumice.",
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"plaintext": "The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, while drilling several 5,000m holes in an attempt to harness the heat in the volcanic bedrock below the surface of Iceland, struck a pocket of magma at 2,100m in 2009. Because this was only the third time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole, naming it IDDP-1.",
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"plaintext": "A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the magma steam were used to generate 36MW of power, making IDDP-1 the world's first magma-enhanced geothermal system.",
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37,510 | 1,058,813,835 | Respiration | [
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"plaintext": " Cellular respiration, the process in which nutrients are converted into useful energy in a cell",
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"plaintext": " Maintenance respiration, the amount of cellular respiration required for an organism to maintain itself in a constant state",
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"plaintext": " Respiration (physiology), transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide between cells and the external environment",
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"plaintext": " Artificial respiration, the act of simulating respiration, which provides for the overall exchange of gases in the body by pulmonary ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration",
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"plaintext": " Photorespiration, enzymatic combination of RuBP with oxygen",
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"plaintext": " \"Respiration\" (song), a 1999 single by Black Star ",
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"plaintext": " \"Respire\" (song), a 2003 song by Mickey 3D",
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37,512 | 1,106,997,016 | Adjective | [
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"plaintext": "In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the main parts of speech of the English language, although historically they were classed together with nouns. Nowadays, certain words that usually had been classified as adjectives, including the, this, my, etc., typically are classed separately, as determiners.",
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"plaintext": " That's a funny idea. (attributive)",
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"plaintext": "Adjective comes from Latin , a calque of (whence also English epithet). In the grammatical tradition of Latin and Greek, because adjectives were inflected for gender, number, and case like nouns (a process called declension), they were considered a type of noun. The words that are today typically called nouns were then called substantive nouns (). The terms noun substantive and noun adjective were formerly used in English but are now obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "Depending on the language, an adjective can precede a corresponding noun on a prepositive basis or it can follow a corresponding noun on a postpositive basis. Structural, contextual, and style considerations can impinge on the pre-or post-position of an adjective in a given instance of its occurrence. In English, occurrences of adjectives generally can be classified into one of three categories:",
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"plaintext": " Prepositive adjectives, which are also known as \"attributive adjectives\", occur on an antecedent basis within a noun phrase. For example: \"I put my happy kids into the car\", wherein happy occurs on an antecedent basis within the my happy kids noun phrase, and therefore functions in a prepositive adjective.",
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"plaintext": " Postpositive adjectives can occur: (a) immediately subsequent to a noun within a noun phrase, e.g. \"The only room available cost twice what we expected\"; (b) as linked via a copula or other linking mechanism subsequent to a corresponding noun or pronoun; for example: \"My kids are happy\", wherein happy is a predicate adjective (see also: Predicative expression, Subject complement); or (c) as an appositive adjective within a noun phrase, e.g. \"My kids, [who are] happy to go cruising, are in the back seat.\"",
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"plaintext": " Nominalized adjectives, which function as nouns. One way this happens is by eliding a noun from an adjective-noun noun phrase, whose remnant thus is a nominalization. In the sentence, \"I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy\", happy is a nominalized adjective, short for \"happy one\" or \"happy book\". Another way this happens is in phrases like \"out with the old, in with the new\", where \"the old\" means \"that which is old\" or \"all that is old\", and similarly with \"the new\". In such cases, the adjective may function as a mass noun (as in the preceding example). In English, it may also function as a plural count noun denoting a collective group, as in \"The meek shall inherit the Earth\", where \"the meek\" means \"those who are meek\" or \"all who are meek\".",
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"plaintext": "Adjectives feature as a part of speech (word class) in most languages. In some languages, the words that serve the semantic function of adjectives are categorized together with some other class, such as nouns or verbs. In the phrase \"a Ford car\", \"Ford\" is unquestionably a noun but its function is adjectival: to modify \"car\". In some languages adjectives can function as nouns: for example, the Spanish phrase \"\" means \"a red [one]\".",
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"plaintext": "As for \"confusion\" with verbs, rather than an adjective meaning \"big\", a language might have a verb that means \"to be big\" and could then use an attributive verb construction analogous to \"big-being house\" to express what in English is called a \"big house\". Such an analysis is possible for the grammar of Standard Chinese, for example.",
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"plaintext": "Different languages do not use adjectives in exactly the same situations. For example, where English uses \"to be hungry\" (hungry being an adjective), Dutch, French, and Spanish use \"\", \"\", and \"\" respectively (literally \"to have hunger\", the words for \"hunger\" being nouns). Similarly, where Hebrew uses the adjective (, roughly \"in need of\"), English uses the verb \"to need\".",
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"plaintext": "In languages that have adjectives as a word class, it is usually an open class; that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation. However, Bantu languages are well known for having only a small closed class of adjectives, and new adjectives are not easily derived. Similarly, native Japanese adjectives (i-adjectives) are considered a closed class (as are native verbs), although nouns (an open class) may be used in the genitive to convey some adjectival meanings, and there is also the separate open class of adjectival nouns (na-adjectives).",
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"plaintext": "Many languages (including English) distinguish between adjectives, which qualify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which mainly modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Not all languages make this exact distinction; many (including English) have words that can function as either. For example, in English, fast is an adjective in \"a fast car\" (where it qualifies the noun car) but an adverb in \"he drove fast\" (where it modifies the verb drove).",
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"plaintext": "In Dutch and German, adjectives and adverbs are usually identical in form and many grammarians do not make the distinction, but patterns of inflection can suggest a difference:",
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"plaintext": "A clever new idea.",
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"plaintext": "A cleverly developed idea.",
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"plaintext": "A German word like (\"clever(ly)\") takes endings when used as an attributive adjective but not when used adverbially. (It also takes no endings when used as a predicative adjective: , \"he is clever\".) Whether these are distinct parts of speech or distinct usages of the same part of speech is a question of analysis. It can be noted that, while German linguistic terminology distinguishes from , German refers to both as (\"property words\").",
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"plaintext": "Linguists today distinguish determiners from adjectives, considering them to be two separate parts of speech (or lexical categories). Determiners formerly were considered to be adjectives in some of their uses. Determiners function neither as nouns nor pronouns but instead characterize a nominal element within a particular context. They generally do this by indicating definiteness (a vs. the), quantity (one vs. some vs. many), or another such property.",
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"plaintext": "An adjective acts as the head of an adjective phrase or adjectival phrase (AP). In the simplest case, an adjective phrase consists solely of the adjective; more complex adjective phrases may contain one or more adverbs modifying the adjective (\"very strong\"), or one or more complements (such as \"worth several dollars\", \"full of toys\", or \"eager to please\"). In English, attributive adjective phrases that include complements typically follow the noun that they qualify (\"an evildoer devoid of redeeming qualities\").",
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"plaintext": "In many languages (including English) it is possible for nouns to modify other nouns. Unlike adjectives, nouns acting as modifiers (called attributive nouns or noun adjuncts) usually are not predicative; a beautiful park is beautiful, but a car park is not \"car\". The modifier often indicates origin (\"Virginia reel\"), purpose (\"work clothes\"), semantic patient (\"man eater\") or semantic subject (\"child actor\"); however, it may generally indicate almost any semantic relationship. It is also common for adjectives to be derived from nouns, as in boyish, birdlike, behavioral (behavioural), famous, manly, angelic, and so on.",
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"plaintext": "In Australian Aboriginal languages, the distinction between adjectives and nouns is typically thought weak, and many of the languages only use nouns--or nouns with a limited set of adjective-deriving affixes--to modify other nouns. In languages that have a subtle adjective-noun distinction, one way to tell them apart is that a modifying adjective can come to stand in for an entire elided noun phrase, while a modifying noun cannot. For example, in Bardi, the adjective moorrooloo 'little' in the phrase moorrooloo baawa 'little child' can stand on its own to mean 'the little one,' while the attributive noun aamba 'man' in the phrase aamba baawa 'male child' cannot stand for the whole phrase to mean 'the male one.' In other languages, like Warlpiri, nouns and adjectives are lumped together beneath the nominal umbrella because of their shared syntactic distribution as arguments of predicates. The only thing distinguishing them is that some nominals seem to semantically denote entities (typically nouns in English) and some nominals seem to denote attributes (typically adjectives in English).",
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"plaintext": "Many languages have participle forms that can act as noun modifiers either alone or as the head of a phrase. Sometimes participles develop into functional usage as adjectives. Examples in English include relieved (the past participle of relieve), used as an adjective in passive voice constructs such as \"I am so relieved to see you\". Other examples include spoken (the past participle of speak) and going (the present participle of go), which function as attribute adjectives in such phrases as \"the spoken word\" and \"the going rate\".",
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"plaintext": "Other constructs that often modify nouns include prepositional phrases (as in \"a rebel without a cause\"), relative clauses (as in \"the man who wasn't there\"), and infinitive phrases (as in \"a cake to die for\"). Some nouns can also take complements such as content clauses (as in \"the idea that I would do that\"), but these are not commonly considered modifiers. For more information about possible modifiers and dependents of nouns, see Components of noun phrases.",
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"plaintext": "In many languages, attributive adjectives usually occur in a specific order. In general, the adjective order in English can be summarised as: opinion, size, age or shape, colour, origin, material, purpose. Other language authorities, like the Cambridge Dictionary, state that shape precedes rather than follows age.",
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"plaintext": "Determiners and postdeterminers—articles, numerals, and other limiters (e.g. three blind mice)—come before attributive adjectives in English. Although certain combinations of determiners can appear before a noun, they are far more circumscribed than adjectives in their use—typically, only a single determiner would appear before a noun or noun phrase (including any attributive adjectives).",
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"plaintext": " Opinion – limiter adjectives (e.g. a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives of subjective measure (e.g. beautiful, interesting) or value (e.g. good, bad, costly)",
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"plaintext": " Size – adjectives denoting physical size (e.g. tiny, big, extensive)",
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"plaintext": " Shape or physical quality – adjectives describing more detailed physical attributes than overall size (e.g. round, sharp, swollen, thin)",
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"plaintext": " Age – adjectives denoting age (e.g. young, old, new, ancient, six-year-old)",
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"plaintext": " Colour – adjectives denoting colour or pattern (e.g. white, black, pale, spotted)",
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"plaintext": " Origin – denominal adjectives denoting source (e.g. French, volcanic, extraterrestrial)",
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"plaintext": " Material – denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woollen, metallic, wooden)",
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"plaintext": " Qualifier/purpose – final limiter, which sometimes forms part of the (compound) noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)",
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"plaintext": "This means that, in English, adjectives pertaining to size precede adjectives pertaining to age (\"little old\", not \"old little\"), which in turn generally precede adjectives pertaining to colour (\"old white\", not \"white old\"). So, one would say \"One (quantity) nice (opinion) little (size) old (age) round (shape) [or round old] white (colour) brick (material) house.\" When several adjectives of the same type are used together, they are ordered from general to specific, like \"lovely intelligent person\" or \"old medieval castle\".",
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"plaintext": "This order may be more rigid in some languages than others; in some, like Spanish, it may only be a default (unmarked) word order, with other orders being permissible. Other languages, such as Tagalog, follow their adjectival orders as rigidly as English.",
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"plaintext": "The normal adjectival order of English may be overridden in certain circumstances, especially when one adjective is being fronted. For example, the usual order of adjectives in English would result in the phrase \"the bad big wolf\" (opinion before size), but instead, the usual phrase is \"the big bad wolf\".",
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"plaintext": "Owing partially to borrowings from French, English has some adjectives that follow the noun as postmodifiers, called postpositive adjectives, as in time immemorial and attorney general. Adjectives may even change meaning depending on whether they precede or follow, as in proper: They live in a proper town (a real town, not a village) vs. They live in the town proper (in the town itself, not in the suburbs). All adjectives can follow nouns in certain constructions, such as tell me something new.",
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"plaintext": "In many languages, some adjectives are comparable and the measure of comparison is called degree. For example, a person may be \"polite\", but another person may be \"more polite\", and a third person may be the \"most polite\" of the three. The word \"more\" here modifies the adjective \"polite\" to indicate a comparison is being made, and \"most\" modifies the adjective to indicate an absolute comparison (a superlative).",
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"plaintext": "Among languages that allow adjectives to be compared, different means are used to indicate comparison. Some languages do not distinguish between comparative and superlative forms. Other languages allow adjectives to be compared but do not have a special comparative form of the adjective. In such cases, as in some Australian Aboriginal languages, case-marking, such as the ablative case may be used to indicate one entity has more of an adjectival quality than (i.e. from—hence ABL) another. Take the following example in Bardi:",
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"plaintext": "In English, many adjectives can be inflected to comparative and superlative forms by taking the suffixes \"-er\" and \"-est\" (sometimes requiring additional letters before the suffix; see forms for far below), respectively:",
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"plaintext": " \"deep\", \"deeper\", \"deepest\"",
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"plaintext": "Some adjectives are irregular in this sense:",
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"plaintext": " \"good\", \"better\", \"best\"",
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"plaintext": " \"bad\", \"worse\", \"worst\"",
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"plaintext": " \"many\", \"more\", \"most\" (sometimes regarded as an adverb or determiner)",
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"plaintext": " \"little\", \"less\", \"least\"",
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"plaintext": "Some adjectives can have both regular and irregular variations:",
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"plaintext": " \"old\", \"older\", \"oldest\"",
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"plaintext": " \"far\", \"farther\", \"farthest\"",
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"plaintext": "also",
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"plaintext": " \"old\", \"elder\", \"eldest\"",
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"plaintext": " \"far\", \"further\", \"furthest\"",
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"plaintext": "Another way to convey comparison is by incorporating the words \"more\" and \"most\". There is no simple rule to decide which means is correct for any given adjective, however. The general tendency is for simpler adjectives and those from Anglo-Saxon to take the suffixes, while longer adjectives and those from French, Latin, or Greek do not—but sometimes sound of the word is the deciding factor.",
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"plaintext": "Many adjectives do not naturally lend themselves to comparison. For example, some English speakers would argue that it does not make sense to say that one thing is \"more ultimate\" than another, or that something is \"most ultimate\", since the word \"ultimate\" is already absolute in its semantics. Such adjectives are called non-comparable or absolute. Nevertheless, native speakers will frequently play with the raised forms of adjectives of this sort. Although \"pregnant\" is logically non-comparable (either one is pregnant or not), one may hear a sentence like \"She looks more and more pregnant each day\". Likewise \"extinct\" and \"equal\" appear to be non-comparable, but one might say that a language about which nothing is known is \"more extinct\" than a well-documented language with surviving literature but no speakers, while George Orwell wrote, \"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others\". These cases may be viewed as evidence that the base forms of these adjectives are not as absolute in their semantics as is usually thought.",
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"plaintext": "Comparative and superlative forms are also occasionally used for other purposes than comparison. In English comparatives can be used to suggest that a statement is only tentative or tendential: one might say \"John is more the shy-and-retiring type,\" where the comparative \"more\" is not really comparing him with other people or with other impressions of him, but rather, could be substituting for \"on the whole\" or \"more so than not\". In Italian, superlatives are frequently used to put strong emphasis on an adjective: means \"most beautiful\", but is in fact more commonly heard in the sense \"extremely beautiful\".",
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"plaintext": "Attributive adjectives and other noun modifiers may be used either restrictively (helping to identify the noun's referent, hence \"restricting\" its reference) or non-restrictively (helping to describe a noun). For example:",
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"plaintext": "He was a lazy sort, who would avoid a difficult task and fill his working hours with easy ones.",
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"plaintext": "Here \"difficult\" is restrictive – it tells which tasks he avoids, distinguishing these from the easy ones: \"Only those tasks that are difficult\".",
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"plaintext": "She had the job of sorting out the mess left by her predecessor, and she performed this difficult task with great acumen.",
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"plaintext": "Here \"difficult\" is non-restrictive – it is already known which task it was, but the adjective describes it more fully: \"The aforementioned task, which (by the way) is difficult\"",
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"plaintext": "In some languages, such as Spanish, restrictiveness is consistently marked; for example, in Spanish means \"the difficult task\" in the sense of \"the task that is difficult\" (restrictive), whereas means \"the difficult task\" in the sense of \"the task, which is difficult\" (non-restrictive). In English, restrictiveness is not marked on adjectives but is marked on relative clauses (the difference between \"the man who recognized me was there\" and \"the man, who recognized me, was there\" being one of restrictiveness).",
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"plaintext": "In some languages, adjectives alter their form to reflect the gender, case and number of the noun that they describe. This is called agreement or concord. Usually it takes the form of inflections at the end of the word, as in Latin:",
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"plaintext": "|puella bona ||rowspan=4 style=\"width:30px\"| || (good girl, feminine singular nominative)",
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"plaintext": "|puellam bonam || (good girl, feminine singular accusative/object case)",
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"plaintext": "|puer bonus || (good boy, masculine singular nominative)",
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"plaintext": "|pueri boni || (good boys, masculine plural nominative)",
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"plaintext": "In Celtic languages, however, initial consonant lenition marks the adjective with a feminine singular noun, as in Irish:",
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"plaintext": "|buachaill maith ||rowspan=4 style=\"width:30px\"| || (good boy, masculine)",
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"plaintext": "|girseach mhaith || (good girl, feminine)",
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"plaintext": "Often, distinction is made here between attributive and predicative usage. In English, adjectives never agree, whereas in French, they always agree. In German, they agree only when they are used attributively, and in Hungarian, they agree only when they are used predicatively:",
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"plaintext": "{|border=0",
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"plaintext": "|The good (Ø) boys. ||rowspan=4 style=\"width:30px\"| || The boys are good (Ø).",
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"plaintext": "|Les bons garçons. || Les garçons sont bons.",
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"plaintext": "|Die braven Jungen. || Die Jungen sind brav (Ø).",
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"plaintext": "|A jó (Ø) fiúk. || A fiúk jók.",
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"plaintext": "Semanticist Barbara Partee classifies adjectives semantically as intersective, subsective, or nonsubsective, with nonsubsective adjectives being plain nonsubsective or privative.",
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"plaintext": " An adjective is intersective if and only if the extension of its combination with a noun is equal to the intersection of its extension and that of the noun its modifying. For example, the adjective carnivorous is intersective, given the extension of carnivorous mammal is the intersection of the extensions of carnivorous and mammal (i.e., the set of all mammals who are carnivorous).",
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"plaintext": " An adjective is subsective if and only if the extension of its combination with a noun is a subset of the extension of the noun. For example, the extension of skillful surgeon is a subset of the extension of surgeon, but it is not the intersection of that and the extension of skillful, as that would include (for example) incompetent surgeons who are skilled violinists. All subsective adjectives are intersective, but the term 'subsective' is sometimes used to refer to only those subsective adjectives which are not intersective.",
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"plaintext": " An adjective is privative if and only if the extension of its combination with a noun is disjoint from the extension of the noun. For example, fake is privative because a fake cat is not a cat.",
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"plaintext": " A plain nonsubsective adjective is an adjective that is not subsective or privative. For example, the word possible is this kind of adjective, as the extension of possible murderer overlaps with, but is not included in the extension of murderer (as some, but not all, possible murderers are murderers).",
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"plaintext": " Attributive verb",
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"plaintext": " Flat adverb",
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"plaintext": " Intersective modifier",
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"plaintext": " List of eponymous adjectives in English",
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"plaintext": " Noun adjunct",
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"plaintext": " Predication (philosophy)",
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"plaintext": " Privative adjective",
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"plaintext": " Proper adjective",
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"plaintext": " Dixon, R. M. W. (1999). \"Adjectives\". In K. Brown & T. Miller (eds.), Concise Encyclopedia of Grammatical Categories. Amsterdam: Elsevier. . pp.1–8.",
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"plaintext": " Warren, Beatrice (1984). Classifying adjectives. Gothenburg studies in English No. 56. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. .",
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"plaintext": "List of English collateral adjectives at Wiktionary",
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"plaintext": "Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the parts of speech. Modern linguists note that the term \"adverb\" has come to be used as a kind of \"catch-all\" category, used to classify words with various types of syntactic behavior, not necessarily having much in common except that they do not fit into any of the other available categories (noun, adjective, preposition, etc.)",
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"plaintext": "The English word adverb derives (through French) from Latin adverbium, from ad- (\"to\"), verbum (\"word\", \"verb\"), and the nominal suffix -ium. The term implies that the principal function of adverbs is to act as modifiers of verbs or verb phrases. An adverb used in this way may provide information about the manner, place, time, frequency, certainty, or other circumstances of the activity denoted by the verb or verb phrase. Some examples:",
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"plaintext": "She sang loudly (loudly modifies the verb sang, indicating the manner of singing)",
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"plaintext": "We left it here (here modifies the verb phrase left it, indicating place)",
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"plaintext": "I worked yesterday (yesterday modifies the verb worked, indicating time)",
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"plaintext": "You often make mistakes (often modifies the verb phrase make mistakes, indicating frequency)",
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"plaintext": "He undoubtedly did it (undoubtedly modifies the verb phrase did it, indicating certainty)",
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"plaintext": "Adverbs can also be used as modifiers of adjectives, and of other adverbs, often to indicate degree. Examples:",
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"plaintext": " You are quite right (the adverb quite modifies the adjective right)",
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"plaintext": " She sang very loudly (the adverb very modifies another adverb – loudly)",
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"plaintext": "They can also modify determiners, prepositional phrases, or whole clauses or sentences, as in the following examples:",
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"plaintext": " I bought practically the only fruit (practically modifies the determiner the in the noun phrase, \"the only fruit\" wherein \"only\" is an adjective)",
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"plaintext": " She drove us almost to the station (almost modifies the prepositional phrase to the station)",
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"plaintext": " Certainly we need to act (certainly modifies the sentence as a whole)",
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"plaintext": "Adverbs thus perform a wide range of modifying functions. The major exception is the function of modifier of nouns, which is performed instead by adjectives (compare she sang loudly with her loud singing disturbed me; here the verb sang is modified by the adverb loudly, whereas the noun singing is modified by the adjective loud). However, because some adverbs and adjectives are homonyms, their respective functions are sometimes conflated:",
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"plaintext": "Even numbers are divisible by two",
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"plaintext": "The camel even drank.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"even\" in the first sentence is an adjective, since it is a prepositive modifier that modifies the noun \"numbers\". The word \"even\" in the second sentence is a prepositive adverb that modifies the verb \"drank.\"",
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"plaintext": "Although it is possible for an adverb to precede or to follow a noun or a noun phrase, the adverb nonetheless does not modify either in such cases, as in:",
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"plaintext": "Internationally there is a shortage of protein for animal feeds",
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"plaintext": "There is a shortage internationally of protein for animal feeds",
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"plaintext": "There is an international shortage of protein for animal feeds",
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"plaintext": "In the first sentence, \"Internationally\" is a prepositive adverb that modifies the clause, \"there is...\" In the second sentence, \"internationally\" is a postpositive adverb that modifies the clause, \"There is...\" By contrast, the third sentence contains \"international\" as a prepositive adjective that modifies the noun, \"shortage.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Adverbs can sometimes be used as predicative expressions; in English, this applies especially to adverbs of location:",
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"plaintext": "Your seat is there.",
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"plaintext": "Here is my boarding pass (wherein \"boarding pass\" is the subject and \"here\" is the predicate in a syntax that entails a subject-verb inversion).",
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"plaintext": "When the function of an adverb is performed by an expression consisting of more than one word, it is called an adverbial phrase or adverbial clause, or simply an adverbial.",
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"plaintext": "In English, adverbs of manner (answering the question how?) are often formed by adding -ly to adjectives, but flat adverbs (such as in drive fast, drive slow, and drive friendly) have the same form as the corresponding adjective. Other languages often have similar methods for deriving adverbs from adjectives (French, for example, uses the suffix -ment), or else use the same form for both adjectives and adverbs, as in German and Dutch, where for example schnell or snel, respectively, mean either \"quick\" or \"quickly\" depending on the context. Many other adverbs, however, are not related to adjectives in this way; they may be derived from other words or phrases, or may be single morphemes. Examples of such adverbs in English include here, there, together, yesterday, aboard, very, almost, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Where the meaning permits, adverbs may undergo comparison, taking comparative and superlative forms. In English this is usually done by adding more and most before the adverb (more slowly, most slowly), although there are a few adverbs that take inflected forms, such as well, for which better and best are used.",
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"plaintext": "For more information about the formation and use of adverbs in English, see . For other languages, see below, and the articles on individual languages and their grammars.",
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"plaintext": "Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar, and are still included as a part of speech in grammar taught in schools and used in dictionaries. However, modern grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of different functions. Some describe adverbs as a \"catch-all\" category that includes all words that do not belong to one of the other parts of speech.",
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"plaintext": "A logical approach to dividing words into classes relies on recognizing which words can be used in a certain context. For example, the only type of word that can be inserted in the following template to form a grammatical sentence is a noun:",
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"plaintext": "The _____ is red. (For example, \"The hat is red\".)",
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"plaintext": "When this approach is taken, it is seen that adverbs fall into a number of different categories. For example, some adverbs can be used to modify an entire sentence, whereas others cannot. Even when a sentential adverb has other functions, the meaning is often not the same. For example, in the sentences She gave birth naturally and Naturally, she gave birth, the word naturally has different meanings: in the first sentence, as a verb-modifying adverb, it means \"in a natural manner\", while in the second sentence, as a sentential adverb, it means something like \"of course\".",
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"plaintext": "Words like very afford another example. We can say Perry is very fast, but not Perry very won the race. These words can modify adjectives but not verbs. On the other hand, there are words like here and there that cannot modify adjectives. We can say The sock looks good there but not It is a there beautiful sock. The fact that many adverbs can be used in more than one of these functions can confuse the issue, and it may seem like splitting hairs to say that a single adverb is really two or more words that serve different functions. However, this distinction can be useful, especially when considering adverbs like naturally that have different meanings in their different functions. Rodney Huddleston distinguishes between a word and a lexicogrammatical-word.",
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"plaintext": "Grammarians find difficulty categorizing negating words, such as the English not. Although traditionally listed as an adverb, this word does not behave grammatically like any other, and it probably should be placed in a class of its own.",
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"plaintext": " In Dutch adverbs have the basic form of their corresponding adjectives and are not inflected (though they sometimes can be compared).",
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"plaintext": " In German the term Adverb is differently defined than in the English language. German adverbs form a group of noninflectable words (though a few can be compared). An English adverb which is derived from an adjective is arranged in German under the adjectives with adverbial use in the sentence. The others are also called adverbs in the German language.",
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"plaintext": " In Scandinavian languages, adverbs are typically derived from adjectives by adding the suffix '-t', which makes it identical to the adjective's neuter form. Scandinavian adjectives, like English ones, are inflected in terms of comparison by adding '-ere'/'-are' (comparative) or '-est'/'-ast' (superlative). In inflected forms of adjectives, the '-t' is absent. Periphrastic comparison is also possible.",
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"plaintext": " In Romance languages, many adverbs are formed from adjectives (often the feminine form) by adding '-mente' (Portuguese, Spanish, Galician, Italian) or '-ment' (French, Catalan) (from Latin mens, mentis: mind, intelligence, or suffix -mentum, result or way of action). Other adverbs are single forms which are invariable.",
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"plaintext": " In Romanian, almost all adverbs are simply the masculine singular form of the corresponding adjective, one notable exception being bine (\"well\") / bun (\"good\"). However, there are some Romanian adverbs built from certain masculine singular nouns using the suffix \"-ește\", such as the following ones: băieț-ește (boyishly), tiner-ește (youthfully), bărbăt-ește (manly), frăț-ește (brotherly), etc.",
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"plaintext": " Interlingua also forms adverbs by adding '-mente' to the adjective. If an adjective ends in c, the adverbial ending is '-amente'. A few short, invariable adverbs, such as ben, \"well\", and mal, \"badly\", are available and widely used.",
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"plaintext": " In Esperanto, adverbs are not formed from adjectives but are made by adding '-e' directly to the word root. Thus, from bon are derived bone, \"well\", and bona, \"good\". See also: special Esperanto adverbs.",
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"plaintext": " In Hungarian adverbs are formed from adjectives of any degree through the suffixes -ul/ül and -an/en depending on the adjective: szép (beautiful) → szépen (beautifully) or the comparative szebb (more beautiful) → szebben (more beautifully)",
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"plaintext": " Modern Standard Arabic forms adverbs by adding the indefinite accusative ending '-an' to the root: kathiir-, \"many\", becomes kathiiran \"much\". However, Arabic often avoids adverbs by using a cognate accusative followed by an adjective.",
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"plaintext": " Austronesian languages generally form comparative adverbs by repeating the root (as in WikiWiki) like the plural noun.",
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"plaintext": " Japanese forms adverbs from verbal adjectives by adding /ku/ (く) to the stem (haya- \"rapid\" hayai \"quick/early\", hayakatta \"was quick\", hayaku \"quickly\") and from nominal adjectives by placing /ni/ (に) after the adjective instead of the copula /na/ (な) or /no/ (の) (rippa \"splendid\", rippa ni \"splendidly\"). The derivations are quite productive, but from a few adjectives, adverbs may not be derived.",
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"plaintext": " In the Celtic languages, an adverbial form is often made by preceding the adjective with a preposition: go in Irish or gu in Scottish Gaelic, meaning 'until'. In Cornish, yn is used, meaning 'in'.",
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"plaintext": " In Modern Greek, an adverb is most commonly made by adding the endings <-α> or <-ως> to the root of an adjective. Often, the adverbs formed from a common root using each of these endings have slightly different meanings. So, <τέλειος> (<téleios>, meaning \"perfect\" and \"complete\") yields <τέλεια> (<téleia>, \"perfectly\") and <τελείως> (<teleíos>, \"completely\"). Not all adjectives can be transformed into adverbs by using both endings. <Γρήγορος> (<grígoros>, \"rapid\") becomes <γρήγορα> (<grígora>, \"rapidly\"), but not normally *<γρηγόρως> (*<grigóros>). When the <-ως> ending is used to transform an adjective whose tonal accent is on the third syllable from the end, such as <επίσημος> (<epísimos>, \"official\"), the corresponding adjective is accented on the second syllable from the end; compare <επίσημα> (<epísima>) and <επισήμως> (<episímos>), which both mean \"officially\". There are also other endings with particular and restricted use as <-ί>, <-εί>, <-ιστί>, etc. For example, <ατιμωρητί> (<atimorití>, \"with impunity\") and <ασυζητητί> (<asyzitití>, \"indisputably\"); <αυτολεξεί> (<aftolexí> \"word for word\") and <αυτοστιγμεί> (<aftostigmí>, \"in no time\"); <αγγλιστί> [<anglistí> \"in English (language)\"] and <παπαγαλιστί> (<papagalistí>, \"by rote\"); etc.",
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"plaintext": " In Latvian, an adverb is formed from an adjective by changing the masculine or feminine adjective endings -s and -a to -i. \"Labs\", meaning \"good\", becomes \"labi\" for \"well\". Latvian adverbs have a particular use in expressions meaning \"to speak\" or \"to understand\" a language. Rather than use the noun meaning \"Latvian/English/Russian\", the adverb formed from these words is used. \"Es runāju latviski/angliski/krieviski\" means \"I speak Latvian/English/Russian\" or, literally, \"I speak Latvianly/Englishly/Russianly\". If a noun is required, the expression used means literally \"language of the Latvians/English/Russians\", \"latviešu/angļu/krievu valoda\".",
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"plaintext": "In Russian, and analogously in Ukrainian and some other Slavic languages, most adverbs are formed by removing the adjectival suffices \"-ий\" \"-а\" or \"-е\" from an adjective, and replacing them with the adverbial \"-о\". For example, in Ukrainian, \"швидкий\", \"гарна\", and \"смачне\" (fast, nice, tasty) become \"швидко\", \"гарно\", and \"смачно\" (quickly, nicely, tastefully), while in Russian, \"быстрый\", \"хороший\" and \"прекрасный\" (quick, good, wonderful) become \"быстро\", \"хорошо\", \"прекрасно\" (quickly, well, wonderfully). Another wide group of adverbs are formed by gluing a preposition to an oblique case form. In Ukrainian, for example, (до onto) + (долу bottom) → (додолу downwards); (з off) + (далеку afar) → (здалеку afar-off) . As well, note that adverbs are mostly placed before the verbs they modify: \"Добрий син гарно співає.\" (A good son sings nicely/well). There is no specific word order in East Slavic languages.",
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"plaintext": " In Korean, adverbs are commonly formed by replacing the -다 ending of the dictionary form of a descriptive verb with 게. So, 쉽다 (easy) becomes 쉽게 (easily). They are also formed by replacing the 하다 of some compound verbs with 히, e.g. 안녕하다 (peaceful) > 안녕히 (peacefully).",
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"plaintext": " In Turkish, the same word usually serves as adjective and adverb: iyi bir kız (\"a good girl\"), iyi anlamak (\"to understand well).",
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"plaintext": " In Chinese, adverbs are not a separate class. Adjectives become adverbs when they are marked by an adverbial suffix, for example 地 de（e.g., 孩子們快樂地唱歌 haizimen kuaile.de changge 'the children happily sing a song'), or when adjectives are preceded by a verbal suffix such as 得 (e.g., 她說漢語說得很好 ta shuo hanyu shuo.de henhao 'she speaks Chinese very well'). ",
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"plaintext": " In Persian, many adjectives and adverbs have the same form such as \"خوب\", \"سریع\", \"تند\" so there is no obvious way to recognise them out of context. The only exceptions are Arabic adverbs with a \"اً\" suffix such as \"ظاهراً\" and \"واقعاً\".",
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"plaintext": " Flat adverb (as in drive fast, drive slow, drive friendly)",
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"plaintext": " Adverbs by type",
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"plaintext": " Prepositional adverb",
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"plaintext": " Pronominal adverb",
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"plaintext": " Grammatical conjunction",
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"plaintext": "Ernst, Thomas. 2002. The syntax of adjuncts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "Jackendoff, Ray. 1972. Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar''. MIT Press,",
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"plaintext": "The Online Dictionary of Language Terminology",
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37,514 | 1,106,997,017 | Depleted_uranium | [
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium (DU; also referred to in the past as Q-metal, depletalloy or D-38) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope than natural uranium. Natural uranium contains about , while the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense contains or less. The less radioactive and non-fissile constitutes the main component of depleted uranium. Uses of DU take advantage of its very high density of ( denser than lead).",
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"plaintext": "Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft, radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy and industrial radiography equipment, and containers for transporting radioactive materials. Military uses include armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles.",
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"plaintext": "Most depleted uranium arises as a by-product of the production of enriched uranium for use as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the manufacture of nuclear weapons. Enrichment processes generate uranium with a higher-than-natural concentration of lower-mass-number uranium isotopes (in particular , which is the uranium isotope supporting the fission chain reaction) with the bulk of the feed ending up as depleted uranium, in some cases with mass fractions of and less than a third of those in natural uranium. Since has a much longer half-life than the lighter isotopes, DU emits less alpha radiation than natural uranium. DU from nuclear reprocessing has different isotopic ratios from enrichment–by-product DU, from which it can be distinguished by the presence of . The only known natural source of uranium with a content significantly different from 0.72% is found in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, Gabon. It can be \"fingerprinted\" as different in origin from manmade depleted uranium by the content, which is 55 ppm in uranium from the Oklo Mine as well as all other natural sources, but will be lower in depleted uranium in accordance with the degree of depletion.",
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"plaintext": "DU is about 60% as radioactive as natural uranium. Most of the alpha radiation comes from and whereas beta radiation comes from and that are formed within a few weeks.",
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"plaintext": "The use of DU in munitions is controversial because of concerns about potential long-term health effects. Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by exposure to uranium, a toxic metal. It is only weakly radioactive because of the long radioactive half-life of (4.468 × 109 or 4,468,000,000 years) and the low amounts of (half-life about 246,000 years) and (half-life 700 million years). The biological half-life (the average time it takes for the human body to eliminate half the amount in the body) for uranium is about 15 days.",
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"plaintext": "The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced by impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites, leading to possible inhalation by human beings.",
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"plaintext": "The actual level of acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also controversial. Several studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure. According to an article in Al Jazeera, DU from American artillery is suspected to be one of the major causes of an increase in the general mortality rate in Iraq since 1991. A 2005 epidemiology review concluded: \"In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU.\" A 2021 study concluded that DU from exploding munitions did not lead to Gulf War illness in American veterans deployed in the Gulf War. According to 2013 study, despite the use of DU by coalition forces in Fallujah, no DU has been found in soil samples taken from the city,; although another study of 2011 had indicated elevated levels of uranium in tissues of the city inhabitants.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible to design civilian power-generating reactors using unenriched fuel, but only about 10% of those ever built (such as the CANDU reactor) use that technology. Thus most civilian reactors as well as all naval reactors and nuclear weapons production require fuel containing concentrated U-235 and generate depleted uranium.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s, the Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition could not penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser armor-piercing projectiles. After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium.",
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"plaintext": "The US and NATO militaries used DU penetrator rounds in the 1991 Gulf War, the Bosnia war, bombing of Serbia, the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and 2015 airstrikes on ISIS in Syria. It is estimated that between 315 and 350 tons of DU were used in the 1991 Gulf War.",
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"plaintext": "Natural uranium metal contains about , , and about . The production of enriched uranium using isotope separation creates depleted uranium containing only 0.2% to 0.4% . Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of , enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing of enriched uranium requires of natural uranium, and leaves about of depleted uranium having only .",
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"plaintext": "The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) defines depleted uranium as uranium with a percentage of the isotope that is less than by weight (see 10 CFR 40.4). The military specifications designate that the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) contain less than . In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately .",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium is further produced by recycling spent nuclear fuel, in which case it contains traces of neptunium and plutonium. Quantities are so small that they are considered to be not of serious radiological significance (even) by ECRR.",
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"plaintext": "Most depleted uranium is stored as uranium hexafluoride, a toxic crystalline solid, (D), in steel cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder holds up to of . In the U.S. of depleted had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and Paducah, Kentucky.",
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"plaintext": "The storage of (D) presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When is exposed to water vapor in the air, it reacts with the moisture to produce (uranyl fluoride), a solid, and (hydrogen fluoride), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted . Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation.",
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"plaintext": "Like any other uranium compound, it is radioactive, and precautions should be taken. It is also highly toxic. Uranyl fluoride is corrosive and harmful upon inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Ingestion or inhalation may be fatal. Effects of exposure may be delayed.",
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"plaintext": "There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States, including one in which 32 workers were exposed to a cloud of and its reaction products in 1986 at a Gore, Oklahoma, commercial uranium conversion facility. One person died; while a few workers with higher exposure experienced short-term kidney damage (e.g., protein in the urine), none of them showed lasting damage from the exposure to uranium. The U.S. government has been converting depleted to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal. Such disposal of the entire D inventory could cost anywhere from million to million.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19,050kg/m3, it is 1.67 times as dense as lead, only slightly less dense than tungsten and gold, and 84% as dense as osmium or iridium, which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. Consequently, a DU projectile of given mass has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration because of a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectiles are inherently incendiary because they become pyrophoric upon impact with the target.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium can be used as a tamper, or neutron reflector, in fission bombs. A high density tamper like DU makes for a longer-lasting, more energetic, and more efficient explosion.",
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"plaintext": "Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm ordnance, primarily the 30mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from the GAU-8 Avenger cannon of the A-10 Thunderbolt II used by the United States Air Force. 25mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and the Marine Corps's LAV-25.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier, and also in the 20mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 Cobra helicopter gunships. The United States Navy's Phalanx CIWS's M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used 20mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots and a core made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten.",
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"plaintext": "Another use of depleted uranium is in kinetic energy penetrators, anti-armor rounds such as the 120mm sabot rounds fired from the British Challenger 1, Challenger 2, M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams. Kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by a discarding sabot. Staballoys are metal alloys of depleted uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum. One formulation has a composition of 99.25% by mass of depleted uranium and 0.75% by mass of titanium. Staballoys are approximately 1.67 times as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator armor-piercing ammunition. The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5% titanium.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and flammable. On impact with a hard target, such as an armored vehicle, the nose of the rod fractures in such a way that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to ignite. When a DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle, it catches fire, often igniting ammunition and fuel, killing the crew and possibly causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120mm or 105mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams tank. The Soviet/Russian military has used DU ammunition in tank main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115mm guns in the T-62 tank and the 125mm guns in the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks.",
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"plaintext": "The DU content in various ammunition is 180g in 20mm projectiles, 200g in 25mm ones, 280g in 30mm, 3.5kg in 105mm, and 4.5kg in 120mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make hand grenades, and land mines, but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems. The US Navy used DU in its 20mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in the late 1990s to armor-piercing tungsten.",
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"plaintext": "Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons. 782,414 DU rounds were fired during the 1991 war in Iraq, mostly by US forces. In a three-week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003, it was estimated that between 1,000 and 2,000 tonnes of depleted uranium munitions were used. More than 300,000 DU rounds were fired during the 2003 war, the vast majority by US troops.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the \"legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons\". This made it clear, in paragraphs 54, 55 and 56, that international law on poisonous weapons—the Second Hague Declaration of 29 July 1899, Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907 and the Geneva Protocol of 17 June 1925—did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence \"The terms have been understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate,\" also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by the same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy materiel and kill soldiers through kinetic energy.",
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"plaintext": "The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission, passed two motions—the first in 1996 and the second in 1997. They listed weapons of mass destruction, or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons.",
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"plaintext": "The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002 by Y. K. J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the Sub‑Commission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations, the Genocide Convention, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I, the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title \"Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon\":",
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"plaintext": "Louise Arbour, chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia led a committee of staff lawyers to investigate possible treaty prohibitions against the use of DU in weapons. Their findings were that:",
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"plaintext": "According to the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, depleted uranium does not meet the legal definitions of nuclear, radiological, toxin, chemical, poison or incendiary weapons, as far as DU ammunition is not designed nor intended to kill or wound by its chemical or radiological effects.",
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"plaintext": "A number of anti-war activists specializing in international humanitarian law have questioned the legality of the continued use of depleted uranium weapons, highlighting that the effects may breach the principle of distinction (between civilians and military personnel). Some states and the International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons, a coalition of more than 155 non-governmental organizations, have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons.",
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"plaintext": "The European Parliament has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate moratorium on the further use of depleted uranium ammunition, but France and Britain – the only European states that are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council—have consistently rejected calls for a ban, maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are unsubstantiated.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution to hold a debate in 2009 about the effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained. The ambassador from the Netherlands explained his negative vote as being due to the reference in the preamble to the resolution \"to potential harmful effects of the use of depleted uranium munitions on human health and the environment [which] cannot, in our view, be supported by conclusive scientific studies conducted by relevant international organizations.\" None of the other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council supported the resolution as China was absent for the vote, Russia abstained and the United States voted against the resolution.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2008, and in response to the 2007 General Assembly resolution, the UN Secretary General published the views of 15 states alongside those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO). The IAEA and WHO evidence differed little from previous statements on the issue. The report was largely split between states concerned about depleted uranium's use, such as Finland, Cuba, Japan, Serbia, Argentina, and predominantly NATO members, who do not consider the use of depleted uranium munitions problematic.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2008, 141 states supported a resolution requesting that three UN agencies: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WHO and IAEA update their research on the impact of uranium munitions by late 2010—to coincide with the General Assembly's 65th Session, four voted against, 34 abstained and 13 were absent As before Britain and France voted against the resolution. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained: the Netherlands, which voted against a resolution in 2007, voted in favour, as did Finland and Norway, both of which had abstained in 2007, while the Czech Republic, which voted against the resolution in 2007, abstained. The two other states that voted against the resolution were Israel and the United States (both of which voted against in 2007), while as before China was absent for the vote, and Russia abstained.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 June 2009, Belgium became the first country in the world to ban: \"inert ammunition and armour that contains depleted uranium or any other industrially manufactured uranium.\" The move followed a unanimous parliamentary vote on the issue on 22 March 2007. The text of the 2007 law allowed for two years to pass until it came into force. In April 2009, the Belgian Senate voted unanimously to restrict investments by Belgian banks into the manufacturers of depleted uranium weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2009, the Latin American Parliament passed a resolution calling for a regional moratorium on the use, production and procurement of uranium weapons. It also called on the Parlatino's members to work towards an international uranium weapons treaty.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2010 the Irish Senate passed a bill seeking to outlaw depleted uranium weapons, but it lapsed before approval by the Dáil.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2010, 148 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution calling for the states that use depleted uranium weapons in conflict to reveal where the weapons have been fired when asked to do so by the country upon whose territory they have been used.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2011, the Congress of Costa Rica passed a law prohibiting uranium weapons in its territories, becoming the second country in the world to do so.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2012, 155 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution that recalled that, because of the ongoing uncertainties over the long-term environmental impacts of depleted uranium identified by the United Nations Environment Programme, states should adopt a precautionary approach to its use.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, 150 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution encouraging states to provide assistance to states affected by the use of depleted uranium weapons, in particular in identifying and managing contaminated sites and material. In contrast to the previous biennial resolutions, Germany moved to an abstention from supporting to the resolutions. Prior to the vote, in a report to the United Nations Secretary General requested by 2012's resolution published in June 2014, Iraq had called for a global treaty ban on depleted uranium weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as ballast. Examples include sailboat keels, as counterweights and as shielding in industrial radiography cameras.",
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"plaintext": "Industrial radiography cameras include a very high activity gamma radiation source (typically Ir-192 with an activity above 10 TBq). Depleted uranium is often used in the cameras as a shield to protect individuals from the gamma source. Typically, the uranium shield is supported and enclosed in polyurethane foam for thermal, mechanical and oxidation protection.",
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"plaintext": "Consumer product uses have included incorporation into dental porcelain, used for false teeth to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth, and uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories (e.g. uranyl acetate, used in analytical chemistry and as a stain in electron microscopy). Uranium (both depleted uranium and natural uranium) was widely used as a coloring matter for porcelain and glass in the 19th and early-to-mid-20th century. The practice was largely discontinued in the late 20th century. In 1999, concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were being used in \"jaune no.17\" a yellow enamel powder that was being produced in France by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel pigments. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by Cogéma's Pierrelatte facility. In February 2000, Cogema discontinued the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass.",
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"plaintext": "Aircraft that contain depleted uranium trim weights for stabilizing wings and control surfaces (such as the Boeing 747-100) may contain between of DU. This application is controversial because the DU might enter the environment if the aircraft crashes. The metal can also oxidize to a fine powder in a fire. Its use has been phased out in many newer aircraft. Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s. Depleted uranium was released during the crash of El Al Flight 1862 on 4 October 1992, in which was lost, but a case study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium from the plane to any health problems. DU counterweights manufactured with cadmium plating are considered non-hazardous as long as the plating is intact.",
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"plaintext": "US Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 establish a general license for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. This general license allows anyone to possess or use depleted uranium for authorized purposes. Generally, a registration form is required, along with a commitment to not abandon the material. Agreement states may have similar, or more stringent, regulations.",
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"plaintext": "Pen Duick VI, a boat designed by and used for racing, was equipped with a keel of depleted uranium. The benefit is that, because of the very high density of uranium, the keel could be thinner for a given weight, and so have less resistance than a normal keel. It was later replaced by a standard lead keel.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium has been used in a number of sampling calorimeters (such as in the D0 and ZEUS detectors) because of its high density and natural radioactivity.",
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"plaintext": "Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure because uranium is a toxic metal, although less toxic than other heavy metals, such as arsenic and mercury. It is weakly radioactive but is 'persistently' so because of its long half-life. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry states that: \"to be exposed to radiation from uranium, you have to eat, drink, or breathe it, or get it on your skin.\" If DU particles do enter an individual, the type of danger presented—toxic vs. radiological—and the organ most likely to be affected depend on the solubility of the particles.",
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"plaintext": "In military conflicts involving DU munitions, the major concern is inhalation of DU particles in aerosols arising from the impacts of DU-enhanced projectiles with their targets. When depleted uranium munitions penetrate armor or burn, they create depleted uranium oxides in the form of dust that can be inhaled or contaminate wounds. The Institute of Nuclear Technology-Radiation Protection of Attiki, Greece, has noted that \"the aerosol produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites or can be inhaled by civilians and military personnel\". The use of DU in incendiary ammunition is controversial because of potential adverse health effects and its release into the environment.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Department of Defense claims that no human cancer of any type has been seen as a result of exposure to either natural or depleted uranium. Militaries have long had risk-reduction procedures for their troops to follow, and studies are in consistent agreement that veterans who used DU-enhanced munitions have not suffered, so far, from an increased risk of cancer (see the Gulf War and Balkans sections below). The effects of DU on civilian populations are, however, a topic of intense and ongoing controversy.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1997, British Army doctors warned the Ministry of Defence that exposure to depleted uranium increased the risk of developing lung, lymph and brain cancer, and recommended a series of safety precautions. According to a report issued summarizing the advice of the doctors, \"Inhalation of insoluble uranium dioxide dust will lead to accumulation in the lungs with very slow clearance—if any. ... Although chemical toxicity is low, there may be localised radiation damage of the lung leading to cancer.\" The report warns that \"All personnel ... should be aware that uranium dust inhalation carries a long-term risk ... [the dust] has been shown to increase the risks of developing lung, lymph and brain cancers.\" In 2003, the Royal Society called, again, for urgent attention to be paid to the possible health and environmental impact of depleted uranium, and added its backing to the United Nations Environment Programme's call for a scientific assessment of sites struck with depleted uranium. In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning. Also, a 2005 epidemiology review concluded: \"In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU.\" Studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents continue to suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure.",
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"plaintext": "The chemical toxicity of depleted uranium is identical to that of natural uranium and about a million times greater in vivo than DU's radiological hazard, with the kidney considered to be the main target organ. Health effects of DU are determined by factors such as the extent of exposure and whether it was internal or external. Three main pathways exist by which internalization of uranium may occur: inhalation, ingestion, and embedded fragments or shrapnel contamination. Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds influence their absorption, distribution, translocation, elimination and the resulting toxicity. For example, metallic uranium is less toxic compared to hexavalent uranium(VI) uranyl compounds such as uranium trioxide ().",
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"plaintext": "Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided. It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium(VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium slowly accumulates in several organs, such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The World Health Organization has established a daily \"tolerated intake\" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of body weight, or for a adult.",
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"plaintext": "Epidemiological studies and toxicological tests on laboratory animals point to it as being immunotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, with carcinogenic and leukemogenic potential. A 2005 report by epidemiologists concluded: \"the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU.\"",
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"plaintext": "Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas, and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine. Violently burning uranium droplets produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass. Uranyl ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately of natural uranium, on average, exist in the human body as a result of normal intake of water, food and air. Most is in the skeleton. The biochemistry of depleted uranium is the same as natural uranium.",
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"plaintext": "The primary radiation danger from pure depleted uranium is due to alpha particles, which do not travel far through air, and do not penetrate clothing. However, in a matter of a month or so, a sample of pure depleted uranium will generate small amounts of thorium-234 and protactinium-234, which emit the more penetrating beta particles at almost the same rate as the uranium emits alpha particles. This is because uranium-238 decays directly to thorium-234, which with a half-life of 24 days decays to protactinium-234, which in turn decays in a matter of hours to the long-lived uranium-234. A quasi-steady state is therefore reached within a few multiples of 24 days.",
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"plaintext": "Available evidence suggests that the radiation risk is small relative to the chemical hazard.",
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"plaintext": "Surveying the veteran-related evidence pertaining to the Gulf War, a 2001 editorial in the BMJ concluded that it was not possible to justify claims of radiation-induced lung cancer and leukaemia in veterans of that conflict. While agreeing with the editorial's conclusion, a reply noted that its finding in the negative was guaranteed, given that \"global dose estimates or results of mathematical modelling are too inaccurate to be used as dose values for an individual veteran\", and that, as of April 2001, no practical method of measuring the expected small doses that each individual veteran would receive had been suggested. The author of the reply, a radiation scientist, went on to suggest a method that had been used several times before, including after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. Despite the widespread use of DU in the Iraq War, at least a year after the conflict began, testing for UK troops was still only in the discussion phase.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Society Working Group on the Health Hazards of Depleted Uranium Munitions (RSDUWG) concluded in 2002 that there were \"very low\" health risks associated with the use of depleted uranium, though it also ventured that, \"[i]n extreme conditions and under worst-case assumptions\" lung and kidney damage could occur, and that in \"worst-case scenarios high local levels of uranium could occur in food or water that could have adverse effects on the kidney\". In 2003, the Royal Society issued another urgent call to investigate the actual health and environmental impact of depleted uranium. The same year, a cohort study of Gulf War veterans found no elevated risks of cancer generally, nor of any specific cancers in particular, though recommended follow up studies.",
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"plaintext": "According to the World Health Organization, a radiation dose from DU would be about 60% of that from purified natural uranium with the same mass; the radiological dangers are lower because of its longer half-life and the removal of the more radioactive isotopes.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1991, the year the Gulf War ended, veterans and their families voiced concern about subsequent health problems. In 1999, an assessment of the first 1,000 veterans involved in the Ministry of Defence's Gulf War medical assessment programme found \"no evidence\" of a single illness, physical or mental, that would explain the pattern of symptoms observed in the group. Nevertheless, in 1999, MEDACT petitioned for the WHO to conduct an investigation into illnesses in veterans and Iraqi civilians. A major 2006 review of peer-reviewed literature by a US Institute of Medicine committee concluded that, \"[b]ecause the symptoms vary greatly among individuals\", they do not point to a syndrome unique to Gulf War veterans, though their report conceded that the lack of objective pre-deployment health data meant definitive conclusions were effectively impossible. Simon Wessely praised the IOM's review, and noted that, despite its central conclusion that no novel syndrome existed, its other findings made it \"equally clear that service in the Gulf war did aversely affect health in some personnel\". Aside from the lack of baseline data to guide analysis of the veterans' postwar health, because no detailed health screening was carried out when the veterans entered service, another major stumbling block with some studies, like the thousand-veteran one, is that the subjects are self-selected, rather than a random sample, making general conclusions impossible.",
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"plaintext": "Increased rates of immune system disorders and other wide-ranging symptoms, including chronic pain, fatigue and memory loss, have been reported in over one quarter of combat veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. Combustion products from depleted uranium munitions are being considered as one of the potential causes by the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses, as DU was used in 30mm and 25mm cannon rounds on a large scale for the first time in the Gulf War. Veterans of the conflicts in the Persian Gulf, Bosnia and Kosovo have been found to have up to 14 times the usual level of chromosome abnormalities in their genes. Serum-soluble genotoxic teratogens produce congenital disorders, and in white blood cells causes immune system damage.",
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"plaintext": "A 2005 epidemiology review concluded: \"In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU.\" A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. Gulf War combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times as likely to have children with birth defects. After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%:",
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"plaintext": "In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning. Looking at the risk of children of UK Gulf War veterans suffering genetic diseases such as congenital malformations, commonly called \"birth defects\", one study found that the overall risk of any malformation was 50% higher in Gulf War veterans as compared to other veterans.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army has commissioned ongoing research into potential risks of depleted uranium and other projectile weapon materials like tungsten, which the U.S. Navy has used in place of DU since 1993. Studies by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute conclude that moderate exposures to either depleted uranium or uranium present a significant toxicological threat.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Professor Brian Spratt FRS, chairman of the Royal Society's working group on depleted uranium, said: \"The question of who carries out the initial monitoring and clean-up is a political rather than scientific question,\" and \"the coalition needs to acknowledge that depleted uranium is a potential hazard and make in-roads into tackling it by being open about where and how much depleted uranium has been deployed.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 2008 review of all relevant articles appearing in the peer-reviewed journals on MEDLINE through to the end of 2007, including multiple cohort studies of veterans, found no consistent evidence of excess risks of neoplasms that could have some link to DU, and that \"[t]he overall incidence of cancers is not increased in the cohort studies of Gulf war and Balkans veterans\".",
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"plaintext": "Though a more comprehensive assessment is possible, a 2011 update on a cancer scare regarding Italian soldiers who had served in the Balkans found lower than expected incidence rates for all cancers, a finding \"consistent with lacking evidence of an increased cancer incidence among troops of other countries deployed in the areas of Iraq, Bosnia, and Kosovo, where armour-penetrating depleted uranium shells have been used.\"",
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"plaintext": "One particular subgroup of veterans that may be at higher risk comprises those who have internally retained fragments of DU from shrapnel wounds. A laboratory study on rats produced by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute showed that, after a study period of 6 months, rats treated with depleted uranium coming from implanted pellets, comparable to the average levels in the urine of Desert Storm veterans with retained DU fragments, had developed a significant tendency to lose weight with respect to the control group.",
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"plaintext": "Substantial amounts of uranium were accumulating in their brains and central nervous systems, and showed a significant reduction of neuronal activity in the hippocampus in response to external stimuli. The conclusions of the study show that brain damage from chronic uranium intoxication is possible at lower doses than previously thought. Results from computer-based neurocognitive tests performed in 1997 showed an association between uranium in the urine and \"problematic performance on automated tests assessing performance efficiency and accuracy.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 18 February 2021 report titled \"Resolving whether inhalation of depleted uranium contributed to Gulf War Illness using high-sensitivity mass spectrometry” by Randall R. Parrish and Robert W. Haley concluded that uranium from exploding munitions did not lead to Gulf War illness (GWI) in veterans deployed in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The report was based on a study using high-precision multicollector mass spectrometry for the first time in such a study. Their report states their study found no differences in secretion of uranium isotopic ratios from those meeting the standard-case definitions of GWI and control veterans without GWI. The researchers say that the most likely remaining causes for GWI are widespread low-level exposure to sarin nerve gas released by the destruction of Iraqi chemical weapons storage facilities in January 1991. This was possibly compounded by the use of anti-nerve agent medications and the use of pesticides to prevent insect-borne diseases in coalition forces.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2001, medical personnel working for the Iraqi state health service controlled by Saddam Hussein at the Basra hospital in southern Iraq have reported a sharp increase in the incidence of child leukemia and genetic malformation among babies born in the decade following the Gulf War. Iraqi doctors attributed these malformations to possible long-term effects of DU, an opinion that was echoed by several newspapers. In 2004, Iraq had the highest mortality rate due to leukemia of any country. In 2003, the Royal Society called for Western militaries to disclose where and how much DU they had used in Iraq so that rigorous, and hopefully conclusive, studies could be undertaken out in affected areas. The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons (ICBUW) likewise urged that an epidemiological study be made in the Basra region, as asked for by Iraqi doctors, but no peer-reviewed study has yet been undertaken in Basra.",
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"plaintext": "A medical survey, \"Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq 2005–2009\" published in July 2010, states that the \"...increases in cancer and birth defects...are alarmingly high\" and that infant mortality 2009/2010 has reached 13.6%. The group compares the dramatic increase, five years after wartime exposure in 2004, with the lymphoma that Italian peacekeepers developed after the Balkan wars and the increased cancer risk in certain parts of Sweden because of the Chernobyl fallout. The origin and time of introduction of the carcinogenic agent causing the genetic stress the group will address in a separate report. The report mentions depleted uranium as one \"potentially relevant exposure\" but makes no conclusions on the source.",
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"plaintext": "Four studies investigating links between the use of depleted uranium by Coalition forces during the Second Battle of Fallujah were conducted in 2012, one of which described the people of Fallujah as having \"the highest rate of genetic damage in any population ever studied.\" In response to these studies, Ross Caputi, a former U.S. Marine who participated in the battle, wrote a Guardian article calling for the United States government to conduct its own study into the matter. Despite its known use by Coalition forces, no depleted uranium has been found in soil samples taken from Fallujah.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, the World Health Organization reported that data from Kosovo was inconclusive and called for further studies. That same year, governments of several European countries, particularly Italy, reported an increase in illnesses and developments of cancers among veterans that served in Balkan peacekeeping missions.",
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"plaintext": "A 2003 study by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that low levels of contaminant were found in drinking water and air particulate at DU penetrator impact points. The levels were stated as not a cause for alarm. Yet, Pekka Haavisto, chairman of the UNEP DU projects stated, \"The findings of this study stress again the importance of appropriate clean-up and civil protection measures in a post-conflict situation.\"",
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"plaintext": "A team of Italian scientists from the University of Siena reported in 2005 that, although DU was \"clearly\" added to the soil in the study area, \"the phenomenon was very limited spatially and the total uranium concentrations fell within the natural range of the element in soils. Moreover, the absolute uranium concentrations indicate that there was no contamination of the earthworm species studied.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, Serbia set up a commission of inquiry into the consequences of the use of depleted uranium during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in southern Serbia and its link to the rise of diseases and tumors among citizens, particularly in young children born after 1999. NATO has repeatedly claimed that depleted uranium found in the ammunition used in the 1999 bombardments cannot be linked to adverse health effects.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1995 and 1996, U.S. Marine AV-8B Harrier jets accidentally fired more than 1500 DU rounds at the Tori Shima gunnery range but the military did not notify the Japanese government until January 1997.",
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"plaintext": "Depleted uranium has been named as a possible contributing factor to a high incidence of birth defects and cancer near the Salto di Quirra weapons testing range on the Italian island of Sardinia.",
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"plaintext": "The Canadian Uranium Medical Research Centre obtained urine samples from bombed civilian areas in Jalalabad that showed concentrations of of undepleted uranium, far higher than the typical concentration in the British population of ≈.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 December 1988, an A-10 Thunderbolt II attack jet of the United States Air Force crashed onto a residential area in the city of Remscheid, West Germany. The aircraft crashed into the upper floor of an apartment complex. In addition to the pilot, five people were killed. Fifty others were injured, many of them seriously. When the number of cancer cases in the vicinity of the accident rose disproportionately in the years after, suspicion rose that the depleted uranium ballast in the jet may have been the cause. This was denied by the US military. However, 70 tons of top soil from the accident scene was removed and taken away to a depot. Also, film material taken during the top-soil removal show radiation warning signs. 120 residents and rescue workers reported skin diseases. Medical diagnosis concluded that these symptoms related to toxic irritative Dermatitis.",
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"plaintext": "Studies in 2005 and earlier have concluded that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects.",
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"plaintext": "A 1999 literature review conducted by the Rand Corporation stated: \"No evidence is documented in the literature of cancer or any other negative health effect related to the radiation received from exposure to depleted or natural uranium, whether inhaled or ingested, even at very high doses,\" and a RAND report authored by the U.S. Defense department undersecretary charged with evaluating DU hazards considered the debate to be more political than scientific.",
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"plaintext": "A 2001 oncology study concluded that \"the present scientific consensus is that DU exposure to humans, in locations where DU ammunition was deployed, is very unlikely to give rise to cancer induction\". Former NATO Secretary General Lord Robertson stated in 2001 that \"the existing medical consensus is clear. The hazard from depleted uranium is both very limited, and limited to very specific circumstances\".",
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"plaintext": "A 2002 study from the Australian defense ministry concluded that \"there has been no established increase in mortality or morbidity in workers exposed to uranium in uranium processing industries... studies of Gulf War veterans show that, in those who have retained fragments of depleted uranium following combat related injury, it has been possible to detect elevated urinary uranium levels, but no kidney toxicity or other adverse health effects related to depleted uranium after a decade of follow-up.\" Pier Roberto Danesi, then-director of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Seibersdorf +Laboratory, stated in 2002 that \"There is a consensus now that DU does not represent a health threat\".",
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"plaintext": "The IAEA reported in 2003 that, \"based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts,\" although \"Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage.\" The IAEA concluded that, while depleted uranium is a potential carcinogen, there is no evidence that it has been carcinogenic in humans.",
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"plaintext": "A 2005 study by Sandia National Laboratories' Al Marshall used mathematical models to analyze potential health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War. Marshall's study concluded that the reports of cancer risks from DU exposure are not supported by his analysis nor by veteran medical statistics. Marshall also examined possible genetic effects due to radiation from depleted uranium. Chemical effects, including potential reproductive issues, associated with depleted uranium exposure were discussed in some detail in a subsequent journal paper.",
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"plaintext": "Elevated radiation levels consistent with very low level atmospheric depleted uranium contamination have been found in air samples taken by the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment at several monitoring sites in Britain. These elevated readings appear to coincide with Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan, and the Shock and Awe bombing campaign at the start of the Second Gulf War.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 October 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft (Flight 1862) crashed into an apartment building in Amsterdam. Local residents and rescue workers complained of various unexplained health issues, which were being attributed to the release of hazardous materials during the crash and subsequent fires. Authorities conducted an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium (used as counterbalance weights on the elevators of the plane) to any of the reported health complaints.",
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"plaintext": "About 95% of the depleted uranium produced until now is stored as uranium hexafluoride, (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder contains up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF6. In the U.S. alone, 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2005, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Paducah, Kentucky.",
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"plaintext": "The long-term storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to moist air, it reacts with the water in the air and produces UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride) and HF (hydrogen fluoride), both of which are highly soluble and toxic. Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks. The estimated lifetime of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The vulnerability of DUF6 storage cylinders to terrorist attack is apparently not the subject of public reports. However, the U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for disposal.",
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"plaintext": "Disposing of the whole DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from 15 to 450 million dollars.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": " CANDU reactor, commercial power reactors that can use unenriched uranium fuel",
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"plaintext": " Environmental impact of war",
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"plaintext": " Traveling wave reactor - a reactor that uses depleted uranium for fuel",
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"plaintext": "Scientific bodies",
"section_idx": 7,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " US Health Physics Society",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
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"plaintext": "United Nations",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " \"Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering\" (The UN 2002 report)",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Depleted Uranium and the IAEA",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Scientific reports",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " ATSDR – Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM): Uranium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services",
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58250
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"plaintext": " \"Depleted Uranium in Bosnia and Herzegovina – Postconflict Assessment\" by UN Environment Programme",
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32178
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"plaintext": " \"Radiological Conditions in Areas of Kuwait With Residues of Depleted Uranium\" by International Atomic Energy Agency",
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14984
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"plaintext": " \"Technical Report on Capacity-building for the Assessment of Depleted Uranium in Iraq\" by UN Environment Programme",
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32178
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"plaintext": " \"A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses\" by RAND",
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"plaintext": " Depleted Uranium article from the Royal Society",
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"plaintext": " An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study by Sandia National Laboratories",
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"plaintext": " Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division",
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"plaintext": " Depleted uranium (DU) normative value pilot study: levels of uranium in urine samples from the general population by AD Jones, BG Miller S Walker, J Anderson, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/03",
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"plaintext": " A normative study of levels of uranium in the urine of personnel in the British Forces by BG Miller, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, H Tait, S Dempsey, D Lewis, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/08",
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"plaintext": " Opinion on the environmental and health risks posed by depleted uranium by the Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER)",
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37,515 | 1,100,413,436 | Shaped_charge | [
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"plaintext": "A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosive's energy. Different types of shaped charges are used for various purposes such as cutting and forming metal, initiating nuclear weapons, penetrating armor, or perforating wells in the oil and gas industry.",
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"plaintext": "A typical modern shaped charge, with a metal liner on the charge cavity, can penetrate armor steel to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge (charge diameters, CD), though greater depths of 10CD and above have been achieved. Contrary to a misconception (possibly resulting from the acronym for high-explosive anti-tank, HEAT) the shaped charge does not depend in any way on heating or melting for its effectiveness; that is, the jet from a shaped charge does not melt its way through armor, as its effect is purely kinetic in nature – however the process does create significant heat and often has a significant secondary incendiary effect after penetration.",
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"plaintext": "The Munroe or Neumann effect is the focusing of blast energy by a hollow or void cut on a surface of an explosive. The earliest mention of hollow charges were mentioned in 1792. Franz Xaver von Baader (1765–1841) was a German mining engineer at that time; in a mining journal, he advocated a conical space at the forward end of a blasting charge to increase the explosive's effect and thereby save powder. The idea was adopted, for a time, in Norway and in the mines of the Harz mountains of Germany, although the only available explosive at the time was gunpowder, which is not a high explosive and hence incapable of producing the shock wave that the shaped-charge effect requires.",
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"plaintext": "The first true hollow charge effect was achieved in 1883, by Max von Foerster (1845–1905), chief of the nitrocellulose factory of Wolff & Co. in Walsrode, Germany.",
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"plaintext": "By 1886, Gustav Bloem of Düsseldorf, Germany, had filed for hemispherical cavity metal detonators to concentrate the effect of the explosion in an axial direction. The Munroe effect is named after Charles E. Munroe, who discovered it in 1888. As a civilian chemist working at the U.S. Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island, he noticed that when a block of explosive guncotton with the manufacturer's name stamped into it was detonated next to a metal plate, the lettering was cut into the plate. Conversely, if letters were raised in relief above the surface of the explosive, then the letters on the plate would also be raised above its surface. In 1894, Munroe constructed his first crude shaped charge:",
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"plaintext": "Among the experiments made... was one upon a safe twenty-nine inches cube, with walls four inches and three quarters thick, made up of plates of iron and steel... [W]hen a hollow charge of dynamite nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated on it, a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the wall... The hollow cartridge was made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can, the open mouth of the latter being placed downward.",
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"plaintext": "Although Munroe's experiment with the shaped charge was widely publicized in 1900 in Popular Science Monthly, the importance of the tin can \"liner\" of the hollow charge remained unrecognized for another 44years. Part of that 1900 article was reprinted in the February 1945 issue of Popular Science, describing how shaped-charge warheads worked. It was this article that at last revealed to the general public how the fabled Bazooka actually worked against armored vehicles during WWII.",
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"plaintext": "In 1910, Egon Neumann of Germany discovered that a block of TNT, which would normally dent a steel plate, punched a hole through it if the explosive had a conical indentation. The military usefulness of Munroe's and Neumann's work was unappreciated for a long time. Between the world wars, academics in several countries Myron Yakovlevich Sukharevskii (Мирон Яковлевич Сухаревский) in the Soviet Union, William H. Payment and Donald Whitley Woodhead in Britain, and Robert Williams Wood in the U.S. recognized that projectiles could form during explosions. However, it was not until 1932 that Franz Rudolf Thomanek, a student of physics at Vienna's Technische Hochschule, conceived an anti-tank round that was based on the hollow charge effect. When the Austrian government showed no interest in pursuing the idea, Thomanek moved to Berlin's Technische Hochschule, where he continued his studies under the ballistics expert Carl Julius Cranz. There in 1935, he and Hellmuth von Huttern developed a prototype anti-tank round. Although the weapon's performance proved disappointing, Thomanek continued his developmental work, collaborating with Hubert Schardin at the Waffeninstitut der Luftwaffe (Air Force Weapons Institute) in Braunschweig.",
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"plaintext": "By 1937, Schardin believed that hollow-charge effects were due to the interactions of shock waves. It was during the testing of this idea that, on February 4, 1938, Thomanek conceived the shaped-charge explosive (or Hohlladungs-Auskleidungseffekt (hollow-charge liner effect)). (It was Gustav Adolf Thomer who in 1938 first visualized, by flash radiography, the metallic jet produced by a shaped-charge explosion.) Meanwhile, Henry Hans Mohaupt, a chemical engineer in Switzerland, had independently developed a shaped-charge munition in 1935, which was demonstrated to the Swiss, French, British, and U.S. militaries.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, shaped-charge munitions were developed by Germany (Panzerschreck, Panzerfaust, Panzerwurfmine, Mistel), Britain (PIAT, Beehive cratering charge), the Soviet Union (RPG-43, RPG-6), the U.S. (bazooka), and Italy (Effetto Pronto Speciale shells for various artillery pieces). The development of shaped charges revolutionized anti-tank warfare. Tanks faced a serious vulnerability from a weapon that could be carried by an infantryman or aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "One of the earliest uses of shaped charges was by German glider-borne troops against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael in 1940. These demolition charges – developed by Dr. Wuelfken of the German Ordnance Office – were unlined explosive charges and didn't produce a metal jet like the modern HEAT warheads.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the lack of metal liner they shook the turrets but they did not destroy them, and other airborne troops were forced to climb on the turrets and smash the gun barrels.",
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"plaintext": "The common term in military terminology for shaped-charge warheads is high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead. HEAT warheads are frequently used in anti-tank guided missiles, unguided rockets, gun-fired projectiles (both spun (spin stabilized) and unspun), rifle grenades, land mines, bomblets, torpedoes, and various other weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In non-military applications shaped charges are used in explosive demolition of buildings and structures, in particular for cutting through metal piles, columns and beams and for boring holes. In steelmaking, small shaped charges are often used to pierce taps that have become plugged with slag. They are also used in quarrying, breaking up ice, breaking log jams, felling trees, and drilling post holes.",
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"plaintext": "Shaped charges are used most extensively in the petroleum and natural gas industries, in particular in the completion of oil and gas wells, in which they are detonated to perforate the metal casing of the well at intervals to admit the influx of oil and gas.",
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"plaintext": "A 4.5kg (9.9lb) shaped charge was used on the Hayabusa2 mission on asteroid 162173 Ryugu. The spacecraft dropped the explosive device onto the asteroid and detonated it with the spacecraft behind cover. The detonation dug a crater about 10 meters wide, to provide access to a pristine sample of the asteroid.",
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"plaintext": "A typical device consists of a solid cylinder of explosive with a metal-lined conical hollow in one end and a central detonator, array of detonators, or detonation wave guide at the other end. Explosive energy is released directly away from (normal to) the surface of an explosive, so shaping the explosive will concentrate the explosive energy in the void. If the hollow is properly shaped (usually conically), the enormous pressure generated by the detonation of the explosive drives the liner in the hollow cavity inward to collapse upon its central axis. The resulting collision forms and projects a high-velocity jet of metal particles forward along the axis. Most of the jet material originates from the innermost part of the liner, a layer of about 10% to 20% of the thickness. The rest of the liner forms a slower-moving slug of material, which, because of its appearance, is sometimes called a \"carrot\".",
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"plaintext": "Because of the variation along the liner in its collapse velocity, the jet's velocity also varies along its length, decreasing from the front. This variation in jet velocity stretches it and eventually leads to its break-up into particles. Over time, the particles tend to fall out of alignment, which reduces the depth of penetration at long standoffs.",
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"plaintext": "Also, at the apex of the cone, which forms the very front of the jet, the liner does not have time to be fully accelerated before it forms its part of the jet. This results in its small part of jet being projected at a lower velocity than jet formed later behind it. As a result, the initial parts of the jet coalesce to form a pronounced wider tip portion.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the jet travels at hypersonic speed. The tip moves at 7 to 14km/s, the jet tail at a lower velocity (1 to 3km/s), and the slug at a still lower velocity (less than 1km/s). The exact velocities depend on the charge's configuration and confinement, explosive type, materials used, and the explosive-initiation mode. At typical velocities, the penetration process generates such enormous pressures that it may be considered hydrodynamic; to a good approximation, the jet and armor may be treated as inviscid, compressible fluids (see, for example,), with their material strengths ignored.",
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"plaintext": "A recent technique using magnetic diffusion analysis showed that the temperature of the outer 50% by volume of a copper jet tip while in flight was between 1100K and 1200K, much closer to the melting point of copper (1358 K) than previously assumed. This temperature is consistent with a hydrodynamic calculation that simulated the entire experiment. In comparison, two-color radiometry measurements from the late 1970s indicate lower temperatures for various shaped-charge liner material, cone construction and type of explosive filler. A Comp-B loaded shaped charge with a copper liner and pointed cone apex had a jet tip temperature ranging from 668 K to 863 K over a five shot sampling. Octol-loaded charges with a rounded cone apex generally had higher surface temperatures with an average of 810 K, and the temperature of a tin-lead liner with Comp-B fill averaged 842 K. While the tin-lead jet was determined to be liquid, the copper jets are well below the melting point of copper. However, these temperatures are not completely consistent with evidence that soft recovered copper jet particles show signs of melting at the core while the outer portion remains solid and cannot be equated with bulk temperature.",
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"plaintext": "The location of the charge relative to its target is critical for optimum penetration for two reasons. If the charge is detonated too close there is not enough time for the jet to fully develop. But the jet disintegrates and disperses after a relatively short distance, usually well under two meters. At such standoffs, it breaks into particles which tend to tumble and drift off the axis of penetration, so that the successive particles tend to widen rather than deepen the hole. At very long standoffs, velocity is lost to air drag, further degrading penetration.",
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"plaintext": "The key to the effectiveness of the hollow charge is its diameter. As the penetration continues through the target, the width of the hole decreases leading to a characteristic \"fist to finger\" action, where the size of the eventual \"finger\" is based on the size of the original \"fist\". In general, shaped charges can penetrate a steel plate as thick as 150% to 700% of their diameter, depending on the charge quality. The figure is for basic steel plate, not for the composite armor, reactive armor, or other types of modern armor.",
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"plaintext": "The most common shape of the liner is conical, with an internal apex angle of 40 to 90 degrees. Different apex angles yield different distributions of jet mass and velocity. Small apex angles can result in jet bifurcation, or even in the failure of the jet to form at all; this is attributed to the collapse velocity being above a certain threshold, normally slightly higher than the liner material's bulk sound speed. Other widely used shapes include hemispheres, tulips, trumpets, ellipses, and bi-conics; the various shapes yield jets with different velocity and mass distributions.",
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"plaintext": "Liners have been made from many materials, including various metals and glass. The deepest penetrations are achieved with a dense, ductile metal, and a very common choice has been copper. For some modern anti-armor weapons, molybdenum and pseudo-alloys of tungsten filler and copper binder (9:1, thus density is ≈18Mg/m3) have been adopted. Nearly every common metallic element has been tried, including aluminum, tungsten, tantalum, depleted uranium, lead, tin, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, beryllium, nickel, silver, and even gold and platinum. The selection of the material depends on the target to be penetrated; for example, aluminum has been found advantageous for concrete targets.",
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"plaintext": "In early antitank weapons, copper was used as a liner material. Later, in the 1970s, it was found tantalum is superior to copper, due to its much higher density and very high ductility at high strain rates. Other high-density metals and alloys tend to have drawbacks in terms of price, toxicity, radioactivity, or lack of ductility.",
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"plaintext": "For the deepest penetrations, pure metals yield the best results, because they display the greatest ductility, which delays the breakup of the jet into particles as it stretches. In charges for oil well completion, however, it is essential that a solid slug or \"carrot\" not be formed, since it would plug the hole just penetrated and interfere with the influx of oil. In the petroleum industry, therefore, liners are generally fabricated by powder metallurgy, often of pseudo-alloys which, if unsintered, yield jets that are composed mainly of dispersed fine metal particles.",
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"plaintext": "Unsintered cold pressed liners, however, are not waterproof and tend to be brittle, which makes them easy to damage during handling. Bimetallic liners, usually zinc-lined copper, can be used; during jet formation the zinc layer vaporizes and a slug is not formed; the disadvantage is an increased cost and dependency of jet formation on the quality of bonding the two layers. Low-melting-point (below 500°C) solder- or braze-like alloys (e.g., Sn50Pb50, Zn97.6Pb1.6, or pure metals like lead, zinc, or cadmium) can be used; these melt before reaching the well casing, and the molten metal does not obstruct the hole. Other alloys, binary eutectics (e.g. Pb88.8Sb11.1, Sn61.9Pd38.1, or Ag71.9Cu28.1), form a metal-matrix composite material with ductile matrix with brittle dendrites; such materials reduce slug formation but are difficult to shape.",
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"plaintext": "A metal-matrix composite with discrete inclusions of low-melting material is another option; the inclusions either melt before the jet reaches the well casing, weakening the material, or serve as crack nucleation sites, and the slug breaks up on impact. The dispersion of the second phase can be achieved also with castable alloys (e.g., copper) with a low-melting-point metal insoluble in copper, such as bismuth, 1–5% lithium, or up to 50% (usually 15–30%) lead; the size of inclusions can be adjusted by thermal treatment. Non-homogeneous distribution of the inclusions can also be achieved. Other additives can modify the alloy properties; tin (4–8%), nickel (up to 30% and often together with tin), up to 8% aluminium, phosphorus (forming brittle phosphides) or 1–5% silicon form brittle inclusions serving as crack initiation sites. Up to 30% zinc can be added to lower the material cost and to form additional brittle phases.",
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"plaintext": "Oxide glass liners produce jets of low density, therefore yielding less penetration depth. Double-layer liners, with one layer of a less dense but pyrophoric metal (e.g. aluminum or magnesium), can be used to enhance incendiary effects following the armor-piercing action; explosive welding can be used for making those, as then the metal-metal interface is homogeneous, does not contain significant amount of intermetallics, and does not have adverse effects to the formation of the jet.",
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"plaintext": "The penetration depth is proportional to the maximum length of the jet, which is a product of the jet tip velocity and time to particulation. The jet tip velocity depends on bulk sound velocity in the liner material, the time to particulation is dependent on the ductility of the material. The maximum achievable jet velocity is roughly 2.34 times the sound velocity in the material. The speed can reach 10km/s, peaking some 40 microseconds after detonation; the cone tip is subjected to acceleration of about 25million g. The jet tail reaches about 2–5km/s. The pressure between the jet tip and the target can reach one terapascal. The immense pressure makes the metal flow like a liquid, though x-ray diffraction has shown the metal stays solid; one of the theories explaining this behavior proposes molten core and solid sheath of the jet. The best materials are face-centered cubic metals, as they are the most ductile, but even graphite and zero-ductility ceramic cones show significant penetration.",
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"plaintext": "For optimal penetration, a high explosive with a high detonation velocity and pressure is normally chosen. The most common explosive used in high performance anti-armor warheads is HMX (octogen), although never in its pure form, as it would be too sensitive. It is normally compounded with a few percent of some type of plastic binder, such as in the polymer-bonded explosive (PBX) LX-14, or with another less-sensitive explosive, such as TNT, with which it forms Octol. Other common high-performance explosives are RDX-based compositions, again either as PBXs or mixtures with TNT (to form Composition B and the Cyclotols) or wax (Cyclonites). Some explosives incorporate powdered aluminum to increase their blast and detonation temperature, but this addition generally results in decreased performance of the shaped charge. There has been research into using the very high-performance but sensitive explosive CL-20 in shaped-charge warheads, but, at present, due to its sensitivity, this has been in the form of the PBX composite LX-19 (CL-20 and Estane binder).",
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"plaintext": "A 'waveshaper' is a body (typically a disc or cylindrical block) of an inert material (typically solid or foamed plastic, but sometimes metal, perhaps hollow) inserted within the explosive for the purpose of changing the path of the detonation wave. The effect is to modify the collapse of the cone and resulting jet formation, with the intent of increasing penetration performance. Waveshapers are often used to save space; a shorter charge with a waveshaper can achieve the same performance as a longer charge without a waveshaper.",
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"plaintext": "Another useful design feature is sub-calibration, the use of a liner having a smaller diameter (caliber) than the explosive charge. In an ordinary charge, the explosive near the base of the cone is so thin that it is unable to accelerate the adjacent liner to sufficient velocity to form an effective jet. In a sub-calibrated charge, this part of the device is effectively cut off, resulting in a shorter charge with the same performance.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, the precision of the charge's construction and its detonation mode were both inferior to modern warheads. This lower precision caused the jet to curve and to break up at an earlier time and hence at a shorter distance. The resulting dispersion decreased the penetration depth for a given cone diameter and also shortened the optimum standoff distance. Since the charges were less effective at larger standoffs, side and turret skirts (known as Schürzen) fitted to some German tanks to protect against ordinary anti-tank rifles were fortuitously found to give the jet room to disperse and hence also reduce HEAT penetration.",
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"plaintext": "The use of add-on spaced armor skirts on armored vehicles may have the opposite effect and actually increase the penetration of some shaped-charge warheads. Due to constraints in the length of the projectile/missile, the built-in stand-off on many warheads is less than the optimum distance. In such cases, the skirting effectively increases the distance between the armor and the target, and the warhead detonates closer to its optimum standoff. Skirting should not be confused with cage armor which is primarily used to damage the fusing system of RPG-7 projectiles, but can also cause a HEAT projectile to pitch up or down on impact, lengthening the penetration path for the shaped charge's penetration stream. If the nose probe strikes one of the cage armor slats, the warhead will function as normal.",
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"plaintext": "There are several forms of shaped charge.",
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"plaintext": "A linear shaped charge (LSC) has a lining with V-shaped profile and varying length. The lining is surrounded with explosive, the explosive then encased within a suitable material that serves to protect the explosive and to confine (tamp) it on detonation. \"At detonation, the focusing of the explosive high pressure wave as it becomes incident to the side wall causes the metal liner of the LSC to collapse–creating the cutting force.\" The detonation projects into the lining, to form a continuous, knife-like (planar) jet. The jet cuts any material in its path, to a depth depending on the size and materials used in the charge. Generally, the jet penetrates around 1 to 1.2 times the charge width. For the cutting of complex geometries, there are also flexible versions of the linear shaped charge, these with a lead or high-density foam sheathing and a ductile/flexible lining material, which also is often lead. LSCs are commonly used in the cutting of rolled steel joists (RSJ) and other structural targets, such as in the controlled demolition of buildings. LSCs are also used to separate the stages of multistage rockets.",
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"plaintext": "The explosively formed penetrator (EFP) is also known as the self-forging fragment (SFF), explosively formed projectile (EFP), self-forging projectile (SEFOP), plate charge, and Misznay-Schardin (MS) charge. An EFP uses the action of the explosive's detonation wave (and to a lesser extent the propulsive effect of its detonation products) to project and deform a plate or dish of ductile metal (such as copper, iron, or tantalum) into a compact high-velocity projectile, commonly called the slug. This slug is projected toward the target at about two kilometers per second. The chief advantage of the EFP over a conventional (e.g., conical) shaped charge is its effectiveness at very great standoffs, equal to hundreds of times the charge's diameter (perhaps a hundred meters for a practical device).",
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"plaintext": "The EFP is relatively unaffected by first-generation reactive armor and can travel up to perhaps 1000 charge diameters (CD)s before its velocity becomes ineffective at penetrating armor due to aerodynamic drag, or successfully hitting the target becomes a problem. The impact of a ball or slug EFP normally causes a large-diameter but relatively shallow hole, of, at most, a couple of CDs. If the EFP perforates the armor, spalling and extensive behind armor effects (BAE, also called behind armor damage, BAD) will occur. The BAE is mainly caused by the high-temperature and high-velocity armor and slug fragments being injected into the interior space and the blast overpressure caused by this debris. More modern EFP warhead versions, through the use of advanced initiation modes, can also produce long-rods (stretched slugs), multi-slugs and finned rod/slug projectiles. The long-rods are able to penetrate a much greater depth of armor, at some loss to BAE, multi-slugs are better at defeating light or area targets and the finned projectiles are much more accurate.",
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"plaintext": "The use of this warhead type is mainly restricted to lightly armored areas of main battle tanks (MBT) such as the top, belly and rear armored areas. It is well suited for the attack of other less heavily protected armored fighting vehicles (AFV) and in the breaching of material targets (buildings, bunkers, bridge supports, etc.). The newer rod projectiles may be effective against the more heavily armored areas of MBTs. Weapons using the EFP principle have already been used in combat; the \"smart\" submunitions in the CBU-97 cluster bomb used by the US Air Force and Navy in the 2003 Iraq war employed this principle, and the US Army is reportedly experimenting with precision-guided artillery shells under Project SADARM (Seek And Destroy ARMor). There are also various other projectile (BONUS, DM 642) and rocket submunitions (Motiv-3M, DM 642) and mines (MIFF, TMRP-6) that use EFP principle. Examples of EFP warheads are US patents 5038683 and US6606951.",
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"plaintext": "Some modern anti-tank rockets (RPG-27, RPG-29) and missiles (TOW 2B, Eryx, HOT, MILAN) use a tandem warhead shaped charge, consisting of two separate shaped charges, one in front of the other, typically with some distance between them. TOW-2A was the first to use tandem warheads in the mid-1980s, an aspect of the weapon which the US Army had to reveal under news media and Congressional pressure resulting from the concern that NATO antitank missiles were ineffective against Soviet tanks that were fitted with the new ERA boxes. The Army revealed that a 40mm precursor shaped-charge warhead was fitted on the tip of the TOW-2B collapsible probe. Usually, the front charge is somewhat smaller than the rear one, as it is intended primarily to disrupt ERA boxes or tiles. Examples of tandem warheads are US patents 7363862 and US 5561261. The US Hellfire antiarmor missile is one of the few that have accomplished the complex engineering feat of having two shaped charges of the same diameter stacked in one warhead. Recently, a Russian arms firm revealed a 125mm tank cannon round with two same diameter shaped charges one behind the other, but with the back one offset so its penetration stream will not interfere with the front shaped charge's penetration stream. The reasoning behind both the Hellfire and the Russian 125mm munitions having tandem same diameter warheads is not to increase penetration, but to increase the beyond-armour effect.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964 a Soviet scientist proposed that a shaped charge originally developed for piercing thick steel armor be adapted to the task of accelerating shock waves. The resulting device, looking a little like a wind tunnel, is called a Voitenko compressor. The Voitenko compressor initially separates a test gas from a shaped charge with a malleable steel plate. When the shaped charge detonates, most of its energy is focused on the steel plate, driving it forward and pushing the test gas ahead of it. Ames translated this idea into a self-destroying shock tube. A 66-pound shaped charge accelerated the gas in a 3-cm glass-walled tube 2 meters in length. The velocity of the resulting shock wave was 220,000 feet per second (67km/s). The apparatus exposed to the detonation was completely destroyed, but not before useful data was extracted. In a typical Voitenko compressor, a shaped charge accelerates hydrogen gas which in turn accelerates a thin disk up to about 40km/s. A slight modification to the Voitenko compressor concept is a super-compressed detonation, a device that uses a compressible liquid or solid fuel in the steel compression chamber instead of a traditional gas mixture. A further extension of this technology is the explosive diamond anvil cell, utilizing multiple opposed shaped-charge jets projected at a single steel encapsulated fuel, such as hydrogen. The fuels used in these devices, along with the secondary combustion reactions and long blast impulse, produce similar conditions to those encountered in fuel-air and thermobaric explosives.",
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"plaintext": "The proposed Project Orion nuclear propulsion system would have required the development of nuclear shaped charges for reaction acceleration of spacecraft. Shaped-charge effects driven by nuclear explosions have been discussed speculatively, but are not known to have been produced in fact. For example, the early nuclear weapons designer Ted Taylor was quoted as saying, in the context of shaped charges, \"A one-kiloton fission device, shaped properly, could make a hole ten feet (3 m) in diameter a thousand feet (305 m) into solid rock.\" Also, a nuclear driven explosively formed penetrator was apparently proposed for terminal ballistic missile defense in the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "The Future Weapons program of the Discovery channel featured the Krakatoa, a simple shaped-charge weapon system designed by Alford Technologies for special operations deployment. The weapon consisted of a simple plastic outer shell, a copper cone and a volume of plastic explosive. This device was effective at penetrating steel plate at a range of several meters.",
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"plaintext": "High-explosive squash head",
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"plaintext": "M150 Penetration Augmented Munition",
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"plaintext": "Fundamentals of Shaped Charges, W.P. Walters, J.A. Zukas, John Wiley & Sons Inc., June 1989, .",
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"plaintext": "Tactical Missile Warheads, Joseph Carleone (ed.), Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Series (V-155), Published by AIAA, 1993, .",
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"plaintext": "1945 Popular Science article that at last revealed secrets of shaped-charge weapons; article also includes reprints of 1900 Popular Science drawings of Professor Munroe's experiments with crude shaped charges",
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"plaintext": "Elements of Fission Weapon Design",
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"plaintext": "Shaped bombs magnify Iraq attacks",
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"plaintext": "The development of the first Hollow charges by the Germans in WWII",
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] | [
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"Anti-tank_weapons",
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37,517 | 1,103,414,257 | Anti-tank_guided_missile | [
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"plaintext": "An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM), anti-tank missile, anti-tank guided weapon (ATGW) or anti-armor guided weapon is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily armored military vehicles. ATGMs range in size from shoulder-launched weapons, which can be transported by a single soldier, to larger tripod-mounted weapons, which require a squad or team to transport and fire, to vehicle and aircraft mounted missile systems.",
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"plaintext": "Earlier man-portable anti-tank weapons like anti-tank rifles and magnetic anti-tank mines, generally had very short range, sometimes on the order of metres or tens of metres. Rocket-propelled high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) systems appeared in World War II and extended range to the order of hundreds of metres, but accuracy was low and hitting targets at these ranges was largely a matter of luck. It was the combination of rocket propulsion and remote wire guidance that made the ATGM much more effective than these earlier weapons, and gave light infantry real capability on the battlefield against post-war tank designs. The introduction of semi-automatic guidance in the 1960s further improved the performance of ATGMs.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2016, ATGMs were used by over 130 countries and many non-state actors around the world. Post-Cold-War main battle tanks (MBTs) using composite and reactive armors have proven to be resistant to smaller ATGMs.",
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"plaintext": "Germany developed a design for a wire-guided anti tank missile derived from the Ruhrstahl X-4 air to air missile concept in the closing years of World War II. Known as the X-7, it was probably never used in combat and allegedly had serious guidance to target issues. It never entered service, though a few were produced.",
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"plaintext": "First-generation ATGMs use a type of command guidance termed manual command to line of sight (MCLOS). This requires continuous input from an operator using a joystick or similar control system to steer the missile to a target. One disadvantage of this is that an operator must keep the sight's reticle cross hairs on a target and then steer the missile into the cross hairs, i.e., the line-of-sight. To do this, an operator must be well trained (spending many hours on a simulator) and must remain stationary and in view of a target during the flight time of the missile. Because of this, the operator is vulnerable while guiding the missile. The first system to become operational and to see combat was the French Nord SS.10 during the early 1950s. It entered service in the French Army in 1955. It was also the first anti-tank missile used by the US Army and Israeli Defense Forces.",
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"plaintext": "The Malkara missile (named from an Australian Aborigine word for \"shield\") was one of the earliest anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). It was jointly developed by Australia and the United Kingdom between 1951 and 1954, and was in service from 1958 until gradually replaced by the Vickers Vigilant missile in the late 1960s. It was intended to be light enough to deploy with airborne forces, yet powerful enough to knock out any tank then in service. It used a high-explosive squash head (HESH) warhead.",
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"plaintext": "Second-generation semi-automatically command guided to line-of-sight, or semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) missiles require an operator to only keep the sights on the target until impact. Automatic guidance commands are sent to the missile through wires or radio, or the missile relies on laser marking or a TV camera view from the nose of the missile. Examples are the Russian 9M133 Kornet, Israeli LAHAT, the NLOS version of Spike, and the American Hellfire I missiles. The operator must remain stationary during the missile's flight.",
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"plaintext": "Third-generation \"fire-and-forget\" missiles rely on a laser, electro-optical imager (IIR) seeker or a W band radar seeker in the nose of the missile. Once the target is identified, the missile needs no further guidance during flight; it is \"fire-and-forget\", and the missile operator is free to retreat. However, fire-and-forget missiles are more subject to electronic countermeasures than MCLOS and SACLOS missiles. Examples include the German PARS 3 LR and the Israeli Spike.",
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"plaintext": "Most modern ATGMs have shaped charge HEAT warheads, designed specifically for penetrating tank armor. Tandem-charge missiles attempt to defeat explosive reactive armour (ERA): the small initial charge sets off the ERA while the follow-up main charge attempts to penetrate the main armor. Top-attack weapons such as the US Javelin, the Swedish Bill and the Indian Nag, HELINA / Dhruvastra and MPATGM are designed to strike vehicles from above, where their armor is usually much weaker.",
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"plaintext": "Fourth generation fire-and-forget anti tank guided missiles have larger range and rely on a combination of seeker for guidance. Examples include India's SANT, which has a stand-off range of , uses dual seeker configuration of electro-optical thermal imager (EO/IR) and millimeter-wave active radar homing for control and guidance with lock-on before launch and lock-on after launch capabilities.",
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"plaintext": "smokeless propellant;",
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"plaintext": "Active protection systems show a great deal of promise, both in counteracting ATGMs and unguided weapons. Compared to armor systems, they are very lightweight, can be fitted to almost any vehicle with the internal space for the control system and could, in the future, be a near-perfect defense against any missiles. The weaknesses of the systems include potential developments in missile design such as radar or IR decoys, which would drastically reduce their chance to intercept a missile, as well as technical challenges such as dealing with multiple missiles at once and designing a system that can cover a vehicle from any angle of attack. While these may be answered and allow for lightweight, highly maneuverable vehicles that are strongly defended against missiles and rockets that are extremely well suited for urban and guerrilla warfare. However, such a system is unlikely to be as effective against kinetic energy projectiles, making it a poor choice for fighting against tanks. As kinetic energy projectiles move faster than guided missiles. This often means that the sensors attached to an active protection system can't keep up. Testing in 2007 showed that explosive reactive armor, fitted to a T-72 had no impact on a missile fitted with a kinetic energy projectiles.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, before \"fire-and-forget\" ATGMs were used, the most effective countermeasure was to open fire at the location where the missile was fired from, to either kill the operator or force them to take cover, thus sending the missile off course. Smoke screens can also be deployed from an MBT's smoke discharger, and used to obscure an ATGM operator's line of sight. Other improvised methods used by the Israelis to defeat the Saggers involved firing in front of the tank to create dust. While fire-and-forget missiles have definitive advantages in terms of guidance and operator safety, and include abilities such as top attack mode, older missiles continue in use, both in the front line armies of less developed countries, and in reserve service the world over, due to their lower cost or existing stockpiles of less advanced weapons.",
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"plaintext": " List of anti-tank missiles",
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"plaintext": "Bani Hasan (disambiguation)",
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37,520 | 1,093,442,499 | Belur | [
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"plaintext": "Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.",
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"plaintext": "Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and 10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries. Medieval inscriptions displayed prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details.",
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"plaintext": "Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants were Vaishnava by faith, records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.",
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"plaintext": "Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning \"Beautiful Vishnu\") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu) with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity.",
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"plaintext": "The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning \"Lord of\". The name \"Hoysaleswara\", for instance, means \"Lord of Hoysala\". The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.",
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"plaintext": "The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi (\"Goddess of Wealth\") Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.",
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"plaintext": "The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati. Various depictions of Lord Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations.",
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"plaintext": "A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all the depictions Vishnu is holding four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name. Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the eagle (stealing the parijata tree).",
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"plaintext": "The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers (mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached.",
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"plaintext": "Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.",
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"plaintext": "Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a \"jagati\". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a pradakshinapatha or \"circumambulation path\" for circumambulation around the temple, as the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature. Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the temple follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.",
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"plaintext": "Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa, following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides. The Lakshmidevi temple at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram).",
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"plaintext": "The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration). The open mantapa which serves the purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples. Even the smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.",
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"plaintext": "If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings. Pierced stone screens (Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall) and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.",
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"plaintext": "A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two half-pillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or \"nose\" upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways.",
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"plaintext": "The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika. The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a \"remarkable feature\" of Hoysala art.",
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"plaintext": "The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely decorated and can be either stellate (\"star-shaped\") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate. In temples with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance.",
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"plaintext": "The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2m by 2m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the \"nose\"). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and above the porches.",
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"plaintext": "Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple \"eaves\" projecting half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is broadly termed \"horizontal treatment\". The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.",
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"plaintext": "In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western (Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers) on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions, elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue.",
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"plaintext": "Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.",
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"plaintext": "The are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of Chola art.",
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"plaintext": "General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance. The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.",
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"plaintext": "According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist or soapstone as a basic building material.",
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"plaintext": "Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples. The artistry of the Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.",
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"plaintext": "While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi Jakanachari, a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in shorthand as Malli or simply Ma.",
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"plaintext": "Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja, Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari.",
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"plaintext": " Architecture of India",
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"plaintext": " Vijayanagara architecture",
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"plaintext": "Review by: Ajay J. Sinha of ",
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] | [
"Indian_architectural_styles",
"Hoysala_Empire",
"Indian_architectural_history",
"Architecture_of_Karnataka",
"Hindu_temple_architecture"
] | 2,361,582 | 5,483 | 101 | 169 | 0 | 1 | Hoysala architecture | building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, in India | [] |
37,522 | 1,107,917,663 | Hoysala_Empire | [
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"plaintext": "The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved to Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malenadu, an elevated region in the Western Ghats. In the 12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the Western Chalukya Empire and Kalachuris of Kalyani, the Hoysalas annexed areas of present-day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri delta in present-day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century, they governed most of Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in the Deccan Plateau.",
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"plaintext": "The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of South Indian art, architecture, and religion. The empire is remembered today primarily for Hoysala architecture; 100 surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka.",
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"plaintext": "Well known temples which exhibit what the historian Sailendra Sen has called \"an amazing display of sculptural exuberance\" include the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple in Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.",
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"plaintext": "Kannada folklore tells a legend of a young man, Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a lion or tiger he encountered near the temple of the goddess Vasantika at Angadi, now called Sosevuru. The word strike translates to \"hoy\" in Old Kannada, hence the name 'Hoy-sala'. This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana (1117), but owing to several inconsistencies in the Sala story it remains in the realm of folklore. The legend may have come into existence or gained popularity after Vishnuvardhana's victory over the Cholas at Talakadu as the Hoysala emblem depicts the fight between the mythical warrior Sala and a tiger, the tiger being the emblem of the Cholas.",
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"plaintext": "Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadu by referring to the Yadava vamsa (clan) as the \"Hoysala vamsa\". But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India.",
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"plaintext": "Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malenadu, basing their evidence on numerous inscriptions, and calling them Maleparolganda or \"Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs\" (Malepas). This title in the Kannada language was proudly used by the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada (Jatakatilaka) and Sanskrit (Gadyakarnamrita) have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka.",
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"plaintext": "The first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I (976). The next ruler, Munda (1006–1026), was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held such titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a strong subordinate of the Western Chalukya Empire. Through Vishnuvardhana's expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Vishnuvardhana's ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. Thus the Hoysalas began as subordinates of the Western Chalukya Empire and gradually established their own empire in Karnataka with such strong Hoysala kings as Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and later Veera Ballala III. During this time, the Deccan Plateau saw a four-way struggle for hegemony – Pandyan, Kakatiya and Seuna being the other kingdoms. Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title \"Establisher of the Chola Kingdom\" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), \"Emperor of the south\" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and \"Hoysala emperor\" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). He founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore.",
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"plaintext": "The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and giving them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific \"uncle\" (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom also. Toward the end of the 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country which had been lost to the Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Major political changes were taking place in the Deccan region in the early 14th century when significant areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alauddin Khalji, the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to bring South India under his domain and sent his commander, Malik Kafur, on a southern expedition to plunder the Seuna capital Devagiri in 1311. The Seuna empire was subjugated by 1318 and the Hoysala capital Halebidu was sacked twice, in 1311 and 1327.",
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"plaintext": "By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu empire who resisted the invading armies. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and the Madurai Sultanate to the south. Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343, and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire were merged with the areas administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra River region. This new Hindu kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire.",
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"plaintext": "The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy. The kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to beneficiaries who then became landlords to tenants producing agricultural goods and forest products. There were two types of landlords (gavunda); gavunda of people (praja gavunda) was lower in status than the wealthy lord of gavundas (prabhu gavunda). The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn were staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad). The Hoysalas collected taxes on irrigation systems including tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. Irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state.",
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"plaintext": "Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian kingdoms was a flourishing business on the western seaboard. The forests were harvested for rich woods such as teak which was exported through ports located in the area of present-day Kerala. Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas kingdoms. South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar, Aden, and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia). Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and other skilled craftsmen whose trade directly or indirectly related to temple construction were also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities.",
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"plaintext": "The village assembly was responsible for collecting government land taxes. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included the original assessment (Kula) plus various cesses. Taxes were levied on professions, marriages, goods in transit on chariots or carriages, and domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records. The village assembly could levy a tax for a specific purpose such as construction of a water tank.",
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"plaintext": "In its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory. Several of their major feudatories were Gavundas of the peasant extraction. Records show the names of many high-ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari. Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari.",
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"plaintext": "The kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha, listed in descending order of geographical size. Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire.",
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"plaintext": "An elite and well-trained force of bodyguards known as Garudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death. Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II.",
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"plaintext": "King Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends \"victor at Nolambavadi\" (Nolambavadigonda), \"victor at Talakad\" (Talakadugonda), \"chief of the Malepas\" (Maleparolganda), \"Brave of Malepa\" (malapavira) in Hoysala style Kannada script. Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a tenth of the Honnu, Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga. There were other coins called Bele and Kani.",
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"plaintext": "The defeat of the Jain Western Gangas by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnavism and Lingayatism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the eighth century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta. The only places of Buddhist worship during the Hoysala time were at Dambal and Balligavi. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but nevertheless commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, evidence that the royal family was tolerant of all religions.",
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"plaintext": "During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present-day Karnataka inspired by three philosophers, Basava, Madhvacharya and Ramanuja.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of these religious developments on culture, literature, poetry and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of literature and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written during the coming centuries. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagara Empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanuja exists in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the later Kingdom of Mysore wrote Vaishnavite works upholding the teachings of Ramanuja. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. The later saints of Madhvacharya's order, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraja, Vadiraja Tirtha and devotees (dasa) such as Vijaya Dasa, Gopaladasa and others from the Karnataka region spread his teachings far and wide. His teachings inspired later philosophers like Vallabha in Gujarat and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal. Another wave of devotion (bhakti) in the 17th and 18th centuries found inspiration in his teachings.",
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"plaintext": "Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. During this period, the society became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi's administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his long military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal rebels. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi's skill in dance and music, and the 12th-century vachana sahitya poet and Lingayati mystic Akka Mahadevi's devotion to the bhakti movement is well known. Temple dancers (Devadasi) were common and some were well educated and accomplished in the arts. These qualifications gave them more freedom than other urban and rural women who were restricted to daily mundane tasks. The practice of sati in a voluntary form was prevalent and prostitution was socially acceptable. As in most of India, a caste system was conspicuously present.",
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"plaintext": "Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Europeans, Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula. Migration of people within Southern India as a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx of new cultures and skills. ",
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"plaintext": "Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function and was not limited to any particular sect of Hinduism. Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala temples however were secular and encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects, the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions. Temples built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of the agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds and professions sustaining local communities as Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.",
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"plaintext": "Although Sanskrit literature remained popular during the Hoysala rule, royal patronage of local Kannada scholars increased. In the 12th century some works were written in the Champu style, but distinctive Kannada metres became more widely accepted. The Sangatya metre used in compositions, Shatpadi (six line), tripadi (three line) metres in verses and ragale (lyrical poems) became fashionable. Jain works continued to extol the virtues of Tirthankaras (Jain saviour figures).",
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"plaintext": "The Hoysala court supported scholars such as Janna, Rudrabhatta, Harihara and his nephew Raghavanka, whose works are enduring masterpieces in Kannada. In 1209, the Jain scholar Janna wrote Yashodharacharite, the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of this work, Janna received the title \"Emperor among poets\" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II.",
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"plaintext": "Rudrabhatta, a Smarta Brahmin, was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer. HIs patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style relating the life of Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.",
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"plaintext": "Harihara, (also known as Harisvara) a Lingayati writer and the patron of King Narasimha I, wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style which describes the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the vachana literary tradition. He came from a family of accountants (Karanikas) from Halebidu and spent many years in Hampi writing more than one hundred ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Virupaksha (a form of Shiva). Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra kavya which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar.",
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"plaintext": "In Sanskrit, the philosopher Madhvacharya wrote the Rigbhshya on the Brahma Sutras (a logical explanation of Hindu scriptures, the Vedas) as well as many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools. He relied more on the Puranas than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy. Another famous writing was Rudraprshnabhashya by Vidyatirtha.",
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"plaintext": "The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.",
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"plaintext": "A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship. The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than to a tower form and height. The stellate design of the base of the shrine with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly succession of decorated tiers.) Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique. The Hoysala artists achieved this with the use of Soapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building and sculptural material.",
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"plaintext": "The Chennakesava Temple at Belur (1117), the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (1121), the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279), the temples at Arasikere (1220), Amruthapura (1196), Belavadi (1200), Nuggehalli (1246), Hosaholalu (1250), Aralaguppe (1250), Korvangla (1173), Haranhalli (1235), Mosale and Basaralu (1234) are some of the notable examples of Hoysala art. While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and lesser known temples. The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings) that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in the traditional direction of circumambulation (pradakshina). The temple of Halebidu has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture and an important milestone in Indian architecture. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are a proposed UNESCO world heritage sites.",
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"plaintext": "The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their epigraphs, often written in polished and poetic language, rather than prose, with illustrations of floral designs in the margins. According to historian Sheldon Pollock, the Hoysala era saw the complete displacement of Sanskrit, with Kannada dominating as the courtly language.",
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"plaintext": "Temples served as local schools where learned Brahmins taught in Sanskrit, while Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks. Schools of higher learning were called Ghatikas. The local Kannada language was widely used in the rising number of devotional movements to express the ecstatic experience of closeness to the deity (vachanas and devaranama). Literary works were written in it on palm leaves which were tied together. While in past centuries Jain works had dominated Kannada literature, Shaiva and early Brahminical works became popular during the Hoysala reign. ",
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"plaintext": "Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. Inscriptions on stone (Shilashasana) and copper plates (Tamarashasana) were written mostly in Kannada but some were in Sanskrit or were bilingual. The sections of bilingual inscriptions stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without ambiguity.",
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"Hoysala_Empire",
"1343_disestablishments_in_Asia",
"States_and_territories_established_in_1026",
"Empires_and_kingdoms_of_India",
"Former_countries_in_South_Asia",
"Historical_Hindu_empires",
"Jain_empires_and_kingdoms",
"Hindu_monarchs",
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] | 466,581 | 15,013 | 590 | 161 | 0 | 1 | Hoysala Empire | prominent Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the what is now Karnataka, India between the 10th and the 14th centuries | [
"Hoysala"
] |
37,523 | 1,062,638,451 | Halebidu | [
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"plaintext": "Halebidu (IAST: Haḷēbīḍ, literally \"old capital, city, encampment\" or \"ruined city\") is a town located in Hassan District, Karnataka, India. Historically known as Dorasamudra or Dwarasamudra, Halebidu became the regal capital of the Hoysala Empire in the 11th century CE. In the modern era literature it is sometimes referred to as Halebeedu or Halebid as the phonetic equivalent, a local name after it was damaged and deserted after being ransacked and looted twice by the forces of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "Halebidu is home to some of the best examples of Hindu and Jain temples with Hoysala architecture. These show the breadth of Hindu artwork traditions – Shiva, Vishnu, Devi and Vedic deities – fused into the same temple complex, depicted with a diversity of regional heritages, along with inscriptions in scripts from South and North India. The Hindu temples include Jaina reliefs in its panel. Similarly, the Jaina artwork includes the different Tirthankara as well as a Saraswati within its mantapa. Most notable among the Halebidu monuments are the ornate Hoysalesvara temple, Kedareshwara temple, Jaina Basadi temples, as well as the Hulikere step well (kalyani). These sites are within a kilometer of each other. The Hoysaleshwara Temple remains the only surviving monument in Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Halebidu is connected by road and rail to Hassan (30km), Mysore (150km) and Mangalore (184km). It is about 15 kilometers from Belur, another site known for its intricately carved Hoysala era temples.",
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"plaintext": "Halebidu is in the midst of a valley east of the Western Ghats. It is surrounded by low-lying mountains, boulders and seasonal rivers. This valley is well connected to northern Karnataka, western Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu. Around this region, between the 10th and 14th-century, the Hoysaḷa dynasty came to power, whose history is unclear. By their own 11th and 12th-century inscriptions, they were descendants of the Krishna-Baladeva-roots and the Yadavas of Maharashtra. They married into the Kalyana Chalukya Hindu dynasty, known for its temple and art tradition. The reliability of these inscriptions have been questioned as potential mythistory by some historians, who propose that the Hoysalas were a local Hindu family – a hill chief from the Western Ghats remembered for having killed a tiger or a lion, and they seized and over time expanded their power starting in the 10th-century.",
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"plaintext": "Halebidu was built anew near a large reservoir by the early Hoysala kings, with support from their governors, merchants, and artisans. They greatly excavated and expanded the Dorasamudra reservoir. Major and spectacularly carved Hindu and Jain temples were already complete by the 12th-century. Around the city were fort walls, generally tracing a rounded square-like area with an average span of 2.25 kilometers. Inside were four major water reservoirs and many smaller public water tanks. The city life, it major temples and the roads were centered near the Dorasamudra water reservoir. The city several dozen temples, of which only a small set has survived. Three set of temples – Hoysaleswara (twin temple), Jain Basadi (three temples) and Kedareshvara (one temple) – were the largest, more sophisticated in their architecture and artwork, while the rest were simpler.",
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"plaintext": "To the immediate west of the major Hindu and Jain temples was the Hoysala Palace. This palace stretched south up to the Benne Gudda (lit., butter hill). The palace is completely ruined and gone, with section lost in mounds and fragments found near the Benne Gudda. To the west of the palace was another group of Hindu and Jain temples – the Nagaresvara site, also destroyed whose ruins have been found in mounds. To the north of the original Hoysala city was a Saraswati temple and a Krishna temple, both also ruined and mostly lost. Towards the center and south of the old city were Hucesvara temple and a Rudresvara temple, evidenced by inscriptions and ruins that have been discovered. Four temples in northeastern section have survived – Gudlesvara, Virabhadra, Kumbalesvara and Ranganatha. The western part of the fortified section and beyond the fort were the historic farms that fed the population of the Dorasamudra capital. Roads connected the Hoysala capital to other major towns and pilgrimage sites such as Belur and Pushpagiri. Numerous inscriptions dating between mid 10th-century to early 13th-century attest to the importance of Dorasamudra to various Hoysala kings.",
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"plaintext": "After the first invasion and destruction of Dorasamudra in the 14th-century, inscriptions suggest that there were attempts to repair the temples, palace and infrastructure in Dorasamudra. As a condition to an end to the invasion, Malik Kafur of Delhi Sultanate demanded king Ballala to accept suzerainty of Khalji, pay tribute and provide logistical support to the Sultanate forces seeking to raid and loot the fabled wealth in the Pandya capital of Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Additional waves of wars of destruction and loot from the Sultanates ended the Hoysala kingdom and Dorasamudra's prosperity as a capital city. For nearly 300 years, Dorasamudra saw no new inscriptions or evidence of political or economic prosperity. A mid 17th-century Nayaka era inscription in Belur thereafter becomes the first to mention \"Halebidu\". Meanwhile the surviving Hindu and Jain communities continued to support and repair the temples, with evidence of living temples in what is now the northern part of Halibidu.",
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"plaintext": "The major historic monuments in Halebid include:",
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"plaintext": "Hoysaleswara Temple – the largest and most elaborate, a twin temple dedicated to Shiva with a major display of reliefs of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Vedic legends.",
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"plaintext": "Jain temples, Halebidu – three large temples in a row, close to Hoysaleswara, dedicated to Parshvanatha, Shantinatha and Adinatha of Jainism, major monolith Jina statues and intricately carved Saraswati",
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"plaintext": "Kedareshwara Temple, Halebidu – a three sanctum temple dedicated to Shiva, also with a galaxy of reliefs of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Vedic legends.",
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"plaintext": "Northern group of historic Hindu and Jain temples – much simpler architecture and limited artwork, but living temples with ruins recovered by local community; these include the Gudlesvara, Virabhadra, Kumbalesvara and Ranganatha temples.",
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"plaintext": "Nagaresvara and palace archaeological site – mounds and ruins; excavations of a few mounds have unearthed Hindu and Jain temple structures, idols and scattered parts",
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"plaintext": "Hulikere step well – one of the most sophisticated 12th-century step well in south Karnataka, illustrates the public water infrastructure in erstwhile Hoysala capital",
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"plaintext": "Museum – the park and near the Hoysaleswara temple",
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"plaintext": "Chennakeshava Temple, Belur – 16km from Halebidu, Belur was the first capital of the Hoysalas. The Chennakeshava temple is the largest pre-14th century Karnata tradition Hindu temples complex that has survived into the modern age.",
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"plaintext": "Bucesvara Temple, Koravangala – a twin temple near Hassan city that synthesizes the pre-Hoysala traditions of Hindu architecture, includes artwork from all three major Hindu traditions; about southeast of Halebidu",
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"plaintext": "Nageshvara-Chennakeshava Temple complex, Mosale – another major temple complex that presents Shaivism and Vaishnavism traditions together; about northeast of Halebidu",
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"plaintext": "Veera Narayana Temple, Belavadi – a major three sanctum temples complex, about 25 kilometers from Belur, with beautiful carvings, preserved Vesara superstructure and a galaxy of artwork from all Hindu traditions; about north of Halebidu",
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"plaintext": "Lakshminarasimha Temple, Javagal – a triple sanctum shrine from the 13th-century, with a galaxy of artwork from all Hindu traditions; A Vesara architecture, where the aedicule on the outer walls show many major variants of Dravida and Nagara shikhara (superstructure) styles; it is about northeast from Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Lakshminarasimha Temple, Haranhalli and Someshvara Temple, Haranhalli – a set of Hindu temples from 1234 CE, with a complex two-storey Vesara-architecture, one dedicated to Vishnu avatars and the other to Shiva, but they include major reliefs of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism; about east from Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Ishvara Temple, Arasikere – a Vesara and Hoysala architecture Hindu temple for Shiva that illustrates the dome-style Hindu architecture for mandapa built about a hundred years before the first invasion of Delhi Sultanate and the start of Deccan version of the Indo-Islamic architecture. It is about 40 kilometers east-northeast of Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Lakshmi Devi Temple, Doddagaddavalli – one of the earliest Hoysala temples, four sanctums and beautifully carved; ; about south of Halebidu.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola, Channarayapatna: a major group of many Jain and Hindu monuments; it is about southeast from Belur on National Highway 75, one of the most important Digambara Jainism pilgrimage site in South India.",
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"plaintext": "Nuggehalli group of temples – about to the east of Halebidu, with the Lakshminarasimha temple featuring an ingenious structure that makes three sanctums appear as one sanctum from outside; a Vesara architecture from the 13th-century. The other major temple in the village called the Sadasiva Temple, Nuggehalli is a remarkable Hoysala synthesis of north Indian Nagara architecture with South Indian ideas on architecture.",
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"plaintext": " Shravanabelagola",
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"plaintext": " Somanathapura",
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"plaintext": " Doddagaddavalli",
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"plaintext": "Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala – Belur and Halebid, UNESCO World Heritage Sites Pending Application Package",
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"plaintext": "Step well, Hulikere Halebid, Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle",
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] | [
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"Archaeological_sites_in_Karnataka",
"Former_capital_cities_in_India",
"12th-century_Hindu_temples",
"12th-century_Jain_temples",
"Colossal_Jain_statues_in_India"
] | 1,013,556 | 6,267 | 127 | 36 | 0 | 0 | Halebidu | town in Hassan District, Karnataka, India | [] |
37,524 | 1,104,690,442 | Shravanabelagola | [
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is 144km from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage destinations) in Jainism, one that reached a peak in architectural and sculptural activity under the patronage of Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have died here in 298 BCE after he became a Jain monk and assumed an ascetic life style.",
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"plaintext": "Gommateshwara statue, Akkana Basadi, Chandragupta basadi, Chamundaraya Basadi, Parshvanath Basadi and inscriptions of Shravanabelagola group of monuments are listed as Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola is located at 11km to the south-east of Channarayapatna in the Channarayapatna taluk of Hassan district of Karnataka. It is at a distance of 51km south-east of Hassan, Karnataka, the district centre. It is situated at a distance of 12km to the south from the Bengaluru-Mangaluru road (NH-75), 18km from Hirisave, 78km from Halebidu, 89km from Belur, 83km from Mysuru, 144km from Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka and 222km from Mangaluru.",
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"plaintext": "Sacred places are spread over two hills, Chandragiri and Vindyagiri, and also among the villages at the foothills.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola \"White Pond of the Shravana\" is named with reference to the colossal image of Gommaṭa - the prefix Śravaṇa serves to distinguish it from other Belagolas with the prefixes Hale- and Kodi-, while Beḷagoḷa \"white pond\" is an allusion to the pond in the middle of the town. The Sanskrit equivalents Śvetasarovara, Dhavalasarovara and Dhavalasarasa used in the inscriptions that support this meaning. There are more than 560 inscriptions in Shravabelagola.",
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"plaintext": "Some inscriptions mention the name of the place as Beḷgoḷa, which has given rise to another derivation from the plant Solanum ferox (hairy-fruited eggplant). This derivation is in allusion to a tradition which says that a pious old woman completely anointed the colossal image with the milk brought by her in a gullakayi or eggplant. The place is also designated as Devara Beḷgoḷa \"White Pond of the God\" and Gommaṭapuram \"city of Gommaṭa\" in some epigraphs.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola has two hills, Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri. Acharya Bhadrabahu and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya are believed to have meditated there. Chandragupta Basadi, which was dedicated to Chandragupta Maurya, was originally built there by Ashoka in the third century BC. Chandragiri also has memorials to numerous monks and Śrāvakas who have meditated there since the fifth century AD, including the last king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. Chandragiri also has a famous temple built by Chavundaraya.",
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"plaintext": "The 58-feet tall monolithic statue of Gommateshwara is located on Vindyagiri Hill. It is considered to be the world's largest monolithic statue. The base of the statue has an inscriptions in Prakrit, dating from 981 AD. The inscription praises the king who funded the effort and his general, Chavundaraya, who erected the statue for his mother. Every twelve years, thousands of devotees congregate here to perform the Mahamastakabhisheka, a spectacular ceremony in which the statue is anointed with Water, Turmeric, Rice flour, Sugar cane juice, Sandalwood paste, saffron, and gold and silver flowers. Recently Mahamastakabhisheka was held in 2018 during feb month. The next Mahamastakabhisheka will be held in 2030.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola, nestled by the Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri Hills, protected by the monolith Bhagwan Bahubali, and home to over 2,300 years of Jain heritage, is a veritable picture postcard of our history and heritage spanning the centuries. In the town of Shravanabelagola, stands a colossal rock-cut statue of Lord Gommateshwara Shri Bahubali. About eight hundred odd inscriptions which the Karnataka Archeological Department has collected at the place are mostly Jaina and cover a very extended period from 600 to 1830 A.D. Some refer even to the remote time of Chandragupta Maurya and also relate the story of the first settlement of Jains at Shravanabelagola. That this village was an acknowledged seat of learning is proved from the fact that a priest from here named Akalanka was in 788 A.D. summoned to the court of Himasitala at Kanchi where having confuted the Buddhists in public disputation, he was instrumental in gaining their expulsion from the South of India to Ceylon.",
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"plaintext": "More than 800 inscriptions have been found at Shravanabelagola, dating to various times from 600 AD to 1830 AD. A large number of these are found in the Chandragiri and the rest can be seen in the Vindhyagiri Hill and the town. Most of the inscriptions at the Chandragiri date back before the 10th century. These inscriptions include texts in the Kannada. The second volume of Epigraphia Carnatica, written by B. Lewis Rice, is dedicated to the inscriptions found here. It is said to be the oldest Konkani inscription. The inscriptions are written in Purvahalagannada (Ancient Kannada) and Halegannada (Old Kannada) characters. Some of these inscriptions mention the rise and growth in power of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysala Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and the Udaiyaar dynasty. These inscriptions have helped modern scholars to understand the nature and development of the Kannada language and its literature.",
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"plaintext": "Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar is a decorated free standing pillar (lit, Stambha), 2.3m tall, commissioned by Chamundaraya. The pillar dates to around 983 C.E. and exists on the Vindyagiri hill (called Dodda Betta in local Kannada language. On the base of the pillar, on the north side, is an inscription in old Kannada language of the same period.",
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"plaintext": " Vindhyagiri hill",
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"plaintext": " Odegal basadi is the largest basadi on Vindhyagiri hill. The temple derives the name from 'Odega', i.e., soapstone used for strengthening the walls of the temple. The temple houses image of Rishabhanatha, Neminatha and Shantinatha.",
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"plaintext": " Chandragiri hill",
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"plaintext": " Chandragupta basadi was established in the 9th century. The middle cell of this temple has the figure of Parshvanatha, the one to the right the figure of Padmavathi and the one to the left the figure of Kushmandini, all in a seated posture.",
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"plaintext": " Chamundaraya Basadi is one of the largest temples on the hill. It is also known as Chavundaraya Basadi. It is dedicated to Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara. The sukhanasi consists of good figures of Sarvahna and Kushmandini, the yaksha and yakshi of Neminatha. It is dated back to 982 A.D. ",
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"plaintext": " Parshvanath Basadi is one of the two tallest temple tallest structure in Shravanabelagola. the temple houses a monolithic colossal of Parshvanatha. The temple dates back to 12th century. The front of the temple has a tall manastambha.",
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"plaintext": " Kattale Basadi is the largest temple on the hill. The temple features a garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha, sukanasa and a navranga joined by 16 pillars. the temple's front is joined with Chandragupta basadi. The temple houses an idol of Rishabhanatha flanked by chauri bearers.",
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"plaintext": "The Sasana Basadi, Savitagandharva Basadi, Terina Basadi and Santiswara Basadi are other important temples on the Chandragiri hill.",
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"plaintext": " In town",
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"plaintext": " Akkana Basadi was built in 1181 A.D. Akkana Basadi has 23rd Tirthankara Parshwanath as main deity of the temple.",
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"plaintext": " Bhandari basadi is the largest temple in Shravanabelagola and enshrines idols of 24 tirthankar in arranged in a single row. The temple was constructed by Hula Raja, a general and bhandari () during the reign of King Narasimha I of Hoysala Empire in 1159 CE.",
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"plaintext": "The Mahamastakabhisheka (Grand Consecration/The Great Indian Festival), refers to the abhiṣheka (anointment) of the Jain images when held on a large scale. The most famous of such consecrations is the anointment of the Bahubali Gommateshwara Statue located at Shravanabelagola. It is an important Jain festival held once in every 12 years. It is an integral part of the ancient and composite Jain tradition. The festival is held in veneration of a high monolithic statue of the Siddha Bahubali. The anointing last took place in February 2018, and the next ceremony is going to take place in 2030. During this festival, the statue is then bathed and anointed with libations such as milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and sprinkled with powders of sandalwood, turmeric, and vermilion.",
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"plaintext": "The event has been attended by multiple political personalities including Krishna-Rajendra Udaiyaar in 1910, and Narendra Modi and Ramnath Kovind in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola is the seat of the ancient Bhattaraka Matha, belonging to the Desiya Gana lineage of Mula Sangh, from the Digambara monastic tradition. Bahubali College of Engineering is an educational institute at Shravaṇabeḷagoḷa.",
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"plaintext": "Shravanabelagola is also part of the route followed by the luxury tourist train, the Golden Chariot.",
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"plaintext": "The government of Karnataka showcased the statue of Lord Gometashwara at the Republic Day Parade of 2005 where it received the first prize from the then President of India Honourable Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.",
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"plaintext": "On August 5, 2007, the statue at Shravanabelagola was voted by the readers of Times of India as the first of the Seven Wonders of India with 49% votes in favor of the statue.",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological Survey of India has listed the group of monuments in Shravanabelagola as Adarsh Smarak Monument.",
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"plaintext": " Bhattaraka Charukeerthi Swamiji, pontiff of the Shravanabelagola Jain Mutt",
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"plaintext": " Channarayapatna",
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"plaintext": " Kantharajapura",
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"plaintext": " Shravaneri",
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"plaintext": " Belur, Karnataka",
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37,526 | 1,100,576,019 | 433_Eros | [
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"plaintext": "Eros is named after the Greek god of love, Erōs. It is pronounced or sometimes . The rarely used adjectival form of the name is Erotian .",
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"plaintext": "Surface gravity depends on the distance from a spot on the surface to the center of a body's mass. Eros's surface gravity varies greatly because Eros is not a sphere but an elongated peanut-shaped object. The daytime temperature on Eros can reach about at perihelion. Nighttime measurements fall near . Eros's density is 2.67g/cm3, about the same as the density of Earth's crust. It rotates once every 5.27hours.",
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"plaintext": "Data from the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft collected on Eros in December 1998 suggests that it could contain 20 billion tonnes of aluminum and similar amounts of metals that are rare on Earth, such as gold and platinum.",
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"plaintext": "On 31 January 2012, Eros passed Earth at , about 70times the distance to the Moon, with a visual magnitude of +8.1. During rare oppositions, every 81 years, such as in 1975 and 2056, Eros can reach a magnitude of +7.0, which is brighter than Neptune and brighter than any main-belt asteroid except 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta and, rarely, 2 Pallas and 7 Iris. Under this condition, the asteroid actually appears to stop, but unlike the normal condition for a body in heliocentric conjunction with Earth, its retrograde motion is very small. For example, in January and February 2137, it moves retrograde only 34minutes in right ascension.",
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"plaintext": " The Subtle Colors of Eros",
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37,527 | 1,102,476,776 | Alfa_Romeo | [
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"plaintext": "The first factory building of A.L.F.A. was in the first place property of Società Anonima Italiana Darracq (SAID), founded in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, with some Italian investors. One of them, Cavaliere Ugo Stella, an aristocrat from Milan, became chairman of the SAID in 1909. The firm's initial location was in Naples, but even before the construction of the planned factory had started, Darracq decided late in 1906 that Milan would be more suitable and accordingly a tract of land was acquired in the Milan suburb of Portello, where a new factory of was constructed. In late 1909, the Italian Darracq cars were selling slowly and the company was wound up. Ugo Stella, with the other Italian co-investors, founded a new company named A.L.F.A. (Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili), buying the assets of Italian Darracq that was up to dissolution. The first car produced by the company was the 1910 24 HP, designed by Giuseppe Merosi, hired in 1909 for designing new cars more suited to the Italian market. Merosi would go on to design a series of new A.L.F.A. cars, with more powerful engines such as the 40–60 HP. A.L.F.A. ventured into motor racing, with drivers Franchini and Ronzoni competing in the 1911 Targa Florio with two 24-hp models. In 1914, an advanced Grand Prix car was designed and built, the GP1914, with a four-cylinder engine, double overhead camshafts, four valves per cylinder, and twin ignition. However, the onset of the First World War halted automobile production at A.L.F.A. for three years.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1915, the company came under the direction of Neapolitan entrepreneur Nicola Romeo, who converted the factory to produce military hardware for the Italian and Allied war efforts. Munitions, aircraft engines and other components, compressors, and generators based on the company's existing car engines were produced in a vastly enlarged factory during the war. After the war, Romeo invested his war profits in acquiring locomotive and railway carriage plants in Saronno (Costruzioni Meccaniche di Saronno), Rome (Officine Meccaniche di Roma), and Naples (Officine Ferroviarie Meridionali), which were added to his A.L.F.A. ownership.",
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"plaintext": "Car production had not been considered at first, but resumed in 1919 since parts for the completion of 105 cars had remained at the A.L.F.A. factory since 1915. In 1920, the name of the company was changed to Alfa Romeo with the Torpedo 20–30 HP the first car to be so badged. Their first success came in 1920 when Giuseppe Campari won at Mugello and continued with second place in the Targa Florio driven by Enzo Ferrari. Giuseppe Merosi continued as head designer, and the company continued to produce solid road cars as well as successful race cars (including the 40–60 HP and the RL Targa Florio).",
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"plaintext": "In 1923, Vittorio Jano was lured from Fiat, partly due to the persuasion of a young Alfa racing driver named Enzo Ferrari, to replace Merosi as chief designer at Alfa Romeo. The first Alfa Romeo under Jano was the P2 Grand Prix car, which won Alfa Romeo the inaugural world championship for Grand Prix cars in 1925. For road cars, Jano developed a series of small-to-medium-displacement 4-, 6-, and 8-cylinder inline engines based on the P2 unit that established the architecture of the company's engines, with light alloy construction, hemispherical combustion chambers, centrally located plugs, two rows of overhead valves per cylinder bank and dual overhead cams. Jano's designs proved both reliable and powerful.",
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"plaintext": "Enzo Ferrari proved a better team manager than a driver, and when the factory team was privatised, it became Scuderia Ferrari. When Ferrari left Alfa Romeo, he went on to build his own cars. Tazio Nuvolari often drove for Alfa, winning many races before the Second World War.",
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"plaintext": "In 1928, Nicola Romeo left, and in 1933 Alfa Romeo was rescued by the government, which then had effective control. Alfa Romeo became an instrument of Mussolini's Italy, a national emblem. During this period it built bespoke vehicles for the wealthy, with bodies normally by Carrozzeria Touring or Pininfarina. This era peaked with the Alfa Romeo 2900B Type 35 racers.",
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"plaintext": "The Alfa factory (converted during wartime to the production of Macchi C.202 Folgore engines: the Daimler-Benz 600 series built under license) was bombed during the Second World War and struggled to return to profitability after the war. The luxury vehicles were out. Smaller, mass-produced vehicles began to be produced beginning with the 1954 model year, with the introduction of the Giulietta series of berline (saloons/sedans), coupes and open two-seaters. All three varieties shared what would become the Alfa Romeo overhead Twin Cam four-cylinder engine, initially displacing 1300cc. This engine would eventually be enlarged to 2000cc and would remain in production until 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Once motorsports resumed after the Second World War, Alfa Romeo proved to be the car to beat in Grand Prix events. The introduction of the new formula (Formula One) for single-seat racing cars provided an ideal setting for Alfa Romeo's Tipo 158 Alfetta, adapted from a pre-war voiturette, and Giuseppe Farina won the first Formula One World Championship in 1950 in the 158. Juan Manuel Fangio secured Alfa's second consecutive championship in 1951.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, Alfa Romeo experimented with its first front-wheel-drive compact car, \"Project 13–61\". It had the same transverse-mounted, forward-motor layout as the modern front-wheel-drive automobile. Alfa Romeo made a second attempt in the late 1950s based on Project 13–61. It was to be called Tipo 103 and resembled the smaller version of its popular Alfa Romeo Giulia. However, due to the financial difficulties in post-war Italy, the Tipo 103 never saw production. Had Alfa Romeo produced it, it would have preceded the Mini as the first \"modern\" front-wheel-drive compact car. In the mid-1950s, Alfa Romeo entered into an agreement with Brazil's Matarazzo Group to create a company called Fabral (Fábrica Brasileira de Automóveis Alfa, \"the Brazilian Alfa automobile factory\") to build the Alfa Romeo 2000 there. After having received government approval, Matarazzo pulled out under pressure from Brazil's President Juscelino Kubitschek with the state-owned FNM company instead commenced building the car as the \"FNM 2000\" there in 1960.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1960s, Alfa Romeo concentrated on motorsports using production-based cars, including the GTA (standing for Gran Turismo Allegerita), an aluminium-bodied version of the Bertone-designed coupe with a powerful twin-plug engine. Among other victories, the GTA won the inaugural Sports Car Club of America's Trans-Am championship in 1966. In the 1970s, Alfa Romeo concentrated on prototype sports car racing with the Tipo 33, with early victories in 1971. Eventually the Tipo 33TT12 gained the World Championship for Makes for Alfa Romeo in 1975 and the Tipo 33SC12 won the World Championship for Sports Cars in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "As Alfa Romeo was a state-controlled company, they were often subject to political pressure. To help industrialize Italy's underdeveloped south, Alfa Romeo's new compact car was to be built at a new factory at Pomigliano d'Arco in Campania. Even the car's name, Alfa Sud (Alfa South), reflected where it was built. 18 January 1968, saw a new company named \"Industria Napoletana Costruzioni Autoveicoli Alfa Romeo-Alfasud S.p.A.\" being formed, 90% of which belonged to Alfa Romeo and 10% to Government controlled holding company Finmeccanica. This plant was built in the wake of France's 1968 protests and Italy's Hot Autumn and was never \"properly started.\" The employees had mainly construction backgrounds and were not trained for factory work, while industrial relations were troublesome throughout. Absenteeism rates in the Pomigliano factory ran at 16.5 percent through the 1970s, reaching as high as 28 percent.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1970s, Alfa Romeo was again in financial trouble, with the company running at about sixty percent of capacity in 1980. Since Alfa Romeo was controlled by the Italian government-owned Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI), a deal was made where about a quarter of worker's salaries were paid through state unemployment agencies to allow Alfa's plants to idle for two weeks every two months. An aging product lineup and very low productivity combined with near-permanent industrial unrest and Italy's high inflation rates kept Alfa Romeo firmly in the red. Other creative measures were attempted to shore up Alfa, including an ultimately unsuccessful joint venture with Nissan endorsed by Alfa's then-president, Ettore Massacesi, and Prime Minister Francesco Cossiga. By 1986, IRI was suffering heavy losses — with Alfa Romeo having not been profitable for the last 13 years — and IRI president Romano Prodi put Alfa Romeo up for sale. Finmeccanica, the mechanical holdings arm of IRI and its predecessors owned Alfa Romeo since 1932. Prodi first approached fellow Italian manufacturer Fiat, which offered to start a joint venture with Alfa.",
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"plaintext": "Fiat withdrew its plan for a joint venture with Alfa Romeo when Ford put in an offer to acquire part of Alfa Romeo and restructure the company, while increasing its stake over time. However, Fiat chose to put in a bid to acquire the entirety of Alfa Romeo and offer job guarantees to Italian workers, an offer that Ford was unwilling to match. It also did not hurt any of the parties involved that an acquisition by Fiat would keep Alfa Romeo in Italian hands. In 1986, the deal was concluded with Alfa Romeo merged with traditional rival Lancia into Fiat's Alfa Lancia Industriale S.p.A. Already in 1981, Alfa Romeo's then-President Ettore Massacesi had stated that Alfa would never use Fiat engines — the engines being, to a large extent, Alfa Romeo's identity — but would be happy to cooperate fully with everything else.",
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"plaintext": "Models produced from the 1990 onwards combined Alfa's traditional virtues of avant-garde styling and sporting panache with the economic benefits of product rationalisation, and include a \"GTA\" version of the 147 hatchback, the Giugiaro-designed Brera, and a high-performance exotic called the 8C Competizione (named after one of Alfa's most successful prewar sports and racing cars, the 8C of the 1930s).",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Maserati was bought back from Ferrari and was now under Fiat's full control. The Fiat Group then created a sports and luxury division from Maserati and Alfa Romeo. There is a planned strategic relationship between these two; engines, platforms and possibly dealers are shared.",
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"plaintext": "In the beginning of 2007, Fiat Auto S.p.A. was reorganized and four new automobile companies were created; Fiat Automobiles S.p.A., Alfa Romeo Automobiles S.p.A., Lancia Automobiles S.p.A. and Fiat Light Commercial Vehicles S.p.A. These companies were fully owned by Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A. (from 2007 FCA Italy S.p.A.).",
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"plaintext": "On 24 June 2010, Alfa Romeo celebrated 100 years from its foundation.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo has been suffering from falling sales. In 2010, it sold a total of about 112,000 units, which was significantly lower than Fiat CEO Marchionne's global sales target of 300,000. The company set about to achieve a sales target of 170,000 units in 2011, including 100,000 Giulietta and 60,000 MiTo models, but it actually sold 130,000 units that year. Its medium-term target was 500,000 units by 2014 including 85,000 from the North American market. In 2017 Alfa Romeo increased production by 62 percent, building a total of 150,722 vehicles at the company's three factories.",
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"plaintext": "On January 16, 2021, the operations of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles and Groupe PSA were merged to form Stellantis and the company was renamed Stellantis Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In spite of falling sales, Alfa Romeo CEO Jean-Philippe Imparato announced in 2021 that a new model would be launched every year between 2022 and 2026, starting with the much-delayed Tonale, with full electrification of new models from 2027.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo was imported to the United States by Max Hoffman from the mid-1950s. The Giulietta Spider was developed on the request of Max Hoffman, who proposed an open top version of the Giulietta. In 1961 Alfa Romeo started exporting cars to the United States through its own dealer network.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Alfa Romeo ceased exporting cars to the United States, the last model sold in that market being the 164 sedan.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 May 2006, Alfa Romeo made its return to the US Market as announced by Fiat CEO Sergio Marchionne after a series of rumours. North American sales resumed in October 2008, with the launch of the limited production 8C Competizione coupe with Alfa Romeo models being imported by Fiat's US subsidiary Chrysler. Also in 2008, Alfa Romeo and Chrysler were reported to be in discussions over the possibility of producing Alfa Romeo cars in some Chrysler manufacturing plants that had shut down due to the company group's restructure and cost cutting. Instead, as reported by The Wall Street Journal in November 2009, Chrysler discontinued several Dodge and Jeep models while phasing in Alfa Romeo ones and the new Fiat 500.",
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"plaintext": "The next significant milestones in Alfa Romeo's North American return occurred in 2014, with the launch of the more affordable two-seater 4C coupe. That year, Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A. confirmed that its original agreement with Mazda Motor Corporation, for the speculated manufacturing of a new Alfa Romeo Spider based on the Mazda MX-5 had been terminated mutually in December 2014. The proposed model for this joint-venture became the Fiat 124 Spider convertible launched in 2015. In 2015, Alfa Romeo's return to this market was further bolstered by the automaker's display of the new Giulia at the Los Angeles Auto Show. In February 2017, Chrysler featured its Alfa Romeo brand exclusively in three ads during Super Bowl LI.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo's US importer, FCA US LLC, imports the 4C, Giulia and Stelvio.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo has introduced many technological innovations over the years, and the company has often been among the first users of new technologies. Its trademark double overhead cam engine was used for the first time in the 1914 Grand Prix car, the first road car with such an engine, the 6C 1500 Sport, appeared in 1928.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic fuel injection systems (Caproni-Fuscaldo) in the Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 with \"Ala spessa\" body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors, fed by a semi-high pressure circulating fuel pump system.",
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"plaintext": "1969 models for the North American market had SPICA (Società Pompe Iniezione Cassani & Affini, a subsidiary of Alfa Romeo) mechanical fuel injection. According to Alfa Romeo, the engine's power output and performance were unchanged from the carburetted version. The SPICA system continued until the 1982 model year with the introduction of 2.0 liter Bosch electronic fuel injection. Many examples of SPICA powered Alfa's are found still running,",
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"plaintext": "Mechanical variable valve timing was introduced in the Alfa Romeo Spider, sold in the U.S. in 1980. All Alfa Romeo Spider models from 1983 onward used electronic VVT.",
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"plaintext": "The 105 series Giulia was quite an advanced car, using technologies such as all-wheel disc brakes, and a plastic radiator header tank. It had also the lowest drag coefficient (Cd) in its class The same trend continued with the Alfetta 2000 and GTV, which had quirks such as 50:50 weight distribution, standard fit alloy wheels and transaxle.",
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"plaintext": "Newer innovations include complete CAD design process used in designing the Alfa Romeo 164 and an automated/paddle-shift transmission called Selespeed used in the 156; the 156 was also the world's first passenger car to use Common rail diesel engine. The Multiair -an electro-hydraulic variable valve actuation technology used in MiTo was introduced in 2009. In 2016, the Alfa Romeo Giulia came with electrical brakes.",
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"plaintext": "Many famous automotive design houses in Italy have accepted commissions to produce concepts and production vehicle shapes for Alfa Romeo. These include:",
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"plaintext": " Bertone",
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"plaintext": " Giorgetto Giugiaro / Italdesign",
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"plaintext": " Pininfarina",
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"plaintext": " Zagato",
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"plaintext": " Centro Stile Alfa Romeo",
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"plaintext": "Construction techniques used by Alfa Romeo has been imitated by other carmakers, and in this way, the Alfa Romeo body designs have often been very influential. The following is a list of innovations, and where appropriate, examples of imitation by other car manufacturers:",
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"plaintext": " 1960s: Aerodynamics: The 116-series Giulia had a very low Cd. Toyota, in particular, sought to produce a similarly shaped series of vehicles at this time.",
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"plaintext": " 1970s: Fairing of bumpers: In order to meet American crash standards, Alfa Romeo formulated a design technique to incorporate bumpers into the overall bodywork design of vehicles so as to not ruin their design lines. The culmination of this design technique was the 1980s Alfa Romeo 75. The process was widely copied, particularly in Germany and Japan.",
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"plaintext": " 1980s: The Alfa Romeo 164: The design process and influence of this car is almost completely out of all proportion to previous Alfa Romeos. The 164 introduced complete CAD/CAM in the manufacturing cycle, with very little directly made by hand. In addition, the 164's styling influence continues into the present-day line of modern Alfa Romeos. Most manufacturers incorporated design ideas first expressed in the 164 into their own designs, including greater reliance on on-board computers.",
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"plaintext": " 1990s: The pseudo-coupé: The Alfa Romeo 156 and 147, while four-door vehicles, represented themselves as two-doors with prominent front door handles, and less visible rear door-handle flaps. Honda has used this design style in the latest Civic hatchback, and a somewhat similar idea is also seen in the Mazda RX-8 four-seat coupé and Renault Clio V.",
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"plaintext": "2000s: The Brera and 159: These vehicles' design, by Giorgetto Giugiaro, have proven influential in sedan and coupé styling, demonstrating that concept vehicles are often immediately translatable into road car form, providing that initial design takes place using CAD systems.",
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"plaintext": "Several concept cars have been made by Alfa Romeo:",
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"plaintext": "1950s – The B.A.T. cars",
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"plaintext": "The Berlina Aerodinamica Tecnica prototype cars were designed by Bertone as an exercise in determining whether streamlining and wind-tunnel driven designs would result in high performance on a standard chassis and whether the resulting vehicles would be palatable to the public. Alfa 1900 Sprint were the basis of the B.A.T. 5, 7 and 9. The later B.A.T. 11 was based on the 8C Competizione.",
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"plaintext": "1960s and 1970s – Descendants of the Tipo 33",
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"plaintext": "The Tipo 33 racing car, with its high-revving 2000cc V8 engine became the basis for a number of different concept cars during the 1960s and 1970s, two of which ultimately resulted in production vehicles. Most made their appearances at the Auto Salon Genève. Here is a brief list:",
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"plaintext": " Gandini/Bertone Carabo (1968) – Marcello Gandini expressed ideas that would come to fruition in the Lamborghini Countach.",
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"plaintext": " Tipo 33.2 (1969)- Designed by Pininfarina using a design already known from a Ferrari concept car.",
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"plaintext": " Gandini/Bertone Montreal Concept (1967) – making its appearance at the 1967 Montreal Expo, this Giulia-based concept resulted in the production Alfa Romeo Montreal road car with a variant of the Tipo 33's V8 engine.",
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"plaintext": " Bertone/Giugiaro Navajo (1976)- A fully fibreglassed vehicle, and in some ways the epitome of Giugiaro's 'Origami' style of flat planes.",
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"plaintext": "1980s-today – Modern ideas",
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"plaintext": "In general, concept cars for Alfa Romeo have generally become production vehicles, after some modification to make them suitable for manufacture, and to provide driver and passenger safety. The Zagato SZ, GTV, and Spider, Brera, and 159 are all good examples of Alfa Romeo's stylistic commitment in this direction.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo's logo incorporates two heraldic devices traditionally associated with its birthplace, the city of Milan: a red cross, from the emblem of Milan, and the biscione, a big grass snake swallowing a child—emblem of the House of Visconti, rulers of the city in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "The logo was originally designed in 1910 by a young Italian draughtsman from the A.L.F.A. technical office, Romano Cattaneo.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1910, the Società Anonima Darracq became Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili, and was readying its first model, the 24 HP. The board asked chief engineer Giuseppe Merosi to devise a badge for the radiator shell of the new car; Merosi turned to his collaborators. One of them, Cattaneo, was inspired by the coat of arms he had seen on the gates of Castello Sforzesco to include the biscione in the logo. Merosi liked the idea, and together with Cattaneo came up with a sketch, then approved by managing director Ugo Stella; Cattaneo was entrusted with doing the final design.",
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"plaintext": "The original badge was round, of enamelled brass, measuring in diameter, and carried already all the present day accoutrements: the red cross on a white field of Milan on the left, a green biscione on a light blue field on the right, all surrounded by a blue ring inscribed with the words \"ALFA\" at the top and \"MILANO\" at the bottom. In honour of the King of Italy, the two words were separated by two figure-eight knots—named Savoy knots in Italian, and symbols of the then-reigning House of Savoy. Originally solid brass, the lettering was changed to white enamel in 1913. In 1918, after the company had been bought by Nicola Romeo, the wording \"ALFA\" was replaced with \"ALFA-ROMEO\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1925, to commemorate the victory of the Alfa Romeo P2 in the inaugural World Manufacturers' Championship of 1925, a silver metal laurel wreath was added around the badge, used (in varying form) until 1982. The addition of the wreath had enlarged the badge to diameter; in 1930 it was reduced back to .",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, after the abolition of the monarchy and proclamation of the Italian Republic, the figure-eight knots of the Savoy were replaced with two curvy lines. Concurrently the badge was completely redesigned, and further reduced in size to , a diameter unchanged ever since. Made of stamped steel, the new badge bore the traditional elements—the scripts, the cross, a newly stylized biscione and a thin laurel wreath—embossed in antique silver, over a uniform Alfa Red background, which had replaced the blue, white and light blue fields. This red-and-metal badge was used until 1950, when the company switched back to a traditionally enamelled and coloured one; in 1960 the badge was changed from brass to plastic, without substantial differences in design.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the 1970s the all-new Alfa Romeo Pomigliano d'Arco plant (near Naples) was completed. When in 1972 the Alfasud produced there became the first Alfa Romeo passenger car manufactured outside Milan, the word \"Milano\", the curved lines and the hyphen between \"Alfa\" and \"Romeo\" were eliminated from the badge on all Alfa Romeos. At the same time it was redesigned, most notably acquiring a modernised biscione and type face.",
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"plaintext": "After a mild restyling in 1982, which deleted the wreath and changed lettering and all chrome details to gold, this iteration of the badge remained in use until 2015.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 June 2015, 105th anniversary of the company, a new logo was unveiled at a press event at the Alfa Romeo Museum; together with the Alfa Romeo Giulia as part of the brand's relaunch plan. The redesign was carried out by Robilant Associati, who had previously reworked several other Fiat Group logos—including Fiat Automobiles' and Lancia's.",
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"plaintext": "The logo colors have been reduced from four to three: the green of the biscione, the red of the cross, and the dark blue of the surrounding ring. Other changes are a new serif type face, and the absence of the split white and light blue fields, replaced by a single silver textured background.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1923, the quadrifoglio logo (also called the 'cloverleaf') has been the symbol of Alfa Romeo racing cars and since WWII, it has also been used to designate the higher trim models of the range. The quadrifoglio is usually placed on the side panels of the car, above or behind the front wheels—on the front wings in the case of modern vehicles. The logo consists of a green cloverleaf with four leaves, contained with a white triangle. There is \"two Quadrifolio\"",
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"plaintext": "- Quadrifolio Verde",
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"plaintext": "- Quadrifolio Oro",
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"plaintext": "The quadrifoglio has been used on Alfa Romeo cars since the death of Ugo Sivocci in 1923. As a friend of Enzo Ferrari, Sivocci was hired by Alfa Romeo in 1920 to drive in the four-man works team—Alfa Corse—with Antonio Ascari, Giuseppe Campari, and Enzo Ferrari. Sivocci was thought to have enormous experience, but often hampered by bad luck and considered the eternal second-placer. To banish his bad luck, when the Targa Florio came around, the driver painted a white square with a green four-leaf clover (the quadrifoglio) in the centre of the grille of his car. Sivocci had immediate success, crossing the finish line first. The quadrifoglio subsequently became the symbol of the racing Alfa Romeos with the victory at the Targa Florio. Almost as if to prove the magic effects of this symbol, Sivocci was killed while testing Merosi's new P1 at Monza, a few months after winning the Targa Florio. The Salerno driver's P1, which went off the track on a bend, did not have the quadrifoglio. Since this period in 1923, the bodies of Alfa Romeo racing cars have been adorned with the quadrifoglio as a lucky charm. The white square was replaced with a triangle in memory of Ugo Sivocci.",
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"plaintext": "The first road car to bear the quadrifoglio was the 1963 Alfa Romeo Giulia TI Super, a variant of the Giulia saloon car devised for competition but put regularly on sale; it had green four-leaf clovers on its front wings, without the triangle.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s \"Quadrifoglio Verde\" or \"Green Cloverleaf\" became the trim level for each model's sportiest variant, equipped with the most powerful engine. The Alfasud, Sprint, 33, 75, 164 and 145 all had Quadrifoglio Verde versions.",
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"plaintext": "Also in the 1970s and through the 1980s golden four-leaf clover badges were used to denote the most luxurious and well-equipped variants of Alfa Romeo cars, named \"Quadrifoglio Oro\" or \"Gold Cloverleaf\".",
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"plaintext": "The Alfasud, Alfetta, Alfa 6, 90 and 33 had Quadrifoglio Oro versions.",
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"plaintext": "In recent times the quadrifoglio was revived on the 2007 Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione and Spider sports cars. With the current Alfa Romeo MiTo and Giulietta the Quadrifoglio Verde was reinstated as the sportiest trim level in the range, and green four-leaf clovers on the front wings are once again the hallmark of high-performance Alfa Romeos.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo's 2016 sport sedan, the all-new Giulia, was launched first in Quadrifoglio trim before the release of the base models. Starting with the high-end model wearing that historic signature emblem.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo has been involved with motor racing since 1911, when it entered two 24 HP models in Targa Florio competition. Alfa Romeo won the first World Manufacturers' Championship in 1925 and the first AIACR European Championship in 1931 and it scored wins at many races and motoring events such as Targa Florio, Mille Miglia and Le Mans. Great success continued with Formula One, when Alfa Romeo won the first World Formula One Championship in 1950 and won the second Formula One Championship in 1951. The company also won international championships in Prototypes, Touring and Fast Touring categories in the 1960s and 1970s. Private drivers also entered some rally competitions, with good results. Alfa Romeo has competed both as a constructor and an engine supplier, via works entries Alfa Corse, Autodelta and private entries. Alfa Romeo's factory racing team was outsourced to Enzo Ferrari's Scuderia Ferrari between 1933 and 1938. Drivers included Tazio Nuvolari, who won the 1935 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo have been in a technical partnership with the Sauber F1 Team since 2018, and since 2019 have competed in Formula One solely as Alfa Romeo.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo has won 5 FIA European Formula 3 Championships and 5 FIA European Formula 3 Cups with the support from the Alfa Romeo Stable Euroracing who created motor for the Formula 3 championship, and with the support of Italian motor company Novamotor which work in the Formula 3 competition",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the main Alfa Romeo factory was moved from inside Milan to a very large and nearby area extending over the municipalities of Arese, Lainate and Garbagnate Milanese. However, since then the factory was moved to Arese, as the offices and the main entrance of the area were located there.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1960s, a number of European automobile manufacturers established facilities in South Africa to assemble right hand drive vehicles. Fiat and other Italian manufacturers established factories along with these other manufacturers, Alfa-Romeos were assembled in Brits, outside Pretoria in the Transvaal Province of South Africa. With the imposition of sanctions by Western powers in the 1970s and 1980s, South Africa became self-sufficient, and in car production came to rely more and more on the products from local factories. This led to a remarkable set of circumstances where between 1972 and 1989, South Africa had the greatest number of Alfa Romeos on the road outside of Italy. Another astonishing fact is that the Alfa Romeos Brits plant was used from March 1983 until late 1985 to build Daihatsu Charades for local consumption, but also for export to Italy in order to skirt Italian limits on Japanese imports. For the last year the company was operating, the Daihatsu represented close to half of Alfa Romeo S.A. Ltd.'s total production.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1985, with the impending Fiat takeover and an international boycott of the South African Apartheid government, Alfa Romeo withdrew from the market and closed the plant.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1990s, Alfa Romeo moved car production to other districts in Italy. The Pomigliano d’Arco plant produced the 155, followed by the 145 and the 146, while the Arese plant manufactured the SZ and RZ sports cars, the 164, the new Spider and the GTV. The 156 was launched in 1997, and became quite successful for Alfa Romeo; in 1998 it was voted \"Car of the Year\". The same year a new flagship, the 166 (assembled in Rivalta, near Turin) was launched. At the beginning of the third millennium, the 147 was released, which won the prestigious title of \"Car of the Year 2001\". In 2003 the Arese factory was closed while only having some offices and the Alfa Romeo Historical Museum.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo Giulia",
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"plaintext": "The new Giulia was unveiled to the press at the Museo Storico Alfa Romeo in Arese, on 24 June 2015. This coincided with the company's 105th anniversary and saw the introduction of a revised logo. Sales were about 34,000 examples per year (2018), then fell to 20,000 per year (2019).",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo Stelvio",
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"plaintext": "The Stelvio was unveiled at the 2016 Los Angeles Auto Show. The Stelvio is Alfa Romeo's first production SUV that competes in the same category as the Porsche Macan, Jaguar F-Pace, Audi Q5, Mercedes-Benz GLC and BMW X3. It is current top Alfa sales with less than 40,000 examples per year (2019).",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo Tonale",
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"plaintext": "The Tonale is a subcompact crossover SUV (C-segment) introduced in March 2022 and the first new model introduced by the brand in six years and the first model introduced under the brand of Stellantis.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, Alfa Romeo became famous for its small cars and models specifically designed for the Italian police and Carabinieri (arm of the Italian armed forces seconded only partly for civilian policing purposes); among them the \"Giulia Super\" and the 2600 Sprint GT. The colours of the Alfa Romeos used by the Polizia were/are green/blue with white stripes and writing, known as \"Pantera\" (Panther), enhancing the aggressive look of the cars (particularly the Giulia series), while the Carabinieri Alfas are dark blue with white roofs and red stripes, known as the \"Gazzella\" (Gazelle) denoting the speed and agility of these \"Pattuglie\" (patrol cars). However, the term \"Pantera\" became used interchangeably and the image helped create a no-nonsense, determined and respected perception by the general public of the men that drove these cars, true to their history.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1313023,
45173
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
99,
113
],
[
118,
129
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Since then, Alfa Romeos remain the chosen mount of the Carabinieri, Polizia Autostradale (highway police), Guardia di Finanza (fiscal law enforcement) and the conventional police service (Polizia). Successively, the following Alfa Romeo cars have found favour for Italian police and government employment",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
44013914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
107,
125
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo AR51",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
9912502
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo Giulia",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
2387032
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo Alfetta",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
3444954
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo Giulietta",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
9263305
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 33 (Polizia di Stato only)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
963017,
1313023
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
15
],
[
17,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 75",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1635257
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 164 (official vehicles)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
963095
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 155",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
965402
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 156",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
837885
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 166 (official vehicles)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
2521150
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo 159",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1536997
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "• Alfa Romeo Giulia (Carabinieri, 2 Giulia Quadrifoglio - Polizia di Stato, 2 Giulia Veloce Q4)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
27912435,
45173,
1313023
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
19
],
[
21,
32
],
[
58,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Since the 1960s, the Italian Prime Minister has used Alfa Romeos (and lately the new Maserati Quattroporte) as preferred government limousines. The 164 and 166 have found particular employment in the last two decades.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1245350
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
85,
106
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 1930, Alfa Romeo presented a light truck in addition to heavy LCVs based on Büssing constructions. In the Second World War Alfa Romeo also built trucks for the Italian army (\"35 tons anywhere\") and later also for the German Wehrmacht. After the war, commercial motor vehicle production was resumed.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
7542101,
21376046
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
79,
86
],
[
227,
236
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In co-operation with FIAT and Saviem starting from the 1960s different light truck models were developed.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
19553302,
5049544
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
25
],
[
30,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The production of heavy LCVs in Italy was terminated in 1967. Heavy trucks continued to be built for a few years in Brazil by Alfa Romeo subsidiary Fábrica Nacional de Motores under the name FNM. The last Alfa Romeo vans were the Alfa Romeo AR6 and AR8, rebadged versions of Iveco Daily and Fiat Ducato. The company also produced trolleybuses for many systems in Italy, Latin America, Sweden, Greece, Germany, Turkey and South Africa. Later, Alfa Romeo concentrated only on passenger car manufacturing.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
3383,
18165559,
54416
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
116,
122
],
[
148,
175
],
[
330,
340
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "LCVs",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Romeo (1954–1958)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
23970006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Romeo 2 (until 1966)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
23970006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Romeo 3 (1966)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
23970006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo A11/F11 (1954–1983)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
23970006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo A12/F12",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
23970006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " AR8 (based on first generation Iveco Daily)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
13690837
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " AR6 (based on first generation Fiat Ducato)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1415821
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo F20 (Saviem license)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54759454,
5049544
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
17,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Trucks",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 50 \"Biscione\" (Büssing-NAG 50)/ 80 (1931–1934)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36667460,
7542101
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
27,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 85 / 110 (1934 – n/a)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36881247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 350 (1935 – n/a)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36881270
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 430 (1942–1950)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
33626482
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 450/455 (1947–1959)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
47901694
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 500 (1937–1945)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
34235141
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 800 (1940–1943)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
33644591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 900 (1947–1954)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 950 (1954–1958)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Mille (Alfa Romeo 1000) (1958–1964)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
34236217
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo A15 (Saviem license)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54759454
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo A19 (Saviem license)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54759454
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo A38 (Saviem license)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54759454
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Buses",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 40A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36871028
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 80A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36871098
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 85A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
40946654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 110A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36647890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 140A (1950–1958)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36649316
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 150A (1958)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36654045
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 430A (1949–1953)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36649481
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 500A (1945–1948)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36667337
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 800A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 900A (1953–1956)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36654129
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 902A (1957–1959)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36658214
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 950A",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Mille (bus) (Alfa Romeo 1000) (1960–1964)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37049862
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Trolleybuses",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 85AF (1936-1940)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37527
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 110AF (1938)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36881369
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 140AF (1949)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
36905700
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 800AF (1950–1954)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37013030
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 900AF (1955–1957)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37013051
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 911AF (1959–1960)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37527
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Mille Aerfer (1960–1963)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37527
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Mille AF (1959–1964)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Automobiles",
"target_page_ids": [
37049862
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Although Alfa Romeo is best known as automobile manufacturer it has also produced commercial vehicles of various size, railway locomotives, tractors, buses, trams, compressors, generators, an electric cooker, marine and aircraft engines.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "An Alfa engine was first used on an aircraft in 1910 on the Santoni-Franchini biplane. In 1932 Alfa Romeo built its first real aircraft engine, the D2 (240bhp), fitted to Caproni 101 D2. In the 1930s when Alfa Romeo engines were used for aircraft on a larger scale; the Savoia Marchetti SM.74, Savoia-Marchetti SM.75, Savoia-Marchetti SM.79, Savoia Marchetti SM.81 and Cant Z506B Airone all used Alfa Romeo manufactured engines. In 1931, a competition was arranged where Tazio Nuvolari drove his Alfa Romeo 8C 3000 Monza against a Caproni Ca.100 airplane. Alfa Romeo built various aircraft engines during the Second World War; the best known was the RA.1000 RC 41-I Monsone, a licensed version of the Daimler-Benz DB 601. This engine made it possible to build efficient fighter aircraft like the Macchi C.202 Folgore for the Italian army. After the Second World War Alfa Romeo produced engines for Fiat, Aerfer and Ambrosini. In the 1960s Alfa Romeo mainly focused upgrading and maintaining Curtiss-Wright, Pratt & Whitney, Rolls-Royce and General Electric aircraft engines. Alfa Romeo also built Italy's first turbine engine, installed to the Beechcraft King Air. Alfa Romeo's Avio division was sold to Aeritalia in 1988, from 1996 it was part of Fiat Avio. Alfa Avio was also part of developing team to the new T700-T6E1 engine to the NHI NH90 helicopter.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
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4933344,
10234790,
494336,
1650412,
4807191,
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1631712,
12869875,
32927,
1091464,
176527,
1030820,
10983081,
218291,
51519,
5455080,
12730,
31039,
729142,
560659,
513911
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"anchor_spans": [
[
171,
185
],
[
270,
292
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[
294,
316
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[
318,
340
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[
342,
364
],
[
369,
386
],
[
471,
485
],
[
496,
509
],
[
531,
545
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[
609,
625
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[
701,
720
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[
796,
816
],
[
904,
910
],
[
915,
924
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[
991,
1005
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[
1007,
1022
],
[
1024,
1035
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[
1040,
1056
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[
1111,
1125
],
[
1144,
1163
],
[
1204,
1213
],
[
1337,
1345
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo also produced marine engines. The first marine engine was produced in 1929. Later, for three consecutive years: 1937-1938-1939 with remarkable affirmations, Alfa Romeo demonstrated its constructive efficiency by contributing to the development of marine engines.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (1938) 12 cyl (4.500) 121,710km/h",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo D2",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
12946200
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 110",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
10635612
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 115",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
10615124
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 121",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
10615167
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 125",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
12975810
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 126",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
12975810
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 128",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
12975810
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo 135",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
12976802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Lynx",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
5257719
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Mercurius",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
147260
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo RA.1000",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
1091464
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo RA-1050",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Other production",
"target_page_ids": [
2335068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo R.C.10",
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"plaintext": "During the years Alfa Romeo has been marketed with different slogans like: \"The family car that wins races\" used in the 1950s in Alfa Romeo 1900 marketing campaign, \"racing since 1911\" used on most 1960s Alfa advertisements, In the 1970s the Alfa Romeo 1750 GTV was marketed as \"if this kind of handling is good enough for our racing cars, it's good enough for you.\" The Giulia Sprint GTA was marketed as \"The car you drive to work is a champion\".",
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"plaintext": "More recent slogans used are \"Mediocrity is a sin\", \"Driven by Passion\", \"Cuore Sportivo\", \"Beauty is not enough\" and present day \"Without heart we would be mere machines\". Also other more recent ones are: \"It's not a car, it's an Alfa Romeo.\", one of them after a couple argue in Italian.",
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"plaintext": "As part of its marketing policy, Alfa Romeo sponsors a number of sporting events, such as the Mille Miglia rally. It has sponsored the SBK Superbike World Championship and Ducati Corse since 2007, and the Goodwood Festival of Speed for many years, and was one of the featured brands in 2010 when Alfa Romeo celebrated its 100th anniversary. The Alfa Romeo Giulietta has been used since Monza 2010 race as the safety car in Superbike World Championship events. Alfa Romeo has been also shirt sponsor of Eintracht Frankfurt football club in period between 2013 and 2016.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Alfa Romeo I, the first Alfa Romeo super maxi yacht was launched. It finished first in at least 74 races including the 2002 Sydney—Hobart Race. Alfa Romeo II, commissioned in 2005, measures LOA. It set a new elapsed-time record for monohulls in the 2009 Transpac race, of 5 days, 14 hours, 36 minutes, 20 seconds. It finished first in at least 140 races. In mid-2008 Alfa Romeo III was launched for competitive fleet racing under the IRC rule. Alfa Romeo III measures LOA and features interior design styled after the Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC motoring show Top Gear repeatedly argued the significance of owning an Alfa Romeo car as a car enthusiast, stating that \"You can't be a true petrolhead if you have never owned/or wanted to own an Alfa Romeo\". Presenters Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May continuously praised Alfas for their beauty and driving characteristics even though Italian cars had a long-term bad reputation for unreliability. They argued that you (the owner) build a personal relationship with the car despite all of its mechanical faults. Both Clarkson and May have previously owned Alfas (a GTV6 for Clarkson and an Alfa 164 for May) and both have stated that they regretted selling their Alfas the most.",
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"plaintext": "As part of its U.S. relaunch, Alfa Romeo ran three commercials during Super Bowl LI; the brand was the sole marque advertised by FCA during the game, after exclusively focusing on its Jeep brand at Super Bowl 50.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2013, Alfa Romeo sponsored University of St Andrews FS fashion show which saw luxury fashion designer Luke Archer and milliner George Jenkins win with their Alfa Romeo inspired garments.",
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"plaintext": "Alfa Romeo announced Zhou Guanyu as China's first ever Formula One racing driver for the 2022 season, hailed by both the team and the sport as a historic breakthrough in a key growth market.",
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"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo Arese Plant",
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"plaintext": " Circuito di Balocco",
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"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo engines",
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"plaintext": " Alfa Romeo people",
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"plaintext": " Borgeson, Griffith (1990). The Alfa Romeo Tradition. Haynes (Foulis) Publishing Group. Somerset, UK. .",
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"plaintext": " Braden, Pat (1994). Alfa Romeo Owner's Bible Cambridge: Bentley Publishers. .",
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"plaintext": " Stefano d' Amico and Maurizio Tabuchi (2004). Alfa Romeo Production Cars. Giorgio NADA Editore. .",
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"plaintext": " Hull and Slater (1982). Alfa Romeo: a History. Transport Bookman Publications. .",
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"plaintext": " Venables, David (2000). First among Champions. Osceola: Motorbooks International. .",
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"plaintext": " Owen, David. Great Marques, Alfa Romeo. London: Octopus Books, 1985. ",
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"plaintext": " Owen, David. Alfa Romeo: Always with Passion. Haynes Publications, 1999. ",
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"plaintext": " Moore, Simon (1987). Immortal 2.9. Parkside Pubns. .",
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"plaintext": " Mcdonough, E., & Collins, P. (2005). Alfa Romeo Tipo 33. Veloce Publishing. ",
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"plaintext": " Tipler, John. Alfa Romeo Spider, The complete history. Crowood Press (UK), 1998. ",
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"plaintext": " Styles, David G. \"Alfa Romeo – The Legend Revived\", Dalton Watson 1989. ",
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"plaintext": " Styles, David G. \"Alfa Romeo – Spider, Alfasud & Alfetta GT\", Crowood Press 1992. ",
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"plaintext": " Styles, David G. \"Alfa Romeo – The Spirit of Milan\", Sutton Publishing 1999. ",
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"plaintext": "The episodes all contain a different set of enemies in their levels, which the player must kill, stun, or avoid. These enemies are typically aliens or robots. Levels can also include hazards, such as electricity or spikes; touching a hazard or most enemies causes Keen to lose a life, and the game is ended if all of Keen's lives are lost. Invasion of the Vorticons features a raygun that Keen can use ammo for to kill enemies; Keen Dreams exchanges this for flower power pellets that temporarily stun enemies when thrown, episodes four through six use a stun gun that permanently stuns enemies, and the 2001 Commander Keen has a stun gun that temporarily stuns enemies unless they are then killed with a pogo jump. The player can also find food items throughout the levels which grant points, with an extra life awarded with enough points. There are also colored keycards which grant access to locked parts of levels, collectable items that award an extra life beginning with episode four, and items that grant an instant extra life.",
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"plaintext": "In the first episode, \"Marooned on Mars\", eight-year-old Billy Blaze, a child genius, builds a spaceship (the \"Beans with Bacon Megarocket\") and puts on his older brother's football helmet to become Commander Keen. One night while his parents are out of the house he flies to Mars to explore; while away from the ship the Vorticons steal four vital components and hide them in Martian cities. Keen journeys through Martian cities and outposts to find the components, despite the efforts of Martians and robots; the final component is guarded by a Vorticon. Keen returns to Earth—discovering a Vorticon mothership in orbit—and beats his parents home. In \"The Earth Explodes\" he travels through the mothership and disables its weapons, at the end discovering that the Vorticons are being mind-controlled by the mysterious Grand Intellect, who is actually behind the attack on Earth. In \"Keen Must Die\" he fights through the cities and outposts of the Vorticon home planet to reach the Grand Intellect, who is revealed to be his school rival Mortimer McMire, who he then defeats.",
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"plaintext": "In Keen Dreams, which is set outside of the main continuity, Keen falls asleep after dinner and wakes up in his pajamas in bed on top of a hill. After being told by potato soldiers that he is now the slave of King Boobus Toober, and being asked by another child to save them, he journeys through the vegetable-themed land to defeat the King, waking up in his bed at home afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "The main series of games continues in \"Secret of the Oracle\", where Keen builds a faster-than-light radio and overhears plans by a race of aliens known as the Shikadi to destroy the galaxy. He flies off to the Oracle on the planet of Gnosticus IV, only to discover that the Gnosticenes that run the Oracle have been kidnapped by the Shikadi. Keen fights through the outposts and temples of the Shadowlands, rescuing the Gnosticenes, and the Oracle then tells Keen that the Shikadi are \"shadow beings from the far side of the galaxy\" who are building an Armageddon Machine at Korath III to blow up the galaxy and rebuild it as they wish afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "In \"The Armageddon Machine\", Keen infiltrates the titular space station to disable it, destroying the subsystems of the machine located in each level. When he finishes, he finds that the \"Gannalech\" that was leading the Shikadi was the Grand Intellect McMire, who had escaped Keen in Vorticons by leaving behind an android in his place. A note left behind for Keen tells him that McMire plans to instead destroy the Universe. Aliens Ate My Babysitter is set around the same time, though it is unclear whether it is actually after the events of Goodbye, Galaxy; in it, the alien Bloogs of Fribbulus Xax kidnap Keen's babysitter and plan to eat her. Keen finds his way to her, and she reveals that she is McMire's sister, and that McMire was behind her kidnapping as a way to distract Keen while he plotted to destroy the universe. While the planned trilogy that would cover that plot, The Universe is Toast, was never developed, the Game Boy Color Commander Keen has a sub-space anomaly disrupting life on Earth as an effect of a plot by the Bloogs, Shikadi, and Droidicus, led by McMire, to destroy the universe. Keen fights his way through the three races' planets to find the plasma crystals powering the Omegamatic station, only for McMire to escape after taunting Keen a final time.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1990, John Carmack, a game programmer for the Gamer's Edge video game subscription service and disk magazine at Softdisk in Shreveport, Louisiana, developed a way to create graphics which could smoothly scroll in any direction in a computer game. At the time, IBM-compatible general-purpose computers were not able to replicate the common feat of video game consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System, which were capable of redrawing the entire screen fast enough for a side-scrolling video game due to their specialized hardware. Carmack created adaptive tile refresh: a way to slide the majority of the visible screen to the side both horizontally and vertically when the player moved as if it had not changed, and only redraw the newly-visible portions of the screen. Other games had previously redrawn the whole screen in chunks, or like Carmack's earlier games were limited to scrolling in one direction. He discussed the idea with coworker Tom Hall, who encouraged him to demonstrate it by recreating the first level of the recent Super Mario Bros. 3 on a computer. The pair did so in a single overnight session, with Hall recreating the graphics of the game—replacing the player character of Mario with Dangerous Dave, a character from an eponymous previous Gamer's Edge game—while Carmack optimized the code. The next morning on September 20, the resulting game, Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement, was shown to their other coworker John Romero. Romero recognized Carmack's idea as a major accomplishment: Nintendo was one of the most successful companies in Japan, largely due to the success of their Mario franchise, and the ability to replicate the gameplay of the series on a computer could have large implications.",
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"plaintext": "Romero felt that the potential of Carmack's idea should not be \"wasted\" on Softdisk; while the other members of the Gamer's Edge team more or less agreed, he especially felt that their talents in general were wasted on the company, which needed the money their games brought in but in his opinion neither understood nor appreciated video game design as distinct from general software programming. The manager of the team and fellow programmer, Jay Wilbur, recommended that they take the demo to Nintendo itself, to position themselves as capable of building a PC version of Super Mario Bros. for the company. The group—composed of Carmack, Romero, Hall, and Wilbur, along with Lane Roathe, the editor for Gamer's Edge, decided to build a full demo game for their idea to send to Nintendo. As they lacked the computers to build the project at home, and could not work on it at Softdisk, they \"borrowed\" their work computers over the weekend, taking them in their cars to a house shared by Carmack, Wilbur, and Roathe, and made a copy of the first level of the game over the next 72 hours. They credited the game to Ideas from the Deep, a name Romero had previously used for some Softdisk projects. The response from Nintendo a few weeks later was not as hoped for, however; while Nintendo was impressed with their efforts, they wanted the Mario series to remain exclusive to Nintendo consoles.",
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"plaintext": "Around the same time as the group was rejected by Nintendo, Romero was approached by Scott Miller of Apogee Software, who wanted him to publish more levels for his previous Pyramids of Egypt—an adventure game where the player navigates mazes while avoiding Egyptian-themed traps and monsters—through Apogee's shareware model. Miller was pioneering a model of game publishing where part of a game would be released for free, with the remainder of the game available for purchase from Apogee. Romero said he could not, as Pyramids of Egypt was owned by Softdisk, but that it did not matter as the game he was now working on was much better, and sent Miller the Mario demo. Miller was impressed, and the team agreed to create a new game for Apogee before Christmas of 1990—only a few months away—split into three parts to match Apogee's shareware model of giving away the first part for free to attract interest in the whole. Hall suggested a console-style platformer in the vein of Super Mario Bros., as they had the technology made for it; he further recommended a science fiction theme, and developed a short introduction that convinced the team to make Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons.",
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"plaintext": "The Ideas from the Deep team could not afford to leave their jobs to work on the game full-time, so they continued to work at Softdisk, spending their time on the Gamer's Edge games during the day and on Commander Keen at night and weekends using Softdisk computers. The group split into different roles: Hall became the game designer and creative director, John Carmack and Romero were the programmers, and Wilbur the manager. They invited artist Adrian Carmack from Softdisk to join them late in development, while Roathe was soon removed from the group. Ideas from the Deep spent nearly every waking moment when they were not working at Softdisk from October through December 1990 working on Commander Keen, with Wilbur forcing them to eat and take breaks.",
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"plaintext": "The game's design was largely driven by Tom Hall: Romero and especially John Carmack were focused almost exclusively on the programming; Wilbur was not involved in the game's design; and Adrian Carmack joined late in development and found the project's \"cute\" art style, till then mostly created by Hall, far-removed from his preferred, darker, style. Hall's personal experiences and philosophies, therefore, strongly impacted the game: Keen's red shoes and Green Bay Packers football helmet were items Hall wore as a child, dead enemies left behind corpses due to his belief that child players should be taught that death had permanent consequences, and enemies were based loosely on his reading of Sigmund Freud's psychological theories, such as that of the id. Other influences on Hall for the game were Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century and other Chuck Jones cartoons, and \"The Available Data on the Worp Reaction\", a short story about a child constructing a spaceship. Keen's \"Bean-with-Bacon\" spaceship was taken from a George Carlin skit about using bay leaves as deodorant so as to smell like soup. Keen was intended to be a reflection of Hall as he had wanted to be as a child. The team separated the game from its Super Mario Bros. roots by adding non-linear exploration and additional mechanics like the pogo stick. A suggestion from Miller that part of the popularity of Super Mario Bros was the presence of secrets and hidden areas in the game led Hall to add several secrets, such as an entire hidden level in the first episode, and the \"Galactic Alphabet\". The level maps were designed using a custom-made program called Tile Editor (TEd), which was first created for Dangerous Dave and was used for the entire Keen series as well as several other games.",
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"plaintext": "As the game neared completion, Miller began to market the game to players. Strongly encouraged by the updates the team was sending him, he began heavily advertising the game in all of the bulletin board systems (BBS) and game magazines he had access to. The game was completed in early December 1990, and on the afternoon of December 14 Miller began uploading the completed first episode to BBSs, with the other two episodes listed as available for purchase as a mailed plastic bag with floppy disks for US$30. After the arrival of the first royalty check from Apogee, the team planned to quit Softdisk and start their own company. When their boss and owner of Softdisk Al Vekovius confronted them on their plans, as well as their use of company resources to develop the game, the team made no secret of their intentions. Vekovius initially proposed a joint venture between the team and Softdisk, which fell apart when the other employees of the firm threatened to quit in response, and after a few weeks of negotiation the team agreed to produce a series of games for Gamer's Edge, one every two months.",
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"plaintext": "Ideas from the Deep, now founded as id Software, used some of these games to prototype ideas for their own games, including in late spring of 1991 Keen Dreams, which they used to develop new systems for their next set of major episodes of the series. They did not initially want to do a Keen game for Softdisk, but eventually decided that doing so would let them fulfill their obligations while also helping to improve the next full set of games for Apogee. The team reprised their roles from the first game, and prototyped an increase in graphical quality with parallax scrolling to make the background move at a different speed than the foreground, a pseudo-3D view rather than a side-on view, ramps rather than solely flat surfaces, support for sound cards, and changes to the design based on player feedback. The game's plot, as a result, was designed to be a standalone game outside of the continuity of the main series, and not a true sequel. Once the parallax scrolling and design changes were completed, Keen Dreams was completed in less than a month even as the team simultaneously worked on another game.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning development in the June 1991, the team again reprised their roles for Goodbye, Galaxy. Hall had received feedback from parents who did not like that the enemies in Vorticons left behind corpses instead of disappearing like in other games; he did not want the violence to have no effects, and so in Dreams had replaced the raygun with pellets that temporarily stunned enemies. He was not satisfied with this change, and while considering ways to remove Keen's parents during the introduction for Goodbye, Galaxy, came up with a stun gun which would leave behind permanently stunned enemies. Additionally, music, which was missing in prior Keen games, was added to Goodbye, Galaxy, composed by Bobby Prince. The game, episodes four though six, was intended to be published as a set named Goodbye, Galaxy in the same manner as the first one: released through Apogee, with episode four released for free in order to spur interest in purchasing the other two episodes. By August they had completed a beta version of episode four, \"Secret of the Oracle\", and Romero sent it off to a fan he had met from Canada, Mark Rein, who had offered to play-test the game. Romero was impressed with the list of bugs that Rein sent back, as well as with his business sense, and proposed bringing him in to the company as a probationary president for six months in order to help expand their business. Within a few weeks of being hired, Rein made a deal to get id into the commercial market: to take the sixth episode and make it a stand-alone game, published as a retail title through FormGen instead of part of a shareware trilogy. Id signed the deal, but Scott Miller of Apogee was dismayed; he felt that not having a full trilogy for the shareware game would hurt sales.",
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"plaintext": "Also in August 1991, the team moved from Shreveport to Hall's hometown of Madison, Wisconsin, leaving behind Wilbur, who was unwilling to leave a stable job at Softdisk to fully join in with the startup, but picking up programmer Jason Blochowiak, who was working at the time at Softdisk. There, they worked on Goodbye, Galaxy, their remaining Softdisk games, and the now standalone Commander Keen in Aliens Ate My Babysitter between August and December. Despite being listed numerically as the sixth episode, due to it having a different publisher and schedule Aliens Ate My Babysitter was developed after \"Secret of the Oracle\" but before \"The Armageddon Machine\"; the fifth episode, however, was created within one month. Another trilogy of episodes, titled The Universe Is Toast, was planned for December 1992; id worked on it for a couple of weeks, before shifting focus to Wolfenstein 3D (1992). Hall proposed reviving the project after Wolfenstein was completed, but the team moved on to Doom (1993) instead. Id did not return to the series afterwards, instead continuing to focus on 3D first-person shooters.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1999 during an online question and answer session, John Carmack, while discussing that the original founders of id Software were unlikely to ever work together on a game again, mentioned that he was considering the idea of making a Commander Keen game for the Game Boy Color handheld game console. Activision formally announced at the start of May 2001 that a new Commander Keen game had been developed by David A. Palmer Productions, and would be released at the end of the month. An interview the following week with founder David A. Palmer explained that the original idea for the game came from id, who approached Activision to produce it; Activision in turn recommended Palmer as the developer for the project as they had been attempting to get an agreement with id and Activision for several years for his studio to make a Game Boy Color version of several of their games. While Palmer was the developer for the game, id collaborated with the studio, with id having approval over game design elements and artist Adrian Carmack making some tile artwork for the game.",
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"plaintext": "Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons was an immediate hit for Apogee: the company's previous sales levels had been around US$7,000 per month, but by Christmas Keen already had sales of almost US$30,000. Miller described the game as \"a little atom bomb\" to magazine editors and BBS controllers when asked about it, and recruited his mother and hired his first employee to handle sales and phone calls from interested players. By June 1991, the game was bringing in over US$60,000 per month. Chris Parker of PC Magazine later in 1991 referred to the game's release as a \"tremendous success\". In 2009, Miller estimated the game's lifetime sales as between 50,000 and 60,000 units. A contemporary review by Barry Simon of PC Magazine praised the game's graphical capabilities as having a \"Nintendo feel\", though he termed the graphics as \"well drawn\" but \"not spectacular\" in terms of resolution. He noted that the game was very much an arcade game that players would not purchase for \"its scintillating plot or ground-breaking originality\", but said that all three episodes were very fun to play and that the scrolling graphics set it apart from similar games. A short summary of the trilogy in 1992 by PC World termed it \"one of the most spectacular games available\" and praised the \"superb\" sound and graphics, and a similar summary in CQ Amateur Radio described it as \"Nintendo comes to the PC\" and the \"best action/adventure game\" the reviewer had ever seen.",
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"plaintext": "After its release in December 1991, Goodbye, Galaxy met with sales \"about a third\" of the original trilogy. Scott Miller of Apogee blamed the falling sales on the lack of a third episode, which he felt undercut the shareware model of the game. Tom Hall has also claimed that the split hurt the sales of the shareware episodes, though he has said that \"they still did decently, though\". PC Zone, in its first issue in 1993, quoted shareware distributors as saying Goodbye, Galaxy was one of the top shareware sellers of 1992, behind Wolfenstein 3D. IGN has also referred to the pair of episodes as \"Apogee's hottest sellers\". Hall has claimed \"The Armageddon Machine\" as the best Commander Keen episode and his favorite. Aliens Ate My Babysitter also did not sell as well as hoped for by id, which the team partially blamed on what they felt was terrible box art done by a company that had previously designed packaging for Lipton tea. Despite this, the sales were strong enough that id agreed to use FormGen as a retail publisher for at least two more games. PC Zone also stated that the sales of Aliens through shareware distributors was one of the highest in the shareware market in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "The 2001 Commander Keen received mixed reviews from critics. The graphics were both praised and criticized; reviewers praised the art style and the \"bright and colorful\" graphics, but disparaged the \"busy\" backgrounds and lackluster animations as making the game feel \"choppy\", and complained that the graphical updates did not reflect the ten years since the last releases. The gameplay similarly received mixed opinions; reviewers were split between praising the difficult, \"old school\" gameplay as a successful adaptation of the originals and dismissing the \"aging\" gameplay as sound but not comparing well to more recent games. Reviewers concluded that the game was an \"acquired taste\" best suited for fans of the original series or younger players.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1992, the Shareware Industry Awards gave the Commander Keen series the \"Best Entertainment Software and Best Overall\" award. A review of the entire Commander Keen series in 1993 by Sandy Petersen in the first \"Eye of the Monitor\" column for Dragon described the series as action games with \"hilarious graphics\". Acknowledging its debt to Super Mario Bros., he called it, especially Goodbye, Galaxy, \"one of the best games of its type\" and praised it for not being \"mindlessly hard\", instead requiring some thought to play through, and especially for the humor in the graphics and gameplay. According to Steam Spy, as of June 2016 there are approximately 200,000 owners of the 2007 Commander Keen Complete Pack on Steam, and approximately 80,000 owners of the Keen Dreams release.",
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"plaintext": "Ideas from the Deep's first royalty check from Apogee in January 1991 convinced them that they no longer needed their day jobs at Softdisk but could devote themselves full-time to their own ideas, leading to the founding of id Software in February. In the summer of 1991, id hosted a seminar for game developers with the intention of licensing the Commander Keen engine; they did so, forming the spiritual predecessor to both QuakeCon and id's standard of licensing their game engines.",
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"plaintext": "One of the enemies created for \"Secret of the Oracle\", the Dopefish, has since the game's release become one of the video game industry's biggest in-jokes, making cameo appearances in other games. The Dopefish, which Hall describes as \"just a stupid green fish\", is described in \"Secret of the Oracle\" as \"the second-dumbest creature in the universe\". It has appeared in dozens of other games since its initial appearance, as references, images, or the phrase \"Dopefish Lives\".",
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"plaintext": "The Standard Galactic Alphabet, a writing system used to depict alien languages in the galaxy throughout the series, is used for textual signs and directions and was created by Tom Hall beginning with Invasion of the Vorticons as a way to pass hidden messages to players. It is a substitution cypher to the Latin alphabet, including the letters A-Z, opening and closing quotation marks, and a full stop. In 2019, it was added to the Under-ConScript Unicode Registry, using the codepoints to , and is included in the GNU Unifont CSUR extension. The Standard Galactic Alphabet also appears in the game Minecraft as the script and symbols used for its Enchanting Table.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, John Romero and Tom Hall stated on Twitter that Billy Blaze is the grandson of Wolfenstein protagonist William \"B.J.\" Blazkowicz and the father of Doomguy from Doom. Commander Keen himself has appeared or has been referenced in many other video games over the years, including Doom II, Duke Nukem, Bio Menace and more recently in Doom.",
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"plaintext": "A number of fan-made Commander Keen games have been created since the publication of the original titles, with a fan website, the Public Commander Keen Forum, devoted to their creation, announcement, and discussion. Since the release of utilities to modify the levels and graphics in the original Keen series in 2002, more than fifty mods have been made, most of which feature Commander Keen as the protagonist. These mods include \"Commander Genius\", an engine, released for multiple platforms, which interprets the episodes as a \"retro-evolved\" game, with re-polished graphics, a multiplayer compatibility, and a level editor, ports and remakes on different platforms, and The Universe Is Toast! mod, an unofficial sequel trilogy of games.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2013, Tom Hall began development of Worlds of Wander, a tool for creating platform games, and the following month began a Kickstarter campaign for the tool and associated game, Secret Spaceship Club, which he described as a spiritual successor to Commander Keen. The project was unsuccessful in reaching its goal, though Hall said that he planned to continue working on it in his spare time.",
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"plaintext": " Official 3D Realms (formerly Apogee) sites for Invasion of the Vorticons and Goodbye, Galaxy, including downloads for \"Marooned on Mars\" and \"Secret of the Oracle\"",
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"plaintext": " All three episodes of Invasion of the Vorticons (\"Marooned on Mars\", \"The Earth Explodes\", and \"Keen Must Die!\"), the DOS version of Commander Keen in Keen Dreams, and \"Secret of the Oracle\" can be played for free in the browser at the Internet Archive",
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"plaintext": "A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is often referred to as a twister, whirlwind or cyclone, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which, from an observer looking down toward the surface of the Earth, winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than , are about across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than , are more than in diameter, and stay on the ground for more than 100km (60 miles).",
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"plaintext": "Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout, and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirl, and steam devil.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes occur most frequently in North America (particularly in central and southeastern regions of the United States colloquially known as Tornado Alley; the US and Canada have by far the most tornadoes of any countries in the world). Tornados also occur in South Africa, much of Europe (except Spain, most of the Alps, Balkans, and northern Scandinavia), western and eastern Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh and adjacent eastern India, Japan, Philippines, and southeastern South America (Uruguay and Argentina). Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.",
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"plaintext": "There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (trochoidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.",
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"plaintext": "The word tornado comes from the Spanish word (past participle of 'to turn', or 'to have turned', which comes from the Latin tonare 'to thunder'. Tornadoes' opposite phenomena are the widespread, straight-line derechoes (, from , 'straight'). A tornado is also commonly referred to as a \"twister\" or the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone.",
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"plaintext": "A tornado is a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. The term is not precisely defined; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.",
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"plaintext": "A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.",
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"plaintext": "There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition. Among many meteorologists, the 'funnel cloud' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.",
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"plaintext": "Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a \"tornado family\". Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term \"tornado outbreak\" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.",
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"plaintext": "Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred meters (yards) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.",
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"plaintext": "Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than , the circulation is considered a tornado. A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relatively low height is sometimes referred to as a \"stovepipe\" tornado. Large tornadoes which appear at least as wide as their cloud-to-ground height can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as \"wedge tornadoes\" or \"wedges\". The \"stovepipe\" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be \"roping out\", or becoming a \"rope tornado\". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum. Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, tornadoes are around across on average and travel on the ground for . However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only long. On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013, was approximately wide, the widest on record.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for . Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado. In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun further west than previously thought.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.",
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"plaintext": "Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is \"back-lit\" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.",
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"plaintext": "Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors that can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's updraft base, which is rain-free, making them visible. Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.",
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"plaintext": "There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected. Low-level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately 1percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell. On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.",
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"plaintext": "The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of \"noise\".",
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"plaintext": "Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long-distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation. Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected. There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges. ",
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"plaintext": "Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003, near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few kilometers/miles up in the atmosphere, usually across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.",
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"plaintext": "Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle which begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.",
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"plaintext": "As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.",
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"plaintext": "Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the \"mature stage\". This can last from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system. Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.",
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"plaintext": "The flow inside the funnel of the tornado is downward, supplying water vapor from the cloud above. This is contrary to the upward flow inside hurricanes, supplying water vapor from the warm ocean below. Therefore, the energy of the tornado is supplied from the cloud above. The complicated mechanism is explained in ",
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"plaintext": "As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, becoming thin and rope-like. This is the \"dissipating stage\", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage, the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns. Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point.",
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"plaintext": "Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.",
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"plaintext": "A multiple-vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axes and at the same time revolve around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path. This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado that forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to \"orbit\" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.",
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"plaintext": "A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish \"fair weather\" waterspouts from tornadic (i.e. associated with a mesocyclone) waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea. In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous. In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.",
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"plaintext": "A landspout, or dust-tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a \"fair weather waterspout on land\". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel that often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.",
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"plaintext": "A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast-moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a \"rolling\" effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado. ",
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"plaintext": "A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low-level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.",
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"plaintext": "Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.",
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"plaintext": "A steam devil is a rotating updraft between that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.",
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"plaintext": "The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger. In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger). Current records may significantly underestimate the frequency of strong (EF2-EF3) and violent (EF4-EF5) tornadoes, as damage-based intensity estimates are limited to structures and vegetation that a tornado impacts. A tornado may be much stronger than its damage-based rating indicates if its strongest winds occur away from suitable damage indicators, such as in an open field. Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America.",
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"plaintext": "The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts. This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east–west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong, while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley. This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado-prone. Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year. NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada. The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or annually), followed by the UK (around 33, per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer and cause minor damage.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world. Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge. Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur. Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present. Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.",
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"plaintext": "Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating. Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 15:00 (3pm) and 19:00 (7pm) local time, with a peak near 17:00 (5pm). Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30am local time.",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes per unit area of land in the world. Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the British Isles at all times of the years, and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006 both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.",
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"plaintext": "Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.",
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"plaintext": "Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña. Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.",
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"plaintext": "Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity, any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.",
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"plaintext": "Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks came about in 1952. In 1953, it was confirmed that hook echoes were associated with tornadoes. By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from several miles away.",
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"plaintext": "Today most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which serves as the primary method of detecting hook signatures that are likely associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds within a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from over away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled. Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and tornado development may occasionally take place more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within a supercell thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.",
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"plaintext": "Spotters usually are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and they forward the report to the NWS.",
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"plaintext": "There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers. In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Storm spotters are required because radar systems such as NEXRAD detect signatures that suggest the presence of tornadoes, rather than tornadoes as such. Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or an imminent one, but ground truth from an observer can give definitive information. The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.",
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"plaintext": "Storm spotters are trained to discern whether or not a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under that updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence of a supercell is based on the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and the likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a \"beaver tail\", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.",
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"plaintext": "Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and they usually precede the tornado between five and thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly afterwards; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also develop without wall clouds, under flanking lines and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.",
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"plaintext": "The tornado which holds most records in history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado () anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead). The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.",
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"plaintext": "The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur-Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most extensive tornado outbreaks on record was the 1974 Super Outbreak, which affected a large area of the central United States and extreme southern Ontario on April 3 and 4, 1974. The outbreak featured 148 tornadoes in 18 hours, many of which were violent; six were of F5 intensity, and twenty-four peaked at F4 strength. Sixteen tornadoes were on the ground at the same time during its peak. More than 300people, possibly as many as 330, were killed.",
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"plaintext": "While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301±20mph (484±32km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people. The reading was taken about above the ground.",
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"plaintext": "Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding . Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a \"rain of debris\" occurred from the town, a sack of flour was found away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, to the northeast. Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals.",
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"plaintext": "Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that can be taken to increase the chances of survival. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center in the United States advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival. In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have underground storm cellars, which have saved thousands of lives.",
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"plaintext": "Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.",
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"plaintext": "Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes. It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, the pressure difference is unlikely to cause significant damage. Opening windows may instead increase the severity of the tornado's damage. A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.",
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"plaintext": "Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people took shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely rode out a tornado as it passed by. However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design. Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass. Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries. By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2,000 homes were completely destroyed and another 7,000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.",
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"plaintext": "An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases the chances of survival.",
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"plaintext": "There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces. Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains, affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.",
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"plaintext": "Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery. Meteorologists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones, and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.",
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"plaintext": "Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado, in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.",
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"plaintext": "In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.",
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"plaintext": "Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.",
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"plaintext": "Meteorologists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued. Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in-situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.",
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"plaintext": "Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler on Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists. Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private-sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation. The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.",
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"plaintext": "Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.",
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"plaintext": " Derecho",
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"plaintext": " Tornado preparedness",
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"plaintext": " Tornadoes of",
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"plaintext": " Tropical cyclone",
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"plaintext": " Hypercane",
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"plaintext": " Typhoon",
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"plaintext": " Whirlwind",
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"plaintext": " Heavily illustrated.",
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"plaintext": " NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present",
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"plaintext": " European Severe Weather Database",
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"plaintext": " Tornado Detection and Warnings",
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"plaintext": " NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide",
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"plaintext": " Tornado History Project – Maps and statistics from 1950 to present",
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"plaintext": " Physics Today What we know and don't know about Tornadoes September 2014",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters",
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"plaintext": "After an accidental meeting between Jamsetji Tata and Swami Vivekananda, on a ship in 1893 where they discussed Tata's plan of bringing the steel industry to India, Tata wrote to Vivekananda five years later: \"I trust, you remember me as a fellow-traveller on your voyage from Japan to Chicago. I very much recall at this moment your views on the growth of the ascetic spirit in India... I recall these ideas in connection with my scheme of Research Institute of Science for India, of which you have doubtless heard or read.\"",
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"plaintext": "An undergraduate programme in science for students after Class XII was conceived during the Centenary Celebrations in 2009. The first batch of students was admitted in 2011. The program offers a four-year Bachelor of Science (Research) and a five-year integrated Master of Science course in six disciplines: Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Science, Material Science, Mathematics, and Physics. The course aims at exposing the students to the inter-disciplinary nature in which scientific research is done in many upcoming fields.",
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"plaintext": "A new undergraduate program BTech in Mathematics and Computing seeks to enter a niche area with the aim of producing future leaders who will be at the forefront of research, development, and innovation in futuristic disciplines and next generation technologies that require deep use of mathematics, computer science, and data science.",
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"plaintext": "The Computer Centre, established in 1970 as a central computing facility, became Supercomputer Education and Research Centre (SERC) in 1990 to provide computing facility to the faculty and students of the institute. SERC was created and fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India to commemorate the platinum jubilee of the institute. It houses India's first petascale supercomputer Cray XC40, the erstwhile fastest supercomputer in India.",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the de jure capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India. With an average altitude of , much of Hyderabad is situated on hilly terrain around artificial lakes, including the Hussain Sagar lake, predating the city's founding, in the north of the city centre. According to the 2011 Census of India, Hyderabad is the fourth-most populous city in India with a population of residents within the city limits, and has a population of residents in the metropolitan region, making it the sixth-most populous metropolitan area in India. With an output of 74billion, Hyderabad has the fifth-largest urban economy in India.",
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"plaintext": "Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah established Hyderabad in 1591 to extend the capital beyond the fortified Golconda. In 1687, the city was annexed by the Mughals. In 1724, Mughal Viceroy Nizam Asaf Jah I declared his sovereignty and founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty, also known as the Nizams. Hyderabad served as the imperial capital of the Asaf Jahi's from 1769 to 1948. As capital of the princely state of Hyderabad, the city housed the British Residency and cantonment until Indian independence in 1947. Hyderabad was annexed by the Indian Union in 1948 and continued as a capital of Hyderabad State (1948–56). After the introduction of the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, Hyderabad was made the capital of the newly formed Andhra Pradesh. In 2014, Andhra Pradesh was bifurcated to form Telangana and Hyderabad became the joint capital of the two states with a transitional arrangement scheduled to end in 2024. Since 1956, the city has housed the winter office of the President of India.",
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"plaintext": "Relics of the Qutb Shahi and Nizam rules remain visible today; the Charminar has come to symbolise the city. By the end of the early modern era, the Mughal Empire declined in the Deccan and the Nizam's patronage had attracted men of letters from various parts of the world. A distinctive culture arose from the amalgamation of local and migrated artisans. Painting, handicraft, jewellery, literature, dialect and clothing are prominent still today. Through its cuisine, the city is listed as a UNESCO creative city of gastronomy. The Telugu film industry based in the city was the country's second-largest producer of motion pictures .",
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"plaintext": "Until the Hyderabad was known for the pearl industry and was nicknamed the \"City of Pearls\", and was the only Golconda Diamonds trading centre in the world. Many of the city's historical and traditional bazaars remain open. Hyderabad's central location between the Deccan Plateau and the Western Ghats, and industrialisation throughout the attracted major Indian research, manufacturing, educational and financial institutions. Since the 1990s, the city has emerged as an Indian hub of pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. The formation of special economic zones and HITEC City dedicated to information technology has encouraged leading multinationals to set up operations in Hyderabad. ",
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"plaintext": "The name Hyderabad means \"Haydar's city\" or \"lion city\", from haydar 'lion' and ābād 'city', after Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib, also known as Haydar because of his lion-like valour in battle.",
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"plaintext": "The city was originally called Baghnagar \"city of gardens\", and later acquired the name Hyderabad. The European travellers von Poser and Thévenot found both names in use in the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "One popular legend suggests that the founder of the city, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, named it Bhagya-nagar after Bhagmati, a local nautch (dancing) girl whom he married. She converted to Islam and adopted the title Hyder Mahal. The city would have been named Hyderabad in her honour.",
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"plaintext": "The discovery of Megalithic burial sites and cairn circles in the suburbs of Hyderabad, in 1851 by Philip Meadows Taylor, a polymath in the service of the Nizam, had provided evidence that the region in which the city stands has been inhabited from the Stone Age. Archaeologists excavating near the city have unearthed Iron Age sites that may date from 500BCE. The region comprising modern Hyderabad and its surroundings was ruled by the Chalukya dynasty from 624CE to 1075CE. Following the dissolution of the Chalukya empire into four parts in the 11th century, Golconda—now part of Hyderabad—came under the control of the Kakatiya dynasty from 1158, whose seat of power was at Warangal— northeast of modern Hyderabad. The Kakatiya ruler Ganapatideva 1199–1262 built a hilltop outpost—later known as Golconda Fort—to defend their western region.",
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"plaintext": "The Kakatiya dynasty was reduced to a vassal of the Khalji dynasty in 1310 after its defeat by Sultan Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate. This lasted until 1321, when the Kakatiya dynasty was annexed by Malik Kafur, Allaudin Khalji's general. During this period, Alauddin Khalji took the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which is said to have been mined from the Kollur Mines of Golconda, to Delhi. Muhammad bin Tughluq succeeded to the Delhi sultanate in 1325, bringing Warangal under the rule of the Tughlaq dynasty, Malik Maqbul Tilangani was appointed its governor. In 1336 the regional chieftains Musunuri Nayakas—who revolted against the Delhi sultanate in 1333—took Warangal under their direct control and declared it as their capital. In 1347 when Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah, a governor under bin Tughluq, rebelled against Delhi and established the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan Plateau, with Gulbarga— west of Hyderabad—as its capital, both the neighboring rulers Musunuri Nayakas of Warangal and Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga engaged in many wars until 1364–65 when a peace treaty was signed and the Musunuri Nayakas ceded Golconda Fort to the Bahmani Sultan. The Bahmani Sultans ruled the region until 1518 and were the first independent Muslim rulers of the Deccan.",
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"plaintext": "In 1496 Sultan Quli was appointed as a Bahmani governor of Telangana, he rebuilt, expanded and fortified the old mud-fort of Golconda and named the city \"Muhammad nagar\". In 1518, he revolted against the Bahmani Sultanate and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The fifth Qutb Shahi sultan, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, established Hyderabad on the banks of the Musi River in 1591, to avoid water shortages experienced at Golconda. During his rule, he had the Charminar and Mecca Masjid built in the city. On 21 September 1687, the Golconda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb after a year-long siege of the Golconda Fort. The annexed city \"Hyderabad\" was renamed Darul Jihad (House of War), whereas its state \"Golconda\" was renamed Deccan Suba (Deccan province) and the capital was moved from Golconda to Aurangabad, about northwest of Hyderabad.",
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"plaintext": "In 1713, Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Mubariz Khan as Governor of Hyderabad. During his tenure, he fortified the city and controlled the internal and neighbouring threats. In 1714 Farrukhsiyar appointed Asaf Jah I as Viceroy of the Deccan—(administrator of six Mughal governorates) with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm). In 1721, he was appointed as Prime Minister of the Mughal Empire. His differences with the court nobles led him to resign from all the imperial responsibilities in 1723 and leave for Deccan. Under the influence of Asaf Jah I's opponents, Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah issued a decree to Mubariz Khan, to stop Asaf Jah I which resulted in the Battle of Shakar Kheda. In 1724, Asaf Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan to establish autonomy over the Deccan, named the region Hyderabad Deccan, and started what came to be known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were referred to as Asaf Jahi Nizams, or Nizams of Hyderabad. The death of Asaf Jah I in 1748 resulted in a period of political unrest as his sons and grandson—Nasir Jung (1748–1750), Muzaffar Jang (1750-1751) and Salabat Jung (1751-1762)—contended for the throne backed by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. The accession of Asaf Jah II, who reigned from 1762 to 1803, ended the instability. In 1768 he signed the Treaty of Masulipatam—by which the East India Company in return for a fixed annual rent, got the right to control and collect the taxes at Coromandel Coast.",
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"plaintext": "In 1769 Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Asaf Jahi Nizams. In response to regular threats from Hyder Ali (Dalwai of Mysore), Baji Rao I (Peshwa of the Maratha Empire), and Basalath Jung (Asaf Jah II's elder brother, who was supported by French General the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau), the Nizam signed a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company in 1798, allowing the British Indian Army to be stationed at Bolarum (modern Secunderabad) to protect the state's capital, for which the Nizams paid an annual maintenance to the British.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1874 there were no modern industries in Hyderabad. With the introduction of railways in the 1880s, four factories were built to the south and east of Hussain Sagar lake, and during the early 20th century, Hyderabad was transformed into a modern city with the establishment of transport services, underground drainage, running water, electricity, telecommunications, universities, industries, and Begumpet Airport. The Nizams ruled the princely state of Hyderabad during the British Raj.",
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"plaintext": "After India gained independence, the Nizam declared his intention to remain independent rather than become part of the Indian Union or newly formed Dominion of Pakistan. The Hyderabad State Congress, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Communist Party of India, began agitating against Nizam VII in 1948. On 17 September that year, the Indian Army took control of Hyderabad State after an invasion codenamed Operation Polo. With the defeat of his forces, Nizam VII capitulated to the Indian Union by signing an Instrument of Accession, which made him the Rajpramukh (Princely Governor) of the state until it was abolished on 31 October 1956.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1946 and 1951, the Communist Party of India fomented the Telangana uprising against the feudal lords of the Telangana region. The Constitution of India, which became effective on 26 January 1950, made Hyderabad State one of the part B states of India, with Hyderabad city continuing to be the capital. In his 1955 report Thoughts on Linguistic States, B. R. Ambedkar, then chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution, proposed designating the city of Hyderabad as the second capital of India because of its amenities and strategic central location.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 November 1956 the states of India were reorganised by language. Hyderabad state was split into three parts, which were merged with neighbouring states to form Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The nine Telugu- and Urdu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in the Telangana region were merged with the Telugu-speaking Andhra State to create Andhra Pradesh, with Hyderabad as its capital. Several protests, known collectively as the Telangana movement, attempted to invalidate the merger and demanded the creation of a new Telangana state. Major actions took place in 1969 and 1972, and a third began in 2010. The city suffered several explosions: one at Dilsukhnagar in 2002 claimed two lives; terrorist bombs in May and August 2007 caused communal tension and riots; and two bombs exploded in February 2013. On 30 July 2013 the government of India declared that part of Andhra Pradesh would be split off to form a new Telangana state and that Hyderabad city would be the capital city and part of Telangana, while the city would also remain the capital of Andhra Pradesh for no more than ten years. On 3 October 2013 the Union Cabinet approved the proposal, and in February 2014 both houses of Parliament passed the Telangana Bill. With the final assent of the President of India, Telangana state was formed on 2 June 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad is south of Delhi, southeast of Mumbai, and north of Bangalore by road. It is situated in the southern part of Telangana in southeastern India, along the banks of the Musi River, a tributary of Krishna River located on the Deccan Plateau in the northern part of South India. Greater Hyderabad covers , making it one of the largest metropolitan areas in India. With an average altitude of , Hyderabad lies on predominantly sloping terrain of grey and pink granite, dotted with small hills, the highest being Banjara Hills at . The city has numerous lakes sometime referred to as sagar, meaning \"sea\". Examples include artificial lakes created by dams on the Musi, such as Hussain Sagar (built in 1562 near the city centre), Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar. , the city had 140 lakes and 834 water tanks (ponds).",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw) bordering on a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). The annual mean temperature is ; monthly mean temperatures are . Summers (March–June) are hot and humid, with average highs in the mid-to-high 30s Celsius; maximum temperatures often exceed between April and June. The coolest temperatures occur in December and January, when the lowest temperature occasionally dips to . May is the hottest month, when daily temperatures range from ; December, the coldest, has temperatures varying from .",
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"plaintext": "Heavy rain from the south-west summer monsoon falls between June and October, supplying Hyderabad with most of its mean annual rainfall. Since records began in November 1891, the heaviest rainfall recorded in a 24-hour period was on 24 August 2000. The highest temperature ever recorded was on 2 June 1966, and the lowest was on 8 January 1946. The city receives 2,731hours of sunshine per year; maximum daily sunlight exposure occurs in February.",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad's lakes and the sloping terrain of its low-lying hills provide habitat for an assortment of flora and fauna. , the tree cover is 1.7% of the total city area, a decrease from 2.7% in 1996. The forest region in and around the city encompasses areas of ecological and biological importance, which are preserved in the form of national parks, zoos, mini-zoos and a wildlife sanctuary. Nehru Zoological Park, the city's one large zoo, is the first in India to have a lion and tiger safari park. Hyderabad has three national parks (Mrugavani National Park, Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park and Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park), and the Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary is about from the city. Hyderabad's other environmental reserves are: Kotla Vijayabhaskara Reddy Botanical Gardens, Ameenpur Lake, Shamirpet Lake, Hussain Sagar, Fox Sagar Lake, Mir Alam Tank and Patancheru Lake, which is home to regional birds and attracts seasonal migratory birds from different parts of the world. Organisations engaged in environmental and wildlife preservation include the Telangana Forest Department, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the Animal Welfare Board of India, the Blue Cross of Hyderabad and the University of Hyderabad.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 part 2 Section 5: \"(1) On and from the appointed day, Hyderabad in the existing State of Andhra Pradesh, shall be the common capital of the State of Telangana and the State of Andhra Pradesh for such period not exceeding ten years. (2) After the expiry of the period referred to in sub-section (1), Hyderabad shall be the capital of the State of Telangana and there shall be a new capital for the State of Andhra Pradesh.\"",
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"plaintext": "The same sections also define that the common capital includes the existing area designated as the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation under the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act, 1955. As stipulated in sections 3 and 18(1) of the Reorganisation Act, city MLAs are members of the Telangana state assembly.",
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"plaintext": "The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) oversees the civic infrastructure of the city, there are six administrative zones of GHMC: South Zone–(Charminar), East Zone–(L. B. Nagar), West Zone–(Serilingampally), North Zone–(Kukatpally), Northeast Zone–(Secunderabad) and Central Zone–(Khairatabad); these zones consist of 30 \"circles\", which together encompass 150 municipal wards. Each ward is represented by a corporator, elected by popular vote, the city has 7,400,000 voters of which 3,850,000 are male and 3,500,000 are female. The corporators elect the Mayor, who is the titular head of GHMC; executive powers rest with the Municipal Commissioner, appointed by the state government. The GHMC carries out the city's infrastructural work such as building and maintenance of roads and drains, town planning including construction regulation, maintenance of municipal markets and parks, solid waste management, the issuing of birth and death certificates, the issuing of trade licenses, collection of property tax, and community welfare services such as mother and child healthcare, and pre-school and non-formal education. The GHMC was formed in April 2007 by merging the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH) with 12 municipalities of the Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy and Medak districts covering a total area of . The Secunderabad Cantonment Board is a civic administration agency overseeing an area of , where there are several military camps. The Osmania University campus is administered independently by the university authority. Appointed in February 2021, Gadwal Vijayalakshmi of Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) is serving as the Mayor of GHMC.",
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"plaintext": "In Hyderabad police jurisdiction is divided into three commissionerates: Hyderabad (established in 1847 AD, an oldest police commissionerate in India ), Cyberabad, and Rachakonda, each headed by a commissioner of police, who are Indian Police Service (IPS) officers. The Hyderabad police is a division of the Telangana Police, under the state Home Ministry.",
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"plaintext": "The jurisdictions of the city's administrative agencies are, in ascending order of size: the Hyderabad Police area, Hyderabad district, the GHMC area (\"Hyderabad city\"), and the area under the Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA). The HMDA is an apolitical urban planning agency that covers the GHMC and its suburbs, extending to 54 mandals in five districts encircling the city. It coordinates the development activities of GHMC and suburban municipalities and manages the administration of bodies such as the Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (HMWSSB).",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad is the seat of the Government of Telangana, Government of Andhra Pradesh and the President of India's winter retreat Rashtrapati Nilayam, as well as the Telangana High Court and various local government agencies. The Lower City Civil Court and the Metropolitan Criminal Court are under the jurisdiction of the High Court. The GHMC area contains 24 State Legislative Assembly constituencies, which form five constituencies of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Parliament of India).",
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"plaintext": "The HMWSSB (Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply & Sewage Board) regulates rainwater harvesting, sewerage services, and water supply. In 2005, the HMWSSB started operating a water supply pipeline from Nagarjuna Sagar Dam to meet increasing demand. The Telangana Southern Power Distribution Company Limited (TSPDCL) manages electricity supply. , there were 15 fire stations in the city, operated by the Telangana State Disaster and Fire Response Department. The government-owned India Post has five head post offices and many sub-post offices in Hyderabad, which are complemented by private courier services.",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabad produces around 4,500tonnes of solid waste daily, which is transported from collection units in Imlibun, Yousufguda and Lower Tank Bund to the dumpsite in Jawaharnagar. Disposal is managed by the Integrated Solid Waste Management project which was started by the GHMC in 2010. Rapid urbanisation and increased economic activity has led to increased industrial waste, air, noise and water pollution, which is regulated by the Telangana Pollution Control Board (TPCB). The contribution of different sources to air pollution in 2006 was: 20–50% from vehicles, 40–70% from a combination of vehicle discharge and road dust, 10–30% from industrial discharges and 3–10% from the burning of household rubbish. Deaths resulting from atmospheric particulate matter are estimated at 1,700–3,000 each year. The city's \"VIP areas\", the Assembly building, Secretariat, and Telangana chief minister's office, have particularly low air quality index ratings, suffering from high levels of PM2.5's. Ground water around Hyderabad, which has a hardness of up to 1000 ppm, around three times higher than is desirable, is the main source of drinking water but the increasing population and consequent increase in demand has led to a decline in not only ground water but also river and lake levels. This shortage is further exacerbated by inadequately treated effluent discharged from industrial treatment plants polluting the water sources of the city.",
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"plaintext": "The Commissionerate of Health and Family Welfare is responsible for planning, implementation and monitoring of all facilities related to health and preventive services. –11, the city had 50 government hospitals, 300 private and charity hospitals and 194 nursing homes providing around 12,000 hospital beds, fewer than half the required 25,000. For every 10,000 people in the city, there are 17.6 hospital beds, 9 specialist doctors, 14 nurses and 6 physicians. The city has about 4,000 individual clinics. Private clinics are preferred by many residents because of the distance to, poor quality of care at and long waiting times in government facilities, despite the high proportion of the city's residents being covered by government health insurance: 24% according to a National Family Health Survey in 2005. , many new private hospitals of various sizes were opened or being built. Hyderabad has outpatient and inpatient facilities that use Unani, homoeopathic and Ayurvedic treatments.",
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"plaintext": "Heritage buildings constructed during the Qutb Shahi and Nizam eras showcase Indo-Islamic architecture influenced by Medieval, Mughal and European styles. After the 1908 flooding of the Musi River, the city was expanded and civic monuments constructed, particularly during the rule of Mir Osman Ali Khan (the VIIth Nizam), whose patronage of architecture led to him being referred to as the maker of modern Hyderabad. In 2012, the government of India declared Hyderabad the first \"Best heritage city of India\".",
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"plaintext": "Qutb Shahi architecture of the 16th and early 17th centuries followed classical Persian architecture featuring domes and colossal arches. The oldest surviving Qutb Shahi structure in Hyderabad is the ruins of the Golconda Fort built in the 16th century. Most of the historical bazaars that still exist were constructed on the street north of Charminar towards the fort. The Charminar has become an icon of the city; located in the centre of old Hyderabad, it is a square structure with sides long and four grand arches each facing a road. At each corner stands a -high minaret. The Charminar, Golconda Fort and the Qutb Shahi tombs are considered to be monuments of national importance in India; in 2010 the Indian government proposed that the sites be listed for UNESCO World Heritage status.",
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"plaintext": "In the past, Qutb Shahi rulers and Asaf Jahi Nizams attracted artists, architects, and men of letters from different parts of the world through patronage. The resulting ethnic mix popularised cultural events such as mushairas (poetic symposia), Qawwali (devotional songs) and Dholak Ke Geet (traditional folk songs). The Qutb Shahi dynasty particularly encouraged the growth of Deccani literature leading to works such as the Deccani Masnavi and Diwan poetry, which are among the earliest available manuscripts in Urdu. Lazzat Un Nisa, a book compiled in the 15th century at Qutb Shahi courts, contains erotic paintings with diagrams for secret medicines and stimulants in the eastern form of ancient sexual arts. The reign of the Asaf Jahi Nizams saw many literary reforms and the introduction of Urdu as a language of court, administration and education. In 1824, a collection of Urdu Ghazal poetry, named Gulzar-e-Mahlaqa, authored by Mah Laqa Bai—the first female Urdu poet to produce a Diwan—was published in Hyderabad. Hyderabad has continued with these traditions in its annual Hyderabad Literary Festival, held since 2010, showcasing the city's literary and cultural creativity. Organisations engaged in the advancement of literature include the Sahitya Akademi, the Urdu Academy, the Telugu Academy, the National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language, the Comparative Literature Association of India, and the Andhra Saraswata Parishad. Literary development is further aided by state institutions such as the State Central Library, the largest public library in the state which was established in 1891, and other major libraries including the Sri Krishna Devaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, the British Library and the Sundarayya Vignana Kendram.",
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"plaintext": "The city is home to the Telugu film industry, popularly known as Tollywood. In the 1970s, Deccani language realist films by globally acclaimed Shyam Benegal started a movement of coming of age art films in India, which came to be known as parallel cinema. The Deccani film industry (\"Dollywood\") produces films in the local Hyderabadi dialect, which have gained regional popularity since 2005. The city has hosted international film festivals such as the International Children's Film Festival and the Hyderabad International Film Festival. In 2005, Guinness World Records declared Ramoji Film City to be the world's largest film studio.",
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"plaintext": "The region is well known for its Golconda and Hyderabad painting styles which are branches of Deccan painting. Developed during the 16th century, the Golconda style is a native style blending foreign techniques and bears some similarity to the Vijayanagara paintings of neighbouring Mysore. A significant use of luminous gold and white colours is generally found in the Golconda style. The Hyderabad style originated in the 17th century under the Nizams. Highly influenced by Mughal painting, this style makes use of bright colours and mostly depicts regional landscape, culture, costumes, and jewellery.",
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"plaintext": "Although not a centre for handicrafts itself, the patronage of the arts by the Mughals and Nizams attracted artisans from the region to Hyderabad. Such crafts include: Wootz steel, Filigree work, Bidriware, a metalwork handicraft from neighbouring Karnataka, which was popularised during the 18th century and has since been granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag under the auspices of the WTO act; and Zari and Zardozi, embroidery works on textile that involve making elaborate designs using gold, silver and other metal threads. Chintz—a glazed calico textiles was originated in Golconda in 16th century. and another example of a handicraft drawn to Hyderabad is Kalamkari, a hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile that comes from cities in Andhra Pradesh. This craft is distinguished in having both a Hindu style, known as Srikalahasti and entirely done by hand, and an Islamic style, known as Machilipatnam which uses both hand and block techniques. Examples of Hyderabad's arts and crafts are housed in various museums including the Salar Jung Museum (housing \"one of the largest one-man-collections in the world\"), the Telangana State Archaeology Museum, the Nizam Museum, the City Museum and the Birla Science Museum.",
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"plaintext": "Hyderabadi cuisine comprises a broad repertoire of rice, wheat and meat dishes and the skilled use of various spices. Hyderabad is listed by UNESCO as a creative city of gastronomy. The Hyderabadi biryani and Hyderabadi haleem with their blend of Mughlai and Arab cuisines, carry the national Geographical Indications tag. Hyderabadi cuisine is influenced to some extent by French, but more by Arabic, Turkish, Iranian and native Telugu and Marathwada cuisines. Popular native dishes include nihari, chakna, baghara baingan and the desserts qubani ka meetha, double ka meetha and kaddu ki kheer (a sweet porridge made with sweet gourd).",
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"plaintext": "One of Hyderabad's earliest newspapers, The Deccan Times, was established in the 1780s. Major Telugu dailies published in Hyderabad are Eenadu, Sakshi and Namasthe Telangana, while major English papers are The Times of India, The Hindu and Deccan Chronicle. The major Urdu papers include The Siasat Daily, The Munsif Daily and Etemaad. The Secunderabad Cantonment Board established the first radio station in Hyderabad State around 1919. Deccan Radio was the first radio public broadcast station in the city starting on 3 February 1935, with FM broadcasting beginning in 2000. The available channels in Hyderabad include All India Radio, Radio Mirchi, Radio City, Red FM, Big FM and Fever FM.",
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"plaintext": "Television broadcasting in Hyderabad began in 1974 with the launch of Doordarshan, the government of India's public service broadcaster, which transmits two free-to-air terrestrial television channels and one satellite channel. Private satellite channels started in July 1992 with the launch of Star TV. Satellite TV channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services or internet-based television. Hyderabad's first dial-up internet access became available in the early 1990s and was limited to software development companies. The first public internet access service began in 1995, with the first private sector internet service provider (ISP) starting operations in 1998. In 2015, high-speed public WiFi was introduced in parts of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Public and private schools in Hyderabad are governed by the Central Board of Secondary Education and follow a \"10+2+3\" plan. About two-thirds of pupils attend privately run institutions. Languages of instruction include English, Hindi, Telugu and Urdu. Depending on the institution, students are required to sit the Secondary School Certificate or the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education. After completing secondary education, students enroll in schools or junior colleges with higher secondary facilities. Admission to professional graduation colleges in Hyderabad, many of which are affiliated with either Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad (JNTUH) or Osmania University (OU), is through the Engineering Agricultural and Medical Common Entrance Test (EAM-CET).",
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"plaintext": "Institutes in Hyderabad include the National Institute of Rural Development, NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad (NLU), the Indian School of Business, the National Geophysical Research Institute, the Institute of Public Enterprise, the Administrative Staff College of India and the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy. Technical and engineering schools include the International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad (IIITH), Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani – Hyderabad (BITS Hyderabad), Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management Hyderabad Campus (GITAM Hyderabad Campus), and Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad (IIT-H) as well as agricultural engineering institutes such as the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University. Hyderabad also has schools of fashion design including Raffles Millennium International, NIFT Hyderabad and Wigan and Leigh College. The National Institute of Design, Hyderabad (NID-H), will offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses from 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Air traffic was previously handled via Begumpet Airport established in 1930, but this was replaced by Rajiv Gandhi International Airport (RGIA) in 2008, capable of handling 25million passengers and 150,000metric-tonnes of cargo per annum. In 2020, Airports Council International, an autonomous body representing the world's airports, judged RGIA the Best Airport in Environment and Ambience and the Best Airport by Size and Region in the passenger category.",
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"plaintext": "Though the Met first acquired a group of Peruvian antiquities in 1882, the museum did not begin a concerted effort to collect works from Africa, Oceania, and the Americas until 1969, when American businessman and philanthropist Nelson A. Rockefeller donated his more than 3,000-piece collection to the museum. Before Rockefeller's collection existed at the Met, Rockefeller founded The Museum of Primitive Art in New York City with the intentions of displaying these works, after the Met had previously shown disinterest in his art collection. In 1968, the Met had agreed to a temporary exhibition of Rockefeller's work. However, the Met then requested to include the arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas in their personal collection and on permanent display. The arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas opened to the public in 1982, under the title, \"The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing.\" This wing is named after Nelson Rockefeller's son, Michael Rockefeller, who died while collecting works in New Guinea.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, that is arguably the most comprehensive in the US. The collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum: many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections. Today, an entire wing of the museum is dedicated to the Asian collection, and spans 4,000 years of Asian art. Every known Asian civilization is represented in the Met's Asian department, and the pieces on display include every type of decorative art, from painting and printmaking to sculpture and metalworking. The department is well known for its comprehensive collection of Chinese calligraphy and painting, as well as for its Indian sculptures, Nepalese and Tibetan works, and the arts of Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia and Thailand. Three ancient religions of India—Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism—are well represented in these sculptures. However, not only \"art\" and ritual objects are represented in the collection; many of the best-known pieces are functional objects. The Asian wing also contains a complete Ming Dynasty-style garden court, modeled on a courtyard in the Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou. Maxwell K. Hearn has been the current department chairman of Asian Art since 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's collection of Greek and Roman art contains more than 17,000 objects. The Greek and Roman collection dates back to the founding of the museum—in fact, the museum's first accessioned object was a Roman sarcophagus, still currently on display. Though the collection naturally concentrates on items from ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, these historical regions represent a wide range of cultures and artistic styles, from classic Greek black-figure and red-figure vases to carved Roman tunic pins.",
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"plaintext": "Highlights of the collection include the monumental Amathus sarcophagus and a magnificently detailed Etruscan chariot known as the \"Monteleone chariot\". The collection also contains many pieces from far earlier than the Greek or Roman empires—among the most remarkable are a collection of early Cycladic sculptures from the mid-third millennium BCE, many so abstract as to seem almost modern. The Greek and Roman galleries also contain several large classical wall paintings and reliefs from different periods, including an entire reconstructed bedroom from a noble villa in Boscoreale, excavated after its entombment by the eruption of Vesuvius in . In 2007, the Met's Greek and Roman galleries were expanded to approximately , allowing the majority of the collection to be on permanent display.",
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"plaintext": "The Met has a growing corpus of digital assets that expand access to the collection beyond the physical museum. The interactive Met map provides an initial view of the collection as it can be experienced in the physical museum. The Greek and Roman Art department page provides a department overview and links to collection highlights and digital assets. The Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History provides a one thousand year overview of Greek art from to . More than 33,000 Greek and Roman objects can be referenced in the Met Digital Collection via a search engine.",
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"plaintext": "The Metropolitan Museum owns one of the world's largest collection of works of art of the Islamic world. The collection also includes artifacts and works of art of cultural and secular origin from the time period indicated by the rise of Islam predominantly from the Near East and in contrast to the Ancient Near Eastern collections. The biggest number of miniatures from the \"Shahnameh\" list prepared under the reign of Shah Tahmasp I, the most luxurious of all the existing Islamic manuscripts, also belongs to this museum. Other rarities include the works of Sultan Muhammad and his associates from the Tabriz school \"The Sade Holiday\", \"Tahmiras kills divs\", \"Bijan and Manijeh\", and many others.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's collection of Islamic art is not confined strictly to religious art, though a significant number of the objects in the Islamic collection were originally created for religious use or as decorative elements in mosques. Much of the 12,000 strong collection consists of secular items, including ceramics and textiles, from Islamic cultures ranging from Spain to North Africa to Central Asia. The Islamic Art department's collection of miniature paintings from Iran and Mughal India are a highlight of the collection. Calligraphy both religious and secular is well represented in the Islamic Art department, from the official decrees of Suleiman the Magnificent to a number of Qur'an manuscripts reflecting different periods and styles of calligraphy. Modern calligraphic artists also used a word or phrase to convey a direct message, or they created compositions from the shapes of Arabic words. Others incorporated indecipherable cursive writing within the body of the work to evoke the illusion of writing.",
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"plaintext": "Islamic Arts galleries had been undergoing refurbishment since 2001 and were reopened on November 1, 2011, as the New Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia. Until that time, a narrow selection of items from the collection had been on temporary display throughout the museum. As with many other departments at the Met, the Islamic Art galleries contain many interior pieces, including the entire reconstructed Nur Al-Din Room from an early 18th-century house in Damascus. However, the museum has confirmed to the New York Post that it has withdrawn from public display all paintings depicting Muhammad and may not rehang those that were displayed in the Islamic gallery before the renovation.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museum's most popular collections. The distinctive \"parade\" of armored figures on horseback installed in the first-floor Arms and Armor gallery is one of the most recognizable images of the museum, which was organized in 1975 with the help of the Russian immigrant and arms and armors' scholar, Leonid Tarassuk (1925–90). The department's focus on \"outstanding craftsmanship and decoration,\" including pieces intended solely for display, means that the collection is strongest in late medieval European pieces and Japanese pieces from the 5th through 19th centuries. However, these are not the only cultures represented in Arms and Armor; the collection spans more geographic regions than almost any other department, including weapons and armor from dynastic Egypt, ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the ancient Near East, Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, as well as American firearms (especially Colt firearms) from the 19th and 20th centuries. Among the collection's 14,000 objects are the oldest items in the museum: flint bifaces which date to 700,000–200,000 BCE. There are also many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, and Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of Costume Art was founded by Aline Bernstein and Irene Lewisohn. In 1946, with the financial support of the fashion industry, the Museum of Costume Art merged with The Metropolitan Museum of Art as The Costume Institute, and in 1959 became a curatorial department. Today, its collection contains more than 35,000 costumes and accessories. The Costume Institute used to have a permanent gallery space in what was known as the \"Basement\" area of the Met because it was downstairs at the bottom of the Met facility. However, due to the fragile nature of the items in the collection, the Costume Institute does not maintain a permanent installation. Instead, every year it holds two separate shows in the Met's galleries using costumes from its collection, with each show centering on a specific designer or theme. The Costume Institute is known for hosting the annual Met Gala and in the past has presented summer exhibitions such as Savage Beauty and Through the Looking Glass.",
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"plaintext": "In past years, Costume Institute shows organized around designers such as Cristóbal Balenciaga, Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, and Gianni Versace; and style doyenne like Diana Vreeland, Mona von Bismarck, Babe Paley, Jayne Wrightsman, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Nan Kempner, and Iris Apfel have drawn significant crowds to the Met. The Costume Institute's annual Benefit Gala, co-chaired by Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour, is an extremely popular, if exclusive, event in the fashion world; in 2007, the 700 available tickets started at $6,500 per person.",
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"plaintext": "Exhibits displayed over the past decade in the Costume Institute include: Rock Style, in 1999, representing the style of more than 40 rock musicians, including Madonna, David Bowie, and the Beatles; Extreme Beauty: The Body Transformed, in 2001, which exposes the transforming ideas of physical beauty over time and the bodily contortion necessary to accommodate such ideals and fashion; The Chanel Exhibit, displayed in 2005, acknowledging the skilled work of designer Coco Chanel as one of the leading fashion names in history; Superheroes: Fashion and Fantasy, exhibited in 2008, suggesting the metaphorical vision of superheroes as ultimate fashion icons; the 2010 exhibit on the American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity, which exposes the revolutionary styles of the American woman from the years 1890 to 1940, and how such styles reflect the political and social sentiments of the time. The theme of the 2011 event was \"Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty\". Each of these exhibits explores fashion as a mirror of cultural values and offers a glimpse into historical styles, emphasizing their evolution into today's own fashion world. On January 14, 2014, the Met named the Costume Institute complex after Anna Wintour. The curator is Andrew Bolton.",
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"plaintext": "Though other departments contain significant numbers of drawings and prints, the Drawings and Prints department specifically concentrates on North American pieces and western European works produced after the Middle Ages. The first Old Master drawings, comprising 670 sheets, were presented as a single group in 1880 by Cornelius Vanderbilt II and in effect launched the department, though it was not formally constituted as a department until later. Other early donors to the department include Junius Spencer Morgan II who presented a broad range of material, but mainly dated from the 16th century, including two woodblocks and many prints by Albrecht Dürer in 1919. Currently, the Drawings and Prints collection contains more than 17,000 drawings, 1.5million prints, and 12,000 illustrated books. The great masters of European painting, who produced many more sketches and drawings than actual paintings, are extensively represented in the Drawing and Prints collection. The department's holdings contain major drawings by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt, as well as prints and etchings by Van Dyck, Dürer, and Degas among many others. The curator is Nadine Orenstein.",
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"plaintext": "On the death of banker Robert Lehman in 1969, his Foundation donated 2,600 works of art to the museum. Housed in the \"Robert Lehman Wing,\" the museum refers to the collection as \"one of the most extraordinary private art collections ever assembled in the United States\". To emphasize the personal nature of the Robert Lehman Collection, the Met housed the collection in a special set of galleries which evoked the interior of Lehman's richly decorated townhouse at 7 West 54th Street. This intentional separation of the Collection as a \"museum within the museum\" met with mixed criticism and approval at the time, though the acquisition of the collection was seen as a coup for the Met. Unlike other departments at the Met, the Robert Lehman collection does not concentrate on a specific style or period of art; rather, it reflects Lehman's personal interests. Lehman the collector concentrated heavily on paintings of the Italian Renaissance, particularly the Sienese school. Paintings in the collection include masterpieces by Botticelli and Domenico Veneziano, as well as works by a significant number of Spanish painters, El Greco and Goya among them. Lehman's collection of drawings by the Old Masters, featuring works by Rembrandt and Dürer, is particularly valuable for its breadth and quality. Princeton University Press has documented the massive collection in a multi-volume book series published as The Robert Lehman Collection Catalogues.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's collection of medieval art consists of a comprehensive range of Western art from the 4th through the early 16th centuries, as well as Byzantine and pre-medieval European antiquities not included in the Ancient Greek and Roman collection. Like the Islamic collection, the Medieval collection contains a broad range of two- and three-dimensional art, with religious objects heavily represented. In total, the Medieval Art department's permanent collection numbers over 10,000 separate objects, divided between the main museum building on Fifth Avenue and The Cloisters.",
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"plaintext": "The medieval collection in the main Metropolitan building, centered on the first-floor medieval gallery, contains about 6,000 separate objects. While a great deal of European medieval art is on display in these galleries, most of the European pieces are concentrated at the Cloisters (see below). However, this allows the main galleries to display much of the Met's Byzantine art side by side with European pieces. The main gallery is host to a wide range of tapestries and church and funerary statuary, while side galleries display smaller works of precious metals and ivory, including reliquary pieces and secular items. The main gallery, with its high arched ceiling, also serves double duty as the annual site of the Met's elaborately decorated Christmas tree.",
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"plaintext": "The Cloisters was a principal project of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a major benefactor of the Met. Located in Fort Tryon Park and completed in 1938, it is a separate building dedicated solely to medieval art. The Cloisters collection was originally that of a separate museum, assembled by George Grey Barnard and acquired in toto by Rockefeller in 1925 as a gift to the Met.",
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"plaintext": "The Cloisters are so named on account of the five medieval French cloisters whose salvaged structures were incorporated into the modern building, and the five thousand objects at the Cloisters are strictly limited to medieval European works. The collection features items of outstanding beauty and historical importance; including the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry illustrated by the Limbourg Brothers in 1409, the Romanesque altar cross known as the \"Cloisters Cross\" or \"Bury Cross\", and the seven tapestries depicting the Hunt of the Unicorn.",
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"plaintext": "With some 13,000 artworks, primarily by European and American artists, the modern art collection occupies , of gallery space and contains many iconic modern works. Cornerstones of the collection include Picasso's portrait of Gertrude Stein, Jasper Johns's White Flag, Jackson Pollock's Autumn Rhythm (Number 30), and Max Beckmann's triptych Beginning. Certain artists are represented in remarkable depth, for a museum whose focus is not exclusively on modern art: for example, ninety works constitute the museum's Paul Klee collection, donated by Heinz Berggruen, spanning the entirety of the artist's life. Due to the Met's long history, \"contemporary\" paintings acquired in years past have often migrated to other collections at the museum, particularly to the American and European Paintings departments.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2013, it was reported that the museum was to receive a collection worth $1billion from cosmetics tycoon Leonard Lauder. The collection of Cubist art includes work by Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and Juan Gris and went on display in 2014. The Met has since added to the collection, for example spending $31.8million for Gris' The musician's table in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's collection of musical instruments, with about 5,000 examples of musical instruments from all over the world, is virtually unique among major museums. The collection began in 1889 with a donation of 270 instruments by Mary Elizabeth Adams Brown, who joined her collection to become the museum's first curator of musical instruments, named in honor of her husband, John Crosby Brown. By the time she died, the collection had 3,600 instruments that she had donated and the collection was housed in five galleries. Instruments were (and continue to be) included in the collection not only on aesthetic grounds, but also insofar as they embodied technical and social aspects of their cultures of origin. The modern Musical Instruments collection is encyclopedic in scope; every continent is represented at virtually every stage of its musical life. Highlights of the department's collection include several Stradivari violins, a collection of Asian instruments made from precious metals, and the oldest surviving piano, a 1720 model by Bartolomeo Cristofori. Many of the instruments in the collection are playable, and the department encourages their use by holding concerts and demonstrations by guest musicians.",
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"plaintext": "The Met's collection of photographs, numbering more than 25,000 in total, is centered on five major collections plus additional acquisitions by the museum. Alfred Stieglitz, a photographer himself, donated the first major collection of photographs to the museum, which included a comprehensive survey of Photo-Secessionist works, a rich set of master prints by Edward Steichen, and an outstanding collection of Stieglitz's photographs from his own studio. The Met supplemented Stieglitz's gift with the 8,500-piece Gilman Paper Company Collection, the Rubel Collection, and the Ford Motor Company Collection, which respectively provided the collection with early French and American photography, early British photography, and post-WWI American and European photography. The museum also acquired Walker Evans's personal collection of photographs, a particular coup considering the high demand for his works. The department of photography was founded in 1992. Though the department gained a permanent gallery in 1997, not all of the department's holdings are on display at any given time, due to the sensitive materials represented in the photography collection. However, the Photographs department has produced some of the best-received temporary exhibits in the Met's recent past, including a Diane Arbus retrospective and an extensive show devoted to spirit photography. In 2007, the museum designated a gallery exclusively for the exhibition of photographs made after 1960.",
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"plaintext": "The Met has an extensive archive consisting of 1,500 films made and collected by the museum since the 1920s. As part of the museum's 150 anniversary commemoration, since January 2020, the museum uploads a film from its archive weekly onto YouTube.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 2013, the Met organized the Digital Media Department for the purpose of increasing access of the museum's collections and resources using digital media and expanded website services. The first Chief Digital Officer Sree Sreenivasan from 2013 departed in 2016 and was replaced by Loic Tallon at the time that the department became known by its simplified designation as the Digital Department. At the start of 2017, the department began its Open Access initiative summarized on the Met's website titled \"Digital Underground\" stating: \"It's been six months since The Met launched its Open Access initiative, which made available all 375,000+ images of public-domain works in The Met collection under Creative Commons Zero (CC0). During what is just the dawn of this new initiative, the responses so far have been incredible.\" At that time, more than 375,000 photographic images from the museum's archival collection were released for public domain reproduction and use both by the general public and by large public access websites such as those available at Google BigQuery.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2022, the Met and the World Monuments Fund announced a collaboration of digital work for the 2024 reopening of the African, ancient American, and Oceanic art galleries. The digital project \"aims to bolster the understanding of several historic sites in sub-Saharan Africa,\" in particular sites that have been minimally explored by Western museums. ",
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"plaintext": "Open access images and data have been viewed over 1.2 billion times with over 7 million downloads. ",
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"plaintext": "Each Department maintains a library, most of the material of which can be requested online through the libraries' catalog. Two of the libraries may be accessed without an appointment:",
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"plaintext": "The Thomas J. Watson Library is the central library of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and supports the activities of staff and researchers. Watson Library's collection contains approximately 900,000 volumes, including monographs and exhibition catalogs; over 11,000 periodical titles; and more than 125,000 auction and sale catalogs. The Library includes a reference collection, auction and sale catalogs, a rare book collection, manuscript items, and vertical file collections. The Library is accessible to anyone 18 years of age or older simply by registering online and providing a valid photo ID.",
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"plaintext": "The Nolen Library is open to the general public. The collection of some 8,000 items, arranged in open shelves, includes books, picture books, DVDs, and videos. The Nolen Library includes a children's reading room and materials for teachers.",
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"plaintext": "The museum regularly hosts notable special exhibitions, often focusing on the works of one artist that have been loaned out from a variety of other museums and sources for the duration of the exhibition. These exhibitions are part of the attraction that draw people both within and outside Manhattan to explore the Met. Such exhibitions include displays especially designed for the Costume Institute, paintings from artists from across the world, works of art related to specific art movements, and collections of historical artifacts. Exhibitions are commonly located within their specific departments, ranging from American decorative arts, arms and armor, drawings and prints, Egyptian art, Medieval art, musical instruments, and photographs. Typical exhibitions run for months at a time and are open to the general public. Each exhibition provides insight into the world of art as a transformative, cultural experience and often includes a historical analysis to demonstrate the profound impact that art has on society and its dramatic transformation over the years.",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, a special exhibition, titled \"Harlem on My Mind\" was criticized for failing to exhibit work by Harlem artists. The museum defended its decision to portray Harlem itself as a work of art. Norman Lewis, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Clifford Joseph, Roy DeCarava, Reginald Gammon, Henri Ghent, Raymond Saunders, and Alice Neel were among the artists who picketed the show.",
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"plaintext": "In America: An Anthology of Fashion is the 2022 high fashion art exhibition of the Anna Wintour Costume Center, a wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art which houses the collection of the Costume Institute. It is the second portion, after A Lexicon of Fashion, of a two-part exhibition on fashion in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The New York State Legislature granted the Metropolitan Museum of Art an Act of Incorporation on April 13, 1870, \"for the purpose of establishing and maintaining in said City a Museum and Library of Art, of encouraging and developing the Study of the Fine Arts, and the application of Art to manufacture and natural life, of advancing the general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end of furnishing popular instruction and recreations.\" This legislation was supplemented later by the 1893 Act, Chapter 476, which required that its collections \"shall be kept open and accessible to the public free of all charge throughout the year.\" The founders included businessmen and financiers, among them Theodore Roosevelt Sr., the father of Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the US, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day, who wanted to open a museum to bring art and art education to the American people.",
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"plaintext": "The museum first opened on February 20, 1872, housed in a building located at 681 Fifth Avenue. John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum, served as its first president, and the publisher George Palmer Putnam came on board as its founding superintendent. The artist Eastman Johnson acted as co-founder of the museum, as did landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church. Various other industrialists of the age served as co-founders, including Howard Potter. The former Civil War officer, Luigi Palma di Cesnola, was named as its first director. He served from 1879 to 1904. Under their guidance, the Met's holdings, initially consisting of a Roman stone sarcophagus and 174 mostly European paintings, quickly outgrew the available space. In 1873, occasioned by the Met's purchase of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriot antiquities, the museum decamped from Fifth Avenue and took up residence at the Mrs. Nicholas Cruger Mansion also known as the Douglas Mansion (James Renwick, 1853–54, demolished 1928) at 128 West 14th Street. However, these new accommodations proved temporary, as the growing collection required more space than the mansion could provide. It moved into the current building in 1880. Between 1879 and 1895, the museum created and operated a series of educational programs, known as the Metropolitan Museum of Art Schools, intended to provide vocational training and classes on fine arts.",
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"plaintext": "In 1954, to mark the opening of its Grace Rainey Rogers concert hall, the museum inaugurated a series of concerts, adding art lectures in 1956. This \"Concerts & Lectures program\" grew over the years into 200 events each season. The program presented such performers as Marian Anderson, Cecilia Bartoli, Judy Collins, Marilyn Horne, Burl Ives, Juilliard String Quartet, Yo-Yo Ma, Itzhak Perlman, Artur Rubinstein, András Schiff, Nina Simone, Joan Sutherland and André Watts, as well as lectures on art history, music, dance, theater and social history. The program was directed, from its inception to 1968, by William Kolodney, and from 1969 to 2010, by Hilde Limondjian.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the governance of the Met was expanded to include, for the first time, a chairman of the board of trustees in contemplation of a large bequest from the estate of Robert Lehman. For six decades Lehman built upon an art collection begun by his father in 1911 and devoted a great deal of time the Met, before finally becoming the first chairman of the board at the Metropolitan in the 1960s. After his death in 1969, the Robert Lehman Foundation donated close to 3,000 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Housed in the Robert Lehman Wing, which opened to the public in 1975 and largely financed by the Lehman Foundation, the museum has called it \"one of the most extraordinary private art collections ever assembled in the United States\".",
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"plaintext": "The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial was celebrated with exhibitions, symposia, concerts, lectures, the reopening of refurbished galleries, special tours, social events, and other programming for eighteen months from October 1969 through the spring of 1971. The centennial's events (including an open house, Centennial Ball, year-long art history course for the public, and various educational programming and traveling exhibitions) and publications drew on support from prominent New Yorkers, artists, writers, composers, interior designers, and art historians.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009 Michael Gross published The Secret History of the Moguls and the Money That Made the Metropolitan Museum, an unauthorized social history, and the museum bookstore declined to sell it.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, following the earlier appointment of Daniel Brodsky as chairman of the board at the Met, the by-laws of the museum were formally amended to recognize the office of the chairman as having authority over the assignment and review of both the offices of president and director of the museum. The office of chairman was first introduced relatively late in the museum's history in the 1960s in contemplation of the anticipated donation of the Lehman collection to the museum and has since that time, under Brodsky, become the most senior administrative position at the museum.",
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"plaintext": "From 2016 to 2020, the museum operated a modern and contemporary art gallery at 945 Madison Avenue, a Marcel Breuer-designed building at Madison Avenue and 75th Street in Manhattan's Upper East Side, the former Whitney Museum of American Art. It extends the museum's modern and contemporary art program. In September 2018, it was announced that the Met intended to vacate the Met Breuer three years early, in 2020; the Frick Collection began occupying the space (still owned by the Met) as the its main building undergoes renovations.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, museum president Daniel Weiss announced that the century-old policy of free admission would be replaced by a $25 charge to out-of-state and foreign visitors, effective March 2018. The museum temporarily closed in March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and reopened in late August; this was the first time in over a century that the Met was closed for more than three consecutive days.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2020, the museum appointed Patricia Marroquin Norby (Purépecha/Nde descent) as the museum's inaugural Associate Curator of Native American Art. In May 2021, the museum installed a plaque on its Fifth Avenue facade in recognition of indigenous communities and of the fact that the museum is situated in what was historically Lenapehoking. That November, the Met received a $125 million donation from Oscar L. Tang and Agnes Hsu-Tang, the largest gift in the museum's history. In exchange, the Met named its modern and contemporary art galleries after the Tangs. The following February, the Met hired Moody Nolan to renovate the Ancient Near Eastern and Cypriot galleries. Mexican architect Frida Escobedo was hired in March 2022 to renovate the Tang wing.",
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"plaintext": "After negotiations with the City of New York in 1871, the Met was granted the land between the East Park Drive, Fifth Avenue, and the 79th and 85th Street transverse roads in Central Park. The first part of the Met to be built was a red-brick and stone \"mausoleum\" was designed by American architect Calvert Vaux and his collaborator Jacob Wrey Mould. The Fifth Avenue facade, Great Hall, and Grand Stairway were designed in the Beaux-Arts style by Richard Morris Hunt and his son, Richard Howland Hunt, in the late 1890s and early 1900s. The firm of McKim, Mead & White completed the wings on the Fifth Avenue facade in 1910. The modernistic glass sides and rear of the museum are the work of Roche-Dinkeloo.",
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"plaintext": "The Met Fifth Avenue measures almost long and with more than of floor space, more than 20 times the size of the original 1880 building. The museum building is an accretion of over 20 structures, most of which are not visible from the exterior. The City of New York owns the museum building and contributes utilities, heat, and some of the cost of guardianship. The Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Roof Garden is located on the roof near the southwestern corner of the museum. The museum's main building was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1967, and its interior was separately recognized by the Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1977. The Met's main building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986, recognizing both its monumental architecture, and its importance as a cultural institution.",
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"plaintext": "Daniel Weiss is the current president and CEO of the Met, replacing Emily K. Rafferty, who served as president for a decade, and Thomas P. Campbell, CEO and director of the museum until resigning in 2017. In April 2018, Max Hollein was named director. The Met announced in August 2022 that Hollein would also become CEO in July 2023.",
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"plaintext": "Although the City of New York owns the museum building and contributes utilities, heat, and some of the cost of guardianship, the collections are owned by a private corporation of fellows and benefactors which totals about 950 people. The museum is governed by a board of trustees of 41 elected members, several officials of the City of New York, and persons honored as trustees by the museum. The current co-chairs of the board, Candace Beinecke and Hamilton E. James, were elected in 2021. Other notable trustees include Anna Wintour, Richard Chilton, Candace Beinecke, Alejandro Santo Domingo, as well as former New York City mayor Bill de Blasio, and his appointee Ken Sunshine.",
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"plaintext": "The activities of board of trustees are organized and based upon the activities of the individual trustees and their various committees as of 2016. The several committees of the board of trustees include the committees listed as Nominating, Executive, Acquisitions, Finance, Investment, Legal, Education, Audit, Employee Benefits, External Affairs, Merchandising, Membership, Building, Technology, and The Fund for the Met.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2021, the museum's endowment as administered by the museum's new investment officer Lauren Meserve is US$3.3billion which provides much of the income for operations while admissions account for only 13 percent of revenue as of fiscal 2016. The 2009–10 operating budget was $221million. The museum admission price as of March 2018 is $25 for out-of-state and foreign visitors, while New York state residents can pay what they wish to enter. Although subject to re-assessment, a 1970 agreement between the museum and the city of New York requires New York state visitors to pay at least a nominal amount; a penny is acceptable. The Met's finance committee is led by Hamilton E. James of The Blackstone Group, who is also one of the board members at the Met. The Met is reported to have an Aaa credit rating, the highest such rating possible. This was last affirmed by Moody's in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, museum President Daniel Weiss announced that the institution would review its policy for receiving financial donations, under pressure from activist group P.A.I.N. for the role that cultural institutions have played in whitewashing the Sackler family by receiving their donations. The museum announced it would remove the Sackler name from locations within the museum in December 2021.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2016, the Wall Street Journal first reported financial set-backs at the museum related to servicing its outstanding debts and associated cut-backs in staffing at the museum, with the goal of trying to balance its budget by fiscal year 2018. According to the Met's annual tax filing for fiscal year 2016, several top executives had received disproportionately high compensation, often exceeding $1million per annum with over $100,000 bonuses per annum.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2017, The New York Times reported that the Met's annual debt was approaching $40million, in addition to an outstanding museum bond for $250million. This resulted in the indefinite postponement of a planned $600million architectural expansion of the exhibition space for the museum's modern art collection as well as started a general discussion over the Met's human resources management. The chairman of the board at the Met elected in 2011, Daniel Brodsky, stated in response to the Times reports that he \"looked forward to working with my administrative and board colleagues to support a climate of candor, transparency, accountability and mutual respect.\" In January 2018, Daniel Weiss as president of the museum stated that a downsized version of the original $600million architectural expansion might be reconsidered as early as 2020 at a reduction to the $450million level.",
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"plaintext": "Brodsky, the chairman of the Met, stated that after the 2017 financial setbacks, the director position would be appointed separately from the position of CEO. Following a commissioned report from the Boston Consulting Group, the interim CEO, president, and COO of the Met, Daniel Weiss, said that the Met's 2015–2017 financial setbacks were caused by \"slowing revenue, rising costs, and too many projects at once.\" Weiss was further reported as having hired Will Manzer, formerly an executive at Perry Ellis, to help re-invigorate recently declining revenues at the museum. On April 26, Weiss stated that the budget shortfall of $15million might require a re-assessment and increase in the museum's current admission payment policy. Weiss added that there remained concerns for a sustainable fiscal model for the Met in which city officials \"have a right to a clear understanding of how we would be engaging the public, how we balance access with sustainability.\" In May 2017, the Met filed formal proposal to attempt to charge admission fees to out-of-state visitors. Robin Pogrebin, writing for the Times, reported that the request for out-of-state admissions would call for the re-legislation of the New York State 1893 Act which requires that the museum's collections \"shall be kept open and accessible to the public free of all charge throughout the year,\" and any unlegislated changes would be subject to challenge by the New York State attorney general, Eric Schneiderman, or one of the tristate counselors, Christopher Porrino or George Jepsen.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, Pogrebin writing for The New York Times reported that amid-continuing reverberations from \"a period of financial turbulence and leadership turmoil\" that the museum president Daniel Weiss had announced that the museum would rescind its century-old policy of free admission to the museum and begin charging $25 for out-of-state visitors starting in March 2018. Pogrebin stated that although the museum had made progress in decreasing its deficit from $40million to $10million, that an adverse decision from the City of New York to curtail funding for the Met's operating costs by as much as $8million \"for security and building staff\" caused Weiss to announce the change in admissions policy. Weiss indicated that the new policy would be estimated to increase revenue from the current $43million it receives from admissions to an enhanced revenue stream as high as US$49million.",
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"plaintext": "For the fiscal year 2017 which ended on June 30, the museum was reported as having 7million visitors during the past year, where \"37 percent of these were international visitors, while 30 percent came from New York's five boroughs.\" Previously in 2016, the museum set a record for attendance, attracting 6.7million visitors—the highest number since the museum began tracking admissions. Forty percent of the Met's visitors in fiscal year 2016 came from New York City and the tristate area; 41 percent from 190 countries besides the United States. In 2017, the attendance figures indicated seven million annual visitors with 63% of the visitors arriving from outside of New York State.",
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"plaintext": "Roberta Smith writing for The New York Times in September 2017 voiced growing public concern that proposed increases in admissions costs would have an adverse effect upon attendance statistics at the museum. Smith referred to the public perception that such costs would appear \"greedy and inappropriate\" because \"The museum already gets around $39 million a year from its gate—equal to the entire annual budget of the Brooklyn Museum.\" Smith's article continued to report the negative response of local communities in the tristate area surrounding the museum which was previously introduced in a series of articles by Robin Pogrebin written during the 2016–2017 fiscal year at the museum which criticized speculative suggestions among current administrators at the museum that an added revenue stream could be pursued by the museum by rescinding existing museum policy since 1893 allowing for free public access to the museum. In January 2018, museum president Daniel Weiss announced that the century-old policy of free museum admission would be replaced. Effective March 2018, most visitors who do not live in New York state or are not a student from New York, New Jersey, or Connecticut have to pay $25 to enter the museum. The City of New York has reduced funding at the Metropolitan as part of Mayor De Blasio's political effort to increase artistic diversity. They made an agreement to allow the fees in exchange for less funding which the city pledged to use at alternate facilities and promote diversity.",
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"plaintext": "Holland Carter and Roberta Smith of The New York Times argued in response to Weiss's decision to rescind the previous free admission policy as lacking in responsible fiscal planning. They stated that a recent $65million expenditure for renovating fountains seemed to be a poor allocation of the limited available funding. Smith added, \"Those new awful Darth Vaderish fountains take huge chunks out of the plaza and disrupt movement,\" as an indication of the misuse of funds. Further criticism of Weiss's proposal was voiced internationally when The Guardian summarized the backlash from the Weiss proposal for raising the admissions fees. It stated, \"Some critics are outraged. The past week has seen a New York Times piece titled \"The New Pay Policy Is a Mistake\", while Jezebel's Aimée Lutkin claimed \"The Met Should Be Fucking Free\". The New York Post writes that the museum has never had the right to charge admission and Alexandra Schwartz in the New Yorker says the new policy diminishes New York City\".",
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"plaintext": "The COVID-19 pandemic greatly impacted the Met's operations and led to the museum's first long-term shutdown on March 13, 2020. The Met gradually partially reopened in stages. By 2021, the public could visit the Met five days a week, with reduced hours of operation, and visitors were required to wear masks and practice social distancing. Several special exhibits were opened to the public during the reduced hours. There were 6,479,548 visitors in 2019, compared to 1,124,759 in 2020. Other services such as the research libraries were almost completely closed except for off-site digital access. As a result, 20 percent of staff positions were eliminated, and Met director Max Hollein indicated that the Met might deaccession and sell off some of its collection to make up financial shortfalls. At least some of the museum's large art holding was placed in storage in order to make-up for losses in revenue causes by responses to the pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "The Metropolitan Museum of Art spent $39million to acquire art for the fiscal year ending in June 2012. At the same time, the museum is required to list in its annual report the total cash proceeds from art sales each year and to itemize any deaccessioned objects valued at more than $50,000 each. It must also sell those pieces at auction and provide advance public notice of a work being sold if it has been on view in the last ten years. These rules were imposed by the New York State Attorney General in 1972.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1970s, under the directorship of Thomas Hoving, the Met revised its deaccessioning policy. Under the new policy, the Met set its sights on acquiring \"world-class\" pieces, regularly funding the purchases by selling mid- to high-value items from its collection. Though the Met had always sold duplicate or minor items from its collection to fund the acquisition of new pieces, the Met's new policy was significantly more aggressive and wide-ranging than before, and allowed the deaccessioning of items with higher values which would normally have precluded their sale. The new policy provoked a great deal of criticism (in particular, from The New York Times) but had its intended effect.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the items then purchased with funds generated by the more liberal deaccessioning policy are now considered the \"stars\" of the Met's collection, including Diego Velázquez's c. 1650 Portrait of Juan de Pareja and the Euphronios Krater depicting the death of Sarpedon (which was repatriated to Italy in 2006). In the years since the Met began its new deaccessioning policy, other museums have begun to emulate it with aggressive deaccessioning programs of their own. The Met has continued the policy in recent years, selling such valuable pieces as Edward Steichen's 1904 photograph The Pond-Moonlight (of which another copy was already in the Met's collection) for a record price of $2.9million.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most serious challenges to the Metropolitan Museum's reputation has been a series of allegations and lawsuits about its status as an institutional buyer of looted and stolen antiquities. Since the 1990s the Met has been the subject of numerous investigative reports and books critical of the Met's laissez-faire attitude to acquisition. The Met has lost several major lawsuits, notably against the governments of Italy and Turkey, which successfully sought the repatriation of hundreds of ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern antiquities, with a total value in the hundreds of millions of dollars.",
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"plaintext": " List of most-visited art museums",
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"plaintext": " Danziger, Danny (2007). Museum: Behind the Scenes at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Viking. .",
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"plaintext": " Howe, Winifred E., and Henry Watson Kent (2009). A History of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1. General Books, Memphis. .",
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"plaintext": " Tompkins, Calvin (1989). Merchants & Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Henry Holt and Company, New York. .",
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"plaintext": " Trask, Jeffrey (2012). Things American: Art Museums and Civic Culture in the Progressive Era. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ; A history that relates it the political context of the Progressive Era.",
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"plaintext": " Vogel, Carol, \"Grand Galleries for National Treasures\", January 5; and Holland Cotter, \"The Met Reimagines the American Story\", review, January 15; two 2012 New York Times articles about American painting and sculpture galleries reopening after four-year renovation.",
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"plaintext": "Main attractions include landscapes such as the Ramble and Lake, Hallett Nature Sanctuary, the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir, and Sheep Meadow; amusement attractions such as Wollman Rink, Central Park Carousel, and the Central Park Zoo; formal spaces such as the Central Park Mall and Bethesda Terrace; and the Delacorte Theater. The biologically diverse ecosystem has several hundred species of flora and fauna. Recreational activities include carriage-horse and bicycle tours, bicycling, sports facilities, and concerts and events such as Shakespeare in the Park. Central Park is traversed by a system of roads and walkways and is served by public transportation.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park is the fifth-largest park in New York City, behind Pelham Bay Park, the Staten Island Greenbelt, Van Cortlandt Park, and Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, with an area of . Central Park constitutes its own United States census tract, numbered 143. According to American Community Survey five-year estimates, the park was home to four females with a median age of 19.8. Though the 2010 United States Census recorded 25 residents within the census tract, park officials have rejected the claim of anyone permanently living there.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States and one of the most visited tourist attractions worldwide, with 42million visitors in 2016. The number of unique visitors is much lower; a Central Park Conservancy report conducted found that between eight and nine million people visited Central Park, with 37 to 38million visits between them. By comparison, there were 25million visitors in 2009, and 12.3million in 1973.",
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"plaintext": "The number of tourists as a proportion of total visitors is much lower: in 2009, one-fifth of the 25million park visitors recorded that year were estimated to be tourists. The 2011 Conservancy report gave a similar ratio of park usage: only 14%of visits are by people visiting Central Park for the first time. According to the report, nearly two-thirds of visitors are regular park users who enter the park at least once weekly, and about 70%of visitors live in New York City. Moreover, peak visitation occurred during summer weekends, and most visitors used the park for passive recreational activities such as walking or sightseeing, rather than for active sport.",
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"plaintext": "The park is maintained by the Central Park Conservancy, a private, not-for-profit organization that manages the park under a contract with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks), in which the president of the Conservancy is the ex officio administrator of Central Park. It effectively oversees the work of both the private and public employees under the authority of the publicly appointed Central Park administrator, who reports to the parks commissioner and the conservancy's president. The Central Park Conservancy was founded in 1980 as a nonprofit organization with a citizen board to assist with the city's initiatives to clean up and rehabilitate the park. The Conservancy took over the park's management duties from NYC Parks in 1998, though NYC Parks retained ownership of Central Park. The Conservancy provides maintenance support and staff training programs for other public parks in New York City, and has assisted with the development of new parks such as the High Line and Brooklyn Bridge Park.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1821 and 1855, New York City's population nearly quadrupled. As the city expanded northward up Manhattan Island, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, for passive recreation. These were seen as escapes from the noise and chaotic life in the city, which at the time was almost entirely centered on Lower Manhattan. The Commissioners' Plan of 1811, the outline for Manhattan's modern street grid, included several smaller open spaces but not Central Park. As such, John Randel Jr. had surveyed the grounds for the construction of intersections within the modern-day park site. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is embedded in a rock north of the present Dairy and the 66thStreet transverse, marking the location where West 65thStreet would have intersected Sixth Avenue.",
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"plaintext": "Mayor Ambrose Kingsland, in a message to the New York City Common Council on May 5, 1851, set forth the necessity and benefits of a large new park and proposed the council move to create such a park. Kingsland's proposal was referred to the Council's Committee of Lands, which endorsed the proposal. The committee chose Jones's Wood, a tract of land between 66thand 75thstreets on the Upper East Side, as the park's site, as Bryant had advocated for Jones Wood. The acquisition was controversial because of its location, small size relative to other potential uptown tracts, and cost. A bill to acquire Jones's Wood was invalidated as unconstitutional, so attention turned to a second site: a area known as \"Central Park\", bounded by 59thand 106thstreets between Fifth and Eighth avenues. Croton Aqueduct Board president Nicholas Dean, who proposed the Central Park site, chose it because the Croton Aqueduct's , collecting reservoir would be in the geographical center. In July 1853, the New York State Legislature passed the Central Park Act, authorizing the purchase of the present-day site of Central Park.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1856, Fernando Wood appointed a \"consulting board\" of seven people, headed by author Washington Irving, to inspire public confidence in the proposed development. Wood hired military engineer Egbert Ludovicus Viele as the park's chief engineer, tasking him with a topographical survey of the site. The following April, the state legislature passed a bill to authorize the appointment of four Democratic and seven Republican commissioners, who had exclusive control over the planning and construction process. Though Viele had already devised a plan for the park, the commissioners disregarded it and retained him to complete only the topographical surveys. The Central Park Commission began hosting a landscape design contest shortly after its creation. The commission specified that each entry contain extremely detailed specifications, as mandated by the consulting board. Thirty-three firms or organizations submitted plans.",
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"plaintext": "Construction of Central Park's design was executed by a gamut of professionals. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were the primary designers, assisted by board member Andrew Haswell Green, architect Jacob Wrey Mould, master gardener Ignaz Anton Pilat, and engineer George E. Waring Jr. Olmsted was responsible for the overall plan, while Vaux designed some of the finer details. Mould, who worked frequently with Vaux, designed the Central Park Esplanade and the Tavern on the Green building. Pilat was the park's chief landscape architect, whose primary responsibility was the importation and placement of plants within the park. A \"corps\" of construction engineers and foremen, managed by superintending engineer William H. Grant, were tasked with the measuring and constructing architectural features such as paths, roads, and buildings. Waring was one of the engineers working under Grant's leadership and was in charge of land drainage.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park was difficult to construct because of the generally rocky and swampy landscape. Around of soil and rocks had to be transported out of the park, and more gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. More than of topsoil were transported from Long Island and New Jersey, because the original soil was neither fertile nor sufficiently substantial to sustain the flora specified in the Greensward Plan. Modern steam-powered equipment and custom tree-moving machines augmented the work of unskilled laborers. In total, over 20,000 individuals helped construct Central Park. Because of extreme precautions taken to minimize collateral damage, five laborers died during the project, at a time when fatality rates were generally much higher.",
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"plaintext": "During the development of Central Park, Superintendent Olmsted hired several dozen mounted police officers, who were classified into two types of \"keepers\": park keepers and gate keepers. The mounted police were viewed favorably by park patrons and were later incorporated into a permanent patrol. The regulations were sometimes strict. For instance, prohibited actions included games of chance, speech-making, large congregations such as picnics, or picking flowers or other parts of plants. These ordinances were effective: by 1866, there had been nearly eight million visits and only 110 arrests in the park's history.",
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"plaintext": "In late August 1857, workers began building fences, clearing vegetation, draining the land, and leveling uneven terrain. By the following month, chief engineer Viele reported that the project employed nearly 700 workers. Olmsted employed workers using day labor, hiring men directly without any contracts and paying them by the day. Many of the laborers were Irish immigrants or first-or-second generation Irish Americans, and some Germans and Italians; there were no black or female laborers. The workers were often underpaid, and workers would often take jobs at other construction projects to supplement their income. A pattern of seasonal hiring was established, wherein more workers would be hired and paid at higher rates during the summers.",
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"plaintext": "For several months, the park commissioners faced funding issues, and a dedicated workforce and funding stream was not secured until June 1858. The landscaped Upper Reservoir was the only part of the park that the commissioners were not responsible for constructing; instead, the Reservoir would be built by the Croton Aqueduct board. Work on the Reservoir started in April 1858. The first major work in Central Park involved grading the driveways and draining the land in the park's southern section. The Lake in Central Park's southwestern section was the first feature to open to the public, in December 1858, followed by the Ramble in June 1859. The same year, the New York State Legislature authorized the purchase of an additional at the northern end of Central Park, from 106thto 110thStreets. The section of Central Park south of 79thStreet was mostly completed by 1860.",
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"plaintext": "The park commissioners reported in June 1860 that $4million had been spent on the construction to date. As a result of the sharply rising construction costs, the commissioners eliminated or downsized several features in the Greensward Plan. Based on claims of cost mismanagement, the New York State Senate commissioned the Swiss engineer Julius Kellersberger to write a report on the park. Kellersberger's report, submitted in 1861, stated that the commission's management of the park was a \"triumphant success\".",
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"plaintext": "Olmsted often clashed with the park commissioners, notably with Chief Commissioner Green. Olmsted resigned in June 1862, and Green was appointed to Olmsted's position. Vaux resigned in 1863 because of what he saw as pressure from Green. As superintendent of the park, Green accelerated construction, though having little experience in architecture. He implemented a style of micromanagement, keeping records of the smallest transactions in an effort to reduce costs. Green finalized the negotiations to purchase the northernmost of the park which was later converted into a \"rugged\" woodland and the Harlem Meer waterway.",
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"plaintext": "When the American Civil War began in 1861, the park commissioners decided to continue building Central Park, since significant parts of the park had already been completed. Only three major structures were completed during the Civil War: the Music Stand and the Casino restaurant, both later demolished, and the Bethesda Terrace and Fountain. By late 1861, the park south of 72ndStreet had been completed, except for various fences. Work had begun on the northern section of the park but was complicated by a need to preserve the historic McGowan's Pass. The Upper Reservoir was completed the following year.",
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"plaintext": "During this period Central Park began to gain popularity. One of the main attractions was the \"Carriage Parade\", a daily display of horse-drawn carriages that traversed the park. Park patronage grew steadily: by 1867, Central Park accommodated nearly three million pedestrians, 85,000 horses, and 1.38million vehicles annually. The park had activities for New Yorkers of all social classes. While the wealthy could ride horses on bridle paths or travel in horse-drawn carriages, almost everyone was able to participate in sports such as ice-skating or rowing, or listen to concerts at the Mall's bandstand.",
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"plaintext": "Olmsted and Vaux were re-hired in mid-1865. Several structures were erected, including the Children's District, the Ballplayers House, and the Dairy in the southern part of Central Park. Construction commenced on Belvedere Castle, Harlem Meer, and structures on Conservatory Water and the Lake.",
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"plaintext": "The Tammany Hall political machine, which was the largest political force in New York at the time, was in control of Central Park for a brief period beginning in April 1870. A new charter created by Tammany boss William M. Tweed abolished the old 11-member commission and replaced it with one with five men composed of Green and four other Tammany-connected figures. Subsequently, Olmsted and Vaux resigned again from the project in November 1870. After Tweed's embezzlement was publicly revealed in 1871, leading to his imprisonment, Olmsted and Vaux were re-hired, and the Central Park Commission appointed new members who were mostly in favor of Olmsted.",
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"plaintext": "One of the areas that remained relatively untouched was the underdeveloped western side of Central Park, though some large structures would be erected in the park's remaining empty plots. By 1872, Manhattan Square had been reserved for the American Museum of Natural History, founded three years before at the Arsenal. A corresponding area on the East Side, originally intended as a playground, would later become the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the final years of Central Park's construction, Vaux and Mould designed several structures for Central Park. The park's sheepfold (now Tavern on the Green) and Ladies' Meadow were designed by Mould in 1870–1871, followed by the administrative offices on the 86thStreet transverse in 1872. Even though Olmsted and Vaux's partnership was dissolved by the end of 1872, the park was not officially completed until 1876.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1870s, the park's patrons increasingly came to include the middle and working class, and strict regulations were gradually eased, such as those against public gatherings. Because of the heightened visitor count, neglect by the Tammany administration, and budget cuts demanded by taxpayers, the maintenance expenses for Central Park had reached a nadir by 1879. Olmsted blamed politicians, real estate owners, and park workers for Central Park's decline, though high maintenance costs were also a factor. By the 1890s, the park faced several challenges: cars were becoming commonplace, and with the proliferation of amusements and refreshment stands, people were beginning to see the park as a recreational attraction. The 1904 opening of the New York City Subway displaced Central Park as the city's predominant leisure destination, as New Yorkers could travel to farther destinations such as Coney Island beaches or Broadway theaters for a five-cent fare.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 19thcentury the landscape architect Samuel Parsons took the position of New York City parks superintendent. A onetime apprentice of Calvert Vaux, Parsons helped restore the nurseries of Central Park in 1886. Parsons closely followed Olmsted's original vision for the park, restoring Central Park's trees while blocking the placement of several large statues in the park. Under Parsons' leadership, two circles (now Duke Ellington and Frederick Douglass Circles) were constructed at the northern corners of the park. He was removed in May 1911 following a lengthy dispute over whether an expense to replace the soil in the park was unnecessary. A succession of Tammany-affiliated Democratic mayors were indifferent toward Central Park.",
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"plaintext": "Several park advocacy groups were formed in the early 20thcentury. To preserve the park's character, the citywide Parks and Playground Association, and a consortium of multiple Central Park civic groups operating under the Parks Conservation Association, were formed in the 1900s and 1910s. These associations advocated against such changes to the park as the construction of a library, sports stadium, a cultural center, and an underground parking lot. A third group, the Central Park Association, was created in 1926. The Central Park Association and the Parks and Playgrounds Association were merged into the Park Association of New York City two years later.",
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"plaintext": "The Heckscher Playground—named after philanthropist August Heckscher, who donated the play equipment—opened near its southern end in 1926, and quickly became popular with poor immigrant families. The following year, mayor Walker commissioned landscape designer Herman W. Merkel to create a plan to improve Central Park. Merkel's plans would combat vandalism and plant destruction, rehabilitate paths, and add eight new playgrounds, at a cost of $1million. One of the suggested modifications, underground irrigation pipes, were installed soon after Merkel's report was submitted. The other improvements outlined in the report, such as fences to mitigate plant destruction, were postponed due to the Great Depression.",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor of New York City. He unified the five park-related departments then in existence. Newly appointed city parks commissioner Robert Moses was given the task of cleaning up the park, and he summarily fired many of the Tammany-era staff. At the time, the lawns were filled with weeds and dust patches, while many trees were dying or already dead. Monuments had been vandalized, equipment and walkways were broken, and ironwork was rusted. Moses's biographer Robert Caro later said, \"The once beautiful Mall looked like a scene of a wild party the morning after. Benches lay on their backs, their legs jabbing at the sky...\"",
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"plaintext": "During the following year, the city's parks department replanted lawns and flowers, replaced dead trees and bushes, sandblasted walls, repaired roads and bridges, and restored statues. The park menagerie and Arsenal was transformed into the modern Central Park Zoo, and a rat extermination program was instituted within the zoo. Another dramatic change was Moses' removal of the \"Hoover valley\" shantytown at the north end of Turtle Pond, which became the Great Lawn. The western part of the Pond at the park's southeast corner became an ice skating rink called Wollman Rink, roads were improved or widened, and twenty-one playgrounds were added. These projects used funds from the New Deal program, and donations from the public. Moses removed Sheep Meadow's sheep to make way for the Tavern on the Green restaurant.",
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"plaintext": "Renovations in the 1940s and 1950s include a restoration of the Harlem Meer completed in 1943, and a new boathouse completed in 1954. Moses began construction on several other recreational features in Central Park, such as playgrounds and ball fields. One of the more controversial projects proposed during this time was a 1956 dispute over a parking lot for Tavern in the Green. The controversy placed Moses, an urban planner known for displacing families for other large projects around the city, against a group of mothers who frequented a wooded hollow at the site of a parking lot. Though opposed by the parents, Moses approved the destruction of part of the hollow. Demolition work commenced after Central Park was closed for the night and was only halted after the threat of a lawsuit.",
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"plaintext": "Moses left his position in May 1960. No park commissioner since then has been able to exercise the same degree of power, nor did NYC Parks remain in as stable a position in the aftermath of his departure. Eight commissioners held the office in the twenty years following his departure. The city experienced economic and social changes, with some residents moving to the suburbs. Interest in Central Park's landscape had long since declined, and it was now mostly being used for recreation. Several unrealized additions were proposed for Central Park in that decade, such as a public housing development, a golf course, and a \"revolving world's fair\".",
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"plaintext": "The 1960s marked the beginning of an \"Events Era\" in Central Park that reflected the widespread cultural and political trends of the period. The Public Theater's annual Shakespeare in the Park festival was settled in the Delacorte Theater, and summer performances were instituted on the Sheep Meadow and the Great Lawn by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and the Metropolitan Opera. During the late 1960s, the park became the venue for rallies and cultural events such as the \"love-ins\" and \"be-ins\" of the period. The same year, Lasker Rink opened in the northern part of the park; the facility served as an ice rink in winter and Central Park's only swimming pool in summer.",
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"plaintext": "By the mid-1970s, managerial neglect resulted in a decline in park conditions. A 1973 report noted that the park suffered from severe erosion and tree decay, and that individual structures were being vandalized or neglected. The Central Park Community Fund was subsequently created based on the recommendation of a report from a Columbia University professor. The Fund then commissioned a study of the park's management and suggested the appointment of both a NYC Parks administrator and a board of citizens. In 1979, Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis established the Office of Central Park Administrator and appointed Elizabeth Barlow, the executive director of the Central Park Task Force, to the position. The Central Park Conservancy, a nonprofit organization with a citizen board, was founded the following year.",
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"plaintext": "Under the leadership of the Central Park Conservancy, the park's reclamation began by addressing needs that could not be met within NYC Parks' existing resources. The Conservancy hired interns and a small restoration staff to reconstruct and repair unique rustic features, undertaking horticultural projects, and removing graffiti under the broken windows theory which advocated removing visible signs of decay. The first structure to be renovated was the Dairy, which reopened as the park's first visitor center in 1979. The Sheep Meadow, which reopened the following year, was the first landscape to be restored. Bethesda Terrace and Fountain, the USS Maine National Monument, and the Bow Bridge were also rehabilitated. By then, the Conservancy was engaged in design efforts and long-term restoration planning, and in 1981, Davis and Barlow announced a 10-year, $100million \"Central Park Management and Restoration Plan\". The long-closed Belvedere Castle was renovated and reopened in 1983, while the Central Park Zoo closed for a full reconstruction that year. To reduce the maintenance effort, large gatherings such as free concerts were canceled.",
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"plaintext": "On completion of the planning stage in 1985, the Conservancy launched its first campaign and mapped out a 15-year restoration plan. Over the next several years, the campaign restored landmarks in the southern part of the park, such as Grand Army Plaza and the police station at the 86thStreet transverse; while Conservatory Garden in the northeastern corner of the park was restored to a design by Lynden B. Miller. Real estate developer Donald Trump renovated the Wollman Rink in 1987 after plans to renovate it were delayed repeatedly. The following year, the Zoo reopened after a $35million, four-year renovation.",
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"plaintext": "Work on the northern end of the park began in 1989. A $51million campaign, announced in 1993, resulted in the restoration of bridle trails, the Mall, the Harlem Meer, and the North Woods, and the construction of the Dana Discovery Center on the Harlem Meer. This was followed by the Conservancy's overhaul of the near the Great Lawn and Turtle Pond, which was completed in 1997. The Upper Reservoir was decommissioned as a part of the city's water supply system in 1993, and was renamed after former U.S. first lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis the next year. During the mid-1990s, the Conservancy hired additional volunteers and implemented a zone-based system of management throughout the park. The Conservancy assumed much of the park's operations in early 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Renovations continued through the first decade of the 21stcentury, and a project to restore the pond was commenced in 2000. Four years later, the Conservancy replaced a chain-link fence with a replica of the original cast-iron fence that surrounded the Upper Reservoir. It started refurbishing the ceiling tiles of the Bethesda Arcade, which was completed in 2007. Soon after, the Central Park Conservancy began restoring the Ramble and Lake, in a project that was completed in 2012. Bank Rock Bridge was restored, and the Gill, which empties into the lake, was reconstructed to approximate its dramatic original form. The final feature to be restored was the East Meadow, which was rehabilitated in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the New York City Council proposed a study on the viability of banning vehicular traffic from the park's drives. The next year, mayor Bill de Blasio announced that West and East drives north of 72ndStreet would be closed to vehicular traffic, because the city's data showed that closing the roads did not adversely impact traffic flows. Subsequently, in June 2018, the remaining drives south of 72ndStreet were closed to vehicular traffic.",
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"plaintext": "Several structures were renovated. Belvedere Castle was closed in 2018 for an extensive renovation, reopening in June 2019. Later in 2018, it was announced that the Delacorte Theater would be closed from 2020 to 2022 for a $110million rebuild. The Central Park Conservancy further announced that Lasker Rink would be closed for a $150million renovation between 2021 and 2024.",
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"plaintext": "There are four different types of bedrock in Manhattan. In Central Park, Manhattan schist and Hartland schist, which are both metamorphosed sedimentary rock, are exposed in various outcroppings. The other two types, Fordham gneiss (an older deeper layer) and Inwood marble (metamorphosed limestone which overlays the gneiss), do not surface in the park. Fordham gneiss, which consists of metamorphosed igneous rocks, was formed a billion years ago, during the Grenville orogeny that occurred during the creation of an ancient super-continent. Manhattan schist and Hartland schist were formed in the Iapetus Ocean during the Taconic orogeny in the Paleozoic era, about 450million years ago, when the tectonic plates began to merge to form the supercontinent Pangaea. Cameron's Line, a fault zone that traverses Central Park on an east–west axis, divides the outcroppings of Hartland schist to the south and Manhattan schist to the north.",
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"plaintext": "Various glaciers have covered the area of Central Park in the past, with the most recent being the Wisconsin glacier which receded about 12,000years ago. Evidence of past glaciers can be seen throughout the park in the form of glacial erratics (large boulders dropped by the receding glacier) and north–south glacial striations visible on stone outcroppings. Alignments of glacial erratics, called \"boulder trains\", are present throughout Central Park. The most notable of these outcroppings is Rat Rock (also known as Umpire Rock), a circular outcropping at the southwestern corner of the park. It measures wide and tall with different east, west, and north faces. Boulderers sometimes congregate there. A single glacial pothole with yellow clay is near the southwest corner of the park.",
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"plaintext": "The underground geology of Central Park was altered by the construction of several subway lines underneath it, and by the New York City Water Tunnel No. 3 approximately underground. Excavations for the project have uncovered pegmatite, feldspar, quartz, biotite, and several metals.",
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"plaintext": "There are three wooded areas in Central Park: North Woods, the Ramble, and Hallett Nature Sanctuary. North Woods, the largest of the woodlands, is at the northwestern corner of Central Park. It covers about adjacent to North Meadow. The name sometimes applies to other attractions in the park's northern end; these adjacent features plus the area of North Woods can be . North Woods contains the Ravine, a forest with deciduous trees on its northwestern slope, and the Loch, a small stream that winds diagonally through North Woods.",
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"plaintext": "The Ramble is in the southern third of the park next to the Lake. Covering , it contains a series of winding paths. The area contains a diverse selection of vegetation and other flora, which attracts a plethora of birds. At least 250species of birds have been spotted in the Ramble over the years. Historically, the Ramble was known as a place for private homosexual encounters due to its seclusion.",
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"plaintext": "The Hallett Nature Sanctuary is at the southeastern corner of Central Park. It is the smallest wooded area at . Originally known as the Promontory, it was renamed after civic activist and birder George Hervey Hallett Jr. in 1986. The Hallett Sanctuary was closed to the public from 1934 to May 2016, when it was reopened allowing limited access.",
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"plaintext": "The Central Park Conservancy classifies its remaining green space into four types of lawns, labeled alphabetically based on usage and the amount of maintenance needed. There are seven high-priority \"A Lawns\", collectively covering , that are heavily used: Sheep Meadow, Great Lawn, North Meadow, East Meadow, Conservatory Garden, Heckscher Ballfields, and the Lawn Bowling and Croquet Greens near Sheep Meadow. These are permanently surrounded by fences, are constantly maintained, and are closed during the off-season. Another 16 lawns, covering , are classed as \"B Lawns\" and are fenced off only during off-seasons, while an additional are \"C Lawns\" and are only occasionally fenced off. The lowest-prioritized type of turf, \"D Lawns\", cover and are open year-round with few barriers or access restrictions.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park is home to numerous bodies of water. The northernmost lake, Harlem Meer, is near the northeastern corner of the park and covers nearly . Located in a wooded area of oak, cypress, and beech trees, it was named after Harlem, one of Manhattan's first suburban communities, and was built after the completion of the southern portion of the park. Harlem Meer allows catch and release fishing. It is fed by two interconnected water features: the Pool, a pond within the North Woods fed by drinking water, and the Loch, a small stream with three cascades that winds through the North Woods. These are all adapted from a single watercourse called Montayne's Rivulet, originally fed from a natural spring but later replenished by the city's water system. Lasker Rink is above the mouth of the Loch where it drains into the Harlem Meer.",
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"plaintext": "South of Harlem Meer and the Pool is Central Park's largest lake, the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir, known as the Central Park Reservoir before 1994. It was constructed between 1858 and 1862. Covering an area of between 86thand 96thstreets, the reservoir reaches a depth of more than in places and contains about of water. The Onassis Reservoir was created as a new, landscaped storage reservoir to the north of the Croton Aqueduct's rectangular receiving reservoir. Because of the Onassis Reservoir's shape, East Drive was built as a straight path, with little clearance between the reservoir to the west and Fifth Avenue to the east. It was decommissioned in 1993 and renamed after Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis the following year, after her death.",
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"plaintext": "The Turtle Pond, a man-made pond, is at the southern edge of the Great Lawn. The pond was originally part of the Croton receiving reservoir. The receiving reservoir was drained starting in 1930, and the dry reservoir bed was temporarily used as a homeless encampment when filling stopped during the Great Depression. The Great Lawn was completed in 1937 on the site of the reservoir. Until 1987, it was known as Belvedere Lake, after the castle at its southwestern corner.",
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"plaintext": "The Lake, south of the 79th Street transverse, covers nearly . Originally, it was part of the Sawkill Creek, which flowed near the American Museum of Natural History. The Lake was among the first features to be completed, opening to skaters in December 1858. It was intended to accommodate boats in the summer and ice skaters in winter. The Loeb Boathouse, on the eastern shore of the Lake, rents out rowboats, kayaks, and gondolas, and houses a restaurant. The Lake is spanned by Bow Bridge at its center, and its northern inlet, Bank Rock Bay, is spanned by the Bank Rock or Oak Bridge. Ladies' Pond, spanned by two bridges on the western end of the Lake, was infilled in the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Directly east of the Lake is Conservatory Water, on the site of an unbuilt formal garden. The shore of Conservatory Water contains the Kerbs Memorial Boathouse, where patrons can rent and navigate model boats.",
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"plaintext": "In the park's southeast corner is the Pond, with an area of . The Pond was adapted from part of the former DeVoor's Mill Stream, which used to flow into the East River at the modern-day neighborhood of Turtle Bay. The western section of the Pond was converted into Wollman Rink in 1950.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park is biologically diverse. A 2013 survey of park species by William E. Macaulay Honors College found 571 total species, including 173species that were not previously known to live there.",
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"plaintext": ", Central Park had more than 20,000 trees, representing a decrease from the 26,000 trees that were recorded in the park in 1993. The majority of them are native to New York City, but there are several clusters of non-native species. With few exceptions, the trees in Central Park were mostly planted or placed manually. Over four million trees, shrubs, and plants representing approximately 1,500 species were planted or imported to the park. In Central Park's earliest years, two plant nurseries were maintained within the park boundaries: a demolished nursery near the Arsenal, and the still-extant Conservatory Garden. Central Park Conservancy later took over regular maintenance of the park's flora, allocating gardeners to one of 49\"zones\" for maintenance purposes.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park contains ten \"great tree\" clusters that are specially recognized by NYC Parks. These include four individual American Elms and one American Elm grove; the 600pine trees in the Arthur Ross Pinetum; a Black Tupelo in the Ramble; 35Yoshino Cherries on the east side of the Onassis Reservoir; one of the park's oldest London Plane trees at 96thStreet; and an Evodia at Heckscher Playground. The American Elms in Central Park are the largest remaining stands in the northeastern U.S., protected by their isolation from the Dutch elm disease that devastated the tree throughout its native range. There are several \"tree walks\" that run through Central Park.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park contains various migratory birds during their spring and fall migration on the Atlantic Flyway. The first official list of birds observed in Central Park, which numbered 235species, was published in Forest and Stream in 1886 by Augustus G. Paine Jr. and Lewis B. Woodruff. Overall, 303bird species have been seen in the park since the first official list of records was published, and an estimated 200species are spotted every season. No single group is responsible for tracking Central Park's bird species. Some of the more famous birds include a male red-tailed hawk called Pale Male, who made his perch on an apartment building overlooking Central Park in 1991. A mandarin duck nicknamed Mandarin Patinkin received international media attention in late 2018 and early 2019 due to its colorful appearance and the species' presence outside its native range in East Asia. More infamously, Eugene Schieffelin released 100imported European starlings in Central Park in 1890–1891, which led to them becoming an invasive species across North America.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park has approximately ten species of mammals . Bats, a nocturnal order, have been found in dark crevices. Because of the prevalence of raccoons, the Parks Department posts rabies advisories. Eastern gray squirrels, Eastern chipmunks, and Virginia opossums inhabit the park.",
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"plaintext": "There are 223invertebrate species in Central Park. Nannarrup hoffmani, a centipede species discovered in Central Park in 2002, is one of the smallest centipedes in the world at about long. The more prevalent Asian long-horned beetle is an invasive species that has infected trees in Long Island and Manhattan, including in Central Park.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles, fish, and frogs live in Central Park. There are five turtle species: red-eared sliders, snapping turtles, painted turtles, musk turtles, and box turtles. Most of the turtles live in Turtle Pond, and many of these are former pets that were released into the park. The fish are scattered more widely, but they include several freshwater species, such as the snakehead, an invasive species. Catch and release fishing is allowed in the Lake, Pond, and Harlem Meer. Central Park is a habitat for two amphibian species: the American bullfrog and the green frog. The park contained snakes in the late 19th century, though Marie Winn, who wrote about wildlife in Central Park, said in a 2008interview that the snakes had died off.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park is surrounded by a , stone wall. It initially contained 18 unnamed gates. In April 1862, the Central Park commissioners adopted a proposal to name each gate with \"the vocations to which this city owes its metropolitan character\", such as miners, scholars, artists, or hunters. The park grew to contain 20 named gates, four of which are accessed from plazas at each corner of the park.",
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"plaintext": "Columbus Circle is a circular plaza at the southwestern corner, at the junction of Central Park West/Eighth Avenue, Broadway, and 59thStreet (Central Park South). Built in the 1860s, it contains the Merchant's Gate entrance to the park., and is largest feature is the 1892 Columbus Monument and was the subject of controversies in the 2010s. The 1913 USS Maine National Monument is just outside the park entrance.",
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"plaintext": "The square Grand Army Plaza is on the southeastern corner, at the junction with Fifth Avenue and 59thStreet. Its largest feature is the Pulitzer Fountain, which was completed in 1916 along with the plaza itself. The plaza contains the William Tecumseh Sherman statue, dedicated in 1903.",
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"plaintext": "Duke Ellington Circle, at the northeastern corner, forms the junction between Fifth Avenue and Central Park North/110thStreet. It contains the Duke Ellington Memorial, dedicated in 1997. Duke Ellington Circle is adjacent to the Pioneers' Gate.",
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"plaintext": "Frederick Douglass Circle is on the northwestern corner, at the junction with Central Park West/Eighth Avenue and Central Park North/110thStreet. It was named for Douglass in 1950. The center of the circle contains a memorial to Frederick Douglass, dedicated in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The Dana Discovery Center was built in 1993 at the northeast section of the park, on the north shore of the Harlem Meer. Blockhouse No. 1, the oldest extant structure within Central Park, and built before the park's creation, sits in the northwest section of the park. It was erected as part of Fort Clinton during the War of 1812. The Blockhouse is near McGowan's Pass, rocky outcroppings that also once contained Fort Fish and Nutter's Battery. The Lasker Rink, a skating rink and swimming pool facility, formerly occupied the southwest corner of the Harlem Meer. The Conservatory Garden, the park's only formal garden, is entered through the Vanderbilt Gate at Fifth Avenue and 105th Street. The North Meadow Recreation Center, tennis courts, and the East Meadow, sit between the Loch to the north and the reservoir to the south. The North Woods takes up the rest of the northern third of the park. The areas in the northern section of the park were developed later than the southern section and are not as heavily used, so there are several unnamed features. The park's northern portion was intended as the \"natural section\" in contrast to the landscaped \"pastoral section\" to the south.",
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"plaintext": "The area between the 86thand 96thStreet transverses is mostly occupied by the Onassis Reservoir. Directly south of the Reservoir is the Great Lawn and Turtle Pond. The Lawn is bordered by the Metropolitan Museum of Art to the east, Turtle Pond to the south, and Summit Rock to the west. Summit Rock, the highest point in Central Park at , abuts Diana Ross Playground to the south and the Seneca Village site, occupied by the Mariners Gate playground, to the north. Turtle Pond's western shore contains Belvedere Castle, Delacorte Theater, the Shakespeare Garden, and Marionette Theatre. The section between the 79thStreet transverse and Terrace Drive at 72ndStreet contains three main natural features: the forested Ramble, the L-shaped Lake, and Conservatory Water. Cherry Hill is to the south of the Lake, while Cedar Hill is to the east.",
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"plaintext": "The southernmost part of Central Park, below Terrace Drive, contains several children's attractions and other flagship features. It contains many of the structures built in Central Park's initial stage of construction, designed in the Victorian Gothic style. Directly facing the southeastern shore of the Lake is a bi-level hall called Bethesda Terrace, which contains an elaborate fountain on its lower level. Bethesda Terrace connects to Central Park Mall, a landscaped walkway and the only formal feature in the Greensward Plan. Near the southwestern shore of the Lake is Strawberry Fields, a memorial to John Lennon who was murdered nearby; Sheep Meadow, a lawn originally intended for use as a parade ground; and Tavern on the Green, a restaurant. The southern border of Central Park contains the \"Children's District\", an area that includes Heckscher Playground, the Central Park Carousel, the Ballplayers House, and the Chess and Checkers House. Wollman Rink/Victorian Gardens, the Central Park Zoo and Children's Zoo, the Arsenal, and the Pond and Hallett Nature Sanctuary are nearby. The Arsenal, a red-brick building designed by Martin E. Thompson in 1851, has been NYC Parks' headquarters since 1934.",
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"plaintext": "There are 21children's playgrounds in Central Park. The largest, at , is Heckscher Playground. Central Park includes 36 ornamental bridges, each of a different design. The bridges are generally designed in the Gothic Revival or Romanesque Revival styles and are made of wood, stone, or cast iron. \"Rustic\" shelters and other structures were originally spread out through the park. Most have been demolished over the years, and several have been restored. The park contains around 9,500 benches in three styles, of which nearly half have small engraved tablets of some kind, installed as part of Central Park's \"Adopt-a-Bench\" program. These engravings typically contain short personalized messages and can be installed for at least $10,000 apiece. \"Handmade rustic benches\" can cost more than half a million dollars and are only granted when the honoree underwrites a major park project.",
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"plaintext": "Twenty-nine sculptures have been erected within Central Park's boundaries. Most of the sculptures were not part of the Greensward Plan, but were nevertheless included to placate wealthy donors when appreciation of art increased in the late 19thcentury. Though Vaux and Mould proposed 26statues in the Terrace in 1862, these were eliminated because they were too expensive. More sculptures were added through the late 19thcentury, and by 1890s, there were 24 in the park.",
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"plaintext": "Several busts of authors and poets are on Literary Walk adjacent to the Central Park Mall. Another cluster of sculptures, around the Zoo and Conservancy Water, are statues of characters from children's stories. A third sculpture grouping primarily depicts \"subjects in nature\" such as animals and hunters.",
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"plaintext": "Several sculptures stand out because of their geography and topography. Alice in Wonderland Margaret Delacorte Memorial (1959), a sculpture of Alice, is at Conservatory Water. Angel of the Waters (1873), by Emma Stebbins, is the centerpiece of Bethesda Fountain; it was the first large public sculpture commission for an American woman and the only statue included in the original park design. Balto (1925), a statue of Balto, the sled dog who became famous during the 1925 serum run to Nome, is near East Drive and East 66thStreet. King Jagiello Monument (1939), a bronze monument installed in 1945, is at the east end of Turtle Pond. Women's Rights Pioneers Monument (2020), a monument of Sojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was the city's first statue to depict a female historical figure.",
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"plaintext": "Cleopatra's Needle, a red granite obelisk west of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is the oldest man-made structure in Central Park. The needle in Central Park is one of three Cleopatra's Needles that were originally erected at the Temple of Ra in Heliopolis in Ancient Egypt around 1450BC by the Pharaoh Thutmose III. The hieroglyphs were inscribed about 200 years later by Pharaoh Rameses II to glorify his military victories. The needles are so named because they were later moved to in front of the Caesarium in Alexandria, a temple originally built by Cleopatra VII of Egypt in honor of Mark Antony. The needle in Central Park arrived in late 1880 and was dedicated early the following year.",
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"plaintext": "The Strawberry Fields memorial, near Central Park West and 72ndStreet, is a memorial commemorating John Lennon, who was murdered outside the nearby Dakota apartment building. The city dedicated Strawberry Fields in Lennon's honor in April 1981, and the memorial was completely rebuilt and rededicated on what would have been Lennon's 45thbirthday, October9, 1985. Countries from all around the world contributed trees, and Italy donated the \"Imagine\" mosaic in the center of the memorial. It has since become the site of impromptu memorial gatherings for other notables.",
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"plaintext": "For 16 days in 2005, Central Park was the setting for Christo and Jeanne-Claude's installation The Gates, an exhibition that had been planned since 1979. Although the project was the subject of mixed reactions, it was a major attraction for the park while it was open, drawing over a million people.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park contains two indoor restaurants. Tavern on the Green, at Central Park West and West 67thStreet, was built in 1870 as a sheepfold and was converted into a restaurant in 1934. The Tavern on the Green was renovated and expanded in 1974; it was closed in 2009 and reopened five years later after a renovation. The Loeb Boathouse restaurant is at the Loeb Boathouse, on the Lake, near Fifth Avenue between 74thand 75thstreets. Though the boathouse was constructed in 1954, its restaurant opened in 1983.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 19thcentury, West and East Drives was a popular place for carriage rides, though only five percent of the city was able to afford a carriage. One of the main attractions in the park's early years was the introduction of the \"Carriage Parade\", a daily display of horse-drawn carriages that traversed the park. The introduction of the automobile caused the carriage industry to die out by World WarI, though the carriage-horse tradition was revived in 1935. The carriages have become a symbolic institution of the city; for instance, in a much-publicized event after the September 11 attacks, Mayor Rudy Giuliani went to the stables to ask the drivers to go back to work to help return a sense of normality.",
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"plaintext": "Some activists, celebrities and politicians have questioned the ethics of the carriage-horse industry and called for its end. The history of accidents involving spooked horses came under scrutiny in the 2000s and 2010s after reports of horses collapsing and even dying. Supporters of the trade say it needs to be reformed rather than shut down. Some replacements have been proposed, including electric vintage cars. Bill de Blasio, in his successful 2013 mayoral campaign, pledged to eliminate horse carriage tours if he was elected; , had only succeeded in relocating the carriage pick-up areas.",
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"plaintext": "Pedicabs operate mostly in the southern part of the park, as horse carriages do. The pedicabs have been criticized: there have been reports of pedicab drivers charging exorbitant fares of several hundred dollars, and de Blasio proposed restricting pedicabs below 85thStreet to eliminate competition for the carriage horses.",
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"plaintext": "The Scenic drives, which are long, are used heavily by runners, joggers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and inline skaters. The park drives contain protected bike lanes and are used as the home course for the racing series of the Century Road Club Association, a USA Cycling-sanctioned amateur cycling club. In 2021, e-scooters were legalized in New York, including in Central Park. The park is used for professional running, and the New York Road Runners designated a running loop within Central Park. The New York City Marathon course utilizes several miles of drives within Central Park and finishes outside Tavern on the Green; from 1970 through 1975, the race was held entirely in Central Park.",
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"plaintext": "There are 26baseball fields in Central Park: eight on the Great Lawn, six at Heckscher Ballfields near Columbus Circle, and twelve in the North Meadow. 12tennis courts, six non-regulation soccer fields (which overlap with the North Meadow ball fields), four basketball courts, and a recreation center are in the North Meadow. An additional soccer field and four basketball courts are at Great Lawn. Four volleyball courts are in the southern part of the park.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park has two ice skating rinks: Wollman Rink in its southern portion and Lasker Rink in its northern portion. During summer, the former is the site of Victorian Gardens seasonal amusement park, and the latter converts to an outdoor swimming pool.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park's glaciated rock outcroppings attract climbers, especially boulderers, but the quality of the stone is poor, and the climbs present so little challenge that it has been called \"one of America's most pathetic boulders\". The two most renowned spots for boulderers are Rat Rock and Cat Rock. Other rocks frequented by climbers, mostly at the south end of the park, include Dog Rock, Duck Rock, Rock N' Roll Rock, and Beaver Rock.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park has been the site of concerts almost since its inception. Originally, they were hosted in the Ramble, but these were moved to the Concert Ground next to the Mall in the 1870s. The weekend concerts hosted in the Mall drew tens of thousands of visitors from all social classes. Since 1923, concerts have been held in Naumburg Bandshell, a bandshell of Indiana limestone on the Mall. Named for banker Elkan Naumburg, who funded its construction, the bandshell has deteriorated over the years but has never been fully restored. The oldest free classical music concert series in the United States—the Naumburg Orchestral Concerts, founded in 1905—is hosted in the bandshell. Other large concerts include The Concert in Central Park, a benefit performance by Simon & Garfunkel in 1981, and Live from Central Park, a free concert by Garth Brooks in 1997.",
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"plaintext": "Several arts groups are dedicated to performing in Central Park. These include Central Park Brass, which performs concert series, and the New York Classical Theatre, which produces an annual series of plays.",
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"plaintext": "There are several regular summer events. The Public Theater presents free open-air theater productions, such as Shakespeare in the Park, in the Delacorte Theater. The City Parks Foundation offers Central Park Summerstage, a series of free performances including music, dance, spoken word, and film presentations, often featuring famous performers. Additionally, the New York Philharmonic gives an open-air concert on the Great Lawn yearly during the summer, and from 1967 until 2007, the Metropolitan Opera presented two operas in concert each year. Every August since 2003, the Central Park Conservancy has hosted the Central Park Film Festival, a series of free film screenings.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park incorporates a system of pedestrian walkways, scenic drives, bridle paths, and transverse roads to aid traffic circulation, and it is easily accessible via several subway stations and bus routes.",
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"plaintext": "The New York City Subway's IND Eighth Avenue Line () runs along the western edge of the park. Most of the Eighth Avenue Line stations on Central Park West serve only the local , while the 59th Street–Columbus Circle station is additionally served by the express and the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line (). The IRT Lenox Avenue Line () has a station at Central Park North. From there the line curves southwest under the park and heads west under 104thStreet. On the southeastern corner of the park, the BMT Broadway Line () has a station at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street. The 63rd Street lines () pass underneath without stopping, and the line contains a single ventilation shaft within the park, west of Fifth Avenue and 63rdStreet.",
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"plaintext": "Various bus routes pass through Central Park or stop along its boundaries. The M10bus stops along Central Park West, while the M5and part of the M7runs along Central Park South, and the run along Central Park North. The M1, M2, M3, and M4run southbound along Fifth Avenue with corresponding northbound bus service on Madison Avenue. The (Select Bus Service), buses use the transverse roads across Central Park. The only serve Columbus Circle on the south end of the park, and the run on 57th Street two blocks from the park's south end but do not stop on the boundaries of the park.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the buses running on the edge of Central Park replaced former streetcar routes that formerly traveled across Manhattan. These streetcar routes included the Sixth Avenue line, which became the M5 bus, and the Eighth Avenue line, which became the M10. Only one streetcar line traversed Central Park: the 86thStreet Crosstown Line, the predecessor to the M86bus.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park contains four transverse roadways that carry crosstown traffic across the park. From south to north, they are at 66th Street, 79th Street, 86th Street, and 97th Street; the transverse roads were originally numbered sequentially in that order. The 66thStreet transverse connects the discontinuous sections of 65thand 66thstreets on either side of the park. The 97thStreet transverse likewise joins the disconnected segments of 96thand 97thstreets. The 79thStreet transverse links West81st and East79th streets, while the 86thStreet transverse links West 86thStreet with East 84thand 85thstreets. Each roadway carries two lanes, one in each direction, and is sunken below the level of the rest of the park to minimize the transverses' visual impact on it. The transverse roadways are open even when the park is closed.",
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"plaintext": "The 66thStreet transverse was the first to be finished, having opened in December 1859. The 79thStreet transverse—which passed under Vista Rock, Central Park's second-highest point—was completed by a railroad contractor because of their experience in drilling through hard rock; it opened in December 1860. The 86thand 97thStreet transverses opened in late 1862. By the 1890s, maintenance had decreased to the point where the 86thStreet transverse handled most crosstown traffic because the other transverse roads had been so poorly maintained. Both ends of the 79thStreet transverse were widened in 1964 to accommodate increased traffic. Generally, the transverses were not maintained as frequently as the rest of the park, though being used more frequently than the park proper.",
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"plaintext": "The park has three scenic drives that travel through it vertically. They have multiple traffic lights at the intersections with pedestrian paths, although there are some arches and bridges where pedestrian and drive traffic can cross without intersection. To discourage park patrons from speeding, the designers incorporated extensive curves in the park drives.",
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"plaintext": " is the westernmost of the park's three vertical \"drives\". The road, which carries southbound bicycle and horse-carriage traffic, winds through the western part of Central Park, connecting Lenox Avenue/Central Park North with Seventh Avenue/Central Park South and Central Drive. The drive is dangerous; in 2014, a stretch of West Drive was considered to be \"the most dangerous section of Central Park\" for pedestrians, with bicycle crashes along the drive leaving 15people injured.",
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"plaintext": " (also known as the \"Central Park Lower Loop\") connects northbound bicycle and carriage traffic from Midtown at Central Park South/Sixth Avenue to East Drive near the 66thStreet transverse. The street generally goes east and then north, forming the bottom part of the Central Park loop. The attractions along Center Drive include Victorian Gardens, the Central Park Carousel, and the Central Park Mall.",
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"plaintext": ", the easternmost of the three drives, connects northbound bicycle and carriage traffic from Midtown to the Upper West Side at Lenox Avenue. The street is renowned for its country scenery and free concerts. It generally straddles the east side of the park along Fifth Avenue. The drive passes by the Central Park Zoo around 63rdStreet and the Metropolitan Museum of Art from 80thto 84thStreets. Unlike the rest of the drive system, which is generally serpentine, East Drive is straight between the 86thand 96thStreet transverses, because it is between Fifth Avenue and the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir. East Drive is known as the \"Elite Carriage Parade\", because it was where the carriage procession occurred at the time of the park's opening, and because only five percent of the city was able to afford the carriage. In the late 19thcentury, West and East Drives were popular places for carriage rides.",
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"plaintext": "Two other scenic drives cross the park horizontally. Terrace Drive is at 72ndStreet and connects West and East Drives, passing over Bethesda Terrace and Fountain. The 102ndStreet Crossing, further north near the street of the same name, is a former carriage drive connecting West and East Drives.",
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"plaintext": "In Central Park's earliest years, the speed limits were set at for carriages and for horses, which were later raised to and respectively. Commercial vehicles and buses were banned from the park. Automobiles became more common in Central Park during the 1900s and 1910s, and they often broke the speed limits, resulting in crashes. To increase safety, the gravel roads were paved in 1912, and the carriage speed limit was raised to two years later. With the proliferation of cars among the middle class in the 1920s, traffic increased on the drives, to as many as eight thousand cars per hour in 1929. The roads were still dangerous; in the first ten months of 1929, eight people were killed and 249 were injured in 338 separate collisions.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1929, the scenic drives were converted from two-way traffic to unidirectional traffic. Further improvements were made in 1932 when forty-two traffic lights were installed along the scenic drives, and the speed limit was lowered to . The signals were coordinated so that drivers could go through all of the green lights if they maintained a steady speed of . The drives were experimentally closed to automotive traffic on weekends beginning in 1967, for exclusive use by pedestrians and bicyclists. In subsequent years, the scenic drives were closed to automotive traffic for most of the day during the summer. By 1979, the drives were only open during rush hours and late evenings during the summer.",
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"plaintext": "Legislation was proposed in October 2014 to conduct a study to make the park car-free in summer 2015. In 2015, Mayor Bill de Blasio announced the permanent closure of West and East Drives north of 72ndStreet to vehicular traffic as it was proven that closing the roads did not adversely impact traffic. After most of the Central Park loop drives were closed to vehicular traffic, the city performed a follow-up study. The city found that West Drive was open for two hours during the morning rush period and was used by an average of 1,050 vehicles a day, while East Drive was open 12hours a day and was used by an average of 3,400 vehicles daily. Subsequently, all cars were banned from East Drive in January 2018. In April 2018, de Blasio announced that the entirety of the three loop drives would be closed permanently to traffic. The closure was put into effect in June 2018.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 21stcentury, there were numerous collisions in Central Park involving cyclists. The 2014 death of Jill Tarlov, after she was hit by a cyclist on West 63rdStreet, called attention to the issue. Approximately 300people a year have been injured in cycling-related accidents since the city started tracking the issue in 2011. That year, residents of nearby communities unsuccessfully petitioned the NYPD to increase enforcement of cycling rules within the park.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-20thcentury, Central Park had a reputation for being very dangerous, especially after dark. Such a viewpoint was reinforced following a 1941 incident when 12-year-old Jerome Dore fatally stabbed 15-year-old James O'Connell in the northern section of the park. Local tabloids cited this incident and several other crimes as evidence of a highly exaggerated \"crime wave\". Though recorded crime had indeed increased since Central Park opened in the late 1850s, this was in line with crime trends seen in the rest of the city. Central Park's reputation for crime was reinforced by its worldwide name recognition, and the fact that crimes in the park were covered disproportionately compared to crimes in the rest of the city. For instance, in 1973 The New York Times wrote stories about 20%of murders that occurred citywide but wrote about three of the four murders that took place in Central Park that year. By the 1970s and 1980s, the number of murders in the police precincts north of Central Park was 18times higher than the number of murders within the park itself, and even in the precincts south of the park, the number of murders was three times as high.",
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"plaintext": "The park was the site of numerous high-profile crimes during the late 20thcentury. Of these, two particularly notable cases shaped public perception against the park. In 1986, Robert Chambers murdered Jennifer Levin in what was later called the \"preppy murder\". Three years later, an investment banker was raped and brutally beaten in what came to be known as the Central Park jogger case. Conversely, other crimes such as the 1984 gang-rape of two homeless women were barely reported. After World WarII, it was feared that gay men perpetrated sex crimes and attracted violence. Other problems in the 1970s and 1980s included a drug epidemic, a large homeless presence, vandalism, and neglect.",
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"plaintext": "As crime has declined in New York City, many of these negative perceptions have waned. Safety measures keep the number of crimes in the park to fewer than 100 per year , down from approximately 1,000 in the early 1980s. Some well-publicized crimes have occurred since then: for instance, on June 11, 2000, following the Puerto Rican Day Parade, gangs of drunken men sexually assaulted women in the park.",
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"plaintext": "Permission to hold issue-centered rallies in Central Park, similar to the be-ins of the 1960s, has been met with increasingly stiff resistance from the city. During some 2004 protests, the organization United for Peace and Justice wanted to hold a rally on the Great Lawn during the Republican National Convention. The city denied an application for a permit, stating that such a mass gathering would be harmful to the grass and the damage would make it harder to collect private donations to maintain the park. A judge of the New York Supreme Court's New York County branch upheld the refusal.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2000s and 2010s, new supertall skyscrapers were constructed along the southern end of Central Park, in a corridor commonly known as Billionaires' Row. According to a Municipal Art Society report, such buildings cast long shadows over the southern end of the park. A 2016 analysis by The New York Times found that some of the tallest and skinniest skyscrapers, such as One57, Central Park Tower, and 220 Central Park South, would cast shadows that can be as much as long during the winter, covering up to a third of the park's length. In 2018, the New York City Council proposed legislation that would restrict the construction of skyscrapers near city parks.",
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"plaintext": "Central Park's size and cultural position has served as a model for many urban parks. Olmsted believed landscape design was a way to improve the feeling of community and had intended the park as the antithesis of the stresses of the city's daily life. The Greensward Plan, radical at the time of its construction, led to widespread changes in park designs and urban planning; in particular, parks were designed to incorporate landscapes whose elements were related to each other.",
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"plaintext": "A New York City icon, Central Park is the most filmed location in the world. A December 2017 report found that 231 movies had used it for on-location shoots, more than the 160movies that had filmed in Greenwich Village or the 99movies that had filmed in Times Square. Some of the movies filmed at Central Park, such as the 1993 film The Age of Innocence, reflect ideals of the past. Other films, including The Fisher King (1991), Marathon Man (1976), The Out of Towners (1970), and Lost in New York (1992), use the park for dramatic conflict scenes. Central Park has been used in romance films such as Maid in Manhattan (2002), 13 Going on 30 (2004) or Hitch (2005), and fantasy live-action/animated films such as Enchanted (2007). In 2009, an estimated 4,000 days of film shoots were hosted, or an average of more than ten film shoots per day, accounting for $135.5million in city revenue.",
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"plaintext": "Because of its cultural and historical significance, Central Park has been a National Historic Landmark since 1962, and a New York City designated scenic landmark since 1974. It was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The value of the surrounding land started rising significantly in the mid-1860s during the park's construction. The completion of Central Park immediately increased the surrounding area's real estate prices, in some cases by up to 700percent between 1858 and 1870. It also resulted in the creation of the zoning plan in Upper Manhattan. Upscale districts grew on both sides of Central Park following its completion. On the Upper East Side, a portion of Fifth Avenue abutting lower Central Park became known as \"Millionaires' Row\" by the 1890s, due to the concentration of wealthy families in the area. The Upper West Side took longer to develop, but row houses and luxury apartment buildings came to predominate the neighborhood, and some were later included in the Central Park West Historic District. Though most of the city's rich formerly lived in mansions, they moved into apartments close to Central Park during the late 19thand early 20thcenturies.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 20thcentury, until Central Park's restoration in the 1990s, proximity to the park did not have a significant positive effect on real estate values. Following Central Park's restoration, some of the city's most expensive properties have been sold or rented near the park. The value of the land in Central Park was estimated to be about $528.8billion in December 2005, though this was based on the park's impact on the average value of nearby land.",
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"plaintext": "In the modern day, it is estimated that Central Park has resulted in billions of dollars in economic impact. A 2009 study found that the city received annual tax revenue of more than $656million, visitors spent more than $395million due to the park, in-park businesses such as concessions generated , and the 4,000 hours of annual film shoots and other photography generated of economic output. In 2013, about 550,000 people lived within a ten-minute walk (about ) of the park's boundaries, and 1.15million more people could get to the park within a half-hour subway ride.",
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"Upper_West_Side",
"Urban_forests_in_the_United_States",
"Urban_public_parks"
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37,537 | 1,083,278,932 | NEAR_Shoemaker | [
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"plaintext": "Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous – Shoemaker (NEAR Shoemaker), renamed after its 1996 launch in honor of planetary scientist Eugene Shoemaker, was a robotic space probe designed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for NASA to study the near-Earth asteroid Eros from close orbit over a period of a year. It was the first spacecraft to successfully orbit an asteroid and also land on an asteroid. In February 2000, the mission succeeded in closing in with the asteroid and afterwards orbited it several times. On February 12, 2001, the mission succeeded in touching down on the asteroid. It was terminated just over two weeks later.",
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"plaintext": "The primary scientific objective of NEAR was to return data on the bulk properties, composition, mineralogy, morphology, internal mass distribution and magnetic field of Eros. Secondary objectives include studies of regolith properties, interactions with the solar wind, possible current activity as indicated by dust or gas, and the asteroid spin state. This data will be used to help understand the characteristics of asteroids in general, their relationship to meteoroids and comets, and the conditions in the early Solar System. To accomplish these goals, the spacecraft was equipped with an X-ray/gamma-ray spectrometer, a near-infrared imaging spectrograph, a multi-spectral camera fitted with a CCD imaging detector, a laser rangefinder, and a magnetometer. A radio science experiment was also performed using the NEAR tracking system to estimate the gravity field of the asteroid. The total mass of the instruments was , requiring 80 watts of power.",
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"plaintext": "A previous plan for the mission was for it to go to 4660 Nereus and do a flyby of 2019 van Albada en route. In January 2000 it would rendezvous with Nereus but instead of staying it would visit multiple asteroids and comets. Some of the choices that were discussed were 2P/Encke, 433 Eros (which became the mission's primary target), 1036 Ganymed, 4 Vesta, and 4015 Wilson–Harrington.",
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"plaintext": "The Small-Body Grand Tour was a plan for visiting two asteroids and two comets over a span of a decade with the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "The primary goal of the mission was to study the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros from orbit for approximately one year. Eros is an S-type asteroid approximately 13 × 13 × 33km in size, the second largest near-Earth asteroid. Initially the orbit was circular with a radius of 200km. The radius of the orbit was brought down in stages to a 50 × 50km orbit on April 30, 2000, and decreased to 35 × 35km on July 14, 2000. The orbit was raised over succeeding months to a 200 × 200km orbit and then slowly decreased and altered to a 35 × 35km retrograde orbit on December 13, 2000. The mission ended with a touchdown in the \"saddle\" region of Eros on February 12, 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Some scientists claim that the ultimate goal of the mission was to link Eros, an asteroidal body, to meteorites recovered on Earth. With sufficient data on chemical composition, a causal link could be established between Eros and other S-type asteroids, and those meteorites believed to be pieces of S-type asteroids (perhaps Eros itself). Once this connection is established, meteorite material can be studied with large, complex, and evolving equipment, and the results extrapolated to bodies in space. NEAR did not prove or disprove this link to the satisfaction of scientists.",
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"plaintext": "Between December 1999 and February 2001, NEAR used its gamma-ray spectrometer to detect gamma-ray bursts as part of the InterPlanetary Network.",
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"plaintext": "After launch on a Delta 7925-8 (a Delta II launch vehicle with nine strap-on solid-rocket boosters and a Star 48 (PAM-D) third stage) on February 17, 1996, and exit from Earth orbit, NEAR entered the first part of its cruise phase. NEAR spent most of the cruise phase in a minimal activity \"hibernation\" state, which ended a few days before the flyby of the 61km diameter asteroid 253 Mathilde.",
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"plaintext": "On June 27, 1997, NEAR flew by Mathilde within 1200km at 12:56 UT at 9.93km/s, returning imaging and other instrument data. The flyby produced over 500 images, covering 60% of Mathilde's surface, as well as gravitational data allowing calculations of Mathilde's dimensions and mass.",
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"plaintext": "On July 3, 1997, NEAR executed the first major deep space maneuver, a two-part burn of the main 450N thruster. This decreased the velocity by 279m/s and lowered perihelion from 0.99AU to 0.95AU. The Earth gravity assist swingby occurred on January 23, 1998, at 7:23 UT. The closest approach was 540km, altering the orbital inclination from 0.5 to 10.2degrees, and the aphelion distance from 2.17 to 1.77AU, nearly matching those of Eros. Instrumentation was active at this time.",
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"plaintext": "The first of four scheduled rendezvous burns was attempted on December 20, 1998, at 22:00 UT. The burn sequence was initiated but immediately aborted. The spacecraft subsequently entered safe mode and began tumbling. The spacecraft's thrusters fired thousands of times during the anomaly, which expended 29kg of propellant reducing the program's propellant margin to zero. This anomaly almost resulted in the loss of the spacecraft due to lack of solar orientation and subsequent battery drain. Contact between the spacecraft and mission control could not be established for over 24 hours. The root cause of this incident has not been determined, but software and operational errors contributed to the severity of the anomaly.",
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"plaintext": "The original mission plan called for the four burns to be followed by an orbit insertion burn on January 10, 1999, but the abort of the first burn and loss of communication made this impossible. A new plan was put into effect in which NEAR flew by Eros on December 23, 1998, at 18:41:23 UT at a speed of 965m/s and a distance of 3827km from the center of mass of Eros. Images of Eros were taken by the camera, data were collected by the near IR spectrograph, and radio tracking was performed during the flyby. A rendezvous maneuver was performed on January 3, 1999, involving a thruster burn to match NEAR orbital speed to that of Eros. A hydrazine thruster burn took place on January 20 to fine-tune the trajectory. On August 12 a two-minute thruster burn slowed the spacecraft velocity relative to Eros to 300km/h.",
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"plaintext": "Orbital insertion around Eros occurred on February 14, 2000, at 15:33 UT (10:33 EST) after NEAR completed a 13-month heliocentric orbit which closely matched the orbit of Eros. A rendezvous maneuver was completed on February 3 at 17:00 UT, slowing the spacecraft from 19.3 to 8.1m/s relative to Eros. Another maneuver took place on February 8 increasing the relative velocity slightly to 9.9m/s. Searches for satellites of Eros took place on January 28 and February 4 and 9; none were found. The scans were for scientific purposes and to mitigate any chances of collision with a satellite. NEAR went into a 321×366km elliptical orbit around Eros on February 14. The orbit was slowly decreased to a 35km circular polar orbit by July 14. NEAR remained in this orbit for 10 days and then was backed out in stages to a 100km circular orbit by September 5, 2000. Maneuvers in mid-October led to a flyby of Eros within 5.3km of the surface at 07:00 UT on October 26.",
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"plaintext": "Following the flyby, NEAR moved to a 200km circular orbit and shifted the orbit from prograde near-polar to a retrograde near-equatorial orbit. By December 13, 2000, the orbit was shifted back to a circular 35km low orbit. Starting on January 24, 2001, the spacecraft began a series of close passes (5 to 6km) to the surface and on January 28 passed 2 to 3km from the asteroid. The spacecraft then made a slow controlled descent to the surface of Eros ending with a touchdown just to the south of the saddle-shaped feature Himeros on February 12, 2001, at approximately 20:01 UT (3:01p.m. EST). To the surprise of the controllers, the spacecraft was undamaged and operational after the landing at an estimated speed of 1.5 to 1.8meters per second (thus becoming the first spacecraft to soft-land on an asteroid). After receiving an extension of antenna time on the Deep Space Network, the spacecraft's gamma-ray spectrometer was reprogrammed to collect data on Eros's composition from a vantage point about from the surface where it was ten times more sensitive than when it was used in orbit. This increase in sensitivity was in part due to the increased ratio of the signal from Eros compared to noise generated by the probe itself. The impact of cosmic rays on the sensor was also reduced by about 50%.",
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"plaintext": "At 7 p.m. EST on February 28, 2001, the last data signals were received from NEAR Shoemaker before it was shut down. A final attempt to communicate with the spacecraft on December 10, 2002, was unsuccessful. This was likely due to the extreme −279°F (−173°C, 100 K) conditions the probe experienced while on Eros.",
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"plaintext": "The spacecraft has the shape of an octagonal prism, approximately 1.7 m on a side, with four fixed gallium arsenide solar panels in a windmill arrangement, a fixed 1.5 m X-band high-gain radio antenna with a magnetometer mounted on the antenna feed, and an X-ray solar monitor on one end (the forward deck), with the other instruments fixed on the opposite end (the aft deck). Most electronics were mounted on the inside of the decks. The propulsion module was contained in the interior. The decision to mount instruments on the body of the spacecraft rather than using booms resulted in the gamma-ray spectrometer needing to be shielded from noise generated by the craft. A bismuth germanate shield was used although this proved only moderately effective.",
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"plaintext": "The craft was three-axis stabilized and used a single bipropellant (hydrazine / nitrogen tetroxide) 450 newton (N) main thruster, and four 21N and seven 3.5N hydrazine thrusters for propulsion, for a total delta-V potential of 1450m/s. Attitude control was achieved using the hydrazine thrusters and four reaction wheels. The propulsion system carried 209kg of hydrazine and 109kg of NTO oxidizer in two oxidizer and three fuel tanks.",
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"plaintext": "Power was provided by four 1.8 by 1.2meter gallium arsenide solar panels which could produce 400watts at 2.2AU (329,000,000km), NEAR maximum distance from the Sun, and 1800 watts at one AU (150,000,000km). Power was stored in a nine-ampere-hour, 22-cell rechargeable super nickel-cadmium battery.",
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"plaintext": "Spacecraft guidance was achieved through the use of a sensor suite of five digital solar attitude detectors, an inertial measurement unit (IMU), and a star tracker camera pointed opposite the instrument pointing direction. The IMU contained hemispherical resonator gyroscopes and accelerometers. Four reaction wheels (arranged so that any three can provide complete three-axis control) were used for normal attitude control. The thrusters were used to dump angular momentum from the reaction wheels, as well as for rapid slew and propulsive maneuvers. Attitude control was to 0.1 degree, line-of-sight pointing stability is within 50 microradians over one second, and post-processing attitude knowledge is to 50 microradians.",
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"plaintext": "The command and data handling subsystem was composed of two redundant command and telemetry processors and solid state recorders, a power switching unit, and an interface to two redundant 1553 standard data buses for communications with other subsystems.",
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"plaintext": "NEAR was the first APL spacecraft to use significant numbers of plastic encapsulated microcircuits (PEMs), and the first to use solid-state data recorders for mass storage—previous APL spacecraft used magnetic tape recorders or magnetic cores.",
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"plaintext": "The solid state recorders are constructed from 16 Mbit IBM Luna-C DRAMs. One recorder has 1.1 gigabits of storage, the other has 0.67 gigabits.",
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"plaintext": "The NEAR mission was the first launch of NASA's Discovery Program, a series of small-scale spacecraft designed to proceed from development to flight in under three years for a cost of less than $150 million. The construction, launch, and 30-day cost for this mission is estimated at $122 million. The final total mission cost was $224 million which consisted of $124.9 million for spacecraft development, $44.6 million for launch support and tracking, and $54.6 million for mission operations and data analysis.",
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"plaintext": "The science payload includes:",
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"plaintext": " The Multi-Spectral Imager (MSI) designed and built by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, provided visible images of the asteroid surface.",
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"plaintext": " The NEAR IR Spectrograph (NIS) covers a 0.8 to 2.6 micrometer spectral range in 62 bins.",
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"plaintext": " A three-axis fluxgate magnetometer supplied by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, can measure the asteroid’s magnetic field from DC to 10 Hz.",
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"plaintext": " The X-ray/Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (XGRS) is really two instruments. The x-ray spectrometer, measures x-ray florescence on the asteroid excited by solar flare x-rays. The gamma-ray spectrometer is a NaI scintillator with an active BGO shield.",
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"plaintext": " The laser rangefinder (NLR) is a direct-detection single-pulse rangefinder.",
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"plaintext": " Text adapted from public domain NASA webpage.",
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"plaintext": " NEAR Shoemaker Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration",
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"plaintext": " NSSDC Master Catalog: Spacecraft – NEAR Shoemaker",
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"plaintext": " NASA GSFC: NEAR Shoemaker, Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous",
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"plaintext": " Official NEAR Mission Site (Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory)",
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37,544 | 1,036,417,494 | PalmPilot | [
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"plaintext": "U.S. Robotics Announces Two New Models of the Best Selling Pilot Connected Organizer - Press Release, March 10, 1997.",
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] | [
"Palm_OS_devices",
"Computer-related_introductions_in_1997",
"Products_introduced_in_1997",
"68k_architecture"
] | 7,127,960 | 6,296 | 93 | 16 | 0 | 0 | PalmPilot | personal Digital Assistant device | [] |
37,545 | 1,087,853,644 | Palm_OS | [
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"plaintext": "Palm OS (also known as Garnet OS) is a discontinued mobile operating system initially developed by Palm, Inc., for personal digital assistants (PDAs) in 1996. Palm OS was designed for ease of use with a touchscreen-based graphical user interface. It is provided with a suite of basic applications for personal information management. Later versions of the OS have been extended to support smartphones. Several other licensees have manufactured devices powered by Palm OS.",
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"plaintext": "Following Palm's purchase of the Palm trademark, the currently licensed version from ACCESS was renamed Garnet OS. In 2007, ACCESS introduced the successor to Garnet OS, called Access Linux Platform; additionally, in 2009, the main licensee of Palm OS, Palm, Inc., switched from Palm OS to webOS for their forthcoming devices.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS was originally developed under the direction of Jeff Hawkins at Palm Computing, Inc. Palm was later acquired by U.S. Robotics Corp., which in turn was later bought by 3Com, which made the Palm subsidiary an independent publicly traded company on March 2, 2000.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2002, Palm set up a wholly owned subsidiary to develop and license Palm OS, which was named PalmSource. PalmSource was then spun off from Palm as an independent company on October 28, 2003. Palm (then called palmOne) became a regular licensee of Palm OS, no longer in control of the operating system.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2006, Palm gained perpetual rights to the Palm OS source code from ACCESS. With this Palm can modify the licensed operating system as needed without paying further royalties to ACCESS. Together with the May 2005 acquisition of full rights to the Palm brand name, only Palm can publish releases of the operating system under the name 'Palm OS'.",
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"plaintext": "As a consequence, on January 25, 2007, ACCESS announced a name change to their current Palm OS operating system, now titled Garnet OS.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS was a proprietary mobile operating system. Designed in 1996 for Palm Computing, Inc.'s new Pilot PDA, it has been implemented on a wide array of mobile devices, including smartphones, wrist watches, handheld gaming consoles, barcode readers and GPS devices.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS versions earlier than 5.0 run on Motorola/Freescale DragonBall processors. From version 5.0 onwards, Palm OS runs on ARM architecture-based processors.",
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"plaintext": " Handwriting recognition input system called Graffiti 2",
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"plaintext": " Sound playback and record capabilities",
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"plaintext": " Simple security model: Device can be locked by password, arbitrary application records can be made private",
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"plaintext": " TCP/IP network access",
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"plaintext": " Expansion memory card support",
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"plaintext": " Defined standard data format for personal information management applications to store calendar, address, task and note entries, accessible by third-party applications.",
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"plaintext": "Included with the OS is also a set of standard applications, with the most relevant ones for the four mentioned PIM operations.",
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"plaintext": "Manufacturers are free to implement different features of the OS in their devices or even add Third party OS enhancements. This version history describes the officially licensed version from Palm/PalmSource/ACCESS.",
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"plaintext": "All versions prior to Palm OS 5 are based on top of the AMX 68000 kernel licensed from KADAK Products Ltd. While this kernel is technically capable of multitasking, the \"terms and conditions of that license specifically state that Palm may not expose the API for creating/manipulating tasks within the OS.\"",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 1.0 is the original version present on the Pilot 1000 and 5000. It was introduced in March 1996.",
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"plaintext": "Version 1.0 features the classic PIM applications Address, Date Book, Memo Pad, and To Do List. Also included is a calculator and the Security tool to hide records for private use.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 1.0 does not differentiate between RAM and file system storage. Applications are installed directly into RAM and executed in place. As no dedicated file system is supported, the operating system depends on constant RAM refresh cycles to keep its memory. The OS supports 160x160 monochrome output displays. User input is generated through the Graffiti handwriting recognition system or optionally through a virtual keyboard. The system supports data synchronization to another PC via its HotSync technology over a serial interface. The latest bugfix release is version 1.0.7.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 2.0 was introduced on March 10, 1997 with the PalmPilot Personal and Professional. This version adds TCP/IP network, network HotSync, and display backlight support. The last bugfix release is version 2.0.5.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 3.0 was introduced on March 9, 1998 with the launch of the Palm III series. This version adds IrDA infrared and enhanced font support. This version also features updated PIM applications and an update to the application launcher.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 3.2 adds Web Clipping support, which is an early Palm-specific solution to bring web-content to a small PDA screen. It was introduced with the Palm VII organizer.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 3.3 adds faster HotSync speeds and the ability to do infrared hotsyncing. It was introduced with the Palm Vx organizer.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 3.5 is the first version to include native 8-bit color support. It also adds major convenience features that simplify operation, like a context-sensitive icon-bar or simpler menu activation. The datebook application is extended with an additional agenda view. This version was first introduced with the Palm IIIc device. The latest bugfix release is version 3.5.3.",
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"plaintext": "As a companion, Palm later offered a Mobile Internet Kit software upgrade for Palm OS 3.5. This included Palm's Web Clipping software, MultiMail (which was later renamed to VersaMail) Version 2.26 e-mail software, handPHONE Version 1.3 SMS software, and Neomar Version 1.5 WAP browser.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 4.0 was released with the new Palm m500 series on March 19, 2001. This version adds a standard interface for external file system access (such as SD cards). External file systems are a radical change to the operating system's previous in-place execution. Now, application code and data need to be loaded into the device's RAM, similar to desktop operating system behavior. A new Universal Connector with USB support is introduced. The previous optional Mobile Internet Kit is now part of the operating system. Version 4.0 adds an attention manager to coordinate information from different applications, with several possibilities to get the user's attention, including sound, LED blinking or vibration. 16-bit color screens and different time zones are supported. This version also has security and UI enhancements.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 4.1 is a bugfix release. It was introduced with the launch of the Palm i705. The later minor OS update to version 4.1.2 includes a backport of Graffiti 2 from Palm OS 5.2.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 4.2 Simplified Chinese Edition is targeted especially for the Chinese market with fully Simplified Chinese support, co-released with Palm OS 5.3. No device has been manufactured with this version up to now.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 5.0 was unveiled by the Palm subsidiary PalmSource in June 2002 and first implemented on the Palm Tungsten T. It is the first version to support ARM devices and replaced the Kadak AMX68000 kernel with the custom MCK kernel, named for its developer, that was written in-house by Palm. Applications written for the prior OS versions use the older DragonBall 68K instruction set and are supported via the Palm Application Compatibility Environment (PACE) emulator in Garnet. Even with the additional overhead of PACE, Palm applications usually run faster on ARM devices than on previous generation hardware. New software can take advantage of the ARM processors with small units of ARM code, referred to as ARMlets.",
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"plaintext": "With a more powerful hardware basis, Palm OS 5 adds substantial enhancements for multimedia capabilities. High density 320x320 screens are supported together with a full digital sound playback and record API. Palm's separate Bluetooth stack is added together with an IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi stack. Secure network connections over SSL are supported. The OS can be customized with different color schemes.",
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"plaintext": "For Palm OS 5, PalmSource developed and licensed a web browser called PalmSource Web Browser based on ACCESS' NetFront 3.0 browser.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 5.2 is mainly a bugfix release, first implemented in the Samsung SGH-i500 in March 2003. It added support for 480x320 resolutions and introduced the new handwriting input system called Graffiti 2; the new input system was prompted by Xerox' Legal issues against Palm. Graffiti 2 is based on Jot from CIC. The last bugfix release is version 5.2.8.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS 5.3 Simplified Chinese Edition released in September 2003, added full Simplified Chinese support, further support for QVGA resolutions, and a standard API for virtual Graffiti called Dynamic Input Area. This version first shipped on Lenovo's P100 and P300 handhelds.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Garnet (5.4) added updated Bluetooth libraries and support for multiple screen resolutions ranging from 160x160 up to 480x320. It first shipped on the Treo 650 in November 2004. This version also introduced the Garnet moniker to distinguish it from Palm OS Cobalt 6.0. The last bugfix release is version 5.4.9.",
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"plaintext": "Garnet OS 5.5 dropped the Palm moniker and, , is the current version developed by ACCESS. This version is dedicated for use inside the Garnet VM virtual machine.",
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"plaintext": "Garnet VM was announced and released by ACCESS in November 2007 as a core part of the Access Linux Platform and as an emulator allowing Nokia Internet Tablets to run applications written for the Garnet OS. In June 2010, ACCESS release Garnet VM version 6 (a.k.a. Garnet VM Beta 6 1.05b).",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Cobalt (6.0) was the designated successor for Palm OS 5. It was introduced on February 10, 2004, but is no longer offered by ACCESS (see next section). Palm OS 6.0 was renamed to Palm OS Cobalt to make clear that this version was initially not designated to replace Palm OS 5, which adopted the name Palm OS Garnet at the same time.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Cobalt introduced modern operating system features to an embedded operating system based on a new kernel with multitasking and memory protection, a modern multimedia and graphic framework (derived from Palm's acquired BeOS), new security features, and adjustments of the PIM file formats to better cooperate with Microsoft Outlook.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Cobalt 6.1 presented standard communication libraries for telecommunication, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth connectivity. Despite other additions, it failed to interest potential licensees to Palm OS Cobalt.",
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"plaintext": "Several licensees have made custom modifications to the operating system. These are not part of the official licensed version.",
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"plaintext": " Palm developed a Bluetooth API for external Bluetooth SDIO Cards for Palm OS 4.0 devices. The Bluetooth stack was later included in Palm OS 5",
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"plaintext": " Palm added a virtual graffiti input area API especially for their Tungsten T3 device. This API was later superseded by the official Dynamic Input Area API in Palm OS 5.3.",
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"plaintext": " Palm added the Non-Volatile File System in Palm OS 5.4, and used Flash for storage instead of DRAM, preventing data-loss in the event of battery drain. However, this fundamentally changed the way programs were executed from the Execute-in-Place system that Palm OS traditionally used, and has been the source of many compatibility problems, requiring many applications to add explicit NVFS support for correct operation.",
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"plaintext": " For their camera-equipped devices, Palm added the CameraLib API.",
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"plaintext": " Sony added a library to support JogDial input available on their CLIÉ organizers.",
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"plaintext": "For several years, PalmSource had been attempting to create a modern successor for Palm OS 5 and have licensees implement it. Although PalmSource shipped Palm OS Cobalt 6.0 to licensees in January 2004, none adopted it for release devices. PalmSource made major improvements to Palm OS Cobalt with the release of Palm OS Cobalt 6.1 in September 2004 to please licensees, but even the new version did not lead to production devices.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2004, PalmSource announced a new OS strategy. With the acquisition of the mobile phone software company China Mobilesoft, PalmSource planned to port Palm OS on top of a Linux kernel, while still offering both Palm OS Garnet and Palm OS Cobalt. This strategy was revised in June 2005, when still no device with Palm OS Cobalt was announced. PalmSource announced it was halting all development efforts on any product not directly related to its future Linux based platform.",
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"plaintext": "With the acquisition of PalmSource by ACCESS, Palm OS for Linux was changed to become the Access Linux Platform which was first announced in February 2006. The initial versions of the platform and software development kits for the Access Linux Platform were officially released in February 2007. As of January 2011, the Access Linux Platform had then yet to ship on any devices, however development kits then existed and public demonstrations had been showcased.",
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"plaintext": "Palm, Inc. the main licensee of Palm OS Garnet did not license Access Linux Platform for their own devices. Instead, Palm developed another Linux-based operating system called Palm webOS. On February 11, 2009, Palm CEO Ed Colligan said there would be no additional Palm OS devices (excepting the Centro being released to other carriers). Palm was focusing on Palm webOS and Windows Mobile devices. On April 1, 2009, Palm announced the availability of a Palm OS emulator for its webOS.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS licensees decide which applications are included on their Palm OS devices. Licensees can also customize the applications.",
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"plaintext": "Note: On the newer models, the standard PIM apps \"Address\", \"Date Book\", \"Memo Pad\" and \"ToDos\" were replaced by their improved counterparts \"Contacts\", \"Calendar\" \"Memos\" and \"Tasks\".",
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"plaintext": "The Palm's Address program stores contact information, keyed by any of several user-definable categories. Entries are displayed and sorted in last name, first name order (this can be changed only to Company, Last Name order). There are five slots for phone or e-mail, each of which may be designated Work, Home, Fax, Other, E-mail, Main, Pager or Mobile (the slot designations cannot be changed) The newer Contacts app adds the following features: several addresses, 9 new fields: Website, Birthday, More phone numbers, Instant Messaging with quick connect.",
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"plaintext": "Calc turns the Palm into a standard 4-function pocket calculator with three shades of purple and blue buttons contrasting with the two red clear buttons. It supports square root and percent keys and has one memory.",
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"plaintext": "It also has an option to display a running history of the calculations, much like the paper-tape calculators that were once common.",
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"plaintext": "Date Book shows a daily or weekly schedule, or a simple monthly view. The daily schedule has one line per hour, between user-selected begin and end times. Clicking on an empty line creates a new event. Empty lines are crowded out by actual events, whose start and stop times are shown by default bracketed in the left margin. The newer Calendar app adds the following features: New Day view, use of categories for events, event location, event can span midnight, event details, birthdays as timeless events. It supports time zone designation for events, a feature lacking in some more recent competitors.",
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"plaintext": "An event, or appointment, can be heralded by an alarm, any number of minutes, hours or days before it begins. These alarms sound even when the unit is switched off.",
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"plaintext": "Appointments can recur in a specified number of days, weeks, months or years and can contain notes.",
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"plaintext": "Expense tracks common business expenses. No totals are calculated on the Palm. The user must sync with a host computer and view the expense data in a worksheet (templates for Microsoft Excel are supplied).",
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"plaintext": "HotSync integrates with the user's PC. Usually activated by a press of the physical HotSync button on the Palm's cradle (a dock station), this application communicates with various conduits on the desktop PC to install software, backup databases, or merge changes made on the PC or the handheld to both devices. It can communicate with the PC through a physical connection (USB on newer models), Bluetooth or IrDA wireless connections, and direct network connections on devices with networking capability.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the conduits provided by the licensee, developers can create their own conduits for integration with other Palm OS applications and desktop products. For example, a time tracking package could provide a conduit to communicate information between Palm OS and Windows executables.",
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"plaintext": "A Backup conduit included with the HotSync software backs up (and restores, if necessary) most of the data on a Palm OS device. This allows users to hard reset their Palm—thus clearing all of the data—with few noticeable consequences. This also allows users to migrate to new Palm devices of the same Palm OS version, a feature that is helpful to those who lose or damage their device.",
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"plaintext": "Some models of Palm keep their data storage in volatile memory and require constant power to maintain their memory. Although these handhelds attempt to save the contents of memory in low battery situations by not \"turning on,\" leaving a \"dead\" handheld for an extended period of time can cause this reserve power to be used up and the contents of storage memory to be lost. Some later Palms use NVRAM or microdrive for storage.",
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"plaintext": "Memo Pad can hold notes of up to 4,000 characters each; the newer Memos app increases field size from 3 to 30 kB. Memos are ordered in two ways: alphabetically, and manually (which allows the user to choose the order of the memos), and memos can be grouped in user-configurable categories. Memo Pad is for text only, not for drawings, and text can be entered using the Graffiti alphabet, using hardware or software keyboards, or using the 'paste' function. When Palm devices first became available, some Palm users started to create and exchange Memo Pad documents containing generally useful information, which came to be known as Memoware.",
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"plaintext": "To do list creates personal reminders and prioritizes the things the user has to do.",
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"plaintext": "Each To Do List item may also have: a priority, categories (to organize and view items in logical groups), attached Note (to add more description and clarification of the task). To Do List item can be sorted by: due date, priority or category The newer Tasks app features the following improvements: new interface, repeating tasks, alarms, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Preferences (also referred to as Prefs) shows program files with a special preference panel type which are not shown by the normal launcher. Programs can be changed by switching the type to and vice versa. Palm OS contains approximately 15 preference panels by default and new preference panels can be added just like any other application.",
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"plaintext": "Preference panels allow users to manage a number of settings, including Graffiti settings, sound settings, text shortcuts, network settings and the system time.",
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"plaintext": "Security (which is a panel on newer Palm OS devices) is used to configure Palm OS's security settings. These include the password needed to display hidden records and unlock the device when locked, as well as set up an automatic lockdown time or inactivity threshold. On the PC, only Palm Desktop honors this password but other PC programs can view everything—in other words, all the data protected by this password can be seen by anyone opening the .dat files using a text editor or word processor.",
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"plaintext": "Starting with Palm OS version 5.2, Palm created customized versions of the common PIM application. Some new features have been added, e.g. support for Address categories, Ringtone associations to users, longer memo texts, etc.. They were also renamed to reflect designations from Microsoft Outlook, thus Address became Contacts, Datebook became Calendar, Memo Pad became Memos and To do list became Tasks.",
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"plaintext": "Blazer is a web browser for Palm handhelds. The versions 1.0 and 2.0 run on Palm OS 3.1 or higher handhelds, but they needed a proxy server which has been shut down, so they can no longer be used. Version 3.0 is used on the Treo 600 smartphone. The current version of Blazer is Blazer 4.5, which is compliant with most major standards. It is generally bundled with newer smartphones and newer Palm devices capable of accessing the Internet.",
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"plaintext": "Palm's Note Pad can be used for quick drawings. With neat handwriting, 20–30 words will fit on one page; for more text, Memo Pad is the better choice. There are three sizes of pen width, plus an eraser and a background color change feature in some models. It is possible to draw a very simple map. The more \"advanced\" desktop version saves the Memo pad drawings to the desktop.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2006, most new Palm handhelds include Photos, which creates a digital photo album used to view pictures on a Palm OS device. As with all the other photo programs, photos can be beamed to other mobile devices. Each photo can be labeled and organized into separate photo albums. A slideshow can also be shown for a specific album, and each photo in the album will be shown full screen.",
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"plaintext": "Photos can be edited with the Palm Photos PC software (Windows only), and when the photos are transferred to the handheld they will contain all changes made to the photo.",
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"plaintext": "The Palm Photos software is available in the Zire 71, Tungsten C, Tungsten E, Tungsten T2, Tungsten T3 and several others.",
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"plaintext": "With the support for Video, Palm Photos was later renamed to Media and even later to Pics& Videos.",
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"plaintext": "Some models feature the ability to make voice recordings which are synced using the Voice conduit and can be viewed on a desktop with the Voice Memo application which is part of the Palm Desktop Suite.",
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"plaintext": "There are many successful applications that can be installed on a Palm OS device. As of 2008, there were more than 50,000 third-party applications available for the Palm OS platform, which have various licensing types, including open-source, and various closed licensing schemes such as freeware, shareware, and traditional pay-up-front purchase.",
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"plaintext": "HackMaster is an extension manager for Palm OS that includes several patches improving OS features. Other third party OS extensions also require HackMaster to work.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Garnet applications are primarily coded in C/C++. Two officially supported compilers exist: a commercial product, CodeWarrior Development Studio for Palm OS, and an open source tool chain called prc-tools, based on an old version of gcc. CodeWarrior is criticized for being expensive and is no longer being developed, whereas PRC-Tools lacks several of CodeWarrior's features. A version of PRC-Tools is included in a free Palm OS Developer Suite (PODS).",
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"plaintext": "OnBoardC is a C compiler, assembler, linker and programming editor that runs on the Palm itself.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS Cobalt applications are also coded in a variation of gcc, but the Cobalt compilers have fewer limitations.",
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"plaintext": "There are development tools available for Palm programming that do not require low-level programming in C/C++, such as PocketC/PocketC Architect, CASL, AppForge Crossfire (which uses Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, or C#), Handheld Basic, Pendragon Forms, Satellite Forms and NSBasic/Palm (Visual Basic like languages). A Java Virtual Machine was previously available for the Palm OS platform, however on 12 January 2008, Palm, Inc. announced that it would no longer be available. Palm, Inc. further said \"There is no alternate Java Virtual Machine that we are aware of for Palm OS.\" Waba and a derivative of it, SuperWaba, provide a Java-like virtual machine and programming language. A version of the Lua language, called Plua, is also available for Palm; however, due to the fact that it requires an additional runtime to be installed along with the application, it is only used for mainstream applications by a minority of software companies. Quartus Forth is an ISO/ANSI Standard Forth compiler that runs on the Palm itself. It also has an interactive console for dynamic development and debugging.",
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"plaintext": "Three environments allow programming in Pascal for Palm OS. The free PP Compiler runs directly on the handheld computer, while PocketStudio is a Delphi-like IDE for Windows Computers that has a visual form designer and generates PRC files for being transferred to handhelds via HotSync. The third option was HSPascal, developed by Danish developer Chriten Fihl, based on his experience with the High Speed Pascal compiler for various 16-bit computer systems, including the Commodore Amiga.",
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"plaintext": "As Palm has no connection drivers that enable the transfer of data with a server DBMS (Oracle, mySQL, MS SQL Server), the programmer can use Middleware software that enables this connectivity.",
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"plaintext": "A roughly R4RS-compatible implementation of Scheme, LispMe, provides the Palm platform with a GPL-licensed onboard Lisp REPL with some Palm OS-specific adaptations, but although it is functionally a compiler it does not produce code that operates outside the development environment, so its use is restricted to prototyping.",
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"plaintext": "Palm OS has been involved in various lawsuits over the years.",
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"plaintext": "Xerox vs. Palm Computing (1997) – In 1997, Xerox was granted covering the \"Unistroke\" input system developed by David Goldberg, Xerox PARC in 1993. Xerox filed suit against Palm (then U.S. Robotics), alleging that Palm's Graffiti infringed on this patent. The Palm OS switch from Graffiti 1 to Graffiti 2 was triggered in part by Palm losing this lawsuit to Xerox. The patent was invalidated in May 2004 due to prior art developed at Bell Laboratories in 1982.",
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"plaintext": "Pilot Pen Corporation vs. Palm Computing (1998) – The original name for Palm OS handhelds was Pilot. However, a lawsuit from Pilot Pen Corporation forced a name change to PalmPilot, then eventually to Palm.",
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"plaintext": "Palm vs. Microsoft (1998) – In 1998, Microsoft planned to name the next version of their handheld computing platform \"Palm PC\". Palm filed suit against Microsoft, forcing the name change to, first, Palm-sized PC, and later, Pocket PC.",
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"plaintext": "E-Pass Technologies vs. Palm, Microsoft and HP (2000) – In 2000, E-Pass Technologies filed suit against Palm, alleging that its handhelds infringed on an E-Pass's patent (#5,276,311) for a multi-function, credit card-sized computer that allows users to securely store account numbers, PIN codes, etc.",
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"plaintext": "NCR vs. Handspring and Palm (2001) – In 1987, NCR was granted a patent for a portable e-commerce terminal. In 2001, NCR sued Handspring and Palm. This case was ruled without merit in 2002, a decision that was upheld on appeal.",
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"plaintext": "RIM vs. Handspring (2002) – In 2002, Research In Motion (makers of the BlackBerry), sued Handspring. By year end, both Handspring and Palm licensed the patents and the suit was dropped.",
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"plaintext": "Peer-to-Peer Systems vs. Palm (2002) – Also in 2002, Peer-to-Peer systems filed lawsuit against Palm that alleges Palm infringed on its patent for wireless gaming. This lawsuit was settled as of February 9, 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Forgent Networks vs. HP, Toshiba, palmOne, etc., etc. (2004) – Starting in 2002, Forgent Networks began offering licenses for a patent that encumbers JPEG. In 2004, it filed suit against various companies, including palmOne. The JPEG or 672 patent has been reviewed by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, which has rejected 19 of the 47 claims based on prior art.",
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"plaintext": "Access Linux Platform, planned successor of the Palm OS",
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] | [
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"ARM_operating_systems",
"Computer-related_introductions_in_1996",
"Discontinued_operating_systems",
"Embedded_operating_systems",
"Mobile_operating_systems",
"Personal_digital_assistants"
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37,546 | 1,102,713,665 | Palm | [
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"plaintext": " Palm (band), an American rock band",
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"plaintext": " Midway, Lafayette County, Arkansas, also known as Palm",
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"plaintext": " Palms, Minden Township, Michigan",
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"plaintext": " Photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) ",
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] | [] | 231,003 | 1,557 | 3 | 41 | 0 | 0 | Palm | Wikimedia disambiguation page | [] |
37,548 | 1,099,196,904 | Mycenae | [
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"plaintext": "Mycenae ( ; or , Mykē̂nai or Mykḗnē) is an archaeological site near Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located about south-west of Athens; north of Argos; and south of Corinth. The site is inland from the Saronic Gulf and built upon a hill rising above sea level.",
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"plaintext": "In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece, Crete, the Cyclades and parts of southwest Anatolia. The period of Greek history from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called Mycenaean in reference to Mycenae. At its peak in 1350 BC, the citadel and lower town had a population of 30,000 and an area of 32 hectares.",
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"plaintext": "The first correct identification of Mycenae in modern literature was during a survey conducted by Francesco Grimani, commissioned by the Provveditore Generale of the Kingdom of the Morea in 1700, who used Pausanias's description of the Lion Gate to identify the ruins of Mycenae.",
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"plaintext": "The name Mukanai is thought not to be Greek but rather one of the many pre-Greek place names inherited by later Greek speakers. Legend has it that the name was connected to the Greek word mykēs (μύκης, \"mushroom\"). Thus, Pausanias ascribes the name to the legendary founder Perseus, who was said to have named it either after the cap (mykēs) of the sheath of his sword, or after a mushroom he had plucked on the site. Homer connected the name to the nymph Mycene the daughter of the river god Inachos of Argos (Odyssey 2.120).",
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"plaintext": "In the Iliad, the name of the city spelled is (Μυκήνη). The later form (Μυκῆναι) was the result of a well-known sound change in Attic-Ionic which shifts some instances of ā to ē.",
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"plaintext": "Mycenae, an acropolis site, was built on a hill above sea level, some inland from the Gulf of Argolis. Situated in the north-east corner of the Argive plain, it easily overlooked the whole area and was ideally positioned to be a centre of power, especially as it commanded all easy routes to the Isthmus of Corinth. Besides its strong defensive and strategic position, it had good farmland and an adequate water supply. There are only faint traces of Neolithic settlement on the site although it was continuously occupied from the Early Neolithic (EN; c. 5000–c. 4000 BC) through the Early Helladic (EH; c. 3200–c. 2000 BC) and Middle Helladic (MH; c. 2000–c. 1550 BC) periods. EN Rainbow Ware constitutes the earliest ceramic evidence discovered so far.",
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"plaintext": "The population had grown considerably by the Middle Helladic. As elsewhere, a dominant Cretan influence prevailed from c. 1600 BC, the first evidence of this coming from the shaft graves discovered in 1876 by Heinrich Schliemann. Schliemann's shaft graves came to be known as Circle A to distinguish them from the Circle B graves which were found at a later date, although Circle B are the earlier graves dated c. 1650 BC to c. 1550 BC and entirely within MHIII. Circle A is dated to the sixteenth century BC including the transition from Middle to Late Helladic IA (LHIA; c. 1550 – c. 1500 BC). The contents of Circle B are less wealthy than those of Circle A.",
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"plaintext": "Pottery material spanning the entire Early Helladic was discovered 1877–78 by Panagiotis Stamatakis at a low depth in the sixth shaft grave in Circle A. Further EH and MH material was found beneath the walls and floors of the palace, on the summit of the acropolis, and outside the Lion Gate in the area of the ancient cemetery. An EH–MH settlement was discovered near a fresh-water well on top of the Kalkani hill south-west of the acropolis. The first burials in pits or cist graves manifest in MHII (c. 1800 BC) on the west slope of the acropolis, which was at least partially enclosed by the earliest circuit wall.",
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"plaintext": "In the absence of documents and objects that can be precisely dated, events at Mycenae can only be dated relatively within the constraints of Helladic chronology which relies on categorisation of stratified material objects, mainly pottery, within an agreed historical framework. Mycenae developed into a major power during LHI (c. 1550 – c. 1450 BC) and is believed to have become the main centre of Aegean civilisation through the fifteenth century to the extent that the two hundred years from c. 1400 BC to c. 1200 BC (encompassing LHIIIA and LHIIIB) are known as the Mycenaean Age. The Minoan hegemony was ended c. 1450 and there is evidence that Knossos was occupied by Mycenaeans until it too was destroyed c. 1370 BC. From then on, Mycenaean expansion throughout the Aegean was unhindered until the massive disruption of society in the first half of the twelfth century (LHIIIC) which ended Mycenaean civilisation and culminated in the destruction of Mycenae itself c. 1150 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Outside the partial circuit wall, Grave Circle B, named for its enclosing wall, contained ten cist graves in Middle Helladic style and several shaft graves, sunk more deeply, with interments resting in cists. Richer grave goods mark the burials as possibly regal. Mounds over the top contained broken drinking vessels and bones from a repast, testifying to a more than ordinary farewell. Stelae surmounted the mounds.",
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"plaintext": "A walled enclosure, Grave Circle A, included six more shaft graves, with nine female, eight male, and two juvenile interments. Grave goods were more costly than in Circle B. The presence of engraved and inlaid swords and daggers, with spear points and arrowheads, leave little doubt that warrior chieftains and their families were buried here. Some art objects obtained from the graves are the Silver Siege Rhyton, the Mask of Agamemnon, the Cup of Nestor, and weapons both votive and practical. The chemical compositions of the silver objects indicate that the silver was sourced from several locations.",
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"plaintext": "Alan Wace divided the nine tholos tombs of Mycenae into three groups of three, each based on architecture. His earliest – the Cyclopean Tomb, Epano Phournos, and the Tomb of Aegisthus – are dated to LHIIA.",
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"plaintext": "Burial in tholoi is seen as replacing burial in shaft graves. The care taken to preserve the shaft graves testifies that they were by then part of the royal heritage, the tombs of the ancestral heroes. Being more visible, the tholoi all had been plundered either in antiquity, or in later historic times.",
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"plaintext": "At a conventional date of 1350 BC, the fortifications on the acropolis, and other surrounding hills, were rebuilt in a style known as Cyclopean because the blocks of stone used were so massive that they were thought in later ages to be the work of the one-eyed giants known as the Cyclopes. Within these walls, much of which can still be seen, successive monumental palaces were built. The final palace, remains of which are currently visible on the acropolis of Mycenae, dates to the start of LHIIIA:2. Earlier palaces must have existed, but they had been cleared away or built over.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of palaces at that time with a similar architecture was general throughout southern Greece. They all featured a megaron, or throne room, with a raised central hearth under an opening in the roof, which was supported by four columns in a square around the hearth. A throne was placed against the center of a wall to the side of the hearth, allowing an unobstructed view of the ruler from the entrance. Frescos adorned the plaster walls and floor.",
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"plaintext": "In the temple built within the citadel, a scarab of Queen Tiye of Egypt, who was married to Amenhotep III, was placed in the Room of the Idols alongside at least one statue of either LHIIIA:2 or B:1 type. Amenhotep III's relations with m-w-k-i-n-u, *Mukana, have corroboration from the inscription at Kom al-Hetan - but Amenhotep's reign is thought to align with late LHIIIA:1. It is likely that Amenhotep's herald presented the scarab to an earlier generation, which then found the resources to rebuild the citadel as Cyclopean and then, to move the scarab here.",
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"plaintext": "Wace's second group of tholoi are dated between LHIIA and LHIIIB: Kato Phournos, Panagia Tholos, and the Lion Tomb. The final group, Group III: the Treasury of Atreus, the Tomb of Clytemnestra and the Tomb of the Genii, are dated to LHIIIB by a sherd under the threshold of the Treasury of Atreus, the largest of the nine tombs. Like the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus the tomb had been looted of its contents and its nature as funerary monument had been forgotten. The structure bore the traditional name of \"Treasury\".",
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"plaintext": "The pottery phases on which the relative dating scheme is based (EH, MH, LH, etc.) do not allow very precise dating, even augmented by the few existing C-14 dates due to the tolerance inherent in these. The sequence of further construction at Mycenae is approximately as follows. In the middle of LHIIIB, around 1250 BC or so, the Cyclopean wall was extended on the west slope to include Grave Circle A. The main entrance through the circuit wall was made grand by the best known feature of Mycenae, the Lion Gate, through which passed a stepped ramp leading past circle A and up to the palace. The Lion Gate was constructed in the form of a \"Relieving Triangle\" in order to support the weight of the stones. An undecorated postern gate also was constructed through the north wall.",
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"plaintext": "One of the few groups of excavated houses in the city outside the walls lies beyond Grave Circle B and belongs to the same period. The House of Shields, the House of the Oil Merchant, the House of the Sphinxes, and the West House. These may have been both residences and workshops.",
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"plaintext": "Citadel facts and figures ",
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"plaintext": "Circuit length: ",
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"plaintext": "Preserved height: up to ",
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"plaintext": "Width: 7.5-17M ",
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"plaintext": "Minimum stone required: 145,215 Cu.M or 14,420 average stones (10 tons) ",
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"plaintext": "Time to move 1 Block using men: 2.125 days ",
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"plaintext": "Time to move all Blocks using men: 110.52 years ",
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"plaintext": "Time to move 1 Block using oxen: 0.125 days ",
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"plaintext": "Time to move all Blocks using oxen: 9.9 years ",
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"plaintext": "Based on 8-hour work day.",
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"plaintext": "The largest stones including the lintels and gate jambs weighed well over 20 tonnes; some may have been close to 100 tonnes.",
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"plaintext": "Somewhat later, toward the end of LHIIIB around 1200 BC, another, final extension to the citadel was undertaken. The wall was extended again on the northeast, with a sally port and also a secret passage through and under the wall, of corbeled construction, leading downward by some 99 steps to a cistern carved out of rock 15 m below the surface. It was fed by a tunnel from a spring on more distant higher ground.",
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"plaintext": "Already in LHIIIA:1, Egypt knew *Mukana by name as a capital city on the level of Thebes and Knossos. During LHIIIB, Mycenae's political, military and economic influence likely extended as far as Crete, Pylos in the western Peloponnese, and to Athens and Thebes.",
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"plaintext": "Mycenae was among the numerous Aegean sites destroyed as part of the Bronze Age Collapse around 1200 BC. The causes of these destructions are unknown, but proposed explanations include enemy attack, internal strife, and natural disasters such as earthquakes. Unlike many other sites, Mycenae was partly rebuilt after this destruction, though it was no longer the center of a centralized literate bureacuracy. Pottery finds suggest that Postpalatial Mycenae eventually regained some its wealth, before burning once again. After this period, the site remained sparsely populated until the Hellenistic era.",
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"plaintext": "A temple dedicated to Hera was built on the summit of the Mycenaean citadel during the Archaic Period. A Mycenaean contingent fought at Thermopylae and Plataea during the Persian Wars. In 468 BC, however, troops from Argos captured Mycenae, expelled the inhabitants and razed the fortifications.",
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"plaintext": "Mycenae was briefly reoccupied in the Hellenistic period, when it could boast a theatre (located over the Tomb of Clytemnestra). The site was subsequently abandoned, and by the Roman period in Greece its ruins had become a tourist attraction. The ancient travel writer Pausanias, for example, visited the site and briefly described the prominent fortifications and the Lion Gate, still visible in his time, the second century AD. Pausanias also describes being led to the site by shepherds, showing that the surrounding area was never completely abandoned.",
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"plaintext": "It appears that the Mycenaean state was ruled by kings identified by the title , wa-na-ka (\"wanax') in the Linear B inscriptions at Knossos and Pylos. Wanax had the supreme authority and was represented by a number of officials. In the Homeric poems, the word form is anax (), often translated in English as \"lord\". Some inscriptions with a list of offerings indicate that the king was probably divine, but the term \"for the king\" is usually accompanied by another name. It is possible that a priest-king system was adopted from the East and the title probably indicates that his right to rule was given by the god. The term , qa-si-re-u (cf. , \"basileús\"), which was later used in Greece for \"king\", was apparently used for the \"chief\" of any group of people, or for a provincial official. (Homer mentions many basilees in Ithaca).",
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"plaintext": "The land possessed by the king is usually called , te-me-no (, \"témenos\"), a word that survived in classical Greece (the temenos placed by Hephaestus on the shield of Achilles is called \"royal\"). In classical times the word has a religious connotation . Other important landowners were the , ra-wa-ke-ta (\"lāwāgetas\"), literally translated as “the leader of the people”, and sometimes interpreted as a given Kingdom's military leader, though this is not confirmed by the inscriptions. Alternatively, he may have been the crown prince or, if one follows the argument of a single Mycenaean state, a local king who was a vassal to the overarching wanax / Great King. Below these two elevated persons, Linear B texts situate the , te-re-ta (\"telestai\"), the officials. Leonard Robert Palmer suggests that the \"telestai were the men of telos- the fief holders\". The , e-qe-ta (ekwetai, \"companions\" or \"followers\") were a group of nobles (aristocrats), who followed the king in peace and war. It seems that they were representatives of the king among military groups and religious personnel. There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as being probably a king.",
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"plaintext": "From the existing evidence, it seems that the kingdom was further subdivided into sixteen districts. The , ko-re-te was the \"governor of the district\" and the , po-ro-ko-re-te was the \"deputy\". It is possible that these represent koreter and prokoreter. The , da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros) was an official appointment but his duties are not very clear. The communal land was held at the hands of , da-mo (literally, \"people\", cf. Attic δῆμος, dễmos), or \"plot holders\". It seems that the da-mo was a collective body of men, representing the local district and that it had certain power in public affairs. It is suggested that qa-si-re-u had a council of elders, a , ke-ro-si-ja, (later \"\" gerousia), but Palmer believes that it was an organization of \"bronze smiths\". The land was held by the wanax, by the damos, and by individual land owners. It seems that people lived in small family groups or clans around the main cidadel. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro, (cf. , doúlos). These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities.",
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"plaintext": "According to the traditional view, Mycenae or any other palatial center of mainland Greece was not an empire, and the mainland consisted of independent city-states. This view has in recent years, however, been challenged by various specialists, such as Jorrit Kelder and, most recently, Birgitta Eder and Reinhard Jung. Kelder pointed out that a number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla, located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to the state of nearby Orchomenos. The palace of Mycenae probably ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion, which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae's ruling dynasty. Certain archaeological features in the palatial centers like the architectural uniformity, the uniformity of the administrative system, the uniformity in pottery, the imperial language and some large scale projects (drainage systems, harbours, roads etc.) indicate that large parts of Greece may have fallen under the sway of a single king, with various degrees of control over local vassals: a situation not dissimilar from the contemporary Hittite world, although the archaeological evidence remains ambiguous. A loose confederacy of city-states under the king of Mycenae, Agamemnon, is mentioned by Homer in Iliad.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the Mycenaean religion survived into classical Greece in their pantheon of Greek deities, but it is not known to what extent Greek religious belief is Mycenaean, nor how much is a product of the Greek Dark Ages or later. Moses I. Finley detected only few authentic Mycenaean beliefs in the 8th-century Homeric world, but Nilsson suggested that the Mycenean religion was the mother of the Greek religion.",
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"plaintext": "From the history traced by Nilsson and Guthrie, the Mycenaean pantheon consisted of Minoan deities, but also of gods and goddesses who appear under different names with similar functions in East and West. Many of these names appearing in the Linear B inscriptions can be found later in classical Greece like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Hermes, Eileithyia and Dionysos, but the etymology is the only evidence of the cults.",
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"plaintext": "There are several reasonable guesses that can be made, however. It seems that originally the Mycenaeans, like many Indo-Europeans, considered divine any object that inherited an internal power (anima). Certain religious beliefs were mixed with the beliefs of the local populations as it appears in the old cults of isolated Arcadia, which survived up to classical Greece. In these cults, Poseidon appears usually as a horse, representing the river spirit of the underworld as it usually happens in northern-European folklore. The precursor goddesses of Demeter and Persephone are closely related with the springs and the animals, and especially with Poseidon and Artemis who was the first nymph. Mycenaean religion was almost certainly polytheistic, and the Mycenaeans were actively syncretistic, adding foreign deities to their pantheon of deities with considerable ease. The Mycenaeans probably entered Greece with a pantheon of deities headed by some ruling sky-deity, which linguists speculate might have been called *Dyeus in early Indo-European. In Greek, this deity would become Zeus (pronounced Zeus or Dias in ancient Greek). Among the Hindus, this sky-deity becomes \"Dyaus Pita\". In Latin he becomes \"deus pater\" or Jupiter; we still encounter this word in the etymologies of the words \"deity\" and \"divine\".",
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"plaintext": "Later in some cults, Zeus is united with the Aegean Great Goddess, who is represented by Hera in a \"holy wedding\" (hieros gamos). At some point in their cultural history, the Mycenaeans adopted some Minoan goddesses like Aphaea, Britomartis, Diktynna and associated them with their sky-god. Many of them were absorbed by more powerful divinities, and some like the vegetation goddesses Ariadne and Helen survived in Greek folklore together with the cult of the \"divine child\", who was probably the precursor of Dionysos. Athena and Hera survived and were tutelary goddesses, the guardians of the palaces and the cities. In general, later Greek religion distinguishes between two types of deities: the Olympian, or sky deities (including Zeus), which are now commonly known in some form or another; and, the chthonic deities, or deities of the earth. Walter Burkert warns: \"To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a conclusive answer.\" He suggests that useful parallels will be found in the relations between Etruscan and Archaic Greek culture and religion, or between Roman and Hellenistic culture.",
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"plaintext": "The pantheon also included deities representing the powers of nature and wildlife, who appear with similar functions in the Mediterranean region. The \"Mistress of the Animals\" (Potnia Theron), later called Artemis, may be identified as the Minoan goddess Britomartis/Dictynna. Poseidon is the lord of the sea, and therefore of storms and earthquakes, (the \"Earth shaker\" in Linear B tablets). He may have functioned as a pre-Hellenic chthonic Zeus, the lord or spouse of the Earth goddess. Athena whose task was to protect the olive-trees is a civic Artemis. The powers of animal nature fostered a belief in nymphs whose existence was bound to the trees and the waters, and in gods with human forms and the heads or tails of animals who stood for primitive bodily instincts. In Arcadia were depicted animal-headed gods, indicating that in the remote past the gods were conceived as animals and birds, in a surrounding of animal-headed daemons. Later the gods were revealed in human forms with an animal as a companion or symbol. Some of the old gods survived in the cult of Dionysos (Satyrs) and Pan (the goat-god).",
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"plaintext": "The Mycenaeans adopted probably from the east a priest-king system and the belief of a ruling deity in the hands of a theocratic society. At the end of the second millennium BC, when the Mycenaean palaces collapsed, it seems that Greek thought was gradually released from the idea that each man was a servant to the gods, and sought a \"moral purpose\". It is possible that this procedure started before the end of the Mycenaean age, but the idea is almost absent or vague in the Homeric poems, where the interference of the gods is not related to the rightness or wrongness of men's actions. Later, Hesiod uses a lot of eastern material in his cosmology and in the genealogical trees of the gods, and he introduces the idea of the existence of something else behind the gods, which was more powerful than they.",
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"plaintext": "The Olympian Pantheon is an ordered system. The Greek divinities live with Zeus at the helm and each is concerned with a recognizable sphere. However, certain elements in some Greek cults indicate the survival of some older cults from a less rationalized world: old cults of the dead, agrarian magic, exorcism of evil spirits, peculiar sacrifices, and animal-headed gods. In the Homeric poems, the avenging Fate was probably originally a daemon acting in parallel with the gods. Later, the cult of Dionysos Zagreus indicates that life-blood of animals was needed to renew that of men. A similar belief may be guessed from the Mycenaean Hagia Triada sarcophagus (1400 BC), which combines features of Minoan civilization and Mycenaean style. It seems that the blood of a bull was used for the regeneration of the reappearing dead. Probably most of these cults existed in the Mycenaean period and survived by immemorial practice.",
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"plaintext": "A secondary level of importance was the cult of the heroes, which seems to have started in the Mycenaean era. These were great men of the past who were exalted to honor after death, because of what they had done. According to an old Minoan belief, beyond the sea there was an island called Elysion, where the departed could have a different but happier existence. Later, the Greeks believed that there could live in human form only heroes and the beloved of the gods. The souls of the rest would drift unconsciously in the gloomy space of Hades. Gods and men had common origins, but there was an enormous gap between the immortal gods and mortal men. However, certain elements indicate that the Myceneans probably believed in a future existence. Two well-preserved bodies were found in Shaft Grave VI, and Wolfgang Helbig believed that an embalming preceded the burial. In the shaft graves discovered by Heinrich Schliemann, the corpses were lightly exposed to fire in order to preserve them.",
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"plaintext": "Mycenaean religion certainly involved offerings and sacrifices to the deities, and some have speculated that their ceremonies involved human sacrifice based on textual evidence and bones found outside tombs. In the Homeric poems, there seems to be a lingering cultural memory of human sacrifice in King Agamemnon's sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia; several of the stories of Trojan heroes involve tragic human sacrifice. In the far past, even human beings might be offered to placate inscrutable gods, especially in times of guilty fear. Later sacrifice became a feast at which oxen were slaughtered. Men kept the meat, and gave the gods the bones wrapped in fat.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond this speculation we can go no further. Somewhere in the shades of the centuries between the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and the end of the Greek Dark Ages, the original Mycenaean religion persisted and adapted until it finally emerged in the stories of human devotion, apostasy, and divine capriciousness that exists in the two great epic poems of Homer.",
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"plaintext": "Classical Greek myths assert that Mycenae was founded by Perseus, grandson of king Acrisius of Argos, son of Acrisius's daughter, Danaë and the god Zeus. Having killed his grandfather by accident, Perseus could not, or would not, inherit the throne of Argos. Instead he arranged an exchange of realms with his cousin, Megapenthes, and became king of Tiryns, Megapenthes taking Argos. After that, he founded Mycenae and ruled the kingdoms jointly from there.",
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"plaintext": "Perseus married Andromeda and had many sons. His son, Electryon, became the second of the dynasty, but the succession was disputed by the Taphians under Pterelaos, another Perseid, who assaulted Mycenae, lost, and retreated with the cattle. The cattle were recovered by Amphitryon, a grandson of Perseus, but he killed his uncle by accident with a club in an unruly cattle incident and had to go into exile.",
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"plaintext": "The throne went to Sthenelus, third in the dynasty, a son of Perseus. He set the stage for future greatness by marrying Nicippe, a daughter of King Pelops of Elis, the most powerful state of the region and the times. With her he had a son, Eurystheus, the fourth and last of the Perseid dynasty. When a son of Heracles, Hyllus, killed Sthenelus, Eurystheus became noted for his enmity to Heracles and for his ruthless persecution of the Heracleidae, the descendants of Heracles.",
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"plaintext": "This is the first we hear in legend of those noted sons, who became a symbol of the Dorians. Heracles had been a Perseid. After his death, Eurystheus determined to annihilate these rivals for the throne of Mycenae, but they took refuge in Athens, and in the course of war, Eurystheus and all his sons were killed. The Perseid dynasty came to an end and the people of Mycenae placed Eurystheus's maternal uncle, Atreus, a Pelopid, on the throne.",
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"plaintext": "In legend, Atreus had two sons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Atreids. Aegisthus, the son of Thyestes, killed Atreus and restored Thyestes to the throne. With the help of King Tyndareus of Sparta, the Atreids drove Thyestes again into exile. Tyndareus had two ill-starred daughters, Helen and Clytemnestra, whom Menelaus and Agamemnon married, respectively. Agamemnon inherited Mycenae and Menelaus became king of Sparta.",
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"plaintext": "Soon, Helen eloped with Paris of Troy. Agamemnon conducted a 10-year war against Troy to get her back for his brother. Because of lack of wind, the warships could not sail to Troy. In order to please the gods so that they might make the winds start to blow, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia. According to some versions of the legend, the hunting goddess Artemis replaced her at the very last moment with a deer on the altar, and took Iphigenia to Tauris (see Iphigenia in Tauris by Euripides). The deities, having been satisfied by such a sacrifice, made the winds blow and the Greek fleet departed.",
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"plaintext": "Legend tells us that the long and arduous Trojan War, although nominally a Greek victory, brought anarchy, piracy, and ruin; already before the Greek fleet set sail for Troy, the conflict had divided the gods as well, and this contributed to curses and acts of vengeance following many of the Greek heroes. After the war Agamemnon returned to Mycenae and was greeted royally with a red carpet rolled out for him. Shortly thereafter, he was slain by Clytemnestra, who hated him bitterly for having ordered the sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia in order to gain favorable winds to Troy. Clytemnestra was aided in her crime by Aegistheus, her lover, who reigned subsequently, but Orestes, her son by Agamemnon, was smuggled out to Phocis. He returned as an adult with his sister Electra to slay Clytemnestra and Aegistheus. He then fled to Athens to evade justice and a matricide, and became insane for a time. Meanwhile, the throne of Mycenae went to Aletes, son of Aegistheus, but not for long. Recovering, Orestes returned to Mycenae with Electra to kill Aletes and took the throne. This story is told in numerous plays, including the Oresteia, Sophocles' Electra, and Euripides' Electra.",
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"plaintext": "Orestes then built a larger state in the Peloponnese, but he died in Arcadia from a snake bite. His son, Tisamenus, the last of the Atreid dynasty, was killed by the Heracleidae on their return to the Peloponnesus. They claimed the right of the Perseids to inherit the various kingdoms of the Peloponnese and cast lots for the dominion of them, thus leaving the Atreids as the final rulers of Legendary Mycenae.",
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"plaintext": "The first excavations at Mycenae were carried out by Greek archaeologist Kyriakos Pittakis in 1841 where he found and restored the Lion Gate. In 1874, Heinrich Schliemann excavated deep shafts all over the acropolis without permission; in August 1876, a complete excavation of the site by Schliemann commenced with the permission of the Archaeological Society of Athens (ASA) and the supervision of one of its members, Panayiotis Stamatakis. Schliemann believed in the historical truth of the Homeric stories and interpreted the site accordingly. He found the ancient shaft graves with their royal skeletons and spectacular grave goods. Upon discovering a human skull beneath a gold death mask in one of the tombs, he declared: \"I have gazed upon the face of Agamemnon\".",
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"plaintext": "Since Schliemann's day, more scientific excavations have taken place at Mycenae, mainly by Greek archaeologists but also by the British School at Athens. Christos Tsountas, another member of the ASA, cleared a significant portion of the citadel during his excavations of the site beginning in 1884 and ending in 1902. The Athens Archaeological Society is currently excavating the Mycenae Lower Town (), with support from Dickinson College and the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. Afterwards, Tsountas and the ASA gave permission to the British School of Archaeology (BSA) to excavate; the BSA conducted excavations from 1920 to 1955 under the supervision of Alan John Bayard Wace, assisted by Winifred Lamb. In 1951, workers discovered Grave Circle B. After Wace died in 1957, excavation work was finished by Lord William Taylour from 1958 to 1969, especially on the west slope of the citadel. The ASA continued excavation work on the site with efforts led by Ioannis Papadimitriou and Nicolas Verdelis in the late 1950s and early 1960s, as well as by George Mylonas from 1957 up until 1985. In 1985, excavation work was directed by Spyros Iakovidis who, , is still overseeing the ASA's research mission in both fieldwork and publication preparation.",
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"plaintext": "In 1868, the State of Connecticut gave the Navy of land along the Thames River in Groton to build a Naval Station. Due to a lack of federal funding, it was not until 1872 that two brick buildings and a T-shaped pier were constructed and officially declared a Navy Yard. In 1898, Congress approved a coaling station to be built at the Yard for refueling small naval ships traveling through the waters of New England. The Navy Yard was first used for laying up inactive ships. The Congressional appropriations were small and the Navy had little need for the yard, which was closed from 1898 to 1900 and its personnel reassigned. By 1912, oil replaced coal in warships and again the Yard was scheduled for closure and the land relinquished by the Navy.",
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"plaintext": "The Navy Yard was spared permanent closure in 1912 by an impassioned plea from Congressman Edwin W. Higgins of Norwich, who was worried about the loss of Federal spending in the region. On 13 October 1915, the monitor , a submarine tender, and four submarines arrived in Groton. Additional submarines and support craft arrived the following year, and the facility was named as the Navy's first submarine base. The first commander of the Yard was retired Commodore Timothy A. Hunt, who was recalled to service. He was living in New Haven, and he used the Central Hotel on State Street, New London when in town to attend to Yard duties on an \"as needed\" basis. The submarine base is physically located in the Town of Groton, but New London became associated with it because the base had its main offices and housing in New London. Following World War I, the Navy established schools and training facilities at the base.",
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37,552 | 1,103,549,640 | Thetis | [
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"plaintext": "Thetis (; ), is a figure from Greek mythology with varying mythological roles. She mainly appears as a sea nymph, a goddess of water, or one of the 50 Nereids, daughters of the ancient sea god Nereus.",
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"plaintext": "When described as a Nereid in Classical myths, Thetis was the daughter of Nereus and Doris, and a granddaughter of Tethys with whom she sometimes shares characteristics. Often she seems to lead the Nereids as they attend to her tasks. Sometimes she also is identified with Metis.",
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"plaintext": "Some sources argue that she was one of the earliest of deities worshipped in Archaic Greece, the oral traditions and records of which are lost. Only one written record, a fragment, exists attesting to her worship and an early Alcman hymn exists that identifies Thetis as the creator of the universe. Worship of Thetis as the goddess is documented to have persisted in some regions by historical writers such as Pausanias.",
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"plaintext": "In the Trojan War cycle of myth, the wedding of Thetis and the Greek hero Peleus is one of the precipitating events in the war which also led to the birth of their child Achilles.",
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"plaintext": "Most extant material about Thetis concerns her role as mother of Achilles, but there is some evidence that as the sea-goddess she played a more central role in the religious beliefs and practices of Archaic Greece. The pre-modern etymology of her name, from tithemi (τίθημι), \"to set up, establish,\" suggests a perception among Classical Greeks of an early political role. Walter Burkert considers her name a transformed doublet of Tethys.",
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"plaintext": "In Iliad I, Achilles recalls to his mother her role in defending, and thus legitimizing, the reign of Zeus against an incipient rebellion by three Olympians, each of whom has pre-Olympian roots:",
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"plaintext": "You alone of all the gods saved Zeus the Darkener of the Skies from an inglorious fate, when some of the other Olympians – Hera, Poseidon, and Pallas Athene – had plotted to throw him into chains ... You, goddess, went and saved him from that indignity. You quickly summoned to high Olympus the monster of the hundred arms whom the gods call Briareus, but mankind Aegaeon, a giant more powerful even than his father. He squatted by the Son of Cronos with such a show of force that the blessed gods slunk off in terror, leaving Zeus free",
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"plaintext": "— E.V. Rieu translation",
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"plaintext": "Quintus of Smyrna, recalling this passage, does write that Thetis once released Zeus from chains; but there is no other reference to this rebellion among the Olympians, and some readers, such as M. M. Willcock, have understood the episode as an ad hoc invention of Homer's to support Achilles' request that his mother intervene with Zeus. Laura Slatkin explores the apparent contradiction, in that the immediate presentation of Thetis in the Iliad is as a helpless minor goddess overcome by grief and lamenting to her Nereid sisters, and links the goddess's present and past through her grief. She draws comparisons with Eos' role in another work of the epic Cycle concerning Troy, the lost Aethiopis, which presents a strikingly similar relationship – that of the divine Dawn, Eos, with her slain son Memnon; she supplements the parallels with images from the repertory of archaic vase-painters, where Eos and Thetis flank the symmetrically opposed heroes, Achilles and Memnon, with a theme that may have been derived from traditional epic songs.",
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"plaintext": "Thetis does not need to appeal to Zeus for immortality for her son, but snatches him away to the White Island Leuke in the Black Sea, an alternate Elysium where he has transcended death, and where an Achilles cult lingered into historic times.",
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"plaintext": "Pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheke asserts that Thetis was courted by both Zeus and Poseidon, but she was married off to the mortal Peleus because of their fears about the prophecy by Themis (or Prometheus, or Calchas, according to others) that her son would become greater than his father. Thus, she is revealed as a figure of cosmic capacity, quite capable of unsettling the divine order. (Slatkin 1986:12)",
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"plaintext": "When Hephaestus was thrown from Olympus, whether cast out by Hera for his lameness or evicted by Zeus for taking Hera's side, the Oceanid Eurynome and the Nereid Thetis caught him and cared for him on the volcanic isle of Lemnos, while he labored for them as a smith, \"working there in the hollow of the cave, and the stream of Okeanos around us went on forever with its foam and its murmur\" (Iliad 18.369).",
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"plaintext": "Thetis is not successful in her role protecting and nurturing a hero (the theme of kourotrophos), but her role in succoring deities is emphatically repeated by Homer, in three Iliad episodes: as well as her rescue of Zeus (1.396ff) and Hephaestus (18.369), Diomedes recalls that when Dionysus was expelled by Lycurgus with the Olympians' aid, he took refuge in the Erythraean Sea with Thetis in a bed of seaweed (6.123ff). These accounts associate Thetis with \"a divine past—uninvolved with human events—with a level of divine invulnerability extraordinary by Olympian standards. Where within the framework of the Iliad the ultimate recourse is to Zeus for protection, here the poem seems to point to an alternative structure of cosmic relations.\"",
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"plaintext": "Once, Thetis and Medea argued in Thessaly over which was the most beautiful; they appointed the Cretan Idomeneus as the judge, who gave the victory to Thetis. In her anger, Medea called all Cretans liars, and cursed them to never say the truth.",
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"plaintext": "Zeus had received a prophecy that Thetis's son would become greater than his father, as Zeus had dethroned his father to lead the succeeding pantheon. In order to ensure a mortal father for her eventual offspring, Zeus and his brother Poseidon made arrangements for her to marry a human, Peleus, son of Aeacus, but she refused him.",
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"plaintext": "Proteus, an early sea-god, advised Peleus to find the sea nymph when she was asleep and bind her tightly to keep her from escaping by changing forms. She did shapeshift, becoming flame, water, a raging lioness, and a serpent. Peleus held fast. Subdued, she then consented to marry him. Thetis is the mother of Achilles by Peleus, who became king of the Myrmidons.",
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"plaintext": "According to classical mythology, the wedding of Thetis and Peleus was celebrated on Mount Pelion, outside the cave of Chiron, and attended by the deities: there they celebrated the marriage with feasting. Apollo played the lyre and the Muses sang, Pindar claimed. At the wedding Chiron gave Peleus an ashen spear that had been polished by Athena and had a blade forged by Hephaestus. While the Olympian goddesses brought him gifts: from Aphrodite, a bowl with an embossed Eros, from Hera a chlamys while from Athena a flute. His father-in-law Nereus endowed him a basket of the salt called 'divine', which has an irresistible virtue for overeating, appetite and digestion, explaining the expression '...she poured the divine salt'''. Zeus then bestowed the wings of Arce to the newly-wed couple which was later given by Thetis to her son, Achilles. Furthermore, the god of the sea, Poseidon gave Peleus the immortal horses, Balius and Xanthus. Eris, the goddess of discord, had not been invited, however, and in spite, she threw a golden apple into the midst of the goddesses that was to be awarded only \"to the fairest.\" In most interpretations, the award was made during the Judgement of Paris and eventually occasioned the Trojan War. ",
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"plaintext": "As is recounted in the Argonautica, written by the Hellenistic poet Apollonius of Rhodes, Thetis, in an attempt to make her son Achilles immortal, would burn away his mortality in a fire at night and during the day, she would anoint the child with ambrosia. When Peleus caught her searing the baby, he let out a cry. ",
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"plaintext": "Thetis heard him, and catching up the child threw him screaming to the ground, and she like a breath of wind passed swiftly from the hall as a dream and leapt into the sea, exceeding angry, and thereafter returned never again.",
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"plaintext": "In a variant of the myth first recounted in the Achilleid, an unfinished epic written between 94–95 AD by the Roman poet Statius, Thetis tried to make Achilles invulnerable by dipping him in the River Styx (one of the five rivers that run through Hades, the realm of the dead). However, the heel by which she held him was not touched by the Styx's waters and failed to be protected. (A similar myth of immortalizing a child in fire is seen in the case of Demeter and the infant Demophoon). Some myths relate that because she had been interrupted by Peleus, Thetis had not made her son physically invulnerable. His heel, which she was about to burn away when her husband stopped her, had not been protected.",
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"plaintext": "Peleus gave the boy to Chiron to raise. Prophecy said that the son of Thetis would have either a long but dull life, or a glorious but brief one. When the Trojan War broke out, Thetis was anxious and concealed Achilles, disguised as a girl, at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. Achilles was already famed for his speed and skill in battle. Calchas, a priest of Agamemnon, prophesied the need for the great soldier within their ranks. Odysseus was subsequently sent by Agamemnon to try and find Achilles. Skyros was relatively close to Achilles’ home and Lycomedes was also a known friend of Thetis, so it was one of the first places that Odysseus looked. When Odysseus found that one of the girls at court was not a girl, he came up with a plan. Raising an alarm that they were under attack, Odysseus knew that the young Achilles would instinctively run for his weapons and armour, thereby revealing himself. Seeing that she could no longer prevent her son from realizing his destiny, Thetis then had Hephaestus make a shield and armor.",
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"plaintext": "Thetis played a key part in the events of the Trojan War. Beyond the fact that the Judgement of Paris, which essentially kicked off the war, occurred at her wedding, Thetis influenced the actions of the Olympians and her son, Achilles.Nine years after the beginning of the Trojan War, Homer's Iliad starts with Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the commander of the Achaeans, and Achilles, son of Thetis, arguing over Briseis, a war prize of Achilles. After initially refusing, Achilles relents and gives Briseis to Agamemnon. However, Achilles feels disrespect for having to give up Briseis and prays to Thetis, his mother, for restitution of his lost honor. She urges Achilles to wait until she speaks with Zeus to rejoin the fighting, and Achilles listens. When she finally speaks to Zeus, Thetis convinces him to do as she bids, and he seals his agreement with her by bowing his head, the strongest oath that he can make.",
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"plaintext": "Following the death of Patroclus, who wore Achilles' armor in the fighting, Thetis comes to Achilles to console him in his grief. She vows to return to him with armor forged by Hephaestus, the blacksmith of the gods, and tells him not to arm himself for battle until he sees her coming back. While Thetis is gone, Achilles is visited by Iris, the messenger of the gods, sent by Hera, who tells him to rejoin the fighting. He refuses, however, citing his mother's words and his promise to her to wait for her return. Thetis, meanwhile, speaks with Hephaestus and begs him to make Achilles armor, which he does. First, he makes for Achilles a splendid shield, and having finished it, makes a breastplate, a helmet, and greaves. When Thetis goes back to Achilles to deliver his new armor, she finds him still upset over Patroclus. Achilles fears that while he is off fighting the Trojans, Patroclus' body will decay and rot. Thetis, however, reassures him and places ambrosia and nectar in Patroclus' nose in order to protect his body against decay.",
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"plaintext": "After Achilles uses his new armor to defeat Hector in battle, he keeps Hector's body to mutilate and humiliate. However, after nine days, the gods call Thetis to Olympus and tell her that she must go to Achilles and pass him a message, that the gods are angry that Hector's body has not been returned. She does as she is bid, and convinces Achilles to return the body for ransom, thus avoiding the wrath of the gods.",
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"plaintext": "A noted exception to the general observation resulting from the existing historical records, that Thetis was not venerated as a goddess by cult, was in conservative Laconia, where Pausanias was informed that there had been priestesses of Thetis in archaic times, when a cult that was centered on a wooden cult image of Thetis (a xoanon), which preceded the building of the oldest temple; by the intervention of a highly placed woman, her cult had been re-founded with a temple; and in the second century AD she still was being worshipped with utmost reverence. The Lacedaemonians were at war with the Messenians, who had revolted, and their king Anaxander, having invaded Messenia, took as prisoners certain women, and among them Cleo, priestess of Thetis. The wife of Anaxander asked for this Cleo from her husband, and discovering that she had the wooden image of Thetis, she set up the woman Cleo in a temple for the goddess. This Leandris did because of a vision in a dream, but the wooden image of Thetis is guarded in secret.",
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"plaintext": "In one fragmentary hymn by the seventh century Spartan poet, Alcman, Thetis appears as a demiurge, beginning her creation with poros (πόρος) \"path, track\" and tekmor (τέκμωρ) \"marker, end-post\". Third was skotos (σκότος) \"darkness\", and then the sun and moon. A close connection has been argued between Thetis and Metis, another shape-shifting sea-power later beloved by Zeus but prophesied bound to produce a son greater than his father because of her great strength.",
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"plaintext": "Herodotus noted that the Persians sacrificed to \"Thetis\" at Cape Sepias. By the process of interpretatio graeca, Herodotus identifies a sea-goddess of another culture (probably Anahita) as the familiar Hellenic \"Thetis\".",
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"plaintext": " Homer's Iliad makes many references to Thetis.",
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"plaintext": " Euripides's Andromache, 1232–1272",
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"plaintext": " Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica IV, 770–879.",
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"plaintext": " Bibliotheca 3.13.5.",
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"plaintext": " Francesco Cavalli's first opera Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo, composed in 1639, concerned the marriage of Thetis and Peleus",
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"plaintext": " WH Auden's poem The Shield of Achilles imagines Thetis's witnessing of the forging of Achilles's shield.",
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"plaintext": " In 1939, HMS Thetis (N25) then a new design of submarine, sank on her trials in the River Mersey shortly after she left the dock in Liverpool. There were 103 people on board and 99 died. The cause of the accident was an inspection hole to allow a sailor to look into the torpedo tubes. A special closure for this inspection hole had been painted over. Once submerged the torpedo tube flooded and the bow of the vessel sank. The stern was still above water. Ninety-nine people, half of them dockyard workers, died of carbon monoxide poisoning.",
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"plaintext": " In 1981, British actress Maggie Smith portrayed Thetis in the Ray Harryhausen film Clash of the Titans (for which she won a Saturn Award). In the film, she acts as the main antagonist to the hero Perseus for the mistreatment of her son Calibos.",
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"plaintext": " In 1999, British poet Carol Ann Duffy published The World's Wife poetry collection, which included a poem based on Thetis.",
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"plaintext": " In 2004, British actress Julie Christie portrayed Thetis in the Wolfgang Petersen film Troy.",
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"plaintext": " In 2011, American novelist Madeline Miller portrayed Thetis in The Song of Achilles as a harsh and remote deity. She does not approve of Patroclus and tries to separate him and Achilles on multiple occasions. ",
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"plaintext": " The 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls'' focuses on the character of Briseis in the first person, with interjections giving Achilles' internal state of mind, including his tormented relationship with his mother.",
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"plaintext": " In 2019, New Zealand graphic designer Rachel Smythe portrayed Thetis in \"Lore: Olympus\". She is Zeus' personal secretary whom she also has an affair with. She is also the toxic best friend of Minthe and works with her to bring down Persephone.",
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"plaintext": " THETIS from the Theoi Project",
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"plaintext": " Slatkin: The Power of Thetis: a seminal work freely available in the University of California Press, eScholarship collection.",
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37,553 | 1,106,886,573 | Duverger's_law | [
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"plaintext": "In political science, Duverger's law holds that single-ballot majoritarian elections with single-member districts (such as first past the post) tend to favor a two-party system. The discovery of this tendency is attributed to Maurice Duverger, a French sociologist who observed the effect and recorded it in several papers published in the 1950s and 1960s. In the course of further research, other political scientists began calling the effect a \"law\" or principle.",
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"plaintext": "As a corollary to the law, Duverger also asserted that proportional representation favors multi-partism, as does the plurality system with runoff elections.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger's law draws from a model of causality from the electoral system to a party system. A proportional representation (PR) system creates electoral conditions that foster the development of many parties, whereas a plurality system marginalizes smaller political parties, generally resulting in a two-party system.",
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"plaintext": "Most countries with plurality voting have representation in their legislatures by more than two parties. While the United States is very much a two-party system, the United Kingdom, Canada and India have consistently had multiparty parliaments. However, only the two dominant parties of their times have formed governments in the United Kingdom and Canada. Eric Dickson and Kenneth Scheve argue that there is a counter force to Duverger's law, that on the national level a plurality system encourages two parties, but in the individual constituencies supermajorities will lead to the vote fracturing. Steven R. Reed has shown Duverger's law to work in Japan and Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years the validity of this law has come under increasing quantitative scrutiny.",
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"plaintext": "A two-party system often develops in a plurality voting system. In this system, voters have a single vote, which they can cast for a single candidate in their district, in which only one legislative seat is available. In plurality voting (also referred to as first past the post), in which the winner of the seat is determined purely by the candidate with the most votes, several characteristics can serve to discourage the development of third parties and reward the two major parties.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger argued that there were two mechanisms whereby plurality voting systems lead to fewer major parties: (i) small parties are disincentivized to form because they have great difficulty winning seats or representation, and (ii) voters are wary of voting for a smaller party whose policies they actually favor because they do not want to \"waste\" their votes (on a party unlikely to win a plurality) and therefore tend to gravitate to one of two major parties that is more likely to achieve a plurality, win the election, and implement policy.",
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"plaintext": "Because the first-past-the-post system gives only the (plurality) winner in each district a seat, a party that consistently comes in second or third in many or most districts will not gain any seats in the legislature, even if it receives a substantial minority of the vote. This puts geographically thinly spread parties at a significant disadvantage to geographically concentrated ones with the same overall level of public support. An example of this is the Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom, whose proportion of seats in the legislature is significantly less than their proportion of the national vote. The Green Party of Canada is another example; the party received about 5% of the popular vote from 2004 to 2011 but had only won one seat (out of 308) in the House of Commons in the same span of time. Another example was seen in the 1992 U.S. presidential election, when Ross Perot's candidacy received zero electoral votes despite receiving 19% of the popular vote. Gerrymandering is sometimes used to try to collect a population of like-minded voters within a geographically cohesive district so that their votes are not \"wasted\", but tends to be controversial (because it can also be used for the opposite purpose). These disadvantages tend to suppress the ability of a third party to engage in the political process.",
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"plaintext": "The second challenge to a third party is both statistical and tactical. Duverger presents the example of an election in which 100,000 moderate voters and 80,000 radical voters are to vote for candidates for a single seat or office. If two moderate parties ran candidates and one radical candidate ran (and every voter voted), the radical candidate would tend to win unless one of the moderate candidates gathered fewer than 20,000 votes. Appreciating this risk, moderate voters would be inclined to vote for the moderate candidate they deemed likely to gain more votes, with the goal of defeating the radical candidate. To win, then, either the two moderate parties must merge, or one moderate party must fail, as the voters gravitate to the two strongest parties. Duverger called this trend polarization.",
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"plaintext": "A third party can enter the political arena in two approaches, one approach is by building local third party strongholds as seen successfully in Canada or UK, and the second approach is to displace one of the two major parties. For example, the political chaos in the United States immediately preceding the Civil War allowed the Republican Party to replace the Whig Party as the progressive half of the American political landscape. Loosely united on a platform of country-wide economic reform and federally funded industrialization, the decentralized Whig leadership failed to take a decisive stance on the slavery issue, effectively splitting the party along the Mason–Dixon line. Southern rural planters, initially attracted by the prospect of federal infrastructure and schools, aligned with the pro-slavery Democrats, while urban laborers and professionals in the northern states, threatened by the sudden shift in political and economic power and losing faith in the failing Whig candidates, flocked to the increasingly vocal anti-slavery Republican Party.",
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"plaintext": "Elections with single-winner ranked voting show the effect of Duverger's law, as seen in Australia's House of Representatives.",
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"plaintext": "In countries that use proportional representation (PR), a two-party system is less likely, especially in countries where the whole country forms a single constituency, as it does in Israel, along with low electoral thresholds to obtain office. Israel's electoral rules historically had an electoral threshold for a party to obtain a seat as low as one percent of the vote; the threshold is 3.25% as of 2014. Germany's threshold in its Bundestag is either 5% of the national party vote or three (directly elected) constituency representatives for a party to gain additional representation through proportional representation. The number of votes received for a party determines the number of seats won, and new parties can thus develop an immediate electoral niche. Duverger identified that the use of PR would make a two-party system less likely. However, other systems do not guarantee new parties access to the system: Malta provides an example of a stable two-party system using the single transferable vote.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger did not regard this principle as absolute, suggesting instead that plurality would act to delay the emergence of new political forces and would accelerate the elimination of weakening ones, whereas proportional representation would have the opposite effect. The following examples are partly due to the effect of smaller parties that have the majority of their support concentrated in a small number of electorates rather than diluted across many electorates. William H. Riker, citing Douglas W. Rae, noted that strong regional parties can distort matters, leading to more than two parties receiving seats in the national legislature, even if there are only two parties competitive in any single district.",
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"plaintext": "The following example seems counter to the law:",
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"plaintext": " In the Philippines since 1987, no party has been able to control the House of Representatives; although the party of the president usually has the plurality of seats, it still has to seek coalition partners to command a majority of seats. It may be relevant that the Philippines' governance structure changed repeatedly before 1987 and that the country has many distinct social groups. Also, 80% of the seats in the House of Representatives are elected via FPTP, while the senators are elected via plurality-at-large voting. The average number of candidates in the 2013 House of Representatives elections in every district is only 2.69.",
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"plaintext": "There are also cases where the principle appears to have an effect, but weakly:",
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"plaintext": " In India, there are 38 political parties represented in the Parliament. Like the UK and Canada, India has a winner-takes-all system. Most of the Indian parties are allied with one of two larger electoral coalitions which makes the Indian system functionally somewhat like a two-party system. In Droit constitutionnel et institutions politiques, Olivier Duhamel argues that these 30+ political parties elected in India and the over 25 percent of voting for parties outside the two main alliances shows that the \"law according to which the first-past-the-post system tends to produce duopolies only applies in relatively homogeneous societies with a fairly centralized State. Otherwise, the national party system faces competition from regional subsystems.\"",
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"plaintext": " In Canada, five parties are currently represented in the House of Commons, and the number has averaged between 4 and 5 since 1935. In recent decades, the Liberal Party of Canada, the Conservative Party of Canada, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québecois have frequently though not always won official party status. Canada has had more than two registered parties in the House of Commons since 1921, and at only three relatively brief periods in Canadian history have there been only three parties represented (1921–1935, 1958–1962, and 1980–1993). Only two parties (Liberals and Conservatives) have ever formed government, but the Progressive Conservative Party fell to fourth party status in 1993 and the Liberal Party of Canada fell to third party status in 2011. Canada has also had a long pattern of minority governments, which has reinforced the view of some that voting for third parties is a pragmatic as well as principled option, as minority governments must rely on smaller parties for their support. ",
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"plaintext": " In the United Kingdom, Labour became a third party to the Tory (later Conservative) and Whig (later Liberal) parties, gradually replacing the Liberals as one of the two main parties. The Liberals were the third party: followed by the SDP–Liberal Alliance, and later the Liberal Democrats, between the February 1974 and 2015 elections obtained 1–10% of seats forming a third party, albeit with significantly fewer seats. This share of seats is despite gathering around a fifth of votes consistently over the same time period.In the UK there is no president and thus no unifying election to force party mergers and regional two-party systems are formed. This is because Duverger's law says that the number of viable parties is one plus the number of seats in a constituency. In Scotland, Labour and the SNP were the two dominant parties (the Scottish Conservatives experienced a resurgence in the 2017 general election and Scottish Parliament elections), with the SNP replacing the Lib Dems in this role. In southwest England, the Lib Dems face off against the Conservatives; Labour voters may vote for the Lib Dems to prevent a Conservative from winning. Caroline Lucas of the Green Party has held a seat since 2010. Other parties have won seats , but they are either elected outside England, where the British FPTP system is used in parallel to the Welsh and Scottish proportional-representation multiparty democracy or through by-elections (such as the Respect Coalition). Northern Ireland has an entirely separate political system in which neither Labour nor the Liberal Democrats stand candidates; the Conservatives occasionally do but are not competitive.",
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"plaintext": "Riker pointed to Canada's regional politics, as well as the U.S. presidential election of 1860, as examples of often temporary regional instability that occurs from time-to-time in otherwise stable two-party systems. While the multiparty system can be seen in the House of Commons of Canada, the highly regionalized parties are evident in the province-by-province examination. Unlike in the United States, where the two major parties are organized and unified at the federal, state and local levels, Canada's federal and provincial parties generally operate as separate organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger's law can be proven mathematically at the limit when the number of voters approaches infinity for one single-winner district and where the probability distribution of votes is known (perfect information).",
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"plaintext": "Two-party politics may emerge in systems that do not use the plurality vote, especially in countries using systems that do not fully incorporate proportional representation. For instance, Malta has a single transferable vote (STV) system and apparently stable two-party politics.",
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"plaintext": "Some systems are even more likely to lead to a two-party outcome: for example, elections in Gibraltar use a partial block vote system (which is classified as majoritarian) in a single constituency, so the third most popular party is unlikely to win any seats.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years some researchers have modified Duverger's law by suggesting that causal influence between electoral and party systems might be bidirectional or in either direction.",
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"plaintext": "It has been shown that changes from a plurality system to a proportional system are typically preceded by the emergence of more than two effective parties, and increases in the effective number of parties happens not in the short-term, but in the mid-to-long term.",
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"plaintext": " Vote splitting",
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"plaintext": " Micromega rule",
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"plaintext": " Dunleavy, Patrick, Duverger’s Law is a dead parrot. Outside the USA, first-past-the-post voting has no tendency at all to produce two party politics",
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37,554 | 1,083,914,094 | William_H._Riker | [
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"plaintext": "William Harrison Riker (September 22, 1920 – June 26, 1993) was an American political scientist who is prominent for applying game theory and mathematics to political science. He helped to establish University of Rochester as a center of behavioral revolution in political science.",
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"plaintext": "Riker took on a professorship at Lawrence University in Appleton, Wisconsin (then Lawrence College), where he published The Theory of Political Coalitions (1962). In 1962, he became the chair of the Political Science Department at the University of Rochester, where he remained chair until 1977, and remained active until his death.",
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"plaintext": "Riker founded the now-mainstream field of positive political theory, which introduced game theory and the axiomatic method of social choice theory to political science. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Kenneth Shepsle in their memoir write that \"These have proved crucial to predictive tests for political theory.\"",
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"plaintext": "Among other contributions, Riker is known for work on the theory and history of federalism and on what he called \"heresthetic\"—the art of changing political outcomes without changing peoples' underlying preferences by manipulating the decision-making process, for example by changing the order in which decisions are made. In his book Liberalism Against Populism, he argued that the instability of majority rule, demonstrated in Arrow's impossibility theorem and the McKelvey–Schofield chaos theorem, meant that \"populist\" interpretations of democracy as implementing a collective will of the people were untenable. Instead, democratic leaders aimed to build disparate coalitions; a piece of successful coalition-building could cause realigning elections, in which blocs of voters swiftly changed their allegiance.",
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"plaintext": "Concerning political coalition for the benefit of minorities, Riker argued that the larger the coalition, the shorter-lived it is. In his book The Theory of Political Coalitions (1962), Riker argued that in situations where there is conflict over finite resources, actors will seek to create coalitions that are large enough to ensure that they get access to the resources, but that the coalitions will not be larger than that (because the actors will not want to dilute the resources more than they have to).",
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"plaintext": "The William H. Riker Prize for excellence in undergraduate teaching is awarded by the University of Rochester bi-annually in his honor. The Political Economy section of the American Political Science Association awards an annual book prize in his name as well.",
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"plaintext": "Riker, William H. Soldiers of the States: The Role of the National Guard in American Democracy. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1957.",
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"plaintext": "____. “The Paradox of Voting and Congressional Rules for Voting on. Amendments.” American Political Science Review. 52, 1958: 349–366.",
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"plaintext": "____. \"Towards a Positive Political Theory\", Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973.",
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"plaintext": "____. \"Implications from the Disequilibrium of Majority Rule for the Study of Institutions,\" American Political Science Review, 74, 1980: 432–446. ",
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"plaintext": "____. Liberalism Against Populism. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1982.",
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"plaintext": "____. \"The Heresthetics of Constitution-Making: The Presidency in 1787, with Comments on Determinism and Rational Choice.\" American Political Science Review, 78, 1984: 1–16.",
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"plaintext": "____. The Art of Political Manipulation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger's law",
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"plaintext": "Enriched uranium is a type of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 (written 235U) has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (238U with 99.2739–99.2752% natural abundance), uranium-235 (235U, 0.7198–0.7202%), and uranium-234 (234U, 0.0050–0.0059%). 235U is the only nuclide existing in nature (in any appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.",
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"plaintext": "Enriched uranium is a critical component for both civil nuclear power generation and military nuclear weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency attempts to monitor and control enriched uranium supplies and processes in its efforts to ensure nuclear power generation safety and curb nuclear weapons proliferation.",
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"plaintext": "The 238U remaining after enrichment is known as depleted uranium (DU), and is considerably less radioactive than even natural uranium, though still very dense. Depleted uranium is used as a radiation shielding material and for armor-penetrating weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Uranium as it is taken directly from the Earth is not suitable as fuel for most nuclear reactors and requires additional processes to make it usable (CANDU design is a notable exception). Uranium is mined either underground or in an open pit depending on the depth at which it is found. After the uranium ore is mined, it must go through a milling process to extract the uranium from the ore.",
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"plaintext": "This is accomplished by a combination of chemical processes with the end product being concentrated uranium oxide, which is known as \"yellowcake\", contains roughly 80% uranium whereas the original ore typically contains as little as 0.1% uranium.",
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"plaintext": "After the milling process is complete, the uranium must next undergo a process of conversion, \"to either uranium dioxide, which can be used as the fuel for those types of reactors that do not require enriched uranium, or into uranium hexafluoride, which can be enriched to produce fuel for the majority of types of reactors\". Naturally-occurring uranium is made of a mixture of 235U and 238U. The 235U is fissile, meaning it is easily split with neutrons while the remainder is 238U, but in nature, more than 99% of the extracted ore is 238U. Most nuclear reactors require enriched uranium, which is uranium with higher concentrations of 235U ranging between 3.5% and 4.5% (although a few reactor designs using a graphite or heavy water moderator, such as the RBMK and CANDU, are capable of operating with natural uranium as fuel). There are two commercial enrichment processes: gaseous diffusion and gas centrifugation. Both enrichment processes involve the use of uranium hexafluoride and produce enriched uranium oxide.",
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"plaintext": "Reprocessed uranium (RepU) is a product of nuclear fuel cycles involving nuclear reprocessing of spent fuel. RepU recovered from light water reactor (LWR) spent fuel typically contains slightly more 235U than natural uranium, and therefore could be used to fuel reactors that customarily use natural uranium as fuel, such as CANDU reactors. It also contains the undesirable isotope uranium-236, which undergoes neutron capture, wasting neutrons (and requiring higher 235U enrichment) and creating neptunium-237, which would be one of the more mobile and troublesome radionuclides in deep geological repository disposal of nuclear waste.",
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"plaintext": "High-assay LEU (HALEU) is enriched from 5–20%. Fresh LEU used in research reactors is usually enriched 12 to 19.75% 235U, the latter concentration is used to replace HEU fuels when converting to LEU.",
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"plaintext": "Highly enriched uranium (HEU) has a 20% or higher concentration of 235U. The fissile uranium in nuclear weapon primaries usually contains 85% or more of 235U known as weapons-grade, though theoretically for an implosion design, a minimum of 20% could be sufficient (called weapon-usable) although it would require hundreds of kilograms of material and \"would not be practical to design\"; even lower enrichment is hypothetically possible, but as the enrichment percentage decreases the critical mass for unmoderated fast neutrons rapidly increases, with for example, an infinite mass of 5.4% 235U being required. For criticality experiments, enrichment of uranium to over 97% has been accomplished.",
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"plaintext": "The very first uranium bomb, Little Boy, dropped by the United States on Hiroshima in 1945, used 64 kilograms of 80% enriched uranium. Wrapping the weapon's fissile core in a neutron reflector (which is standard on all nuclear explosives) can dramatically reduce the critical mass. Because the core was surrounded by a good neutron reflector, at explosion it comprised almost 2.5 critical masses. Neutron reflectors, compressing the fissile core via implosion, fusion boosting, and \"tamping\", which slows the expansion of the fissioning core with inertia, allow nuclear weapon designs that use less than what would be one bare-sphere critical mass at normal density. The presence of too much of the 238U isotope inhibits the runaway nuclear chain reaction that is responsible for the weapon's power. The critical mass for 85% highly enriched uranium is about , which at normal density would be a sphere about in diameter.",
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"plaintext": "Later US nuclear weapons usually use plutonium-239 in the primary stage, but the jacket or tamper secondary stage, which is compressed by the primary nuclear explosion often uses HEU with enrichment between 40% and 80%",
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"plaintext": "along with the fusion fuel lithium deuteride. For the secondary of a large nuclear weapon, the higher critical mass of less-enriched uranium can be an advantage as it allows the core at explosion time to contain a larger amount of fuel. The 238U is not said to be fissile but still is fissionable by fast neutrons (>2 MeV) such as the ones produced during D-T fusion.",
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"plaintext": "HEU is also used in fast neutron reactors, whose cores require about 20% or more of fissile material, as well as in naval reactors, where it often contains at least 50% 235U, but typically does not exceed 90%. The Fermi-1 commercial fast reactor prototype used HEU with 26.5% 235U. Significant quantities of HEU are used in the production of medical isotopes, for example molybdenum-99 for technetium-99m generators.",
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"plaintext": "Isotope separation is difficult because two isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical properties, and can only be separated gradually using small mass differences. (235U is only 1.26% lighter than 238U). This problem is compounded because uranium is rarely separated in its atomic form, but instead as a compound (235UF6 is only 0.852% lighter than 238UF6).",
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"plaintext": "A cascade of identical stages produces successively higher concentrations of 235U. Each stage passes a slightly more concentrated product to the next stage and returns a slightly less concentrated residue to the previous stage.",
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"plaintext": "There are currently two generic commercial methods employed internationally for enrichment: gaseous diffusion (referred to as first generation) and gas centrifuge (second generation), which consumes only 2% to 2.5% as much energy as gaseous diffusion (at least a \"factor of 20\" more efficient). Some work is being done that would use nuclear resonance; however there is no reliable evidence that any nuclear resonance processes have been scaled up to production.",
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"plaintext": "Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce enriched uranium by forcing gaseous uranium hexafluoride (hex) through semi-permeable membranes. This produces a slight separation between the molecules containing 235U and 238U. Throughout the Cold War, gaseous diffusion played a major role as a uranium enrichment technique, and as of 2008 accounted for about 33% of enriched uranium production, but in 2011 was deemed an obsolete technology that is steadily being replaced by the later generations of technology as the diffusion plants reach their ends-of-life. In 2013, the Paducah facility in the US ceased operating, it was the last commercial 235U gaseous diffusion plant in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Thermal diffusion uses the transfer of heat across a thin liquid or gas to accomplish isotope separation. The process exploits the fact that the lighter 235U gas molecules will diffuse toward a hot surface, and the heavier 238U gas molecules will diffuse toward a cold surface. The S-50 plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee was used during World War II to prepare feed material for the Electromagnetic isotope separation process. It was abandoned in favor of gaseous diffusion.",
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"plaintext": "The gas centrifuge process uses a large number of rotating cylinders in series and parallel formations. Each cylinder's rotation creates a strong centripetal force so that the heavier gas molecules containing 238U move tangentially toward the outside of the cylinder and the lighter gas molecules rich in 235U collect closer to the center. It requires much less energy to achieve the same separation than the older gaseous diffusion process, which it has largely replaced and so is the current method of choice and is termed second generation. It has a separation factor per stage of 1.3 relative to gaseous diffusion of 1.005, which translates to about one-fiftieth of the energy requirements. Gas centrifuge techniques produce close to 100% of the world's enriched uranium.",
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"plaintext": "The Zippe-type centrifuge is an improvement on the standard gas centrifuge, the primary difference being the use of heat. The bottom of the rotating cylinder is heated, producing convection currents that move the 235U up the cylinder, where it can be collected by scoops. This improved centrifuge design is used commercially by Urenco to produce nuclear fuel and was used by Pakistan in their nuclear weapons program.",
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"plaintext": "Laser processes promise lower energy inputs, lower capital costs and lower tails assays, hence significant economic advantages. Several laser processes have been investigated or are under development. Separation of isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX) is well developed and is licensed for commercial operation as of 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Atomic vapor laser isotope separation employs specially tuned lasers to separate isotopes of uranium using selective ionization of hyperfine transitions. The technique uses lasers tuned to frequencies that ionize 235U atoms and no others. The positively charged 235U ions are then attracted to a negatively charged plate and collected.",
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"plaintext": "Molecular laser isotope separation uses an infrared laser directed at UF6, exciting molecules that contain a 235U atom. A second laser frees a fluorine atom, leaving uranium pentafluoride, which then precipitates out of the gas.",
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"plaintext": "Separation of isotopes by laser excitation is an Australian development that also uses UF6. After a protracted development process involving U.S. enrichment company USEC acquiring and then relinquishing commercialization rights to the technology, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy (GEH) signed a commercialization agreement with Silex Systems in 2006. GEH has since built a demonstration test loop and announced plans to build an initial commercial facility. Details of the process are classified and restricted by intergovernmental agreements between United States, Australia, and the commercial entities. SILEX has been projected to be an order of magnitude more efficient than existing production techniques but again, the exact figure is classified. In August, 2011 Global Laser Enrichment, a subsidiary of GEH, applied to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for a permit to build a commercial plant. In September 2012, the NRC issued a license for GEH to build and operate a commercial SILEX enrichment plant, although the company had not yet decided whether the project would be profitable enough to begin construction, and despite concerns that the technology could contribute to nuclear proliferation.",
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"plaintext": "Aerodynamic enrichment processes include the Becker jet nozzle techniques developed by E. W. Becker and associates using the LIGA process and the vortex tube separation process. These aerodynamic separation processes depend upon diffusion driven by pressure gradients, as does the gas centrifuge. They in general have the disadvantage of requiring complex systems of cascading of individual separating elements to minimize energy consumption. In effect, aerodynamic processes can be considered as non-rotating centrifuges. Enhancement of the centrifugal forces is achieved by dilution of UF6 with hydrogen or helium as a carrier gas achieving a much higher flow velocity for the gas than could be obtained using pure uranium hexafluoride. The Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa (UCOR) developed and deployed the continuous Helikon vortex separation cascade for high production rate low-enrichment and the substantially different semi-batch Pelsakon low production rate high enrichment cascade both using a particular vortex tube separator design, and both embodied in industrial plant. A demonstration plant was built in Brazil by NUCLEI, a consortium led by Industrias Nucleares do Brasil that used the separation nozzle process. However all methods have high energy consumption and substantial requirements for removal of waste heat; none is currently still in use.",
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"plaintext": "In the electromagnetic isotope separation process (EMIS), metallic uranium is first vaporized, and then ionized to positively charged ions. The cations are then accelerated and subsequently deflected by magnetic fields onto their respective collection targets. A production-scale mass spectrometer named the Calutron was developed during World War II that provided some of the 235U used for the Little Boy nuclear bomb, which was dropped over Hiroshima in 1945. Properly the term 'Calutron' applies to a multistage device arranged in a large oval around a powerful electromagnet. Electromagnetic isotope separation has been largely abandoned in favour of more effective methods.",
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"plaintext": "One chemical process has been demonstrated to pilot plant stage but not used for production. The French CHEMEX process exploited a very slight difference in the two isotopes' propensity to change valency in oxidation/reduction, using immiscible aqueous and organic phases. An ion-exchange process was developed by the Asahi Chemical Company in Japan that applies similar chemistry but effects separation on a proprietary resin ion-exchange column.",
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"plaintext": "Plasma separation process (PSP) describes a technique that makes use of superconducting magnets and plasma physics. In this process, the principle of ion cyclotron resonance is used to selectively energize the 235U isotope in a plasma containing a mix of ions. France developed its own version of PSP, which it called RCI. Funding for RCI was drastically reduced in 1986, and the program was suspended around 1990, although RCI is still used for stable isotope separation.",
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"plaintext": "\"Separative work\" – the amount of separation done by an enrichment process – is a function of the concentrations of the feedstock, the enriched output, and the depleted tailings; and is expressed in units that are so calculated as to be proportional to the total input (energy / machine operation time) and to the mass processed. Separative work is not energy. The same amount of separative work will require different amounts of energy depending on the efficiency of the separation technology. Separative work is measured in Separative work units SWU, kg SW, or kg UTA (from the German Urantrennarbeit – literally uranium separation work)",
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"plaintext": " 1 SWU = 1kg SW = 1kg UTA",
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"plaintext": " 1 kSWU = 1 tSW = 1 t UTA",
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"plaintext": " 1 MSWU = 1 ktSW = 1 kt UTA",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the separative work units provided by an enrichment facility, the other important parameter to be considered is the mass of natural uranium (NU) that is needed to yield a desired mass of enriched uranium. As with the number of SWUs, the amount of feed material required will also depend on the level of enrichment desired and upon the amount of 235U that ends up in the depleted uranium. However, unlike the number of SWUs required during enrichment, which increases with decreasing levels of 235U in the depleted stream, the amount of NU needed will decrease with decreasing levels of 235U that end up in the DU.",
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"plaintext": "For example, in the enrichment of LEU for use in a light water reactor it is typical for the enriched stream to contain 3.6% 235U (as compared to 0.7% in NU) while the depleted stream contains 0.2% to 0.3% 235U. In order to produce one kilogram of this LEU it would require approximately 8 kilograms of NU and 4.5 SWU if the DU stream was allowed to have 0.3% 235U. On the other hand, if the depleted stream had only 0.2% 235U, then it would require just 6.7 kilograms of NU, but nearly 5.7 SWU of enrichment. Because the amount of NU required and the number of SWUs required during enrichment change in opposite directions, if NU is cheap and enrichment services are more expensive, then the operators will typically choose to allow more 235U to be left in the DU stream whereas if NU is more expensive and enrichment is less so, then they would choose the opposite.",
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"plaintext": "When converting uranium (hexafluoride, hex for short) to metal, .3% is lost during manufacturing.",
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"plaintext": "The opposite of enriching is downblending; surplus HEU can be downblended to LEU to make it suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel.",
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"plaintext": "The HEU feedstock can contain unwanted uranium isotopes: 234U is a minor isotope contained in natural uranium (primarily as a product of alpha decay of - because the half-life of is much larger than that of , it'll be produced and destroyed at the same rate in a constant steady state equilibrium, bringing any sample with sufficient content to a stable ratio of to over long enough timescales); during the enrichment process, its concentration increases but remains well below 1%. High concentrations of 236U are a byproduct from irradiation in a reactor and may be contained in the HEU, depending on its manufacturing history. is produced primarily when absorbs a neutron and does not fission. The production of is thus unavoidable in any thermal neutron reactor with fuel. HEU reprocessed from nuclear weapons material production reactors (with an 235U assay of approx. 50%) may contain 236U concentrations as high as 25%, resulting in concentrations of approximately 1.5% in the blended LEU product. 236U is a neutron poison; therefore the actual 235U concentration in the LEU product must be raised accordingly to compensate for the presence of 236U. While also absorbs neutrons, it is a fertile material that is turned into fissile upon neutron absorption. If absorbs a neutron, the resulting short-lived beta decays to , which is not usable in thermal neutron reactors but can be chemically separated from spent fuel to be disposed of as waste or to be transmutated into (for use in nuclear batteries) in special reactors.",
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"plaintext": "The blendstock can be NU, or DU, however depending on feedstock quality, SEU at typically 1.5 wt% 235U may be used as a blendstock to dilute the unwanted byproducts that may be contained in the HEU feed. Concentrations of these isotopes in the LEU product in some cases could exceed ASTM specifications for nuclear fuel, if NU, or DU were used. So, the HEU downblending generally cannot contribute to the waste management problem posed by the existing large stockpiles of depleted uranium. At present, 95 percent of the world's stocks of depleted uranium remain in secure storage.",
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"plaintext": "A major downblending undertaking called the Megatons to Megawatts Program converts ex-Soviet weapons-grade HEU to fuel for U.S. commercial power reactors. From 1995 through mid-2005, 250 tonnes of high-enriched uranium (enough for 10,000 warheads) was recycled into low-enriched-uranium. The goal is to recycle 500 tonnes by 2013. The decommissioning programme of Russian nuclear warheads accounted for about 13% of total world requirement for enriched uranium leading up to 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Enrichment Corporation has been involved in the disposition of a portion of the 174.3 tonnes of highly enriched uranium (HEU) that the U.S. government declared as surplus military material in 1996. Through the U.S. HEU Downblending Program, this HEU material, taken primarily from dismantled U.S. nuclear warheads, was recycled into low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, used by nuclear power plants to generate electricity.",
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"plaintext": "The following countries are known to operate enrichment facilities: Argentina, Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, the Netherlands, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Belgium, Iran, Italy, and Spain hold an investment interest in the French Eurodif enrichment plant, with Iran's holding entitling it to 10% of the enriched uranium output. Countries that had enrichment programs in the past include Libya and South Africa, although Libya's facility was never operational. Australia has developed a laser enrichment process known as SILEX, which it intends to pursue through financial investment in a U.S. commercial venture by General Electric. It has also been claimed that Israel has a uranium enrichment program housed at the Negev Nuclear Research Center site near Dimona.",
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"plaintext": "During the Manhattan Project, weapons-grade highly enriched uranium was given the codename oralloy, a shortened version of Oak Ridge alloy, after the location of the plants where the uranium was enriched. The term oralloy is still occasionally used to refer to enriched uranium.",
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"plaintext": " List of laser articles",
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"plaintext": " MOX fuel",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear fuel bank",
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"plaintext": " Orano",
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"plaintext": " Uranium market",
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"plaintext": " Uranium mining",
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"plaintext": " Annotated bibliography on enriched uranium from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Silex Systems Ltd",
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},
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"plaintext": " Uranium Enrichment, World Nuclear Association",
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"plaintext": " Overview and history of U.S. HEU production",
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"plaintext": " News Resource on Uranium Enrichment",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear Chemistry-Uranium Enrichment",
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"plaintext": " A busy year for SWU (a 2008 review of the commercial enrichment marketplace), Nuclear Engineering International, 1 September 2008",
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"plaintext": " Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation, by Allan S. Krass, Peter Boskma, Boelie Elzen and Wim A. Smit, 296 pp., published for SIPRI by Taylor and Francis Ltd, London, 1983",
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37,556 | 1,105,976,511 | Asperger_syndrome | [
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"plaintext": "Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's, was the name of a neurodevelopmental disorder no longer recognised as a diagnosis in itself, having been merged into autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It was characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviour and interests. It was said to differ from other diagnoses that were merged into ASD by relatively unimpaired language and intelligence. The syndrome was named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, who, in 1944, described children in his care who struggled to form friendships, did not understand others' gestures or feelings, engaged in one-sided conversations about their favourite interests, and were clumsy.",
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"plaintext": "The exact cause of Asperger's is poorly understood. While it has high heritability, the underlying genetics have not been determined conclusively. Environmental factors are also believed to play a role. Brain imaging has not identified a common underlying condition.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, the diagnosis of Asperger's was included in the fourth edition (DSM-IV) of the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; with the publication of DSM-5 in 2013 the diagnosis was removed, and the symptoms are now included within autism spectrum disorder along with classic autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). It was similarly merged into autism spectrum disorder in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) .",
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"plaintext": "There is no single treatment, and the UK's National Health Service (NHS) guidelines suggest that 'treatment' of any form of autism should not be a goal, since autism is not 'a disease that can be removed or cured'. According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists, while co-occurring conditions might require treatment, 'management of autism itself is chiefly about the provision of the education, training and social support/care required to improve the person's ability to function in the everyday world'. The effectiveness of particular interventions for autism is supported by only limited data. Interventions may include social skills training, cognitive behavioral therapy, physical therapy, speech therapy, parent training, and medications for associated problems, such as mood or anxiety. Autistic characteristics tend to become less obvious in adulthood, but social and communication difficulties usually persist.",
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"plaintext": "Some autistic people, as well as a number of researchers, have advocated a shift in attitudes toward the view that autism spectrum disorder is a difference, rather than a disease that must be treated or cured. Critics have bemoaned the entrenchment of some of these groups' opinions.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, Asperger's was estimated to affect 37.2 million people globally, or about 0.5% of the population. The exact percentage of people affected is not firmly established. Autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed in males more often than females, and females are typically diagnosed at a later age. The modern conception of Asperger syndrome came into existence in 1981, and went through a period of popularization. It became a standardized diagnosis in the 1990s, and was retired as a diagnosis in 2013. Many questions and controversies about the condition remain.",
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"plaintext": "The extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism (HFA– autism unaccompanied by intellectual disability) is unclear. The ASD classification is to some extent an artifact of how autism was discovered, and may not reflect the true nature of the spectrum; methodological problems have beset Asperger syndrome as a valid diagnosis from the outset. In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published in May 2013, Asperger syndrome, as a separate diagnosis, was eliminated and folded into autism spectrum disorder. Like the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome, the change was controversial and thus Asperger syndrome was subsequently not removed from the WHO's ICD-10; however, it was removed from the ICD-11.",
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"plaintext": "The World Health Organization (WHO) previously defined Asperger syndrome (AS) as one of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are a spectrum of psychological conditions that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior. Like other neurodevelopment disorders, ASD begins in infancy or childhood, has a steady course without remission or relapse, and has impairments that result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as social deficits.",
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"plaintext": "As a pervasive developmental disorder, Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom. It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction, by stereotyped and restricted patterns of behavior, activities, and interests, and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language. Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject, one-sided verbosity, restricted prosody, and physical clumsiness are typical of the condition, but are not required for diagnosis. Suicidal behavior appears to occur at rates similar to those without ASD.",
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"plaintext": "A lack of demonstrated empathy affects aspects of social relatability for persons with Asperger syndrome. Individuals with Asperger syndrome experience difficulties in basic elements of social interaction, which may include a failure to develop friendships or to seek shared enjoyments or achievements with others (e.g., showing others objects of interest); a lack of social or emotional reciprocity (social \"games\" give-and-take mechanic); and impaired nonverbal behaviors in areas such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gesture.",
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"plaintext": "People with Asperger syndrome may not be as withdrawn around others, compared with those with other forms of autism; they approach others, even if awkwardly. For example, a person with Asperger syndrome may engage in a one-sided, long-winded speech about a favorite topic, while misunderstanding or not recognizing the listener's feelings or reactions, such as a wish to change the topic of talk or end the interaction. This social awkwardness has been called \"active but odd\". Such failures to react appropriately to social interaction may appear as disregard for other people's feelings and may come across as rude or insensitive. However, not all individuals with Asperger syndrome will approach others. Some may even display selective mutism, not speaking at all to most people and excessively to specific others. Some may choose only to talk to people they like.",
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"plaintext": "The cognitive ability of children with AS often allows them to articulate social norms in a laboratory context, where they may be able to show a theoretical understanding of other people's emotions; however, they typically have difficulty acting on this knowledge in fluid, real-life situations. People with AS may analyze and distill their observations of social interaction into rigid behavioral guidelines and apply these rules in awkward ways, such as forced eye contact, resulting in a demeanor that appears rigid or socially naïve. Childhood desire for companionship can become numbed through a history of failed social encounters.",
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"plaintext": "The hypothesis that individuals with AS are predisposed to violent or criminal behavior has been investigated but is not supported by data. More evidence suggests that children diagnosed with Asperger syndrome are more likely to be victims, rather than offenders.",
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"plaintext": "A 2008 review found that an overwhelming number of reported violent criminals with Asperger syndrome also had other coexisting psychotic psychiatric disorders such as schizoaffective disorder. This coexistence of psychotic disorders is referred to as comorbid disorders. Comorbid disorders can be completely independent of one another or can have overlap in symptoms and how they express themselves.",
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"plaintext": "People with an Asperger profile might not be recognized for their empathetic qualities, due to variation in the ways empathy is felt and expressed. Some people feel deep empathy, but do not outwardly communicate these sentiments through facial expressions or language. Some people come to empathy through intellectual processes, using logic and reasoning to arrive at the feelings. It is also important to keep in mind that many people with Asperger profiles have been bullied or excluded by peers in the past and might therefore be guarded around people, which could appear as lack of empathy. People with Asperger profiles can be and are extremely caring individuals; in fact, it is particularly common for those with the profile to feel and exhibit deep concern for human welfare, animal rights, environmental protection, and other global and humanitarian causes.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence suggests that in the \"double empathy problem model, autistic people have a unique interaction style which is significantly more readable by other autistic people, compared to non-autistic people.\"",
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"plaintext": "People with Asperger syndrome can display behavior, interests, and activities that are restricted and repetitive and are sometimes abnormally intense or focused. They may stick to inflexible routines, move in stereotyped and repetitive ways, preoccupy themselves with parts of objects, or engage in compulsive behaviors like lining objects up to form patterns.",
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"plaintext": "The pursuit of specific and narrow areas of interest is one of the most striking among possible features of AS. Individuals with AS may collect volumes of detailed information on a relatively narrow topic such as weather data or star names without necessarily having a genuine understanding of the broader topic. For example, a child might memorize camera model numbers while caring little about photography. This behavior is usually apparent by age five or six. Although these special interests may change from time to time, they typically become more unusual and narrowly focused and often dominate social interaction so much that the entire family may become immersed. Because narrow topics often capture the interest of children, this symptom may go unrecognized.",
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"plaintext": "Stereotyped and repetitive motor behaviors are a core part of the diagnosis of AS and other ASDs. They include hand movements such as flapping or twisting, and complex whole-body movements. These are typically repeated in longer bursts and look more voluntary or ritualistic than tics, which are usually faster, less rhythmical, and less often symmetrical. However, in addition to this, various studies have reported a consistent comorbidity between AS and Tourette syndrome in the range of 8–20%, with one figure as high as 80% for tics of some kind or another, for which several explanations have been put forward, including common genetic factors and dopamine, glutamate, or serotonin abnormalities.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Adult Asperger Assessment (AAA) diagnostic test, a lack of interest in fiction and a positive preference towards non-fiction is common among adults with AS.",
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"plaintext": "Although individuals with Asperger syndrome acquire language skills without significant general delay and their speech typically lacks significant abnormalities, language acquisition and use is often atypical. Abnormalities include verbosity; abrupt transitions; literal interpretations and miscomprehension of nuance; use of metaphor meaningful only to the speaker; auditory perception deficits; unusually pedantic, formal, or idiosyncratic speech; and oddities in loudness, pitch, intonation, prosody, and rhythm. Echolalia has also been observed in individuals with AS.",
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"plaintext": "Three aspects of communication patterns are of clinical interest: poor prosody, tangential and circumstantial speech, and marked verbosity. Although inflection and intonation may be less rigid or monotonic than in classic autism, people with AS often have a limited range of intonation: speech may be unusually fast, jerky, or loud. Speech may convey a sense of incoherence; the conversational style often includes monologues about topics that bore the listener, fails to provide context for comments, or fails to suppress internal thoughts. Individuals with AS may fail to detect whether the listener is interested or engaged in the conversation. The speaker's conclusion or point may never be made, and attempts by the listener to elaborate on the speech's content or logic, or to shift to related topics, are often unsuccessful.",
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"plaintext": "Children with AS may have a sophisticated vocabulary at a young age and such children have often been colloquially called \"little professors\" but have difficulty understanding figurative language and tend to use language literally. Children with AS appear to have particular weaknesses in areas of nonliteral language that include humor, irony, teasing, and sarcasm. Although individuals with AS usually understand the cognitive basis of humor, they seem to lack understanding of the intent of humor to share the enjoyment with others. Despite strong evidence of impaired humor appreciation, anecdotal reports of humor in individuals with AS seem to challenge some psychological theories of AS and autism.",
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"plaintext": "Individuals with Asperger syndrome may have signs or symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis but can affect the individual or the family. These include differences in perception and problems with motor skills, sleep, and emotions.",
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"plaintext": "Individuals with AS often have excellent auditory and visual perception. Children with ASD often demonstrate enhanced perception of small changes in patterns such as arrangements of objects or well-known images; typically this is domain-specific and involves processing of fine-grained features. Conversely, compared with individuals with high-functioning autism, individuals with AS have deficits in some tasks involving visual-spatial perception, auditory perception, or visual memory. Many accounts of individuals with AS and ASD report other unusual sensory and perceptual skills and experiences. They may be unusually sensitive or insensitive to sound, light, and other stimuli; these sensory responses are found in other developmental disorders and are not specific to AS or to ASD. There is little support for increased fight-or-flight response or failure of habituation in autism; there is more evidence of decreased responsiveness to sensory stimuli, although several studies show no differences.",
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"plaintext": "Hans Asperger's initial accounts and other diagnostic schemes include descriptions of physical clumsiness. Children with AS may be delayed in acquiring skills requiring dexterity, such as riding a bicycle or opening a jar, and may seem to move awkwardly or feel \"uncomfortable in their own skin\". They may be poorly coordinated or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, poor handwriting, or problems with motor coordination. They may show problems with proprioception (sensation of body position) on measures of developmental coordination disorder (motor planning disorder), balance, tandem gait, and finger-thumb apposition. There is no evidence that these motor skills problems differentiate AS from other high-functioning ASDs.",
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"plaintext": "Children with AS are more likely to have sleep problems, including difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. AS is also associated with high levels of alexithymia, which is difficulty in identifying and describing one's emotions. Although AS, lower sleep quality, and alexithymia are associated with each other, their causal relationship is unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Hans Asperger described common traits among his patients' family members, especially fathers, and research supports this observation and suggests a genetic contribution to Asperger syndrome. Although no specific genetic factor has yet been identified, multiple factors are believed to play a role in the expression of autism, given the variability in symptoms seen in children. Evidence for a genetic link is that AS tends to run in families where more family members have limited behavioral symptoms similar to AS (for example, some problems with social interaction, or with language and reading skills). Most behavioral genetic research suggests that all autism spectrum disorders have shared genetic mechanisms, but AS may have a stronger genetic component than autism. There may be shared genes in which particular alleles make an individual vulnerable, and varying combinations result in differing severity and symptoms in each person with AS.",
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"plaintext": "A few ASD cases have been linked to exposure to teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) during the first eight weeks from conception. Although this does not exclude the possibility that ASD can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that ASD arises very early in development. Many environmental factors have been hypothesized to act after birth, but none has been confirmed by scientific investigation.",
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"plaintext": "Asperger syndrome appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, as opposed to localized effects.",
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"plaintext": "Although the specific underpinnings of AS or factors that distinguish it from other ASDs are unknown, and no clear pathology common to individuals with AS has emerged, it is still possible that AS's mechanism is separate from other ASDs.",
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"plaintext": "Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that the mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. Abnormal fetal development may affect the final structure and connectivity of the brain, resulting in altered neural circuits controlling thought and behavior. Several theories of mechanism are available; none are likely to provide a complete explanation.",
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"plaintext": "One general-processing theory is weak central coherence theory, which hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in ASD. A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals.",
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"plaintext": "The mirror neuron system (MNS) theory hypothesizes that alterations to the development of the MNS interfere with imitation and lead to Asperger's core feature of social impairment. One study found that activation is delayed in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with AS. This theory maps well to social cognition theories like the theory of mind, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from impairments in ascribing mental states to oneself and others; or hyper-systemizing, which hypothesizes that autistic individuals can systematize internal operation to handle internal events but are less effective at empathizing when handling events generated by other agents.",
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"plaintext": "Standard diagnostic criteria require impairment in social interaction and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, activities, and interests, without significant delay in language or cognitive development. Unlike the international standard, the DSM-IV-TR criteria also required significant impairment in day-to-day functioning; DSM-5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis in 2013, and folded it into the umbrella of autism spectrum disorders. Other sets of diagnostic criteria have been proposed by Szatmari et al. and by Gillberg and Gillberg.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis is most commonly made between the ages of four and eleven. A comprehensive assessment involves a multidisciplinary team that observes across multiple settings, and includes neurological and genetic assessment as well as tests for cognition, psychomotor function, verbal and nonverbal strengths and weaknesses, style of learning, and skills for independent living. The \"gold standard\" in diagnosing ASDs combines clinical judgment with the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), a semistructured parent interview; and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), a conversation and play-based interview with the child. Delayed or mistaken diagnosis can be traumatic for individuals and families; for example, misdiagnosis can lead to medications that worsen behavior.",
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"plaintext": "Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis may be problems. The cost and difficulty of screening and assessment can delay diagnosis. Conversely, the increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has motivated providers to overdiagnose ASD. There are indications AS has been diagnosed more frequently in recent years, partly as a residual diagnosis for children of normal intelligence who are not autistic but have social difficulties.",
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"plaintext": "There are questions about the external validity of the AS diagnosis. That is, it is unclear whether there is a practical benefit in distinguishing AS from HFA and from PDD-NOS; different screening tools render different diagnoses depending in the same person.",
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"plaintext": "Many children with AS are initially misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Diagnosing adults is more challenging, as standard diagnostic criteria are designed for children and the expression of AS changes with age. Adult diagnosis requires painstaking clinical examination and thorough medical history gained from both the individual and other people who know the person, focusing on childhood behavior.",
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"plaintext": "Conditions that must be considered in a differential diagnosis along with ADHD include other ASDs, the schizophrenia spectrum, personality disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder, major depressive disorder, semantic pragmatic disorder, nonverbal learning disorder, social anxiety disorder, Tourette syndrome, stereotypic movement disorder, bipolar disorder, social-cognitive deficits due to brain damage from alcohol use disorder, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD).",
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"plaintext": "Parents of children with Asperger syndrome can typically trace differences in their children's development to as early as 30 months of age. Developmental screening during a routine check-up by a general practitioner or pediatrician may identify signs that warrant further investigation. The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there are no concerns.",
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"plaintext": "Different screening instruments are used to diagnose AS, including the Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale (ASDS); Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ); Childhood Autism Spectrum Test (CAST), previously called the Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test; Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale (GADS); Krug Asperger's Disorder Index (KADI); and the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), with versions for children, adolescents, and adults. None have been shown to reliably differentiate between AS and other ASDs.",
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"plaintext": "Asperger syndrome treatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to teach age-appropriate social, communication, and vocational skills that are not naturally acquired during development, with intervention tailored to the needs of the individual based on multidisciplinary assessment. Although progress has been made, data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are limited.",
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"plaintext": "Managing AS ideally involves multiple therapies that address core symptoms of the disorder. While most professionals agree that the earlier the intervention, the better, there is no treatment combination that is recommended above others. AS treatment resembles that of other high-functioning ASDs, except that it takes into account the linguistic capabilities, verbal strengths, and nonverbal vulnerabilities of individuals with AS. A typical program generally includes:",
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"plaintext": " Applied behavior analysis (ABA) procedures, including positive behavior support (PBS)—or training and support of parents and school faculty in behavior management strategies to use in the home and school, and social skills training for more effective interpersonal interactions;",
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"plaintext": " Cognitive behavioral therapy to improve stress management relating to anxiety or explosive emotions and to help reduce obsessive interests and repetitive routines;",
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"plaintext": " Medication for coexisting conditions such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders;",
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"plaintext": " Occupational or physical therapy to assist with poor sensory processing and motor coordination; and,",
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"plaintext": " Social communication intervention, which is specialized speech therapy to help with the pragmatics and give-and-take of normal conversation.",
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"plaintext": "Of the many studies on behavior-based early intervention programs, most are case reports of up to five participants and typically examine a few problem behaviors such as self-injury, aggression, noncompliance, stereotypies, or spontaneous language; unintended side effects are largely ignored. Despite the popularity of social skills training, its effectiveness is not firmly established. A randomized controlled study of a model for training parents in problem behaviors in their children with AS showed that parents attending a one-day workshop or six individual lessons reported fewer behavioral problems, while parents receiving the individual lessons reported less intense behavioral problems in their AS children. Vocational training is important to teach job interview etiquette and workplace behavior to older children and adults with AS, and organization software and personal data assistants can improve the work and life management of people with AS.",
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"plaintext": "No medications directly treat the core symptoms of AS. Although research into the efficacy of pharmaceutical intervention for AS is limited, it is essential to diagnose and treat comorbid conditions. Deficits in self-identifying emotions or in observing effects of one's behavior on others can make it difficult for individuals with AS to see why medication may be appropriate. Medication can be effective in combination with behavioral interventions and environmental accommodations in treating comorbid symptoms such as anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, inattention, and aggression. The atypical antipsychotic medications risperidone, olanzapine and aripiprazole have been shown to reduce the associated symptoms of AS; risperidone can reduce repetitive and self-injurious behaviors, aggressive outbursts, and impulsivity, and improve stereotypical patterns of behavior and social relatedness. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, and sertraline have been effective in treating restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors, while stimulant medication, such as methylphenidate, can reduce inattention.",
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"plaintext": "Care must be taken with medications, as side effects may be more common and harder to evaluate in individuals with AS, and tests of drugs' effectiveness against comorbid conditions routinely exclude individuals from the autism spectrum. Abnormalities in metabolism, cardiac conduction times, and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes have been raised as concerns with antipsychotic medications, along with serious long-term neurological side effects. SSRIs can lead to manifestations of behavioral activation such as increased impulsivity, aggression, and sleep disturbance. Weight gain and fatigue are commonly reported side effects of risperidone, which may also lead to increased risk for extrapyramidal symptoms such as restlessness and dystonia and increased serum prolactin levels. Sedation and weight gain are more common with olanzapine, which has also been linked with diabetes. Sedative side-effects in school-age children have ramifications for classroom learning. Individuals with AS may be unable to identify and communicate their internal moods and emotions or to tolerate side effects that for most people would not be problematic.",
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"plaintext": "There is some evidence that children with AS may see a lessening of symptoms; up to 20% of children may no longer meet the diagnostic criteria as adults, although social and communication difficulties may persist. , no studies addressing the long-term outcome of individuals with Asperger syndrome are available and there are no systematic long-term follow-up studies of children with AS. Individuals with AS appear to have normal life expectancy, but have an increased prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions, such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders that may significantly affect prognosis. Although social impairment may be lifelong, the outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower-functioning autism spectrum disorders; for example, ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or HFA. Most students with AS and HFA have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence. However, mathematicians are at least three times more likely to have autism-spectrum traits than the general population, and are more likely to have family members with autism.",
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"plaintext": "Although many attend regular education classes, some children with AS may attend special education classes such as separate classroom and resource room because of their social and behavioral difficulties. Adolescents with AS may exhibit ongoing difficulty with self-care or organization, and disturbances in social and romantic relationships. Despite high cognitive potential, most young adults with AS remain at home, yet some do marry and work independently. The \"different-ness\" adolescents experience can be traumatic. Anxiety may stem from preoccupation over possible violations of routines and rituals, from being placed in a situation without a clear schedule or expectations, or from concern with failing in social encounters; the resulting stress may manifest as inattention, withdrawal, reliance on obsessions, hyperactivity, or aggressive or oppositional behavior. Depression is often the result of chronic frustration from repeated failure to engage others socially, and mood disorders requiring treatment may develop. Clinical experience suggests the rate of suicide may be higher among those with AS, but this has not been confirmed by systematic empirical studies.",
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"plaintext": "Education of families is critical in developing strategies for understanding strengths and weaknesses; helping the family to cope improves outcomes in children. Prognosis may be improved by diagnosis at a younger age that allows for early interventions, while interventions in adulthood are valuable but less beneficial. There are legal implications for individuals with AS as they run the risk of exploitation by others and may be unable to comprehend the societal implications of their actions.",
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"plaintext": "Frequency estimates vary enormously. In 2015, it was estimated that 37.2 million people globally are affected. A 2003 review of epidemiological studies of children found autism rates ranging from 0.03 to 4.84 per 1,000, with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome ranging from 1.5:1 to 16:1; combining the geometric mean ratio of 5:1 with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1.3 per 1,000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0.26 per 1,000. Part of the variance in estimates arises from differences in diagnostic criteria. For example, a relatively small 2007 study of 5,484 eight-year-old children in Finland found 2.9 children per 1,000 met the ICD-10 criteria for an AS diagnosis, 2.7 per 1,000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria, 2.5 for DSM-IV, 1.6 for Szatmari et al., and 4.3 per 1,000 for the union of the four criteria. Boys seem to be more likely to have AS than girls; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1.6:1 to 4:1, using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria. Females with autism spectrum disorders may be underdiagnosed.",
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"plaintext": "Anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder are the most common conditions seen at the same time; comorbidity of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity, but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate (51%) of nonverbal learning disorder. AS is associated with tics, Tourette syndrome and bipolar disorder. The repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, and 26% of a sample of young adults with AS were found to meet the criteria for schizoid personality disorder (which is characterised by severe social seclusion and emotional detachment), more than any other personality disorder in the sample. However many of these studies are based on clinical samples or lack standardized measures; nonetheless, comorbid conditions are relatively common.",
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"plaintext": "Named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger (1906–1980), Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism, though a syndrome like it was described as early as 1925 by Soviet child psychiatrist Grunya Sukhareva (1891–1981), leading some of those diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome to instead refer to their condition as 'Sukhareva's Syndrome', in opposition to Hans Asperger's association with Nazism. As a child, Asperger appears to have exhibited some features of the very condition named after him, such as remoteness and talent in language. In 1944, Asperger described four children in his practice who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially and showing empathy towards peers. They also lacked nonverbal communication skills and were physically clumsy. Asperger described this \"autistic psychopathy\" as social isolation. Fifty years later, several standardizations of AS as a medical diagnosis were tentatively proposed, many of which diverge significantly from Asperger's original work.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike today's AS, autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence, including those with intellectual disability. Asperger defended the value of so-called \"high-functioning\" autistic individuals, writing: \"We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers.\" Asperger also believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life.",
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"plaintext": "Asperger's paper was published during World War II and in German, so it was not widely read elsewhere. Lorna Wing used the term Asperger syndrome in 1976, and popularized it to the English-speaking medical community in her February 1981 publication of case studies of children showing the symptoms described by Asperger, and Uta Frith translated his paper to English in 1991. Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari et al. in the same year. In 1992, AS became a standard diagnosis when it was included in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization's diagnostic manual, International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). It was added to the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic reference, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), published in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Hundreds of books, articles, and websites now describe AS and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD, with AS recognized as an important subgroup. Whether it should be seen as distinct from high-functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study, and there are questions about the empirical validation of the DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. In 2013, DSM-5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis, folding it into the autism spectrum on a severity scale.",
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"plaintext": "People identifying with Asperger syndrome may refer to themselves in casual conversation as aspies (a term first used in print in the Boston Globe in 1998). Some autistic people have advocated a shift in perception of autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather than diseases that must be cured. Proponents of this view reject the notion that there is an \"ideal\" brain configuration and that any deviation from the norm is pathological; they promote tolerance for what they call neurodiversity. These views are the basis for the autistic rights and autistic pride movements. There is a contrast between the attitude of adults with self-identified AS, who typically do not want to be cured and are proud of their identity; and parents of children with AS, who typically seek assistance and a cure for their children.",
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"plaintext": "Some researchers have argued that AS can be viewed as a different cognitive style, not a disorder, and that it should be removed from the standard Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, much as homosexuality was removed. In a 2002 paper, Simon Baron-Cohen wrote of those with AS: \"In the social world, there is no great benefit to a precise eye for detail, but in the worlds of maths, computing, cataloging, music, linguistics, engineering, and science, such an eye for detail can lead to success rather than failure.\" Baron-Cohen cited two reasons why it might still be useful to consider AS to be a disability: to ensure provision for legally required special support, and to recognize emotional difficulties from reduced empathy. Baron-Cohen argues that the genes for Asperger's combination of abilities have operated throughout recent human evolution and have made remarkable contributions to human history.",
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"plaintext": "By contrast, Pier Jaarsma and Welin wrote in 2011 that the \"broad version of the neurodiversity claim, covering low-functioning as well as high-functioning autism, is problematic. Only a narrow conception of neurodiversity, referring exclusively to high-functioning autists, is reasonable.\" They say that \"higher functioning\" individuals with autism may \"not [be] benefited with such a psychiatric defect-based diagnosis ... some of them are being harmed by it, because of the disrespect the diagnosis displays for their natural way of being\", but \"think that it is still reasonable to include other categories of autism in the psychiatric diagnostics. The narrow conception of the neurodiversity claim should be accepted but the broader claim should not.\" Jonathan Mitchell, an autistic author and blogger who advocates a cure for autism, has described autism as having \"prevented me from making a living or ever having a girlfriend. It's given me bad fine motor coordination problems where I can hardly write. I have an impaired ability to relate to people. I can't concentrate or get things done.\" He describes neurodiversity as a \"tempting escape valve\".",
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"plaintext": " Autistic Empire, Are you Autistic? Take the test – an online version of the Adult Asperger's Assessment developed by Cohen, S. et al. (2005) (see Woodbury-Smith MR, \"Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: a preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice\", in References).",
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"plaintext": " A public paper re-calibrating the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule for appropriate assessment of autistic adults, who typically score lower on measures of impairment than autistic children due to compensatory strategies.",
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"plaintext": "Tazio Giorgio Nuvolari (; 16 November 1892 11 August 1953) was an Italian racing driver. He first raced motorcycles and then concentrated on sports cars and single-seaters. A resident of Mantua, he was known as 'Il Mantovano Volante' (The Flying Mantuan) and nicknamed 'Nivola'. His victories—72 major races, 150 in all—included 24 Grands Prix, five Coppa Cianos, two Mille Miglias, two Targa Florios, two RAC Tourist Trophies, a Le Mans 24-hour race, and a European Championship in Grand Prix racing. Ferdinand Porsche called him \"the greatest driver of the past, the present, and the future.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari started racing motorcycles in 1920 at the age of 27, winning the 1925 350cc European Championship. Having raced cars as well as motorcycles from 1925 until 1930, he then concentrated on cars, and won the 1932 European Championship with the Alfa Romeo factory team, Alfa Corse.",
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"plaintext": "After Alfa Romeo officially withdrew from Grand Prix racing Nuvolari drove for Enzo Ferrari's team, Scuderia Ferrari, who ran the Alfa Romeo cars semi-officially. In 1933 he won Le Mans in an Alfa Romeo as a member of Ferrari's team, and a month later won the Belgian Grand Prix in a works Maserati, having switched teams a week before the race. Mussolini helped persuade Ferrari to take Nuvolari back for 1935, and in that year he won the German Grand Prix in Ferrari's outdated Alfa Romeo, defeating more powerful rivals from Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union. It was the only time a non-German car won a European Championship race from 1935 to 1939.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship with Ferrari deteriorated during 1937, and Nuvolari raced an Auto Union in that year's Swiss Grand Prix. He rejoined the Auto Union team for the 1938 season and stayed with them through 1939 until Grand Prix racing was put on hiatus by World War II. The only major European race he never won was the Czechoslovakian Grand Prix.",
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"plaintext": "When Nuvolari resumed racing after the war he was 54 and in poor health. In his final appearance in competition, driving a Cisitalia-Abarth Tipo 204A at a Palermo hillclimb on 10 April 1950, he won his class and placed fifth overall. He died in 1953 from a stroke.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari was born in Castel d'Ario near Mantua on 16 November 1892 to Arturo Nuvolari and his wife Elisa Zorzi. The family was well acquainted with motor racing as Arturo and his brother Giuseppe were both bicycle racers - Giuseppe was a multiple winner of the Italian national championship and was particularly admired by a young Tazio.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari was married to Carolina Perina, and together they had two children: Giorgio (born 4 September 1918), who died in 1937 aged 19 from myocarditis, and Alberto, who died in 1946 aged 18 from nephritis.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari obtained his license for motorcycle racing in 1915 at the age of 23. He served in the Italian army as an ambulance driver in World War I, and in 1920 took part in his first motorcycle race at the Circuito Internazionale Motoristico in Cremona but did not finish. He also raced cars, winning the Coppa Verona reliability trial in 1921.",
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"plaintext": "In 1925 he became the 350cc European Motorcycling champion by winning the European Grand Prix. At the time, the European Grand Prix was considered the most important race of the motorcycling season and the winners in each category were designated European Champions. He won the Nations Grand Prix four times between 1925 and 1928, and the Lario Circuit race five times between 1925 and 1929, all in the 350cc class on a Bianchi motorcycle.",
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"plaintext": "It was also in 1925 that Alfa Romeo, seeking a driver to replace Antonio Ascari, who had been killed in the French Grand Prix in July, tested Nuvolari in their Grand Prix car with a view to running him in the Italian Grand Prix in September. He crashed when the gearbox seized, and severely lacerated his back. He was not picked for the team. Six days later, in bandages, with a cushion strapped to his stomach, and lifted onto his motorcycle by Bianchi mechanics for a push-start, he won the rain-soaked Nations Grand Prix at Monza.",
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"plaintext": "In 1930, Nuvolari won his first RAC Tourist Trophy (he won again in 1933). Motor racing legend has it that when one of the drivers broke the window of a butcher's shop, Nuvolari drove onto the pavement and tried to grab a ham as he passed. According to Sammy Davis who met him there, Nuvolari enjoyed dark humour and situations when everything went wrong. For example, after he got a ticket for a journey home from the Sicilian Targa Florio he said to Enzo Ferrari, \"What a strange businessman you are. What if I am brought back in a coffin?\"",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari and co-driver Battista Guidotti won the Mille Miglia in a Zagato-bodied Alfa Romeo 6C 1750 GS, becoming the first to complete the race at an average of over . At night, leading on elapsed time but still lying behind his teammate Achille Varzi on the road because he had started after him, he tailed Varzi at speeds of up to with his headlights switched off, so that he could not be seen in the other car's rear-view mirrors. He eventually switched them on to overtake \"the shocked\" Varzi near the finish at Brescia.",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of 1930, Nuvolari decided to stop racing motorcycles and concentrate fully on cars for 1931. Regulations for the season required Grand Prix races to be at least 10hours long. For the Italian Grand Prix, Nuvolari was to share an Alfa Romeo with Baconin Borzacchini. The car started from ninth place on the grid, and when it retired with mechanical problems after 33 laps Nuvolari teamed up with Giuseppe Campari. The pair took the race win, although Nuvolari could not receive the championship points. Apart from the Belgian Grand Prix, where he came second, the only other European Championship race was the French Grand Prix, where he finished 11th. The same year, he won both the Coppa Ciano at Livorno and the arduous Targa Florio, which was run on the 92-mile (146 km) Grande variant of the super-twisty course that year.",
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"plaintext": "For 1932, Grands Prix had to be between five and ten hours long. It was the only season in which Nuvolari regularly drove one of the fastest cars, the Alfa Romeo P3, and he took two wins and a second place from the three European Championship Grands Prix, plus victory in the championship by four points from Borzacchini. He achieved four other race wins that year, including the prestigious Monaco Grand Prix and a second Targa Florio. Of the latter, his mechanic Mabelli said: \"Before the start, Nuvolari told me to go down on the floor of the car every time he shouts, which was a signal that he went to a curve too fast and that we need to lower the car´s center of mass. I spent the whole race on the floor. Nuvolari started to shout in the first curve and wouldn't stop until the last one.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 28 April the writer Gabriele d'Annunzio gave him a golden tortoise badge. Thereafter Nuvolari wore it as a talisman, and it became famously associated with him.",
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"plaintext": "The 1933 season began a two-year hiatus in the European Championship, and although Alfa Romeo ceased official involvement in Grands Prix their cars continued racing with Enzo Ferrari's privateer team. For economic reasons, the P3 was not passed on to Ferrari so they used its predecessor, the Monza. Maserati, with a much-improved car, provided the main opposition.",
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"plaintext": "It has been alleged that Nuvolari was involved in a race-fixing scandal at the Tripoli Grand Prix. The story is that he conspired with Achille Varzi and Baconin Borzacchini to fix the race in order to profit from the Libyan state lottery, in which 30 tickets were drawn before the race—one for each starter—and the holder of the ticket corresponding to the victorious driver won 7.5 million lire. Others say the allegation was unfounded and that it originated with Alfred Neubauer, the Mercedes-Benz team manager at the time, who was well known as a raconteur with a penchant for spicing up a story. Neubauer's version does not altogether hold true with documented records of events, which indicate that Nuvolari, Varzi, and Borzacchini agreed to pool the prize money should one of them win.",
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"plaintext": "For the 1933 24 Hours of Le Mans, Alfa Romeo teamed Nuvolari with Raymond Sommer. Sommer asked to drive the majority of the race as he was more familiar with the circuit and thought Nuvolari would probably break the car. When Nuvolari countered that he was a leading Grand Prix driver and Le Mans was a simple layout that would not trouble him, they agreed to divide the driving equally. In the race, they built a two-lap lead before a leaking fuel tank forced them to stop at the pits, where the leak was plugged by chewing gum. More stops were necessary as the makeshift repair came undone several times. Nuvolari, driving through to the end of the race, broke the lap record nine times and won by approximately .",
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"plaintext": "In April 1934 Nuvolari entered the Monaco Grand Prix in a privately owned Bugatti and worked up to third place before brake problems forced him back to fifth at the finish, two laps behind the winner, Guy Moll. Racing in heavy rain at Alessandria in the Circuito di Pietro Bordino race, he crashed and broke a leg: balked by Trossi's Alfa Romeo P3, he lost control of his privately entered Maserati 8CM, which skidded, rolled, and hit a tree. Bored in hospital, he decided to enter the AVUS-Rennen just over four weeks later. As his left leg was too badly injured to operate the clutch, his Maserati was modified for him to work the pedals with his right foot. Troubled by cramp, he finished fifth.",
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"plaintext": "By the time of the Penya Rhin Grand Prix in late June, Nuvolari's leg was finally out of plaster but still painful. He retired his Maserati with technical problems.",
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"plaintext": "In the Italian Grand Prix, he debuted Maserati's new 6C-34 model. It performed poorly and Nuvolari could finish only fifth, three laps behind the Mercedes-Benz W25s of Caracciola and Fagioli, and also trailing the Auto Union As of Stuck and Leiningen, and the Alfa Romeo P3s of Trossi, Comotti, and Chiron.",
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"plaintext": "For 1935, Nuvolari set his sights on a drive with the German Auto Union team. It lacked top-line drivers but relented to pressure from Achille Varzi, which did not want Nuvolari in the team. Nuvolari then approached Enzo Ferrari, who at first rebuffed him as he had previously walked out on the team. Italy's prime minister Mussolini helped persuade Ferrari to take Nuvolari back.",
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"plaintext": "This was the year that Nuvolari achieved the 'Impossible Victory', which many regard as the greatest win in all of motor racing history: driving an outclassed Alfa Romeo P3 (3167cc, supercharged, 265hp) in the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring, he beat all the dominant German cars—five Mercedes-Benz W25s (3990cc, 8C, supercharged, driven by Caracciola, Fagioli, Lang, von Brauchitsch, and Geyer), and four Auto Union Bs (4950cc, 16C, supercharged, driven by Rosemeyer, Varzi, Stuck, and Pietsch). The crowd of 300,000 applauded Nuvolari, but the representatives of Nazi Germany were enraged.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari had a big accident in May during practice for the Tripoli Grand Prix and it is alleged that he broke some vertebrae. Despite a limp, he took part in the race the following day and finished eighth.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of 1937, Alfa Romeo took its works team back from Ferrari and entered it as part of the Alfa Corse team. Nuvolari stayed with Alfa Romeo despite becoming increasingly frustrated with the poor build quality of its racing cars.",
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"plaintext": "At the Coppa Acerbo, Alfa Romeo's new 12C-37 car proved to be slow and unreliable. Frustrated, Nuvolari handed his car over to Giuseppe Farina mid-race. Not wanting to leave Alfa Romeo, he drove an Auto Union in the Swiss Grand Prix as a one-off. After the Italian Grand Prix, Alfa Romeo withdrew from racing for the remainder of the season and dismissed Vittorio Jano, its chief designer.",
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"plaintext": "Although Nuvolari started 1938 as an Alfa Romeo driver, a split fuel tank in the first race of the season at Pau was enough for him to walk out on the team, critical of the poor workmanship that was exhibited. He announced his retirement from Grand Prix racing and took a holiday in America. At the same time, Auto Union was having to rely on inexperienced drivers. Following the Tripoli Grand Prix they contacted Nuvolari who, having been refreshed from his break, agreed to drive for the highly successful German team, who were running radical mid-engined cars. Nuvolari found further success with Auto Union; now driving a faster and more reliable car that enabled him to compete for victories and the European Championship, Nuvolari won his home Grand Prix at Monza and won the Donington Grand Prix in England.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939 he won Belgrade Grand Prix which was held on 3 September 1939, the last one before outbreak of World War II.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946 Nuvolari took part in thirteen races, winning the Grand Prix of Albi in a Maserati 4CL, finishing 4th in the Grand Prix of Nations and 13th in the Coppa Brezzi, and retiring from the others. It was noted that when he raced at Milan in September, he steered with mostly one hand; the other held a bloodstained handkerchief over his mouth.",
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"plaintext": "Through 1947 and 1948 he raced eleven times, winning twice. He finished 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 7th, and retired from the remaining five races. His Maserati did not qualify for the 1949 Marseilles Grand Prix. Battered by health problems as well as the loss of his two sons, Nuvolari was nevertheless persuaded by Enzo Ferrari to race in the 1948 edition of the Mille Miglia. Paired with mechanic Sergio Scapinelli, Nuvolari took the lead in the early stages of the race. He was eventually forced to retire the car in Reggio Emilia when he had a 27-minutes lead. ",
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"plaintext": "His last appearance in competition was at the Palermo-Montepellegrino hillclimb on 10 April 1950, driving a Squadra Carlo Abarth Cisitalia-Abarth 204. He won his class and finished fifth overall.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari never formally announced his retirement, but his health deteriorated and he became increasingly solitary. In 1952 a stroke left him partially paralysed, and he died in bed a year later from a second one. Between 25,000 and 55,000 people, at least half the population of Mantua, attended his funeral in a mile-long procession, with the coffin placed on a car chassis that was pushed by Alberto Ascari, Luigi Villoresi, and Juan Manuel Fangio. He is buried in the family tomb in the Cimitero Degli Angeli, on the road from Mantua to Cremona. The inscription over the door reads: 'Correrai Ancor Più Veloce Per Le Vie Del Cielo' (You will race even faster along the roads of heaven).",
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"plaintext": "The Museum Tazio Nuvolari is located in his homestead at Giulia Romano via N. Sauro in Mantua.",
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"plaintext": "The Cisitalia 202 SMM Nuvolari Spider, EAM Nuvolari S1, and Audi Nuvolari Quattro are named after him, and Maserati offers the colour Grigio-Nuvolari from their custom palette.",
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"plaintext": "An Italian pay-TV channel featuring motor sports is also named Nuvolari.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1961 Twilight Zone episode, \"A Game of Pool,\" Tazio Nuvolari is referenced by Jonathan Winters (Fats Brown) when talking to Jack Klugman (Jessie Cardiff) about great men in history.",
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"plaintext": "Nuvolari was mentioned in 1969 comedy film Monte Carlo or Bust! when Angelo Pincilli and Marcelo Agosti, two Italian policemen taking part in the Monte Carlo Rally, hope to become as famous as Nuvolari and land speed record holder Malcolm Campbell by winning the race.",
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"plaintext": "A Six Metre racing yacht built in the 1978 for Luca and Tony Bassani was named Nuvolari in honour of the racing driver. That yacht was restored in 2016 and currently races in Victoria, BC.",
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"plaintext": "(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)",
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"plaintext": " Legends of Italian sport - Walk of Fame",
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"plaintext": "Film of Tazio Nuvolari winning the 1936 Vanderbilt Cup Races (VanderbiltCupRaces.com)",
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] | 174,277 | 4,220 | 204 | 156 | 0 | 0 | Tazio Nuvolari | Italian racecar driver | [
"Tazio Giorgio Nuvolari",
"Il Mantovano Volante",
"Il campionissimo",
"Nivola",
"Giorgio Nuvolari"
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37,559 | 1,105,845,756 | List_of_political_scientists | [
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"plaintext": "This is a list of notable political scientists. See the list of political theorists for those who study political theory. See also political science.",
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118
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79
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25
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20
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]
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26977
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"plaintext": " Ian Lustick – state territoriality ethnic conflict and computer modelling in political science; University of Pennsylvania",
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37,561 | 1,107,470,577 | Pizza_Hut | [
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut is an American multinational restaurant chain and international franchise founded in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas by Dan and Frank Carney. They serve their signature pan pizza and other dishes including pasta, breadsticks and desserts.",
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"plaintext": "The chain has 17,639 restaurants worldwide as of 2020, making it the world's largest pizza chain by number of locations. It is owned by Yum! Brands, Inc., one of the world's largest restaurant companies.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut was founded on May 31, 1958, by two brothers, Dan and Frank Carney, both Wichita State students, as a single location in Wichita, Kansas. Six months later they opened a second outlet and within a year they had six Pizza Hut restaurants.",
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"plaintext": "One early employee was future Pro Football Hall of Fame head coach Bill Parcells, who had worked for the company while a college student and football player at Wichita State University. Parcells was considering a franchise for a career (as well as law school) but instead chose to enter coaching, eventually becoming a head coach in the National Football League.",
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"plaintext": "The brothers began franchising in 1959. The iconic Pizza Hut building style was designed in 1963 by Chicago architect George Lindstrom and was implemented in 1969.PepsiCo acquired Pizza Hut in November 1977. Twenty years later, Pizza Hut (alongside Taco Bell and Kentucky Fried Chicken) were spun off by PepsiCo on May 30, 1997, and all three restaurant chains became part of a new company named Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc. The company assumed the name of Yum! Brands on May 22, 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Before closing in 2015, the oldest continuously operating Pizza Hut was in Manhattan, Kansas, in a shopping and tavern district known as Aggieville near Kansas State University. The first Pizza Hut restaurant east of the Mississippi River was opened in Athens, Ohio, in 1966 by Lawrence Berberick and Gary Meyers.",
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"plaintext": "The company announced a rebrand that began on November 19, 2014, in an effort to increase sales, which had dropped in the previous two years. The menu was expanded to introduce various items such as crust flavors and 11 new specialty pizzas. Work uniforms for employees were also refreshed. In 2017, Pizza Hut was listed by UK-based company Richtopia at number 24 in the list of 200 Most Influential Brands in the World.",
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"plaintext": "On June 25 and 27, 2019, it was reported that Pizza Hut was bringing back their logo and the red roof design that was used from 1976 until 1999.",
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"plaintext": "On August 7, 2019, Pizza Hut announced its intention to close about 500 of its 7,496 dine-in restaurants in the US, by the middle of 2021.",
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"plaintext": "On August 18, 2020, it was announced that Pizza Hut will be closing 300 restaurants after the bankruptcy of NPC International, one of its franchise providers. A company representative stated, \"We have continued to work with NPC and its lenders to optimize NPC's Pizza Hut restaurant footprint and strengthen the portfolio for the future, and today's joint agreement to close up to 300 NPC Pizza Hut restaurants is an important step toward a healthier business.\"",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut is split into several different restaurant formats: the original family-style dine-in locations; storefront delivery and carry-out locations; and hybrid locations that have carry-out, delivery, and dine-in options. Some full-size Pizza Hut locations have a lunch buffet, with \"all-you-can-eat\" pizza, salad, desserts, and breadsticks, and a pasta bar. Pizza Hut has other business concepts independent of the store type.",
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"plaintext": " In 1975, Pizza Hut began testing concepts with Applegate's Landing. These restaurants had exteriors that looked like Colonial Style houses and had eclectic interiors featuring a truck with a salad bar in the bed. The chain offered much of the same Italian-American fare, such as pizza and pasta dishes with some additions like hamburgers and bread pudding. Applegate's Landing went defunct in the mid-1980s except for one location in McPherson, Kansas that closed in fall, 1995.",
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"plaintext": "An upscale concept was unveiled in 2004, called \"Pizza Hut Italian Bistro\". At 50 U.S. locations, the Bistro is similar to a traditional Pizza Hut, except that the menu features new, Italian-themed dishes such as penne pasta, chicken pomodoro, and toasted sandwiches. Instead of black, white, and red, Bistro locations feature a burgundy and tan motif. In some cases, Pizza Hut has replaced a red roof location with the new concept. Pizza Hut Express locations are fast food restaurants that offer a limited menu with many products not seen at a traditional Pizza Hut. These stores are often paired in a colocation with WingStreet in the US and Canada, or other sibling brands such as KFC or Taco Bell and found on college campuses, food courts, theme parks, bowling alleys, and within stores such as Target.",
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"plaintext": "Vintage locations featuring the red roof, designed by architect Richard D. Burke, can be found in the United States and Canada; several exist in the UK, Australia, and Mexico. In his book Orange Roofs, Golden Arches, Phillip Langdon wrote that the Pizza Hut red roof architecture \"is something of a strange object – considered outside the realm of significant architecture, yet swiftly reflecting shifts in popular taste and unquestionably making an impact on daily life. These buildings rarely show up in architectural journals, yet they have become some of the most numerous and conspicuous in the United States today.\"",
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"plaintext": "Curbed.com reports, \"Despite Pizza Hut's decision to discontinue the form when they made the shift toward delivery, there were still 6,304 traditional units standing as of 2004, each with the shingled roofs and trapezoidal windows signifying equal parts suburban comfort and strip-mall anomie.\" This building style was common in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The name \"red roof\" is somewhat anachronistic now since many locations have brown roofs. Dozens of these restaurants have closed or been relocated or rebuilt.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the older locations with the red roof design have a beer if not a full bar, music from a jukebox, and sometimes an arcade. In the mid-1980s, the company moved into other formats, including delivery or carryout and the fast food \"Express\" model.",
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"plaintext": "In North America, Pizza Hut has notably sold:",
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"plaintext": " Pan pizza, baked in a pan with a crispy edge;",
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"plaintext": " \"Stuffed crust\" pizza, with the outermost edge wrapped around a cylinder of mozzarella cheese;",
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"plaintext": " \"Hand-tossed\", more like traditional pizzeria crusts;",
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"plaintext": " “Thin 'N Crispy”, a thin, crisp dough which was Pizza Hut's original style;",
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"plaintext": " Dippin' Strips pizza, a pizza cut into small strips that can be dipped into a number of sauces;",
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"plaintext": " The P’Zone, a calzone with a marinara dipping sauce that comes in plain, Supremo, Meaty, and pepperoni",
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"plaintext": " The Bigfoot pizza, its largest product",
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"plaintext": " The Priazzo, a pie like pizza stuffed with pizza ingredients",
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"plaintext": "The \"stuffed-crust\" pizza was introduced on March 26, 1995. By the end of the year, it had become one of their most popular lines.",
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"plaintext": "Regional differences are seen in the products and bases. The company has localized to Southeast Asia with a baked rice dish called Curry Zazzle.",
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"plaintext": "On May 9, 2008, Pizza Hut created \"The Natural\" pizza, which featured natural ingredients and was sold in Seattle, Denver and Dallas. This was discontinued on October 27, 2009, in the Dallas market.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut developed a pizza for use as space food, which was delivered to the International Space Station in 2001. It was vacuum-sealed and about 6 in (15cm) in diameter to fit in the station's oven. It was launched on a Soyuz and eaten by Yuri Usachov in orbit.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, the chain has seen a downturn in profits. In 2015, the franchise stated it would be pumping more capital into its London branches. Pizza Hut is installing cocktail bars in its London branches as part of a £60 million bid to win back \"the Nando's generation\".",
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"plaintext": "In March 2020, Pizza Hut Hong Kong announced that it had partnered with furniture retailer IKEA on a joint venture. IKEA launched a new side table called SÄVA, which was designed to resemble a pizza saver. The table would be boxed in packaging resembling a pizza box, and the building instructions included a suggestion to order a Swedish meatball pizza from Pizza Hut, which would contain the same meatballs served in IKEA restaurants. A 2021 menu addition, designed to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the introduction of stuffed-crust-pizza, was \"nothing but the stuffed crust,\" a ring of dough filled with cheese.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut's first television commercial was produced in 1965 by Bob Walterscheidt for the Harry Crow agency in Wichita, and was entitled \"Putt-Putt to the Pizza Hut\". The ad looks just like an old movie and is set in fast motion. It features a man in a business suit and tie, played by Ron Williams, who was then a production manager for Wichita's ABC affiliate KAKE-TV, as he starts ordering take-out, leaves his house, and gets into his 1965 Mustang JR by driving to Pizza Hut, where he is chased by a variety of townspeople, portrayed by neighborhood kids, Walterscheidt and his daughter, and various employees for Harry Crow and KAKE-TV. He goes inside Pizza Hut by picking up his pizza and gets back in the 1965 Mustang Jr to return home. They went eating all the pizza except the man who ordered it, which makes the man very upset, as he calls Pizza Hut again. The ad first aired on November 19, 1966, during halftime of the Notre Dame vs. Michigan State \"Game of the Century\", and dramatically increased sales for the franchise. \"Putt-Putt to the Pizza Hut\" ran on TV for eight years and was nominated for a Clio Award.",
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"plaintext": "Until early 2007, Pizza Hut's main advertising slogan was \"Gather 'round the good stuff\". From 2008 to 2009, the advertising slogan was \"Now You're Eating!\". From 2009 to 2012, the advertising slogan was \"Your Favorites. Your Pizza Hut\" From 2012 to 2016, the advertising slogan was \"Make it great\", a variation of the 1987–1995 slogan \"Makin' it great!\". From 1995 to 1999, the slogan was \"You'll love the stuff we're made of\". The advertising slogan is currently \"No one outpizzas the hut\".",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut does not have an official international mascot, but at one time, a series of commercials in the U.S. aired, titled \"The Pizza Head Show\". These commercials ran from 1991 to 1999 and was created by Walter Williams, creator of the Mr. Bill sketches from Saturday Night Live in the late 1970s - upon which the ad campaign was based. The ads featured a slice of pizza with a face made out of toppings called \"Pizza Head\". In the 1970s, Pizza Hut used the signature red roof with a jolly man named \"Pizza Hut Pete\". Pete was on the bags, cups, balloons, and hand puppets for the kids. In Australia during the mid to late 1990s, the advertising mascot was a delivery boy named Dougie, with boyish good looks, who upon delivering pizza to his father, would hear the catchphrase \"Here's a tip: Be good to your mother\". Adding to the impact of these advertisements, the role of Dougie was played by famous Australian soap opera and police drama actor Diarmid Heidenreich.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut sponsored the film Back to the Future Part II (1989) and offered a free pair of futuristic sunglasses, known as \"Solar Shades\", with the purchase of Pizza Hut pizza. Pizza Hut also engaged in product placement within the film, having a futuristic version of their logo with their trademarked red hut printed on the side of a mylar dehydrated pizza wrapper in the McFly family dinner scene, and appear on a storefront in Hill Valley in the year 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Donald Trump and his ex-wife Ivana Trump appeared in a commercial. The last scene of the commercial showed Ivana asking for the last slice, to which Donald replied, \"Actually, dear, you're only entitled to half\", a play on the couple's recent divorce.",
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"plaintext": "Following England's defeat to Germany on penalties in the semifinals of Euro '96, Gareth Southgate, Stuart Pearce, and Chris Waddle featured in an advertisement, which shows Southgate wearing a paper bag over his head in shame as he was the one who missed the crucial penalty against Germany. Waddle and Pearce, who both missed penalty kicks at World Cup '90, are ridiculing him, emphasizing the word \"miss\" at every opportunity. After Southgate finishes his pizza, he takes off his paper bag, heads for the door, and bangs his head against the wall. Pearce responds with, \"this time he's hit the post\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, former Soviet Union leader Gorbachev starred in a Pizza Hut commercial with his granddaughter Anastasia Virganskaya to raise money for the Perestroyka Archives. The ad \"obviously exploited the shock value of having a former world leader appear... [and] played on the fact that Gorbachev was far more popular outside Russia than inside it\". It was filmed on a multi-million budget with a cinematic quality, including mounting cameras on the Kremlin and shutting down Red Square to get the establishing shots of the square, and dialogue entirely in Russian with English subtitles, to show Pizza Hut as a global brand compared to its American rivals.",
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"plaintext": "On April 1, 2008, Pizza Hut in America sent emails to customers advertising their pasta items. The email (and similar advertising on the company's website) stated: \"Pasta so good, we changed our name to Pasta Hut!\" The name change was a publicity stunt held on April Fools' Day, extending through the month of April, with the company's Dallas headquarters changing its exterior logo to Pasta Hut.",
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"plaintext": "This name change was also used to promote the new Tuscani Pasta line and the new Pizza Hut dine-in menu. The first Pasta Hut advertisement shows the original Pizza Hut restaurant being imploded and recreated with a \"Pasta Hut\" sign. ",
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"plaintext": "A version of this stunt was re-created by Pizza Hut's UK operation later that year in October 2008, which included ten locations in London temporarily taking on new \"Pasta Hut\" signage. Pizza Hut UK's chief executive at the time has insisted that this was solely intended as a \"PR exercise\" and the chain never planned on permanently changing its name in the UK or elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": " In the early 1990s, as part of PepsiCo's sponsorship of The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (and its former moniker, The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour), Pizza Hut was included in the acknowledgment alongside Taco Bell and KFC, which PepsiCo owned at the time.",
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"plaintext": " In 2000, Pizza Hut was a part-time sponsor of Galaxy Motorsports' #75 Ford in the then NASCAR Cup Series, driven by Wally Dallenbach Jr.",
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"plaintext": " Terry Labonte drove selected events with Pizza Hut as the primary sponsor of his #44 car in 2005.",
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"plaintext": " Pizza Hut purchased the naming rights to Major League Soccer club FC Dallas' stadium, Pizza Hut Park, prior to its opening in 2005, which were allowed to expire in January 2012.",
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"plaintext": " Pizza Hut sponsored the #14 Brad Jones Racing Holden ZB Commodore driven by Todd Hazelwood for both of the Darwin Triple Crown and Townsville 500 in 2021.",
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"plaintext": " In March 2022, Pizza Hut signed a sponsorship deal to be the official Quick Service Restaurant for the Supercars Championship.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut has sponsored the Book It! reading-incentive program since it started in January 1985. Students who read books according to the goal set by the classroom teacher, in any month from October through March, are rewarded with a Pizza Hut certificate good for a free, one-topping Personal Pan Pizza; and the classroom whose students read the most books is rewarded with a pizza party. Book It! was conceived in 1984 during a dinner with Art Gunther, President of Pizza Hut, and Bud Gates, SVP of Marketing at Pizza Hut, as a way to help Gunther's son read more.",
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"plaintext": "The program has been criticized by some psychologists on the grounds it may lead to overjustification and reduce children's intrinsic interest in reading. Book It! was also criticized by the Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood in 2007 who described it as \"one of corporate America's most insidious school-based brand promotions.\" A pamphlet produced by the group argued the program promoted junk food to a captive market, made teachers into promoters for Pizza Hut, and undermined parents by making visits to the chain an integral part of bringing up their children to be literate. However, a study of the program found participation in the program neither increased nor decreased reading motivation. The program's 25th anniversary was in 2010. The Book It! program in Australia ceased in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "WingStreet is the name used for Pizza Hut's chicken wing menu.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Yum! launched WingStreet in combination with existing Pizza Hut franchises. On October 19, 2009, Company president Scott Bergren publicized WingStreet's national launch. The chain predicted aggressive growth, adding more than 4,000 locations by 2010. In 2012, Pizza Hut opened a standalone pilot store in Denton, Texas. The store was unsuccessful in collecting sales and closed the following year.",
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"plaintext": "Restaurants with WingStreet sections on their menus sell breaded and traditional buffalo wings for take-out and delivery. Their sauces include original Buffalo (in mild, medium, and hot levels of spiciness), sweet chili, spicy garlic, honey barbecue, and garlic Parmesan, as well as cajun and lemon pepper dry rubs. They also offer sauce-free \"naked\" wings.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut's international presence under Yum! Brands includes:",
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"plaintext": "Japan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, European Union, Qatar, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Myanmar, and Macau in Asia ",
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"plaintext": "Egypt",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut's China operations are part of the Yum! spinoff Yum China. Pizza Hut was one of the first American franchises to open in Iraq.",
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"plaintext": "In China, Pizza Hut () used an altered business model, offering a fine-dining atmosphere with knives and forks and using an expanded menu catering to Chinese tastes. By 2008, Pizza Hut operated restaurants and delivery locations. That year, the company introduced \"Pizza Hut Express\", opening locations in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Hangzhou. The 160 restaurants were in 40 Chinese cities in 2005. As of 2015, Pizza Hut had 1,903 restaurants in China.",
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"plaintext": "Savio S. Chan (陳少宏, Pinyin: Chén Shàohóng) and Michael Zakkour, authors of What 1 Billion Customers Want and How to Sell it to Them, stated middle-class Chinese perceive Pizza Hut as \"akin to fine dining\", though Pizza Hut was \"China's largest and most successful foreign casual-dining chain\".",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut Pakistan () is the Pakistani franchisee of Pizza Hut. It is owned by MCR (Pvt) Ltd and is headquartered in Karachi, Pakistan. The first outlet was opened in Karachi in 1993. Currently, Pizza Hut has a presence in 23 major cities.",
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"plaintext": "Pizza Hut began operating in Russia in 1991, when food supplies dwindled during the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, prompting Russian President Boris Yeltsin to call Pizza Hut deliveries. Pizza Hut suspended operations in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.",
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"plaintext": "“Tavan Bogd Foods Pizza” LLC officially opened Pizza Hut on July 14, 2014 in Mongolia. They currently work under three concepts: Restaurant, Delivery, and Express, and provide products and services in 13 areas.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, Pizza Hut was criticized in October 2007 for the high salt content of its meals, some of which were found to contain more than twice the daily recommended amount of salt for an adult. The toppings that consumers prefer, however, (ham, sausage, bacon, etc.) naturally contain high levels of salt.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2014, delivery drivers in the United States filed a class-action lawsuit over Pizza Hut \"paying delivery drivers net wages below minimum wage due to unreimbursed automobile expenses\" in violation of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act. An attempt by Pizza Hut to have the case dismissed in November 2015 failed. In December 2016, the case, Linkovich v. Capital Pizza Huts, Inc., et al., was decided by arbitration, in which Pizza Hut paid damages.",
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"plaintext": " List of pizza chains",
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"plaintext": " The Original Pizza Hut Museum at wichita.edu",
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"American_companies_established_in_1958",
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"Companies_based_in_Plano,_Texas",
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"Restaurants_established_in_1958",
"Yum!_Brands",
"Fast-food_chains_of_the_United_States",
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37,563 | 1,107,608,720 | Taco_Bell | [
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"plaintext": "In 1964, the first franchisee opened, in Torrance, California, at the intersection of West Carson Street and South Western Avenue which still exists but has been repurposed at 1647 West Carson Street. In 1967, the 100th restaurant opened at 400 South Brookhurst in Anaheim which was replaced by a new restaurant at 324 South Brookhurst. The first location east of the Mississippi River opened on East Main Street in Springfield, Ohio, in 1968. Original Taco Bells only featured walk-up windows without indoor seating or drive-thru service and former original Taco Bell locations still survive while having been repurposed, frequently as other Mexican restaurants. In 1970, Taco Bell went public with 325 restaurants.",
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"plaintext": "The corporate office has had a few locations, and previously maintained an office at 2516 Via Tejon in Palos Verdes, then at 2424 Moreton Street in Torrance before settling into Irvine more than 40 years ago in 1976 at 17901 Von Karman Avenue.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Taco Bell opened the first Taco Bell Express in San Francisco. Taco Bell Express locations operate primarily inside convenience stores, truck stops, shopping malls, and airports. Taco Bell began co-branding with KFC in 1995 when the first such co-brand opened in Clayton, North Carolina. The chain has since co-branded with Pizza Hut and Long John Silver's as well.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, PepsiCo experimented with a new \"fresh grill\" concept, opening at least one Border Bell restaurant in Mountain View, California, on El Camino Real (SR 82). Close to the time that PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business in 1997, the Border Bell in Mountain View was closed and converted to a Taco Bell restaurant which was still open in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of Taco Bell-branded shells were recalled from supermarkets. The shells contained a variety of genetically modified corn called StarLink that was not approved for human consumption. StarLink was approved only for use in animal feed because of questions about whether it can cause allergic reactions in people. It was the first-ever recall of genetically modified food (GMO). Corn was not segregated at grain elevators and the miller in Texas did not order that type. In 2001, Tricon Global announced a $60 million settlement with the suppliers. They stated that it would go to Taco Bell franchisees and TGR would not take any of it.",
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"plaintext": "A large advertising push by Taco Bell was begun in late February 2011 in response to a consumer protection lawsuit filed against the company by an Alabama law firm. The promotion sought to counter allegations that the company falsely advertised the ratio of ingredients in its beef filling for its tacos. The spots featured employees and franchisees stating that the filling has always been a mixture of 88% beef and various spices and binders and nothing else. The ad followed several full-page print ads in the New York Times and other newspapers that featured the headline \"Thank you for suing us.\" Additionally, the chain added a new social campaign using Twitter and Facebook. The company invested heavily in the campaign, spending more than $3 million (USD) putting out its message—about 20 percent more than the company usually spends on an advertising program. The various campaigns came shortly before the company began its official response to the suit in the United States District Court for the Central District of California and were designed to bring public opinion into their camp. Various analysts stated that the company would have been better off using a grass-root campaign that involved in store advertising and other non-broadcast media. The suit was eventually withdrawn, and the company continued its advertising response by publicly requesting an apology from the suing firm of Beasley Allen. Analyst Laura Ries, of marketing strategy firm Ries & Ries, stated she believed Taco Bell's latest response was a mistake. She commented that reviving memories of a suit that the majority of the public had forgotten after the initial burst of publicity was the wrong strategy from Taco Bell.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2012, Taco Bell teamed up with Frito-Lay and created the Doritos Locos Tacos, which is a taco with a Dorito Nacho Cheese flavored taco shell. Taco Bell is releasing a Mountain Dew infused drink called Mountain Dew A.M.",
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"plaintext": "On June 6, 2012, Taco Bell announced it would be testing a new \"Cantina Menu\" with upscale items in their Kentucky and California restaurants. The new menu was created by celebrity chef Lorena Garcia, and featured the addition of: Black Beans; Cilantro Rice; Citrus & Herb Marinated Chicken; and Cilantro Dressing.",
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"plaintext": "The Cool Ranch Doritos Taco, became available to order on March 7, 2013. Shortly before its release, Taco Bell launched a promotion advertising that fans could get the new flavor at its stores a day early if they \"just asked\" on March 6. However, they neglected to inform the majority of their stores of this – leading to numerous complaints on its social media accounts and news sites from disappointed consumers who were unable to obtain the new taco.",
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"plaintext": "On July 23, 2013, Taco Bell announced they were discontinuing the sale of kids' meals and accompanying toys at all of their U.S.–based restaurants by January 2014. Some outlets ceased their sale as early as July 2013.",
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"plaintext": "On August 6, 2013, the chain announced it was expanding its test market of \"Waffle Tacos\" to ≈100 restaurants in Fresno, California, Omaha, Nebraska, and Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning on August 8 of that year. The Waffle Taco included scrambled eggs, sausage, and a side of syrup. It was the top–selling item during breakfast hours at the five Southern California restaurants where they had been test–released earlier in 2013. The breakfast menu started on March 27, 2014. Other items include: the A.M. Crunchwrap, Cinnabon Delights, Breakfast Burrito, A.M. Grilled Sausage Flatbread Melt, Hash Browns, Coffee and Orange Juice. The ad–campaign, which began March 27, used twenty-five men who were named Ronald McDonald, a reference to the famous clown mascot of McDonald's. Another commercial advertisement for the Waffle Taco, features the narrator singing, \"I've been eating Egg McMuffins since 1984. But when I saw Taco Bell made a Waffle Taco, I figured I would get with the times\" set to the tune of \"Old MacDonald Had a Farm\"— another shot at McDonald's.",
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"plaintext": "On April 28, 2014, Taco Bell ridiculed McDonald's for its \"out–dated muffins\", in a breakfast campaign devised by Taylor. The advertisement stated the claim that the McMuffin belonged in 1984. In October 2014, Taco Bell launched the Pink Strawberry Starburst Freeze beverage for a limited time. In August 2016, Taco Bell brought back its Pink Strawberry Starburst Freeze. In October 2015, Taco Bell launched a certified vegetarian menu.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2016, Taco Bell announced it would begin testing a mashup known as Cheetos Burritos at select Taco Bell restaurants On September 19, 2016, Taco Bell launched Airheads Freeze, a drink inspired by the candy Airheads White Mystery, and allow people to guess its flavor on social media. On September 15, 2016, Taco Bell introduced the Cheddar Habanero Quesarito, a quesadilla shelled burrito. In April 2017, Taco Bell announced that it will begin testing the Naked Breakfast Taco in Flint, Michigan in mid-April. The breakfast taco, which uses a fried egg as the shell for potato bites, nacho cheese, shredded cheddar, and bacon or sausage crumble.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the company released the Naked Chicken Chalupa that uses a chalupa shell made from chicken, using a similar idea to the Double Down and later that year the Naked Chicken Chips, which are chicken nuggets shaped like chips with nacho cheese.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2017, Taco Bell announced a partnership with Lyft in which Lyft passengers in Orange County, California, can request \"Taco Mode\" on their way to their destination from 9 PM to 2 AM, having a stop at Taco Bell. The program was cancelled after much negative feedback from drivers.",
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"plaintext": "On September 21, 2018, Taco Bell announced National Taco Day celebrating its global reach outside of the United States, to be celebrated in 20 countries.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2019, Taco Bell nearly doubled its television advertising spending to US$64 million.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2019, Taco Bell revamped their menu, for the Fall Season.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2021, Taco Bell announced the return of potatoes to the menu after a brief discontinuation in August 2020 in efforts to streamline processes in their restaurants in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to the potatoes, the company had announced plans to expand their vegetarian menu by introducing Beyond Meat as a plant-based vegetarian customization option.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2021, Taco Bell said that it will start reusing hot sauce packets in partnership with the recycling company TerraCycle, aiming to reduce the environmental pollution.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2021, Taco Bell announced the Crispy Chicken Sandwich Taco.",
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"plaintext": "On April 18, 2022, Taco Bell announced that Mexican Pizza will return to its menu on May 19, after having previously been discontinued in November 2020.",
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"plaintext": "On January 6, 2022, Taco Bell launched a digital taco subscription service called the Taco Lover's Pass through the company app. For the cost of $10, a customer can order one of seven different tacos each day for 30 consecutive days.",
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"plaintext": "On August 18, 2014, Taco Bell launched a new value menu called Dollar Cravings. Replacing the old Why Pay More menu, Dollar Cravings currently contains thirteen food items all priced at a United States dollar.",
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"plaintext": "It was renamed \"Cravings Value Menu\", when prices were increased on some of the items. In April 2019, they introduced a \"loaded nacho taco\" for a dollar.",
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"plaintext": "One of Taco Bell's original 1960s menu items was the Chiliburger, later known as the Bell Burger, then the Bell Beefer. This was a loose meat sandwich with taco-seasoned ground beef, shredded cheese and lettuce, diced onions and tomato with mild red sauce, served on a steamed hamburger bun. The sandwich was removed from the menu sometime in the late 1980s to keep a strictly Tex Mex-inspired line up.",
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"plaintext": "Other discontinued items include: Enchirito (name revived for a different menu item); Taco Lite; Taco Grande; Chilito (Chili Cheese Burrito); Beefy Crunch Burrito; Beefy Melt Burrito; Seafood Salad; Chicken Fiesta Burrito; Potatorito; Volcano Taco; BLT Taco; Cheesarito; Cinnamon Crispas; Nacho Crunch Grilled Stuft Burrito; Chicken Caesar Grilled Stuft Burrito; Grilled Stuft Nacho; Fully Loaded Nachos; Spicy Chicken Crunchwrap Supreme; Blackjack Taco; Bean Burrito Especial; Border Ices; and the Meximelt.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2019, Taco Bell made new changes to its menu. Items discontinued from there include: Beefy Mini Quesadilla; Chips and Salsa; Chipotle Chicken Loaded Griller; Double Decker Taco; Cool Ranch and Fiery Doritos Locos Tacos; Double Tostada; Power Menu Burrito, and the XXL Grilled Stuft Burrito.",
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"plaintext": ", the menu underwent another update, discontinuing the following items: Grilled Steak Soft Taco; 7-Layer Burrito; Nachos Supreme; Beefy Fritos Burrito; Spicy Tostada; Triple Layer Nachos; Cheesy Fiesta Potatoes; Loaded Grillers, both Cheesy Potato and Beefy Nacho; Chips & Dips; and Mini Skillet Bowl.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Taco Bell entered the Chinese market by opening a restaurant in the Shanghai People's Square, named \"Taco Bell Grande\". Three more TBG restaurants opened before they were closed in 2008. Taco Bell relaunched in the Chinese market when a store opened in Pudong, Shanghai in late 2015.",
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"plaintext": "India's first Taco Bell outlet opened at the Mantri Square mall in Bangalore in 2010. Taco Bell announced an exclusive national master franchise agreement with Burman Hospitality on May 15, 2019. The chain operated 35 outlets across India as on the same date. Yum! Brands stated that it planned to open 600 new Taco Bell outlets in India by 2029.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell opened its first Indonesian restaurant in South Jakarta on December 18, 2020. As of 2022, Taco Bell has since opened three more restaurants in Indonesia, all located in Jakarta.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell opened its first Malaysian store in Cyberjaya, Sepang on April 2, 2021. It then opened its second store in Bandar Sri Permaisuri, Kuala Lumpur followed by Tropicana Gardens Mall and Setiawangsa outlets. In early 2022, Taco Bell opened up in Wangsa Maju, Sunway Pyramid, Puchong and has continued in expanding to other states as well. It currently has 13 stores scattered across Klang Valley.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell opened its first Philippine branch on October 30, 2004, at the Gateway Mall in Cubao, Quezon City. They now have one on the ground floor and one on the fourth floor in the food court at the Gateway Mall. There is also a branch at the TriNoma mall in Quezon City.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell in Singapore existed for a number of years, mostly as combination stores with KFC such as the one that operated at the Funan Digital Life Mall, but in 2008, Taco Bell completely pulled out of Singapore.",
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"plaintext": "A Taco Bell opened in Cyprus in December 2009 in Limassol at the MY MALL Limassol. Further restaurants are planned to be opened within the next 18 months (probably also in Cyprus' capital Nicosia).",
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"plaintext": "On June 15, 2017, Finnish restaurant company announced that it is bringing Taco Bell to Finland. The first restaurant opened in central Helsinki on November 9, 2017. Restaurants in Sello and Iso Omena malls in Espoo opened later in November 2017. Finland is the first country to include pulled oats (a meat substitute) in the menu. In 2019, the Taco bell expanded outside the Helsinki Metropolitan area to Lappeenranta and Turku. In July 2021, a new branch will be opened in Oulu.",
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"plaintext": "Greece's first Taco Bell opened in Athens upon the grand opening of the newly constructed Athens Metro Mall on November 30, 2010. The restaurant closed in August 2012 and the chain withdrew from the Greek market due to the country's recession.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell in Iceland is operated as a part of the KFC establishment in Hafnarfjörður, suburb of Reykjavík. It was established in late 2006, after the departure of the U.S. Navy from Naval Air Station Keflavik. A second location opened in the Ártúnshöfði part of Reykjavík in November 2008.",
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"plaintext": "On April 4, 2017, Taco Bell opened its first restaurant in Eindhoven, Netherlands. On October 12, Taco Bell opened another restaurant in Tilburg. A third restaurant has opened in Breda.",
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"plaintext": "The first Polish Taco Bell store was opened in 1993. Following an aggressive campaign of expansion, Taco Bell's efforts soon withered, and the chain withdrew from Poland shortly thereafter.",
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"plaintext": "The first Taco Bell store was opened in 2019, with 11 restaurants spread across the country in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The first Taco Bell store opened in Romania's capital, Bucharest, on October 12, 2017, and there are currently 13 stores on the Romanian market. For the time being, Romania is the only country in Eastern Europe that has a Taco Bell store.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s, PepsiCo opened several Taco Bell locations inside the Moscow metro system, including Metro Park Kulturi and Metro Komsomolskaya. This experiment lasted only a few years but these locations live on under different ownership and a different name.",
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"plaintext": "Spain is the most important market for Taco Bell in Europe. There are 67 Taco Bell branches by late 2019, more than twice than in 2017 when Taco Bell had 32 branches in Spain. The first Taco Bell in Spain was opened at Naval Station Rota in 2004 and is available only to those authorized to access the naval base. The first Taco Bell for the public was opened in the Islazul Shopping Mall, Madrid, in December 2008. Yum! Brands announced that it would open additional restaurants in Spain in early 2009 as part of a test trial for the European market. The second location of Taco Bell in Spain was opened at the La Vaguada Shopping Mall, Madrid (03/2010). Taco Bell announced, at least, 10 new restaurants through Spain.",
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"plaintext": "As of March 2017, there are 32 Taco Bell restaurants in Spain; 13 of them are in Madrid, and the other 19 Taco Bell are distributed through Valencia (5), Málaga (2), Barcelona (2), Zaragoza (2), Alicante (2) and Jerez de la Frontera, Murcia, Cádiz, Granada, Sevilla and Naval Station Rota with 1 restaurant.",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom was the first European country with a Taco Bell. In 1986, a location was opened in London on Coventry Street (between Leicester Square and Piccadilly Circus) followed by a second location in Earl's Court near the Earl's Court tube station. One other store opened in Uxbridge but all closed in the mid-1990s. In 1994, the university food provider Compass announced plans for outlets on its university and college sites. However, only one store was opened at Birmingham University, which is now closed.",
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"plaintext": "After the Birmingham University branch closed, there were only two Taco Bell branches in the UK, at the Strategic Air Command and United States Air Force bases at RAF Mildenhall and RAF Lakenheath. Access is restricted to relevant service personnel.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 2000s, Yum! Brands announced that it was reopening Taco Bell locations in the United Kingdom as part of a large planned expansion into Europe. Yum! took advantage of the recent great recession which led to increasing sales at other fast food outlets; it also said that there was now a greater awareness of Mexican food in the UK and that it can be successful with improved menu offerings and marketing. The first new store opened at the Lakeside Shopping Centre in Essex on June 28, 2010. Another store opened in Basildon, Essex, on November 29, 2010, and a third in the Manchester Arndale Food Court on November 7, 2011.",
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"plaintext": "On March 1, 2013, it was announced that trace amounts of horse meat from a European supplier had been found in various food products, including Taco Bell's beef in the UK, hampering the chain's growth in that already-stubborn market. By August 2017, there were 17 Taco Bell branches in the United Kingdom, all of which were in England and outside of London. The first Scottish branch was opened in Glasgow in December 2017. As of June 2019 there are 39 branches in Scotland and England, including three in London. Beginning in October 2019, Taco Bell locations in the UK began serving Doritos Locos Tacos.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 March 2020, the first Welsh Taco Bell branch was opened in Cardiff.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, in November 2021, Taco Bell opened its 77th UK store, and a return to the British Midlands with a store in The Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham.",
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"plaintext": "A Taco Bell opened in the United Arab Emirates in November 2008 in Dubai at the Dubai Mall. A fourth UAE location was also planned for Bawadi Mall in the city of Al Ain. As of February 2012, the locations at Dubai Mall, Deira City Centre, and Mirdif City Centre have all closed and Taco Bell has completely pulled out of the Emirati market. Taco Bell is still open in Kuwait and has not been pulled out ever since from the Kuwaiti market.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell has been present in Canada since 1981, with the first store opening in Windsor, Ontario. There are currently Taco Bell locations in 7 of the 10 Canadian provinces: British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Taco Bell had operated in the province of Quebec for close to 15 years, however announced its withdrawal on January 6, 2022, due to apparent struggles with its restrictive language laws. For some time it was possible to order draft beer with one's order. Taco Bell offers free soda refills in its stores.",
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"plaintext": "On March 31, 2011, Priszm, owner of Taco Bell (Canada), went into bankruptcy protection in Ontario and British Columbia. On May 6, 2011, Priszm Income Fund was delisted from the Toronto Stock Exchange for failure to meet the continued listing requirements. Since then, some Taco Bell restaurants have been closed down including those in Guelph, Hamilton, and Cambridge, Ontario among others.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell has attempted to enter the Mexican market twice. After a highly publicised launch in Mexico City in 1992, all the restaurants were closed two years later. In September 2007, Taco Bell returned to Monterrey, projecting an American image with an Americanized menu that included french fries, but it closed in January 2010 due to low patronage.",
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"plaintext": "Taco Bell first opened in Australia in September 1981, but Taco Bell was ordered to change its name after the owner of a local restaurant successfully sued Taco Bell for misleading conduct. The local restaurant was called \"Taco Bell's Casa\" and had been operating in Australia since the 1970s. The owner successfully argued that Sydneysiders would confuse the takeaway chain with his restaurant, and this would damage his reputation. Taco Bell later opened in 1997 in Australia with a store in the cinema district on George Street, Sydney and a year later in 1998 within a few KFC stores in the state of New South Wales, but by 2005, the Taco Bell brand was pulled out of the country.",
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"plaintext": "On September 13, 2017, Collins Foods announced that Taco Bell would return to the Australian market, with their first store being situated in the Brisbane suburb of Annerley in Queensland using a refurbished Sizzler restaurant which had closed earlier that year. The Annerley store opened on Saturday November 4, 2017 with about 50 people camping out overnight to be first to try the store. The store has 96 seats in indoor and outdoor settings and has an open kitchen so diners can see their food being prepared. There is also a drive-through. The menu appears to be a subset of the US menu based on food tasting research undertaken by the company. The Annerley store does not have a breakfast menu, but offers beers and margaritas similar to their Mexican food competitors in the Australian market. In 2018, Collins Foods signed a development deal with Yum! Brands to open over 50 Taco Bell restaurants across Australia between January 2019 and December 2021.",
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"plaintext": "There are 15 outlets in Brazil, mainly in the São Paulo area. Taco Bell has fourteen stores in Chile, thirteen of which are operated in conjunction (and in the same facilities) with Pizza Hut. All Taco Bell stores are in shopping malls located mainly in Santiago. There were four outlets in the Bogotá area in Colombia, but these closed in late 2018.",
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"plaintext": " Priszm",
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"plaintext": " 1970s TV ad for Taco Bell",
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] | [
"Taco_Bell",
"American_companies_established_in_1962",
"Fast-food_franchises",
"Fast-food_chains_of_the_United_States",
"Fast-food_Mexican_restaurants",
"Companies_based_in_Irvine,_California",
"1962_establishments_in_California",
"Restaurants_established_in_1962",
"Restaurants_in_Orange_County,_California",
"Restaurants_in_Greater_Los_Angeles",
"Yum!_Brands",
"1978_mergers_and_acquisitions"
] | 752,941 | 53,549 | 553 | 297 | 0 | 0 | Taco Bell | American fast-food chain | [] |
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay's popularity peaked in the late 1980s, then gave way to a backlash among those wine connoisseurs who saw the grape as a leading negative component of the globalization of wine. Nonetheless, it is one of the most widely planted grape varieties, with worldwide, second only to Airén among white wine grapes and fifth among all wine grapes.",
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"plaintext": "For much of its history, a connection was assumed between Chardonnay and Pinot noir or Pinot blanc. In addition to being found in the same region of France for centuries, ampelographers noted that the leaves of these plants have near-identical shape and structure. Pierre Galet disagreed with this assessment, believing that Chardonnay was unrelated to any other major grape variety. Viticulturalists Maynard Amerine and Harold Olmo proposed a descendency from a wild Vitis vinifera vine that was a step removed from white Muscat. Chardonnay's true origins were further obscured by vineyard owners in Lebanon and Syria, who claimed that the grape's ancestry could be traced to the Middle East, from where it was introduced to Europe by returning Crusaders. Little external evidence supports this theory. Another theory stated that it originated from an ancient indigenous vine found in Cyprus.",
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"plaintext": "Modern DNA fingerprinting research at University of California, Davis, now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot noir and Gouais blanc (Heunisch) grape varieties. The Romans are thought to have brought Gouais blanc from Croatia, and it was widely cultivated by peasants in eastern France.",
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"plaintext": "The Pinot of the French aristocracy grew in close proximity to the Gouais blanc, giving the two ample opportunity to interbreed. Since the two parents were genetically distant, many of the crosses showed hybrid vigour and were selected for further propagation. These \"successful\" crosses included Chardonnay and siblings such as Aligoté, Aubin vert, Auxerrois, Bachet noir, Beaunoir, Franc Noir de la-Haute-Saône, Gamay Blanc Gloriod, Gamay noir, Melon, Knipperlé, Peurion, Roublot, Sacy, and Dameron.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2006, 34 clonal varieties of Chardonnay could be found in vineyards throughout France; most of these were developed at the University of Burgundy in Dijon. The so-called \"Dijon clones\" are bred for their adaptive attributes, with vineyard owners planting the clonal variety best suited to their terroir and which will produce the characteristics that they are seeking in the wine. Examples include the lower-yielding clones 'Dijon-76', '95' and '96' that produce more flavor-concentrated clusters. 'Dijon-77' and '809' produce more aromatic wines with a \"grapey\" perfume, while 'Dijon-75', '78', '121', '124', '125' and '277' are more vigorous and higher-yielding clones. New World varieties include the 'Mendoza' clone, which produced some of the early California Chardonnays. The 'Mendoza' clone is prone to develop millerandage, also known as \"hens and chicks\", where the berries develop unevenly. In places such as Oregon, the use of newer Dijon clones has had some success in those regions of the Willamette Valley with climates similar to that of Burgundy.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay has served as parent to several French-American hybrid grapes, as well as crossings with other V. vinifera varieties. Examples include the hybrid Chardonel, which was a Chardonnay and Seyval blanc cross produced in 1953 at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. Mutations of the Chardonnay grape include the rare pink-berried 'Chardonnay Rose'; also 'Chardonnay Blanc Musqué', which produces an intensely aromatic wine. Chardonnay Blanc Musqué is mostly found around the Mâconnais village of Clessé and sometimes confused with the 'Dijon-166' clone planted in South Africa, which yields Muscat-like aromas.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay has a wide-ranging reputation for relative ease of cultivation and ability to adapt to different conditions. The grape is very \"malleable\", in that it reflects and takes on the impression of its terroir and winemaker. It is a highly vigorous vine, with extensive leaf cover which can inhibit the energy and nutrient uptake of its grape clusters. Vineyard managers counteract this with aggressive pruning and canopy management. When Chardonnay vines are planted densely, they are forced to compete for resources and funnel energy into their grape clusters. In certain conditions, the vines can be very high-yielding, but the wine produced from such vines suffers a drop in quality if yields go much beyond 80 hl/ha (4.5 tons per acre). Producers of premium Chardonnay limit yields to less than half this amount. Sparkling wine producers tend not to focus as much on limiting yields, since concentrated flavors are not as important as the wine's finesse.",
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"plaintext": "Harvesting time is crucial to winemaking, with the grape rapidly losing acidity as soon as it ripens. Some viticultural hazards include the risk of damage from springtime frost, as Chardonnay is an early-budding vine – usually a week after Pinot noir. To combat the threat of frost, a method developed in Burgundy involves aggressive pruning just prior to budburst. This \"shocks\" the vine and delays budburst up to two weeks, which is often long enough for warmer weather to arrive. Millerandage and coulure can also pose problems, along with powdery mildew attacking the thin skin of the grapes. Because of Chardonnay's early ripening, it can thrive in wine regions with short growing seasons, and in regions such as Burgundy, can be harvested before autumn rain sets in and brings the threat of rot.",
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"plaintext": "While Chardonnay can adapt to almost all vineyard soils, the three it seems to like most are chalk, clay, and limestone, all very prevalent throughout Chardonnay's traditional \"homeland\". The Grand crus of Chablis are planted on hillsides composed of Kimmeridgian marl, limestone, and chalk. The outlying regions, falling under the more basic \"Petit Chablis\" appellation, are planted on portlandian limestone which produces wines with less finesse. Chalk beds are found throughout the Champagne region, and the Côte-d'Or has many areas composed of limestone and clay. In Burgundy, the amount of limestone to which the Chardonnay vines are exposed also seems to have some effect on the resulting wine. In the Meursault region, the premier cru vineyards planted at Meursault-Charmes have topsoil almost above limestone and the resulting wines are very rich and rounded. In the nearby Les Perrières vineyard, the topsoil is only around above the limestone and the wine from that region is much more powerful, minerally, and tight, needing longer in the bottle to develop fully. In other areas, soil type can compensate for lack of ideal climate conditions. In South Africa, for example, regions with stonier, shaley soils and high clay levels tend to produce lower-yielding and more Burgundian-style wine, despite having a discernibly warmer climate than France. In contrast, South African Chardonnay produced from more sandstone-based vineyards tend to be richer and more weighty.",
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"plaintext": "Due to some ampelographical similarities, Pinot blanc and Chardonnay were often mistaken for each other and even today share many of the same synonyms. The grape vines, leaves, and clusters look identical at first glance, but some subtle differences are seen. The most visible of these can be observed as the grapes are ripening, with Chardonnay grapes taking on a more golden-green color than Pinot blanc grapes. On closer inspection, the grapevine shows slight differences in the texture and length of the hairs on the vine's shoot, and the veins of a Chardonnay leaf are \"naked\" near the petiolar sinus – the open area where the leaf connects to the stem is delineated by veins at the edge. Cabernet Sauvignon is one of the few other Vitis vinifera grape vines to share this characteristic. This confusion between Pinot blanc and Chardonnay was very pervasive throughout northern Italy, where the two vines grew interspersed in the vineyard and were blended in winemaking. The Italian government did not dispatch researchers to try to distinguish the two vines until 1978. A similar situation occurred in France, with the two vines being commonly confused until the mid-19th century, when ampelographers began combing through the vineyards of Chablis and Burgundy, identifying the true Chardonnay and weeding out the Pinot blanc.",
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"plaintext": "In France, Chardonnay is the second-most widely planted white grape variety just behind Ugni blanc and ahead of Sémillon and Sauvignon blanc. The grape first rose to prominence in the Chablis and Burgundy regions. In Champagne, it is most often blended with Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier, but is also used to produce single varietal blanc de blancs styles of sparkling wine. Chardonnay can be found in Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) wines of the Loire Valley and Jura wine region, as well as the vin de pays wines of the Languedoc.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay is one of the dominant grapes in Burgundy, though Pinot noir vines outnumber it by nearly a three-to-one ratio. In addition to Chablis, Chardonnay is found in the Côte d'Or (largely in the Côte de Beaune), as well as the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais. It is grown in eight grand cru vineyards; The \"Montrachets\"-Montrachet, Criots-Bâtard-Montrachet, Bâtard-Montrachet, Chevalier-Montrachet, and Bienvenues-Bâtard-Montrachet, as well as Charlemagne, Corton-Charlemagne, and Le Musigny. In addition to being the most expensive, the Burgundy examples of Chardonnay were long considered the benchmark standard of expressing terroir through Chardonnay. The Montrachets are noted for their high alcohol levels, often above 13%, as well as deep concentration of flavors. The vineyards around Chassagne-Montrachet tend to have a characteristic hazelnut aroma to them, while those of Puligny-Montrachet have more steely flavors. Both grand cru and premier cru examples from Corton-Charlemagne have been known to demonstrate marzipan, while Meursault wines tend to be the most round and buttery examples.",
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"plaintext": "South of the Côte d'Or are the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais wine regions. The villages of Mercurey, Montagny-lès-Buxy, and Rully are the largest producers of Chardonnay in the Côte Chalonnaise, with the best-made examples rivaling those of the Côte de Beaune. In the Mâconnais, white wine production is centered on the town of Mâcon and the Pouilly-Fuissé region. The full-bodied wines of the Pouilly-Fuissé have long held cult wine status with prices that can rival the grand cru white burgundies. Further south, in the region of Beaujolais, Chardonnay has started to replace Aligoté as the main white wine grape and is even replacing Gamay in some areas around Saint-Véran. With the exception of Pouilly-Fuissé, the wines of the Mâconnais are the closest Burgundy example to \"New World\" Chardonnay, though it is not identical. Typically, Mâcon blanc, basic Bourgogne, Beaujolais blanc, and Saint-Véran are meant to be consumed within two to three years of release. However, many of the well-made examples of white Burgundy from the Côte d'Or need at least three years in the bottle to develop enough to express the aromas and character of the wine. Hazelnut, licorice, and spice are some of the flavors that can develop as these wines age.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay is the only permitted AOC grape variety in the Chablis region, with the wines there developing such worldwide recognition that the name \"Chablis\" has taken on somewhat generic connotations to mean any dry white wine, even those not made from Chardonnay. The name is protected in the European Union and for wine sold in the EU, \"Chablis\" refers only to the Chardonnay wine produced in this region of the Yonne . The region sits on the outer edges of the Paris Basin. On the other side of the basin is the village of Kimmeridge in England, which gives its name to the Kimmeridgean soil that is located throughout Chablis. The French describe this soil as argilo-calcaire and is a composition of clay, limestone, and fossilized oyster shells. The most expensive examples of Chardonnay from Chablis come from the seven Grand Cru vineyards that account for around on the southwest side of one slope along the Serein River near the towns of Chablis—Blanchots, Bougros, Les Clos, Grenouilles, Preuses, Valmur, and Vaudésir. The wines from these crus most often capture the goût de pierre à fusil or \"gunflint\" quality that is characteristic of Chablis wine.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay was believed to be first planted in Chablis by the Cistercians at Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century. Today, the Chardonnay made in the Chablis region is one of the \"purest\" expression of the varietal character of the grape due to the simplistic style of winemaking favored in this region. Chablis winemakers want to emphasise the terroir of the calcareous soil and cooler climate that help maintain high acidity. The wines rarely go through malolactic fermentation or are exposed to oak (though its use is increasing). The biting, green apple-like acidity is a trademark of Chablis and can be noticeable in the bouquet. The acidity can mellow with age and Chablis are some of the longest-living examples of Chardonnay. Some examples of Chablis can have an earthy \"wet stone\" flavor that can get mustier as it ages before mellowing into delicate honeyed notes. The use of oak is controversial in the Chablis community, with some winemakers dismissing it as counter to the \"Chablis style\" or terroir, while others embrace its use, though not to the length that would characterise a \"New World\" Chardonnay. The winemakers who use oak tend to favor more neutral oak that does not impart the vanilla characteristic associated with American oak. The amount of \"char\" in the barrel is often very light, which limits the amount of \"toastiness\" perceived in the wine. The advocates of oak in Chablis point to the positive benefits of allowing limited oxygenation with the wine through the permeable oak barrels. This can have the effect of softening the wine and making the generally austere and acidic Chablis more approachable at a younger age.",
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"plaintext": "In the Champagne, Chardonnay is one of three major grape varieties planted in the region. It is most commonly found in the Aube and Marne départments which, combined with Chablis, accounted for more than half of all plantings of Chardonnay in France during the 20th century. In the Côte des Blancs (white slope) district of the Marne, Chardonnay thrives on the chalk soil. The three main villages around the Côte grow Chardonnay that emphasizes certain characteristics that the Champagne producers seek depending on their house style. The village of Avize grows grapes that produce the lightest wines, Cramant makes the most aromatic, and Mesnil produces wines with the most acidity. The Côte des Blancs is the only district in the Champagne region predominately planted with Chardonnay. In the four other main districts – Aube, Côte de Sézanne, Montagne de Reims, and Vallée de la Marne – Chardonnay lags behind Pinot noir in planting. In the outlying region of Aisne, only Pinot Meunier has a significant presence. Despite being less planted, the Blanc de Blancs style of Champagne (made from only Chardonnay grapes) is far more commonly produced than Blanc de Noirs. This is partly because Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier produce very coarse and heavy wines that lack the finesse and balance that Chardonnay brings to the mix. Nonsparkling still wine Chardonnay is produced under the Coteaux Champenois AOC. The wine is much more acidic than that of Chablis and is normally made bone-dry.",
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"plaintext": "Despite receiving the same amount of sunshine as the Chablis region, Chardonnay grapes in Champagne rarely attain full ripeness due to the mean temperature of the region being around , barely above the minimum average temperature needed to ripen grapes. Therefore, the Chardonnay grapes do not fully develop their fruit flavors and the still version of Champagne can taste very \"un-Chardonnay\"-like because of this. However, it does lessen the premium on needing to keep yields low that other wine regions battle, since not much flavor is going to develop in the grapes, anyway. Rather, the element in Chardonnay that Champagne wine-makers look for is the finesse and balance of acidity that it brings to the blend. Some flavors that can emerge from, particularly with extended time on its lees, include creamy and nuttiness with some floral notes.",
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"plaintext": "Champagne, Chablis, and Burgundy account for more than three-fifths of all Chardonnay plantings in France. The next-largest concentration is found in the Languedoc, where it was first planted around the town of Limoux and up to 30% can be blended with Mauzac in the sparkling Blanquette de Limoux. Every year since 1991, Chardonnay production is celebrated in Limoux during the Toques et Clochers festival. By 2000, more than were planted, with many being used for wines under the Vin de Pays d'Oc. These wines were unique in that they were some of the first examples of Chardonnay to be varietally labeled as \"Chardonnay\". Other French wine regions with Chardonnay plantings include Alsace, Ardèche, Jura, Savoie, and the Loire Valley. In Jura, it is used to create vin de paille dessert wines. Here, the grape is known as Melon d'Arbois or Gamay blanc and is sometimes blended with Savagnin. It is most widely found in Arbois, Côtes du Jura, and L'Étoile AOCs. In the Loire, up to 20% of Chardonnay can be included in the Chenin blanc-based wines of Anjou blanc and more producers are using the grape to soften some of the edges of Chenin blanc. It can also be used in the sparkling wines of Saumur and some Muscadet producers have begun experimenting with oak-aged Chardonnay.",
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"plaintext": "In North America, particularly California, Chardonnay found another region where it could thrive and produce a style of wine noticeably different from that of France. It is the dominant white wine variety of the area, overtaking Riesling in 1990. In the United States, it is found most notably in California, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, and Washington, but also in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Vermont wine. In Canada, Chardonnay is found in British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec., and in Mexico is found in Baja California(Valle de Guadalupe) and in Coahuila(Valle de Parras) states.",
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"plaintext": "The first successful commercial production of California Chardonnay was from plantings in the Livermore Valley AVA. Wente Vineyards developed a Chardonnay clone that was used to introduce the grape variety in several Californian vineyards throughout the 1940s. In the 1950s, James David Zellerbach, one-time US Ambassador to Italy in Rome, started Hanzell Vineyards winery and dedicated it to making Burgundian-style Chardonnay. His success encouraged other Californian winemakers to follow suit and culminated in Chateau Montelena's victory over Burgundy Chardonnay in the 1976 blind tasting event conducted by French judges known as the Judgment of Paris. In response, the demand for Californian Chardonnay increased and Californian winemakers rushed to increase plantings. In the 1980s, the popularity of Californian Chardonnay increased so much, the number of vines planted in the state eclipsed that of France by 1988. By 2005, nearly accounted for almost 25% of the world's total Chardonnay plantings. The early trend was to imitate the great Burgundy wines, but this soon gave way to more rich buttery and oaked styles. Starting with the 1970s, the focus was on harvesting the grapes at more advanced degrees of ripeness and higher Brix levels. New oak barrels were used to produce wines that were big in body and mouthfeel. Frank J. Prial of The New York Times was an early critic of this style, particularly because of the lack of \"food friendliness\" that was common with these massive wines. Another criticism of California Chardonnays, and one that has been levied against other Californian wines, is the very high alcohol levels which can make a wine seem out of balance. In recent years, California winemakers have been using process such as reverse osmosis and spinning cones to bring the alcohol levels down to 12 to 14%.",
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"plaintext": "The California wine regions that seem to favor producing premium quality Chardonnay are the ones that are most influenced, climatically, by coastal fogs that can slow the ripening of the grape and give it more time to develop its flavors. The regions of Alexander Valley, Los Carneros, Santa Maria Valley, Russian River Valley, and other parts of Sonoma County have shown success in producing wines that reflect more Burgundian styles. Other regions often associated with Chardonnay include Napa Valley, Monterey County, and Santa Barbara County. The California Central Valley is home to many mass-produced Chardonnay brands, as well as box and jug wine production. While the exact style of the wine varies by producer, some of the terroir characteristics associated with California Chardonnay include \"flinty\" notes with the Russian River Valley and mango and guava from Monterey. A large portion of the Californian sparkling wine industry uses Chardonnay grapes from Carneros, Alexander, and Russian River valleys, with these areas attracting the attention of Champagne producers such as Bollinger, Louis Roederer, Moët et Chandon, and the Taittinger family, which have opened up wineries in last few decades.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay was one of the first European grape varieties to have been grown commercially east of the Rocky Mountains. After three centuries of failure with V. vinifera, this achievement was realized in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York. Frenchman Charles Fournier and Russian Konstantin Frank experimented with Chardonnay and other varietals in hopes of producing sparkling wines based on Old World grapes for the Gold Seal wine company. In the late 1950s, they succeeded in harvesting the first commercial quantities of European grapes in eastern North America. Frank went on to found Konstantin Frank Vinifera Wine Cellars which helped demonstrate that a winery in the eastern US can produce European-style wines as a basis for a winery business. Chardonnay became an important part of that strategy.",
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"plaintext": "New York, like Burgundy and Washington, is a cool-climate viticultural region. Being cold tolerant, the Chardonnay grape is well suited for New York. Not only can it endure its cold winters, but also buds late, reducing the risk of spring frosts. New York's comparatively cooler growing season causes slower ripening, requiring a longer time on the vine, which allows the grapes to develop greater complexity and character at more reasonable sugar levels than warmer Chardonnay-producing regions. New York has subsequently developed significant plantings of the variety since Fournier and Frank's early experiments.",
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"plaintext": "Washington Chardonnays can be very similar to Californian Chardonnays, but tend to have more emphasis on fruit than creaminess. In 2000, it was the most widely planted premium wine grape in the state. Rather than using Dijon clones, Washington vineyards are planted with clones developed at the University of California-Davis that are designed to take longer to ripen in the warmer weather of the state's wine regions. This allows winemakers to maintain the acidity levels that balance the fruity and flint earthiness that have characterized Washington Chardonnay. Apple notes are common, and depending on producer and appellation, can range from flavors of 'Golden Delicious' and 'Fuji' to 'Gala' and 'Jonathan'. In Oregon, the introduction of Dijon clones from Burgundy has helped to adapt the grape to the Oregon climate and soils.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, Chardonnay has seen some success with rich, oaky styles produced in Ontario and lighter styles produced in Quebec and British Columbia. In 2009, Le Clos Jordanne winery, of Jordan Village on the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, received critical acclaim for its 2005 Claystone Terrace Chardonnay, which won the top spot for Chardonnay in the \"Judgement of Montreal\" experts’ tasting. This recognition, which caught the attention of the wine community, resulted from a blind tasting held in Quebec for Cellier magazine. Thirty-three years after the \"Judgment of Paris\", Cellier organized a blind tasting in Montreal based on the Judgment of Paris. In the \"Judgement of Montreal\", 10 judges at the Cellier tasting assessed 16 red and 14 white wines, primarily from France and California. The Chardonay from Le Clos Jordanne placed first out of the 14 white wines, some of which were notable international wines, including: Chateau Montelena, Mer Soleil, Kumeu River, an aged reserve wine from Rosemount Estates, and a number of Burgundian entrants from producers such as Drouhin, Lamy, Boisset, Maison Louis Jadot, and others. Other great examples of Ontario chardonnay include Closson Chase and Norman Hardie from the Prince Edward County region, and Tawse Winery, Hidden Bench Vineyards, and Southbrook Vineyards from the Niagara region.",
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"plaintext": "The Chardonnay vintages of the early 1990s from British Columbia helped generate international attention to the quality of Canadian wines apart from ice wine varietals. In British Columbia, Chardonnay from the Okanagan are characterized by delicate citrus fruits. They are typically light-bodied, but producers who use barrel fermentation and oak aging can produce fuller-bodied wines.",
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"plaintext": "Like many grape varieties, Chardonnay first came to Australia in the collection of James Busby in 1832, but it only really took off in the 1950s. It is most significant in South Australia, New South Wales — especially the Hunter Region - and Victoria. One of the first commercially successful Chardonnays was produced by Murray Tyrrell in the Hunter Valley in 1971. Tyrell's vineyard was planted with Chardonnay cuttings that he \"borrowed\" from Penfolds' experimental plantings by hopping over their barb-wire fence one night and pruning their vines. The export driven Australian wine industry was well situated for the Chardonnay boom of the 1980s and 1990s and Australia responded with a unique style of wine that was characterized by big fruit flavors and easy approachability. To compensate for the very warm climate, richness was enhanced by the use of oak chips and acid was added during fermentation. During this period the number of Chardonnay plants increased fivefold and by 1990 it was the most widely planted white wine grape in Australia and third most planted overall behind Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon. Early in the 21st century, demand outpaced supply and there was a shortage of Chardonnay grapes which prompted Australian winemakers to introduce new blending partners like Sémillon (known as \"SemChard\") and Colombard.",
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"plaintext": "Being a rather neutral grape, Australian winemakers first approached Chardonnay in the same manner they were making wine from the similarly neutral Sultana grape. Aromatic yeast were added and maceration was extended to get more flavors from skin contact. While the style of Australian Chardonnay is mostly characterized by the mass-produced products of the hot Riverland region, the cooler climates of the Southern Highlands in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania have been creating more crisp, less oaked wines with lime notes. In the Cowra region, Chardonnay's citrus notes are emphasized while Hunter Valley examples have more richness and smoky notes. The Adelaide Hills and Yarra Valley produce a more Burgundian style while Mount Barker in the Great Southern wine region of Western Australia produces Chardonnay that more closely resembles those of Chablis. A rare, isolated clone exists in the Mudgee region that locals believe traces its ancestry back to some of the first vines brought to Australia in the 19th century. While the wine made from this clone is not particularly distinguished, it can still be of very good quality. Overall, there has been a shift in style since the 1980s from deep golden, oily wines with melon and butterscotch flavors to lighter, paler Chardonnays with more structure and notes of white peaches and nectarines. Sparkling wines from Chardonnay are produced in the cool regions of Geelong, Adelaide Hills, Macedon Ranges and Tasmania.",
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"plaintext": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay has a long history in Italy but for a large part of it, the grape was commonly confused with Pinot blanc—often with both varieties interplanted in the same vineyard and blended together. This happened despite the fact that Chardonnay grapes get more golden-yellow in color close to harvest time and can be visually distinguished from Pinot blanc. In the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region this confusion appeared in the synonyms for each grape, with Pinot blanc being known as \"Weissburgunder\" (White Burgundy) and Chardonnay was known as \"Gelber Weissburgunder\" (Golden White Burgundy). By the late 20th century, more concentrated efforts were put into identifying Chardonnay and making pure varietal versions of the wine. In 1984, it was granted its first Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) in the province of South Tyrol. By 2000, it was Italy's fourth most widely planted white wine grape.",
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"plaintext": "Though many varietal forms of Chardonnay are produced, and the numbers are increasing, for most of its history in Italian winemaking Chardonnay was a blending grape. Besides Pinot bianco, Chardonnay can be found in blends with Albana, Catarratto, Cortese, Erbaluce, Favorita, Garganega, Grecanico, Incrocio Manzoni, Nuragus, Procanico, Ribolla Gialla, Verdeca, Vermentino and Viognier. It even blended into a dry White Zinfandel-style Nebbiolo wine that is made from the white juice of the red Nebbiolo grape prior to being dyed with skin contact. Most Chardonnay plantings are located in the northern wine regions, though plantings can be found throughout Italy as far south as Sicily and Apulia. In Piedmont and Tuscany, the grape is being planted in sites that are less favorable to Dolcetto and Sangiovese respectively. In Lombardy, the grape is often used for spumante and in the Veneto it is often blended with Garganega to give more weight and structure to the wine. Chardonnay is also found in the Valle d'Aosta DOC and Friuli-Venezia Giulia wine region.",
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"plaintext": "Due to quarantine restrictions, plant cuttings were often smuggled into South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s and many times were misidentified as to what grape variety it really was. A large portion of the Chardonnay plantings from this period turned out to be Auxerrois blanc. A similar event happened in the German wine region of Baden during the 1980s. By the late 1990s, efforts to promote \"authentic\" Chardonnay helped to increase plantings and by 2004 it was the third-most widely planted white wine grape behind Chenin blanc and Colombard. Winemakers in the Western Cape have experimented blending Chardonnay with Riesling and Sauvignon blanc.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of the regions discussed above, Chardonnay can be found in cooler climate sites in Italy, Greece, Israel and Lebanon as well as Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, England, Georgia, Germany, Slovakia, Hungary, Macedonia, Moldova, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Serbia, Switzerland and Ukraine. In Austria, the grape varieties known as Feinburgunder in Burgenland & Vienna and Morillon in Styria was not identified as Chardonnay till the late 1980s. Today, Austrian Chardonnays range from the rich, oaked aged varieties to leaner, more aromatic styles based on Austrian Rieslings to sweet late harvest styles. In nearby Germany, this distinctly French wine grape was slow to gain a footing being only officially sanctioned since 1991. Today it is most commonly found in the Baden, Palatinate and Rheinhessen regions. In Switzerland, Chardonnay is found mostly around Bündner Herrschaft, Geneva and Valais. In Spain, Chardonnay has been increasingly used in the sparkling wine Cava. It is also permitted in the denominación de origen (DO) wines of Costers del Segre, Navarra and Somontano. In the wine regions of the former Soviet Union, Chardonnay has lagged behind in white wine grapes plantings in favor Rkatsiteli, Aligote and Riesling. The Portuguese experimentation with Chardonnay has been mostly influenced by flying winemakers from Australia and the examples produced so far are very New World in style.",
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"plaintext": "In the cool-climate wine regions of Argentina's Uco Valley, Chardonnay has started to develop a presence. In the 1990s, Chardonnay became the second most widely planted white grape variety in Argentina-second only Torrontés. India and Uruguay have been steadily increasing their plantings.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay lends itself to almost any style of wine making from dry still wines, to sparkling wines to sweet late harvest and even botrytized wines (though its susceptibility to other less favorable rot makes these wines rarer). The two winemaking decisions that most widely affect the end result of a Chardonnay wine is whether or not to use malolactic fermentation and the degree of oak influence used for the wine. With malolactic fermentation (or MLF), the harder malic acid gets converted into the softer lactic acid, and diacetyl which creates the \"buttery-ness\" that is associated with some styles of Chardonnay. The wines that do not go through MLF will have more green (unripe) apple like flavors. Oak can be introduced during fermentation or after in the form of the barrel aging. Depending on the amount of charring that the oak was treated with, this can introduce a \"toastiness\" and flavors that many wine drinkers mistake as a characteristic of the grape itself. These flavors can include caramel, cream, smoke, spice, coconut, cinnamon, cloves and vanilla.",
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"plaintext": "Other winemaking decisions that can have a significant effect include the temperature of fermentation and what time, if any, that the wine allowed to spend aging on the lees. Burgundian winemaking tends to favor extended contact on the lees and even \"stirring up\" the lees within the wine while it is aging in the barrel in a process known as bâtonnage. Colder fermentation temperatures produces more \"tropical\" fruit flavors like mango and pineapple. The \"Old World\" style of winemaking favors the use of wild, or ambient yeast, though some will also use specially cultivated yeast that can impart aromatic qualities to the wine. A particular style of yeast used in Champagne is the Prise de Mousse that is cultivated for use worldwide in sparkling Chardonnay wines. A potential drawback of using wild yeast is that the fermentation process can go very slow with the results of the yeasts being very unpredictable and producing potentially a very different wine each year. One Burgundian winemaker that favors the use of only wild yeast is Domaine des Comtes Lafon which had the fermentation of its 1963 Chardonnay batch take 5 years to complete when the fermentation process normally only takes a matter of weeks.",
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"plaintext": "The time of harvesting is a crucial decision because the grape quickly begins to lose acidity as it ripens. For sparkling wine production, the grapes will be harvested early and slightly unripe to maintain the acid levels. Sparkling Chardonnay based wines tend to exhibit more floral and steely flavors in their youth. As the wine ages, particularly if it spends significant time on lees, the wines will develop \"toasty\" notes. Chardonnay grapes usually have little trouble developing sugar content, even in cooler climates, which translates into high potential alcohol levels and limits the need for chaptalization. On the flip side, low acid levels can be a concern which make the wine taste \"flabby\" and dull. Winemakers can counteract this by adding tartaric acid in a process known as \"acidification\". In cooler climates, the extract and acidity of Chardonnay is magnified which has the potential of producing very concentrated wines that can develop through bottle aging. Chardonnay can blend well with other grapes and still maintain some of its unique character. The grapes most often blended with Chardonnay include Chenin blanc, Colombard and Sémillon.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the \"malleability\" of Chardonnay in winemaking and its ability to reflect its terroir, there is not one distinct universal \"style\" or set of constants that could be applied to Chardonnay made across the globe. According to Jancis Robinson, a sense of \"smokiness\" is one clue that could be picked up in a blind tasting of Chardonnay but there are many styles that do not have any \"smokey\" notes. Compared to other white wine grapes like Sauvignon blanc, Gewürztraminer and Viognier-Chardonnay has a more subtle and muted nose with no overwhelming aromatics that jump out of the wine glass. The identifying styles of Chardonnay are regionally based. For example, pineapple notes are more commonly associated with Chardonnay from Napa Valley while Chablis will have more notes of green apples. While many examples of Chardonnay can benefit from a few years of bottle aging, especially if they have high acidity, most Chardonnays are meant to be consumed in their youth. A notable exception to this is the most premium examples of Chablis and white Burgundies.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the wide range of styles, Chardonnay has the potential to be paired with a diverse spectrum of food types. It is most commonly paired with roast chicken and other white meats such as turkey. Heavily oak influenced Chardonnays do not pair well with more delicate fish and seafood dish. Instead, those wines tend to go better with smoked fish, spicy southeast Asian cuisine, garlic and guacamole dips. The regional influences of Chardonnay can help it pair with different food styles. Chardonnays from Washington, which is characterized by maintaining more acidity, tend to pair well with tomato-based dishes and items featuring sweet onions. Older, more mellow Chardonnays are often paired with more \"earthy\" dishes like mushroom soup and aged cheese.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay long had a reputation as one of France's great white wines, but due to the dominance of geographical labeling, the fact that Chardonnay was the grape behind white Burgundy was not widely known by the wine-drinking public. The success of California and new world Chardonnays, partly encouraged by the Californian showing at the Judgment of Paris wine tasting, brought varietal wine labeling to more prominence and the easy to pronounce Chardonnay grape was one of the largest beneficiaries. In the late 1980s, a sort of \"Chardonnay-mania\" developed as wine regions (particularly new and developing ones) dramatically increased their planting of the grape to meet the worldwide demand.",
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"plaintext": "As more vineyards responded with massive new plantings of the variety, they found that fashions were changing again. The market was drinking more red wine, and there was a backlash against heavy, oaky, New World Chardonnays in favor of lighter wines such as Pinot grigio. There was a new fashion, \"ABC\" – Anything But Chardonnay, identified by Frank Prial in 1995. Another reason for the backlash was that Chardonnay was seen as a symbol of the globalization of wine, in which local grape varieties were grubbed up in favor of the big names demanded by international markets. Oz Clarke described a view of Chardonnay as \"the ruthless coloniser and destroyer of the world's vineyards and the world's palates.\" The criticism was centered on the habits of winemakers to pull out or give up on local varieties in order to plant more Chardonnay which offered potentially more income but lack the uniqueness and character of local varieties. Examples of this occurred in south Italy and Spain when ancient Negroamaro, Primitivo, Grenache and Mataro vineyards were ripped up in favor of new Chardonnay plantings.",
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"plaintext": "Chardonnay became very fashionable in the 1990s, as the stereotypical drink of young urban women of the Bridget Jones generation.",
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"plaintext": "By 2002, the association of chardonnay with suburban, unsophisticated tastes was being explored in Australian TV show Kath & Kim, where lower middle class characters mispronounce the varietal as 'kardonnay'.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the backlash, Chardonnay remains very popular. In 2004 Chardonnay was estimated to be the world's 6th most widely grown grape variety, covering .",
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"plaintext": "Currently trials are being run on genetically modified Chardonnay. Trials are underway in the US and South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the worldwide recognition of the name of \"Chardonnay\", many of these synonyms have fallen out of favor as winemakers use the more marketable Chardonnay:",
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"plaintext": "Arboisier, Arnaison blanc, Arnoison, Aubain, Aubaine, Auvergnat blanc, Auvernas, Auvernas blanc, Auvernat blanc, Auxeras, Auxerras blanc, Auxerrois blanc, Auxois, Auxois blanc, Bargeois blanc, Beaunois, Biela Klevanjika, Blanc de Champagne, Blanc de Cramant, Breisgauer Suessling, Breisgauer Sussling, Burgundi Feher, Chablis, Chardenai, Chardenay, Chardenet, Chardennet, Chardonay, Chardonnet, Chatenait, Chatey Petit, Chatte, Chaudenay, Chaudenet, Chaudent, Clävner, Clevner Weiss, Cravner, Epinette, Epinette blanc, Epinette blanche, Epinette de Champagne, Ericey blanc, Feher Chardonnay, Feherburgundi, Feinburgunder, Gamay blanc, Gelber Weissburgunder, Gentil blanc, Grosse Bourgogne, Klawner, Klevanjka Biela, Klevner, Lisant, Luisant, Luizannais, Luizant, Luzannois, Maconnais, Maurillon blanc, Melon blanc, Melon D'Arbois, Meroué, Moreau blanc, Morillon blanc, Moulon, Noirien blanc, Obaideh, Petit Chatey, Petit Sainte-Marie, Petite Sainte Marie, Pineau blanc, Pino Sardone, Pino Shardone, Pinot Blanc à Cramant, Pinot Blanc Chardonnay, Pinot Chardonnay, Pinot de Bourgogne, Pinot Giallo, Pinot Planc, Plant de Tonnerre, Romere, Romeret, Rouci Bile, Rousseau, Roussot, Ruländer Weiß, Sainte Marie Petite, Sardone, Shardone, Shardonne, Später Weiß Burgunder, Weiß Burgunder (normally refers to Pinot blanc), Weiß Clevner, Weiß Edler, Weiß Elder, Weiß Klewner, Weiß Silber, Weißedler, Weißer Clevner, Weißer Rulander.",
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"plaintext": " Great Chardonnay Showdown",
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"plaintext": "The two major Chinese philosophical schools discussed below, Confucianism and Legalism, strongly influenced the idea of law in China. Briefly, under Confucianism, the state should lead the people with virtue and thus create a sense of shame which will prevent bad conduct. Under Legalism, law is to be publicly promulgated standards of conduct backed by state coercion. The tension between these two systems is that Confucianism relies on tradition to make the leader the head of household of all China, while Legalism makes standard law that even the emperor should be bound by. The common factor is that both endorse to different degrees a paternalistic conception of the state, which knows better than its citizens and makes laws to protect them. This concept persisted throughout the imperial period, into the republican period, and can still be seen acting today.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike many other major civilizations where written law was held in honor and often attributed to divine origin, law in early China was viewed in purely secular terms, and its initial appearance was greeted with hostility by Confucian thinkers as indicative of a serious moral decline, a violation of human morality, and even a disturbance of the total cosmic order. Historically, the people's awareness and acceptance of ethical norms was shaped far more by the pervasive influence of custom and usage of property and by inculcating moral precepts than by any formally enacted system of law. Early emperors however embraced the Legalist ideal as a way of exerting control over their large and growing territory and population. This process was integrated with traditional Chinese beliefs in the cosmic order, holding that correct behavior was behavior consonant with the appropriate responses set by fǎ. Xíng states the potential costs to the individual of exceeding them and imposes penalties for these actions.",
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"plaintext": "The imperial period was characterized mainly by the concept of law as serving the state, a means of exerting control over the citizenry. In the late Qing dynasty there were efforts to reform the law codes mainly by importing German codes with slight modifications. This effort continued and was amplified in the republican period resulting in the Provisional Constitution of 1912 which included the idea of equality under the law, rights for women, and broader rights for citizens vis-à-vis the government. The onset of the communist period at first rolled back the development of individual rights with the primary concept of law returning to that of a tool of the state. After the Cultural Revolution devastated the ranks of intellectuals and legal professionals, it took until 1982 for the idea of individual rights to reemerge as a significant influence on Chinese law.",
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"plaintext": "The current constitution, created in 1982, states in Article V that no organization or individual is above the law and in Article III makes the People’s Congresses and state administration responsible to the people, paving the way for later efforts to allow enforcement of individual rights. Passage of the Administrative Litigation Law of 1987 created legal recourse for individuals from arbitrary government action, an avenue previously unavailable. Despite the deep-seated norm against legal proceedings, litigation in the Chinese courts has increased dramatically, especially in recent years. The continuing weakness of courts resulting from their dependence on the local government for financial support and enforcement undermines the effectiveness of these remedies but this has also begun to change with China’s initiatives to increase legal training and the professionalism of the judiciary.",
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"plaintext": "One avenue of individual appeal from government action which continues to be important is the custom of xìnfǎng 信访 (or shàngfǎng 上访) or petitions by citizens to the individuals officials for change. The continuing wide use of xìnfǎng reflects the fact that many officials are still able to avoid legal sanctions and the underlying avoidance of the legal system, as well as the personal ability of officials to personally intervene to change unjust results. Recently xìnfǎng has been institutionalized to some extent with the central government mandating that every level of administration establish a xìnfǎng office to handle petitions and report them up to high levels. This solution by exertion of personal power clearly goes against the idea of rule of law, and worse, some scholars have noted that xìnfǎng today functions more as an informational collection system for the government than an effective review mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "Confucianism and Legalism are two major Classical legal theories or philosophies developed during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, a time that saw the most impressive proliferation of new ideas and philosophies in Chinese history. While both theories call for governmental hierarchy, they differ drastically in their views of human potential and the preferred means to achieve political order. Nevertheless, both theories have influenced and continue to influence the development of cultural, social, and legal norms in China.",
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"plaintext": "The basic premise of Confucianism is the idea that human beings are fundamentally good. With this optimistic view on human potential, Confucius advocates for ruling through li – traditional customs, mores, and norms – which allow people to have a sense of shame and become humane people with good character, rather than through government regulations and penal law. The idea is that people will internalize the acceptable norms and only take proper actions. This will not only lead to a harmonious social order, but it will also provide the additional benefit of improving an individual’s inner character and the overall quality of the society. In contrast, codified laws require external compliance, and people may abide by the laws without fully understanding the reason for compliance. As such, a social order achieved through formal laws does not come with the additional benefit of better citizenry. It is worth noting, however, that even Confucius did not advocate for the elimination of formal laws. Rather, according to Confucius, laws should be used minimally and reserved only for those that insist on pursuing one’s self-interests without taking into account the well-being of the society.",
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"plaintext": "As Confucius rejects the general use of formal laws to achieve social order, what lies vital to Confucius’ theory is the willing participation by citizens of the society to search for commonly accepted, cooperative solutions. In addition to willing participation of citizens, there must also be grounds or bases upon which commonly acceptable solutions can be arrived at – the concept known as li. Li is commonly understood as a set of culturally and socially valued norms that provide guidance to proper behaviors that will ultimately lead to a harmonious society. These norms are not fixed or unchangeable over time but rather a reflection of what is accepted at a particular time in a particular context. When conflicts arise, the li have to be applied and interpreted to produce a just result and restore the harmony of the society. However, in the absence of any procedural safeguard afforded by codified laws, interpretation of li is subject to abuse.",
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"plaintext": "Recognizing that people in a society hold diverse interests, Confucius charges the ruler with the responsibility to unify these interests and maintain social order. This is not done by dictatorship but by setting an example. Therefore, a ruler needs not to force his people to behave properly. Instead, the ruler needs only to make himself respectful, and the people will be induced and enlightened by his superior virtues to follow his example – an ideal known as wúwéi. Nevertheless, the ruler must know and understand the li to be able to create solutions to conflict and problems the society faces. As the people are to follow the moral standards and example set by the ruler, to a large extent, the quality of the ruler determines the quality of the political order.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to Confucius’ li-based theory, the Legalism advocates the utilization of codified laws and harsh punishment to achieve social order. This is due to the legalists’ belief that all human beings are born evil and self-interested. Therefore, if left unrestrained, people would engage in selfish behavior which will undoubtedly lead to social unrest. To cure this defect and force people to behave morally, the only way, believed the legalists, is to publicly promulgate clearly written laws and impose harsh punishments.",
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"plaintext": "Realizing that the abilities of rulers are often limited and that reliance on the ruler’s ability and judgment often leads to adverse results, the legalists designed a system in which the law is run by the state, not the ruler. This ensures that the laws will be applied impartially without the interference of personal bias of the ruler or ones who are responsible for applying the laws. It also makes it irrelevant whether the ruler has superior abilities. This non-action promoted by the legalists is their understanding of the concept of wuwei, which is different from the Confucians’ understanding of the same concept.",
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"plaintext": "Notwithstanding such an understanding, the ruler, like in Confucianism, has the ultimate authority to decide what the law should be. Therefore, like Confucianism, Legalism is subject to abuse as well. In fact, the Qin emperor implemented strict laws and extremely harsh punishments without taking into account mitigating circumstances even for insignificant crimes. For example, books were burned and people holding different ideals were buried alive. While the Qin emperor successfully instilled fear and respect for law into the minds of his people, the harshness of the law led to his quick demise after only 14 years of reigning over China.",
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"plaintext": "In summary, although both Confucianism and Legalism were developed in a period of turmoil and both were aimed at the re-unification of the country, the two theories went opposite directions with one advocating for and one against the use of formal laws to achieve social order. What the two theories have in common is their concession of the ultimate authority to the ruler, who remained above and beyond the li or law. It is true that neither theory is ideal in achieving a social order. Nevertheless, both theories have had a significant impact on the cultural and legal development in China, and their influence remains visible today.",
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"plaintext": "The significant influence of the Legalist tradition in Chinese law has historically been overlooked. Although the Confucian ideology provided the fundamentals for the substance of traditional law, the Legalist school constructed the important framework of the traditional legal system. The Han dynasty retained the basic legal system established under the Qin but modified some of the harsher aspects in line with the Confucian philosophy of social control.",
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"plaintext": "The Han dynasty formally recognized four sources of law: lü (律: \"codified laws\"), ling (令: \"the emperor's order\"), ke (科: \"statutes inherited from previous dynasties\") and bi (比: \"precedents\"), among which ling has the highest binding power over the other three. Most legal professionals were not lawyers but generalists trained in philosophy and literature. The local, classically trained, Confucian gentry played a crucial role as arbiters and handled all but the most serious local disputes.",
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"plaintext": "Eventually, the incorporation of the essentials of Confucianist li into legal codes occurred with this Confucian conception dominating ancient Chinese law. Ch'ü concludes that the gradual process of Confucianisation of law was the most significant development in the legal system of China prior to 20th century modernization. The line between ruling by moral influence and ruling by punishment was not always clearly delineated. For example, li could be enforced by moral influence and legal means. The metamorphosis of li into law depended on its widespread and unvaried acceptance by society.",
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"plaintext": "Although the codification of law was largely completed by the Tang Code of CE 624, throughout the centuries the Confucian foundations of the Tang Code were retained, and indeed with some aspects of it strengthened by the later dynasties. The Great Ming Code, which was a model for the Qing code, covered every part of social and political life, especially family and ritual, but also foreign relations and even relations of earthly life with the cosmos. ",
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"plaintext": "The Confucian notion that morality and self-discipline was more important than legal codes caused many historians, such as Max Weber, until the mid-20th century to conclude that law was not an important part of Imperial Chinese society. This notion, however, has come under extreme criticism and is no longer the conventional wisdom among Sinologists, who have concluded that Imperial China had an elaborate system of both criminal and civil law which was comparable to anything found in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "During the Qing dynasty, criminal justice was based on extremely detailed Great Qing Legal Code. One element of the traditional Chinese criminal justice system is the notion that criminal law has a moral purpose, one of which is to get the convicted to repent and see the error of his ways. In the traditional Chinese legal system, a person could not be convicted of a crime unless he has confessed. This often led to the use of torture, in order to extract the necessary confession. These elements still influence modern Chinese views toward law. All capital offenses were reported to the capital and required the personal approval of the emperor.",
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"plaintext": "There was no civil code separate from the criminal code, which led to the now discredited belief that traditional Chinese law had no civil law. More recent studies have demonstrated that most of the magistrates' legal work was in civil disputes, and that there was an elaborate system of civil law which used the criminal code to establish torts.",
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"plaintext": "The introduction and translation of Western legal texts into Chinese is believed to have been started under the auspices of Lin Zexu in 1839. More systematic introduction of Western law together with other Western sciences started with the establishment of Tongwen Guan in 1862. The major efforts in translation of Western law that continued until the 1920s prepared the building blocks for modern Chinese legal language and Chinese law. Legal translation was very important from 1896 to 1936 during which period the Chinese absorbed and codified their version of Western laws. These efforts were assisted by the medium of the Japanese legal language and law developed in Japan during the Meiji period which involved in large part Japanese translation of European Continental laws.",
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"plaintext": "In the late Qing dynasty there was a concerted effort to establish legal codes based on European models. Because of the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War and because Japan was used as the model for political and legal reform, the law codes which were adopted were modeled closely after that of Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Attitudes toward the traditional Chinese legal system changed markedly in the late-20th century. Most Chinese and Westerners of the early 20th century regarded the traditional Chinese legal system as backward and barbaric. However, extensive research into China's traditional legal system has caused attitudes to become more favorable in the late-20th and early 21st centuries. Researchers of the early and mid-20th century tended to compare the traditional Chinese legal system to then contemporary systems, finding the former to be backward. However, more recent research compared the 18th-century Chinese legal system to European systems of the 18th century, resulting in a far more positive view of traditional Chinese law. ",
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"plaintext": "The Department of Punishment was changed to fa bu (法部: \"Department of Law\") in the early 1900s legal reforms.",
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"plaintext": "Law in the Republic of China (Taiwan) is mainly a civil law system. The legal structure is codified into the Six Codes: the Constitution, the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedures, the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedures and in Administrative Laws.",
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"plaintext": "After the Communist victory in 1949, the newly established People's Republic of China (PRC) quickly abolished the ROC's legal codes and attempted to create a system of socialist law copied from the Soviet Union. With the Sino-Soviet split (1960-1989) and the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), all legal work came under suspicion of being counter-revolutionary, and the legal system completely collapsed. A new concept of justice called judicial populism (sifa dazhonghua) was established. Instead of the requirement for judges to comply with strict judicial procedures, it promoted substantive justice and problem-solving mechanisms. This legal tradition is based on a cultural view of the non-finality in justice as well as the revolutionary practice of the Communist Party that relies on people's justice.",
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"plaintext": "Over the past century China has had several constitutions. The first attempts towards implementing a constitution in China occurred during the final decade (1902-1912) of the Qing dynasty. Various controlling groups subsequently promulgated different constitutions between that time and the establishment of the PRC in 1949. The PRC had a provisional constitution from its inception until the enactment of its first constitution in 1954. This initial constitution was based on the constitution of the Soviet Union. It was shortly ignored, however, and became without legal force. Although it provided for the election of the National People’s Congress (NPC) every four years as the highest state power, these guidelines were not adhered to. The second constitution of the PRC, modeled on the ideology of the Cultural Revolution, came into force in 1975. This constitution subjected the NPC to the Chinese Communist Party (\"CCP\") and removed previous constitutional protections such as equality under the law and private-property succession rights. It was also immediately disregarded through breaches of its provisions and non-adherence to guidelines regarding the NPC. The third constitution of the PRC was adopted in 1978. Although this version moved away from the ideologies of the Cultural Revolution, it did retain some remnants of it. It also retained Communist Party control over the state structure. However, reformists subsequently gained power, which led to the breakdown of this constitution as focus shifted to economic construction and modernization.",
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"plaintext": "With the start of the Deng Xiaoping reforms (ca 1979), the idea of reconstructing a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and developing a \"rule of law\" to replace rule by dictatorship began to gain traction. New laws were passed and foreign investors sought improvements in property rights which had not been a feature of Maoist government but there was internal conflict in China over the extent of incorporating foreign legal norms into the Chinese legal system. Chinese reformers sought to create a special arbitration body, independent of the local legal system, called the China International Economic Trade and Arbitration Commission (CIETAC). In 1982 Peng Zhen said \"It is necessary to draw on beneficial experiences—ancient of modern, Chinese or foreign—in studying the science of law...We study them in order to make the past serve the present and foreign things serve China\". Others who were more supportive of reforms like Qiao Shi still urged cauto against \"just copying blindly\" and Deng Xiaoping himself said \"we must pay attention to studying and absorbing foreign experience...However, we will never succeed if we mechanically copy the experiences and models of other countries\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1982 the National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable. Legal reconstruction occurred in piece-meal fashion. Typically, temporary or local regulations would be established; after a few years of experimentation, conflicting regulations and laws would be standardized.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of the PRC, enacted in 1982, reflects the model of the first PRC constitution. The Constitution provides for leadership through the working class, led in turn by the Communist Party. This Constitution also contains more extensive rights than any of the previous constitutions. The rights include equality before the law, political rights, religious freedom, personal freedom, social and economic rights, cultural and educational rights, and familial rights. These rights, however, are connected to social duties. The duties include safeguarding the unity, security, honor, and interests of the country, observing law and social ethics, paying taxes, and serving in the military. Neither the rights nor duties provided for in the Constitution are exhaustive.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution provides that the NPC is the supreme organ of state power over a structure of other people's congresses at various levels. The NPC has power to:",
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"plaintext": " amend the Constitution by a two-thirds majority",
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"plaintext": " promulgate legislation",
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"plaintext": " elect and remove highest-level officials",
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"plaintext": " determine the budget",
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"plaintext": " control economic and social-development planning",
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"plaintext": "The NPC also includes a Standing Committee that functions much as the NPC does when the NPC is not in session. Although the Standing Committee has had some powers since 1955, its law-making powers were initially provided for in the 1982 Constitution. The NPC sits at the highest level in the hierarchy of governmental structure in the PRC. This national level is followed in descending order by the provincial level (including autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the national level), the prefectural level, the county level, and the townships and towns level. Government members at the lower two levels are directly elected, and those at the higher levels are elected by the lower levels. In addition to the NPC, the provincial people's congresses possesses legislative power and can pass laws so long as they do not contravene the Constitution or higher legislation or administrative regulations.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution states its own supremacy. However, it has been theorized that the supremacy of the Communist Party means that the Constitution and law are not supreme, and that this perspective results from the Marxist view of law as simply a superstructure combined with a lack of recognition of rule of law in philosophical or historical tradition. Although the Constitution provides for legislative, executive, judicial, and procuratorial powers, they all remain subject to Communist Party leadership. Often, important political decisions are made through actions which are not regulated by the Constitution. Additionally, courts need not rely on the Constitution in deciding cases, and they may not review legislation for Constitutionality. Nonetheless, the Constitution does provide the linguistic framework for conducting government affairs and describing them in the media.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees, informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of the PRC's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties, is one innovative device. More than 800,000 such committees operate - in both rural and urban areas.",
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"plaintext": "In drafting the new laws, the PRC has not copied any other legal system wholesale, and the general pattern has involved issuing laws for a specific topic or location. Often laws are drafted on a trial basis, with the law being redrafted after several years. This process of creating a legal infrastructure piecemeal has led to many situations where the laws are missing, confusing, or contradictory, and has led to judicial decisions having more precedental value than in most civil law jurisdictions. In formulating laws, the PRC has been influenced by a number of sources, including traditional Chinese views toward the role of law, the PRC's socialist background, the German-based law of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the English-based common law used in Hong Kong.",
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"plaintext": "Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. The Chinese government has promoted a reform it often calls \"legalisation\" (法制化). Legalisation, among other things, has provided the régime with a gloss of legitimacy and has enhanced predictability. There have been major efforts in the rationalization and strengthening of the legal structure and institution building in terms of developing and improving the professionalism of the legislature, judiciary and legal profession. As market reforms have deepened and social inequality has widened, legal forums – ranging from mediation and arbitration commissions to courts – have come to play an increasingly prominent role.",
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"plaintext": "The 1994 Administrative Procedural Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal-procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal-law amendments abolished the crime of \"counter-revolutionary\" activity. However political dissidents are sometimes charged on the grounds of subverting state security or of publishing state secrets. Criminal-procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process. Minor crimes such as prostitution and drug use are sometimes dealt with under re-education through labor laws. The PRC constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but some have argued that they are often ignored in practice. (See Human rights in the People's Republic of China.)",
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"plaintext": "The basic principles of Chinese legislative drafting include generality and flexibility. Sometimes excessive generality and omissions in Chinese law, coupled with the wide discretionary powers conferred on local authorities to implement laws, undermines the predictability and certainty of law. Furthermore, as Chinese law is intended to be educative, the language of the law is that of the ordinary language comprehensible to the average citizen, although in reality many laws are drafted in broad and indeterminate language.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of a pending trade war with the United States of America over violations of intellectual property rights of American corporations in the early 1990s, the People's Republic of China's trademark law has been modified and offers significant protections to foreign trademark-owners.",
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"plaintext": "After their respective transfers of sovereignty, Hong Kong and Macau continue to practice English Common Law and Portuguese legal systems respectively, with their own courts of final appeal. In other words, Hong Kong and Macau lie outside of the legal jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China, except on constitutional issues.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the growing sophistication of Chinese laws, the expansion of the rule of law, as well as an influx of foreign law firms, China has also begun to develop a legal-services market. Foreign lawyers have accompanied foreign capital and their clients to China, which has had an immense influence on the promulgation of new Chinese laws based on international norms, especially in regards to intellectual property and corporate and securities law.",
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"plaintext": "On July 1, 1992, in order to meet growing demand, the Chinese government opened the legal-services market to foreign law-firms, allowing them to establish offices in China when the Ministry of Justice and the State Administration of Industry and Commerce (SAOIC) issued the Provisional Regulation of Establishment of Offices by Foreign Law Firms regulation.",
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"plaintext": "As a result, many foreign law firms, including the United States' Baker & McKenzie and Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, along with several British firms, incorporated consulting firms in their home countries or in Hong Kong and then set up subsidiaries in Beijing or Shanghai to provide legal services.",
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"plaintext": "However, many regulatory barriers to entry remain to protect the domestic legal industry. Issues relating to Chinese law must be referred to Chinese law firms, and foreign lawyers are also prohibited from interpreting or practicing Chinese law or from representing their clients in court. However, in reality many foreign law firms interpret laws and manage litigation by directing the local firms they must have cooperative relationships with. In this regard, China's restrictive legal market can be directly tied to a phobia of people asserting their legal rights in the face of rampant corruption. Information received from the State Council Legislative Office suggests that China may be allowing foreigners to sit the Chinese Lawyers Examination, or have a mutual recognition treaty with other countries to allow foreign lawyers to conduct non-litigation Chinese legal work.",
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"plaintext": "While China's legal market continues to open up, China's laws and regulations have helped the development of a number of domestic Chinese firms specializing in working with foreigners to meet the demand of a booming economy. According to Asia Law and Business magazine China Awards, the top China firms were King & Wood PRC Lawyers, Commerce & Finance Law Offices, Fangda Partners, Haiwen & Partners, Jun He Law Offices and Lehman, Lee & Xu.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, China started implementing legal reform, which revived the Maoist-era ideals adopted during the 1950s due to the position that the law is cold and unresponsive to the needs of its citizens. This initiative favored mediation over court trials when it came to resolving conflicts among citizens and conflicts between citizens and the state. It also revived judicial populism at the expense of judicial professionalism and was marked by the return of the mass-trial model used during the 1940s.",
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"plaintext": "The modern idea of legal rights was introduced to China from the West in the 19th century. Its translation as quánlì (权利) was coined by William Alexander Parsons Martin in 1864, in his translation of Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most commonly used phrases in contemporary China, by legal scholars and politicians alike, is fǎzhì (法治). Fǎzhì can be translated into English as \"rule of law\", but questions have often been asked whether Chinese leaders meant \"rule by law\", which means the instrumental use of laws by rulers to facilitate social control and to impose punishment as understood in the Legalist tradition. The related concepts of yīfǎ zhìguó (依法治国: \"governing the nation according to the rule of law\") and jiànshè shèhuì zhǔyì fǎzhì guójiā (建设社会主义法制国家: \"building a socialist rule of law state\") have been part of the Chinese Communist Party's official policy since the mid-1990s. In 1999, the NPC adopted an amendment to the Chinese Constitution, incorporating both concepts in Article 5.",
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"plaintext": "The existence of the rule of law in China has been widely debated. When discussing Chinese law, it is worth noting that various expressions have been used, including \"strengthening the law,\" \"tightening up the legal system,\" \"abiding by the law in administration,\" \"rule by law,\" and the \"rule of law\". Different shades of meanings have been attached to each of these terms, but Chinese officials and scholars have employed the expressions rather loosely and sometimes interchangeably. However, the central government had originally preferred the expression, \"strengthening the law/legal system\" to \"the rule of law\". It was thought that the latter might give a controversial connotation of the instrumentality, while the former conveyed a straightforward meaning of strengthening the law and institutions. \"Strengthening the law\" meant reform of legislation and enforcement of laws.",
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"plaintext": "There are differing theories of the rule of law. One theory is the \"thin\", or formal, theory of rule of law, and the other is the \"thick\" theory.",
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"plaintext": "The \"thin\" theory of rule of law is described by Randall Peerenboom as at the basest level incorporating a legal system that imposes meaningful restraints on the state and individuals in ruling power, that the law is supreme, and that all citizens are equal before the law (Peerenboom, 2). According to Lon Fuller’s account of thin theory, rule of law exists in a society when the laws of that society are \"general, public, prospective, clear, consistent, capable of being followed, stable, and enforced\" (Peerenboom, 3). The thin theory has also been explained by Joseph Raz as emphasizing the formal or instrumental aspects of a legal system regardless of whether it is part of a particular political structure, i.e. a democratic or non-democratic society. Thick theory rule of law espouses all the elements of thin theory in addition imposes a political, social, and economic concept into the rule of law. The rule of law is regarded by some as presupposing political or economic structures of liberal democracy, human rights and other ideal socio-legal order. Some scholars believe that given China's socialist and non-democratic political system and practice, it is at best regarded as a country of rule by law with law used by the state as an instrument for social control. However, others rely on the formal or thin theory of rule of law to interpret fazhi as a legal reality in China. Additionally, some believe that China may still fall short of the thin theory of rule of law.",
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"plaintext": "Of particular relevance to the second principle set out above, was the enactment of the Administrative Permission Law of the PRC (APL) on 27 August 2003, effective from July 2004. The APL for the first time requires all laws and regulations that subject any civil act to approval requirements to be published.",
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"plaintext": "The APL also provides that only those laws adopted by the National People’s Congress or its Standing Committee, administrative regulations promulgated by the State Council, and local regulations adopted by the local people’s congresses may impose administrative approval requirements. Individual ministries or agencies (central or local) do not have such powers except in specified circumstances. This is consistent with the hierarchy of laws and regulations provided under the Legislative Law of the PRC. The enactment of the APL represents an encouraging step forward.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the newly elevated role of courts in Chinese society, there still remains some consensus about defects in China’s legal system in regards to progressing towards the rule of law. Scholars point to the following defects as slowing movement toward rule of law. These include:",
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"plaintext": " First, the National People’s Congress is ineffective at executing its constitutional duty to legislate and supervise the government.",
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"plaintext": " Second, the Chinese Constitution is not treated as the supreme law, nor is it enforced.",
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"plaintext": " Third, the judiciary is not independent from political pressure. On the other hand, direct intervention in particular cases by the Chinese Communist Party has lessened in recent years, as has the direct influence of the party on the legislative process.",
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"plaintext": " Fourth, there is a high level of corruption among public officials. Personal favors, bribery, and taking of public monies are all too common at all levels of government.",
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"plaintext": " Finally, the legal profession is inadequate for lack of qualified attorneys and judges. This failure is being remedied by legislation aimed at instituting higher educational standards for judges, opening more courts and law schools throughout China.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2000s, the Weiquan movement began in the PRC, seeking to advance citizens' rights partly by petitioning for enforcement of existing laws, and partly through activism. Lawyers in the movement have seen some court victories, but in other cases they are unsuccessful.",
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"plaintext": "Lawyers in China have to swear an oath of loyalty to the Chinese Communist Party. Lawyers who refuse to follow the party line may have their license to practice law revoked.",
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"plaintext": " Three Supremes",
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"plaintext": " Deborah Cao, Chinese Law: A Language Perspective (Hants, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2004).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Albert Hung-Yee Chen, An Introduction to the Legal System of the People's Republic of China (1992).",
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"plaintext": " Neil J. Diamant et al. (ed.), Engaging the Law in China: State, Society, and Possibilities for Justice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).",
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"plaintext": " Phillip C. C. Huang, Code, Custom and Legal Practice in China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001).",
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"plaintext": " Xin Ren, Tradition of the Law and Law of the Tradition (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997).",
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"plaintext": " Scott Andy, China Briefing Business Guide: Mergers and Acquisition Law in China (Kowloon, Hong Kong: Asia Briefing Media, 2007).",
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"plaintext": " Ancient Chinese Theories of control (management study)",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Global-Regulation.com - Approximately 10,000 Chinese laws translated into English. Federal and state law, publicly available search engine.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Judicial independence should come first China Daily/Beijing Review 2005-11-15 (article on Peking University legal scholar He Weifang)",
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"plaintext": " LexisNexis China. Commercial legal information provider.",
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"plaintext": " Official law portal for Chinese law. Maintained by the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council",
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"plaintext": " Westlaw China. Commercial legal information provider.",
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"plaintext": "The head of government is either the highest or the second-highest official in the executive branch of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a group of ministers or secretaries who lead executive departments. In diplomacy, \"head of government\" is differentiated from \"head of state\" although in many countries, for example the United States, they are the same person.",
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"plaintext": "The authority of a head of government, such as a president, chancellor, or prime minister and the relationship between that position and other state institutions, such as the relation between the head of state and of the legislature, varies greatly among sovereign states, depending largely on the particular system of the government that has been chosen, won, or evolved over time.",
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"plaintext": "In most parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the de facto political leader of the government, and is answerable to at least one chamber of the legislature. Although there is often a formal reporting relationship to a head of state, the latter usually acts as a figurehead who may take the role of chief executive on limited occasions, either when receiving constitutional advice from the head of government or under specific provisions in a constitution.",
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"plaintext": "In presidential republics or in absolute monarchies, the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy, according to the constitution (or other basic laws) of the particular state.",
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"plaintext": "In semi-presidential systems, the head of government may answer to both the head of state and the legislature with the specifics provided by each country's constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958. In France, the president, the head of state, appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. However, the president must choose someone who can act effectively as an executive, but who also enjoys the support of France's legislature, the National Assembly, to be able to pass legislation. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party but the majority in the National Assembly is of a different party. Given that the majority party has greater control over state funding and primary legislation, the president is in effect forced to choose a prime minister from the opposition party to ensure an effective, functioning legislature. In this case, known as cohabitation, the prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the president's influence largely restricted to foreign affairs.",
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"plaintext": "In communist states, the General Secretary of the Communist Party is the supreme leader, serving as de facto head of state and government. In China, the de jure head of government is the Premier. The Chinese President is legally a ceremonial office, but the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (top leader in a one-party system) has always held this office since 1993 except for the months of transition.",
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"plaintext": "In directorial systems, the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people. A prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council, where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments.",
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"plaintext": "The most common title for a head of government is Prime Minister. This is used as a formal title in many states, but may also be an informal generic term to refer to whichever office is considered the principal minister under an otherwise styled head of state, as minister— Latin for servants or subordinates— is a common title for members of a government (but many other titles are in use, e.g. chancellor and secretary of state). Formally the head of state can also be the head of government as well (ex officio or by ad hoc cumulation, such as a ruling monarch exercising all powers himself) but otherwise has formal precedence over the Head of Government and other ministers, whether he is their actual political superior (ruling monarch, executive president) or rather theoretical or ceremonial in character (constitutional monarch, non-executive president). Various constitutions use different titles, and even the same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, where there is an elected legislative body checking the head of government, include the following. Some of these titles relate to governments below the national level (e.g. states or provinces).",
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"plaintext": " Chancellor (primarily in German-speaking countries; today used in Germany and Austria)",
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"plaintext": " Premier (from French premier ministre)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
56241
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " President of the Council of Ministers",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
623765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " President of the Council of State",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
29389369
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " President of the Executive Council",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
312395
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " President of the Government",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
623764
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " State Counsellor (used exclusively in Myanmar)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
50051849,
19457
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
39,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " State President (used exclusively in South Africa)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
363843
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Albanian: Kryeministër",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
18940550,
259136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bengali: For the Prime Minister of Bangladesh প্রধানমন্ত্রী/Pradhan Mantri (official); সরকার প্রধান/Sarkar Pradhan (lit: Head of the Government, informal); সংসদ নেতা/Sangsad Neta (lit: Leader of the parliament; only in parliament) ",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
21378419,
461887
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
18,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Basque:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
3738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leader of the Basque Country (Spain): Eusko Jaurlaritzako lehendakaria (literally, 'President of the Basque Government')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
20514897,
571473
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
15,
29
],
[
39,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leader of Navarre (Spain): Nafarroako Gobernuko lehendakaria (literally, 'President of the Government of Navarra')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
59731
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " president, generically: Lehendakari",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
571473
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
25,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bulgarian: Министър-председател (transliteration: Ministar-predsedatel, literally 'Minister President')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
4149,
335071
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Catalan:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
5282
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Andorra: Cap de Govern del Principat d'Andorra (literally: 'Head of Government of the Principality of Andorra')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
600,
7522121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
12
],
[
14,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the Balearic Islands (Spain): President/-a del Govern Balear",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
21336521,
34538591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
9,
25
],
[
35,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Catalonia (Spain): President/-a de la Generalitat de Catalunya (literally: 'President of the Generalitat of Catalonia')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
6822,
8767644
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
14
],
[
24,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Valencia (Spain): President/-a de la Generalitat Valenciana (literally: 'President of the Valencian Generalitat')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
63861,
32091483
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
13
],
[
23,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The terms 'head of government' and 'prime minister', generically: cap de govern and primer ministre or primera ministra, respectively",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chinese:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For the Premier of China: 总理 (zǒnglǐ)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
148489
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
9,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Czech: Předseda vlády (literally: 'Chairman of the Government')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
6343,
410283
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Danish: Statsminister (literally: 'Minister of the State')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
8227,
273720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dutch:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
19985174
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of the Netherlands: Minister-President, Eerste Minister (literally, 'First Minister') or Premier",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
21148,
273726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
35,
46
],
[
48,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Belgium, and as the term 'prime minister' generically: Eerste Minister or Premier",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
3343,
204622
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
31,
38
],
[
86,
101
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Estonian: Peaminister",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
10223,
787995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Finnish: Pääministeri",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
19984080,
231789
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Filipino",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
236489
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of state and government (President) of the Philippines: Pangulo ng Pilipinas",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
23440,
271126
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
57,
68
],
[
70,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " French:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For France, Belgium and Canada: Prime Minister of France; Prime Minister of Belgium; Prime Minister of Canada: Premier Ministre or Première Ministre, also as the term 'prime minister' generically.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
3343,
218751,
204622,
24135
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
20
],
[
33,
57
],
[
59,
84
],
[
86,
110
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Switzerland: Conseil Fédéral (literally, the 'Federal Council', considered the head of government as a group)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26748,
218299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
16
],
[
18,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galician (Spain): Presidente/-a da Xunta de Galicia (literally, 'President of the Council of Galicia')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26614365,
26902956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
19,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For Germany and Austria: Chancellor of Germany; Chancellor of Austria: Bundeskanzler (masc.) / Bundeskanzlerin (fem.)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26964606,
20890626,
60582,
213254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
24
],
[
26,
47
],
[
49,
70
],
[
72,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Switzerland: Schweizerischer Bundesrat (literally, the 'Swiss Federal Council', considered the head of government as a group)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26748,
218299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
16
],
[
18,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The term 'head of government,' generically: Regierungschef/-in",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The term 'prime minister,' generically: Ministerpräsident/-in; or Premierminister/-in",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " historically: Leitender Minister ('Senior Minister')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Greek: Πρωθυπουργός (transliteration: Prothipourgos)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
11887,
273647
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hebrew: ראש הממשלה (transliteration: Rosh HaMemshala)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
13450,
24898
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hindi/Hindustani/Urdu:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
13652
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The term 'head of government', generically: शासनप्रमुख (translit. Śāsanapramukha), literally:'Chief of government'",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The term 'Prime Minister', generically: प्रधानमन्त्री (translit. Pradhānamantrī), literally:'Chief of Ministers/Prime Minister'",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The other Hindustani term generically used for 'Prime Minister'(now used officially only in Pakistan with Urdu as official language) : वज़ीर-ए-आज़म/ (translit. Wazīr-ē-Āzam), lit.:'Grand Vizier/Prime Minister'",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For 'Prime Minister of India' : भारतीय प्रधानमन्त्री/भारत के प्रधानमन्त्री (translit. Bhāratiya Pradhānamantrī/Bhārat Kē Pradhānamantrī), translation:'Indian Prime Minister/Prime Minister of India'(this term is used by the Government of the Union and the State Governments of India, under the umbrella of \"Hindi Language\"); ",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
24452,
553883
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
29
],
[
224,
247
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For 'Prime Minister of Pakistan': / (translit. Wazīr-ē-Āzam Pākistān/Pākistān Kē Wazīr-ē-Āzam), This is the term used in India and Pakistan under the umbrella of Urdu, the Hindi term being, पाकिस्तानी प्रधानमन्त्री/पाकिस्तान के प्रधानमन्त्री (translit.Pākistānī Pradhānamantrī/Pākistān Kē Pradhānamantrī)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
461896,
14533,
23235,
32231,
13652
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
32
],
[
122,
127
],
[
132,
140
],
[
163,
167
],
[
173,
178
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Historically, various terms like Pradhānamantrī, Pradhān, Pantapradhān, Sadr-ē-Riyāsat, Sadr, Wazīr-ē-Āzam, Wazīr-ē-Ālā, Mahāmantrī, Wazīr-ē-Khazānā, Pēśwā, Dīwān, Dīwān Sāhib, Dīwān Bahādur, Dīwān Pramukh, Sadr-ul-Maham, Pantapramukh, Ālāmantrī, etc. have been used by various Empires, Kingdoms and Princely States of India as a title for the Prime Minister, some of these titles were also used by the sovereign of various kingdoms.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
13890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
279,
325
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hungarian: Miniszterelnök",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
13972,
378359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Irish: Leader of Ireland: Taoiseach",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
30814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
27,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Italian:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Italy: Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri della Repubblica Italiana (literally, 'President of the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
273741
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
38,
101
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " When referring to other prime ministers: Primo ministro or Prima ministra (masculine and feminine forms; literally 'prime minister')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For Switzerland: Consiglio Federale (literally, the 'Federal Council', considered the head of government as a group)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26748,
218299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
16
],
[
18,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Japan (Prime Minister): 首相 (Shushō)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Khmer:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
5216
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the Prime Minister of Cambodia: នាយករដ្ឋមន្ត្រី (Neayuk rothmontrey)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
334751
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
27,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Korean:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
16756
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the President of South Korea: Daetongryung",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
27019
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the Prime Minister of South Korea: Chongni(총리) or Gukmu Chonhni(국무총리)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
27019
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
27,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Latvian:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
43352
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Latvia: Ministru prezidents (literally, 'Minister President')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
17514,
481129
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
31,
37
],
[
39,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " When referring to other prime ministers: Premjerministrs",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lithuanian: Ministras pirmininkas",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
77242,
465599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Malay: In Malaysia, the head of government of the constituent states are expressed in the Malay language (either Ketua Menteri, \"chief minister\" in the Malaysian states without a monarchy (Malacca, Penang, Sabah and Sarawak), or Menteri Besar \"first minister\" in the sultanates and other monarchic states).",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
126630,
3607937,
583429,
33588423,
28678,
28258,
583429
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
11,
19
],
[
114,
127
],
[
190,
197
],
[
207,
212
],
[
217,
224
],
[
230,
243
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maltese: In Malta, the head of government is \"Prim Ministru\".",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
19031,
19137
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
13,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Māori: Pirimia, (literally, 'Premier', the former title for the Prime Minister of New Zealand.)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
50788,
106321
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
65,
94
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norwegian: Statsminister",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
21704,
220458
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Polish:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
22975
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Poland: Prezes Rady Ministrów ('President of Council of Ministers', literally: 'Chairman of the Council of Ministers')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
22936,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
31,
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],
[
39,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the term 'prime minister' in general: Premier (also, informally, to the head of government of Poland)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Portuguese:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
23915
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Brazil: Presidente/-a da República Federativa do Brasil (literally, 'President of the Federal Republic of Brazil')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
3383,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
11
],
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13,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For Portugal and as the term 'prime minister' in general: Primeiro-ministro or Primeira-ministra (masculine and feminine forms, literally 'prime minister' or 'first minister')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
23033,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
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],
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59,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Romanian: Prim-ministru",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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],
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11,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russian: Prem'yer-ministr",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
339344
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sinhalese: ශ්රී ලංකා අග්රාමාත්ය Shri Lanka Agramathya (literally: 'Sri Lanka Prime Minister')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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],
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12,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slovak: Predseda vlády (literally: 'Chairman of the Government')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
28136,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slovene: Predsednik Vlade (literally: 'Chairman of the Government')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
28135,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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],
[
10,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spanish:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government of Spain: Presidente/-a del gobierno de España (literally: 'President of the Government')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
203556
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
38,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " When referring to other prime ministers: Primer ministro or Primera Ministra (masculine and feminine forms; literally 'prime minister')",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The term 'head of government', generically: jefe del gobierno",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Swahili: Sultan",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
28450,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Swedish: Statsminister (\"prime minister\", literally: \"state minister\")",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
26689,
195846
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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],
[
10,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thai:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
48647
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " For the head of government (Prime Minister) of Thailand: Nayok rathamontri",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish: Başbakan",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In a broader sense, a head of government can be used loosely when referring to various comparable positions under a dominant head of state (especially is the case of ancient or feudal eras, so the term \"head of government\", in this case, could be considered a contradiction in terms). In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch and holds no more power than the monarch allows. Some such titles are diwan, mahamantri, pradhan, wasir or vizier.",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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],
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],
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],
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],
[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "However, just because the head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader. A skilled head of government like 19th-century German statesman Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia and later Chancellor of Germany under Emperor/King Wilhelm I, serves as an example showing that possession of formal powers does not equal political influence.",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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],
[
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],
[
272,
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],
[
300,
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],
[
308,
312
],
[
313,
322
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In some cases, the head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion. Such titles include the following:",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mayor of the palace of the Merovingian kingdoms",
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nawab wasir of the Mughal Empire (also governor of Awadh)",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
],
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52,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peshwa of Satara and the Maratha empire",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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1,
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11,
17
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26,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shōgun in feudal Japan",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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28943
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sultan in the original case of the Seljuk Turks who made the caliphs of Baghdad their puppets; later both styles were often used for absolute rulers in Nepal",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
7
],
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36,
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],
[
62,
68
],
[
73,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In some models the head of state and head of government are one and the same. These include:",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " President (chief executive)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
24110
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " An absolute monarch reigning and ruling without a separate principal minister",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
67366
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
4,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chief magistrate",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
3262111
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Führer (used in Nazi Germany for Adolf Hitler)",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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21212,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
17,
29
],
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34,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Supreme leader",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
9523940
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " A State Governor in the United States (subnational executives)",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
10179899
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "An alternative formula is a single chief political body (e.g., presidium) which collectively leads the government and provides (e.g. by turns) the ceremonial Head of state. The only state in which this system is currently employed is Switzerland but other countries such as Uruguay have employed it in the past. This system is described as the directorial system.",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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234,
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],
[
274,
281
],
[
282,
310
],
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344,
362
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sultan of Brunei",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " King of Saudi Arabia",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "See Head of state for further explanation of these cases.",
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"section_name": "Titles of respective heads of government",
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13456
],
"anchor_spans": [
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4,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In parliamentary systems, government functions along the following lines:",
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"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The head of government— usually the leader of the majority party or coalition— forms the government, which is answerable to parliament;",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
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6036
],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Full answerability of government to parliament is achieved through",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The ability of parliament to pass a vote of no confidence.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
208101
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The ability to vote down legislative proposals of the government.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Control over or ability to vote down fiscal measures and the budget (or supply); a government is powerless without control of the state finances. In a bicameral system, it is often the so-called lower house (e.g. the British House of Commons) that exercises the major elements of control and oversight; however, in some (e.g. Australia, Italy), the government is constitutionally or by convention answerable to both chambers/Houses of Parliament.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "All of these requirements directly impact the Head of government's role. Consequently, they often play a 'day to day' role in parliament, answering questions and defending the government on the 'floor of the House', while in semi-presidential systems they may not be required to play as much of a role in the functioning of parliament.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "In many countries, the Head of government is commissioned by the Head of state to form a government, on the basis of the strength of party support in the lower house; in some other states, he or she is directly elected by parliament. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament (they must resign on becoming ministers).",
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"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Resignation, following:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Defeat in a general election.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Defeat in a leadership vote at their party caucus, to be replaced by another member of the same party.",
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"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Defeat in a parliamentary vote on a major issue, e.g., loss of supply, loss of confidence. (In such cases, a head of government may seek a parliamentary dissolution from the Head of state and attempt to regain support by popular vote.)",
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"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Dismissal— some constitutions allow a Head of state (or their designated representative, as is the case in some Commonwealth countries) to dismiss a Head of government, though its use can be controversial, as occurred in 1975 when then Australian Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in the Australian Constitutional Crisis.",
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"section_name": "Parliamentary heads of government",
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"plaintext": " Death— in this case, the deputy Head of government typically acts as the head of government until a new head of government is appointed.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Constitutions differ in the range and scope of powers granted to the head of government. Some older constitutions; for example, Australia's 1900 text, and Belgium's 1830 text; do not mention their prime ministerial offices at all, the offices became a de facto political reality without a formal constitutional status. Some constitutions make a Prime Minister (first among equals) and that remains the practical reality for the Prime Minister of Belgium and the Prime Minister of Finland. Other states however, make their head of government a central and dominant figure within the cabinet system; Ireland's Taoiseach, for example, alone can decide when to seek a parliamentary dissolution, in contrast to other countries where this is a cabinet decision, with the Prime Minister just one member voting on the suggestion. In Israel, while the Government is nominally a collegiate body with a role for the Prime Minister, the Israeli Prime Minister is the dominant figure in the executive branch in practice. The Prime Minister of Sweden, under the 1974 Instrument of Government, is a constitutional office with all key executive powers either directly at his or her disposal or indirectly through the collegial Government, whose members are all appointed and dismissed at the Prime Minister's sole discretion.",
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"plaintext": "Under the unwritten British constitution, the prime minister's role has evolved, based often on the individual's personal appeal and strength of character, as contrasted between, for example, Winston Churchill as against Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher as against John Major. It is alleged that the increased personalisation of leadership in a number of states has led to heads of government becoming themselves \"semi-presidential\" figures, due in part to media coverage of politics that focuses on the leader and his or her mandate, rather than on parliament; and to the increasing centralisation of power in the hands of the head of government. Such allegations have been made against two former British Prime ministers: Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair. They were also made against Italian prime ministers Silvio Berlusconi and Matteo Renzi, Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau and Federal Chancellor of West Germany (later all of Germany), Helmut Kohl, when in power.",
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"plaintext": "The head of government is often provided with an official residence, often in the same fashion as heads of state often are. The name of the residence is often used as a metonym or alternative title for 'the government' when the office is politically the highest, e.g. in the UK \"Downing Street announced today…\"",
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"plaintext": "Well-known official residences of heads of government include:",
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"section_name": "Official residence",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 10 Downing Street in London— Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (who also has a country residence, Chequers)",
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"section_name": "Official residence",
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1,
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],
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30,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Lodge in Canberra— Prime Minister of Australia (with an additional residence, Kirribilli House, in Sydney)",
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"section_name": "Official residence",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " 24 Sussex Drive in Ottawa— Prime Minister of Canada (who also has a country residence, Harrington Lake)",
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"section_name": "Official residence",
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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28,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Premier House in Wellington— Prime Minister of New Zealand",
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"section_name": "Official residence",
"target_page_ids": [
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106321
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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30,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " 7, Lok Kalyan Marg in New Delhi— Prime Minister of India",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Official residence",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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34,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Catshuis in The Hague— Prime Minister of the Netherlands",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Official residence",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": "In season three's \"Birthday\", Cordelia learns from the demon Skip (David Denman) that her visions are slowly killing her because human beings are not strong enough to control them. To save her life, Cordelia accepts Skip's offer to alter history so that she never met Angel in L.A., instead landing her big break as an actress. However, even in this alternate timeline, Cordelia feels compelled to help others and eventually crosses paths with Angel again, who received the visions in her place and is now insane. Unable to let her friend suffer, Cordelia has Skip return the timeline to normal, and agrees to become half-demon, with new powers, in order to harbor the visions safely. This season also sees Angel become a father, with Cordelia stepping in to mother the infant Connor until he is kidnapped into a hell dimension in the episode \"Sleep Tight\", only to emerge as a disturbed teenager (Vincent Kartheiser) in \"The Price\". In the episode \"Waiting in the Wings\", Angel realizes he has romantic feelings for Cordelia, but is prevented from voicing them by the return of Groosalugg. Cordelia dates Groosalugg for the remainder of the season, but Groo notices she loves Angel instead and decides to leave. In the season finale, Cordelia arranges to meet Angel to confess her feelings, but is prevented from doing so by Skip, who informs her that she has become a higher being. Cordelia accepts her duty, and leaves Earth for another dimension. In season four, Cordelia feels trapped in her position as a higher being, and so in the episode \"The House Always Wins\" she returns to Earth in an amnesiac state. In \"Spin the Bottle\", her memories are returned via a spell, along with a vision of a mysterious Beast (Vladimir Kulich). Afterward, she admits to Angel the feelings she once had for him. As L.A. succumbs to the apocalypse in season four's \"Apocalypse, Nowish\", Cordelia begins to behave out-of-character; she seduces Connor, murders Lilah (Stephanie Romanov) in the episode \"Calvary\", commands the Beast in \"Salvage\", and magically battles former friend Willow to keep Angel from his soul in the episode \"Orpheus\". In season four's \"Players\", the team realize that the now pregnant Cordelia is possessed, so Cordelia takes the unstable Connor on the run with her so they may give birth to their supernatural offspring, Jasmine (Gina Torres). In \"Inside Out\", Skip explains that Jasmine is his master, and a higher being who possessed Cordelia before her returning to Earth, manipulating events to be born in a new body of her own.",
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"plaintext": "Cordelia falls into a post-natal coma for the remainder of season four. Following an eleven-episode absence, Cordelia returns to Angel in season five, in the 100th episode \"You're Welcome\". Having (apparently) awoken from her coma, Cordelia reunites with Angel Investigations, who she discovers have taken over Wolfram & Hart since their defeat of Jasmine. She chastises Angel for accepting W&H's \"deal with the devil\" and reminds him of his true mission and higher calling. Together, they face and defeat their old enemy, Lindsey McDonald (Christian Kane) who had been impersonating Doyle in an attempt to destroy Angel. In the episode's closing moments, Cordelia reiterates to Angel that she loves him and kisses him, shortly before he receives a phone call reporting that Cordelia died that morning in the hospital. When Angel turns around, Cordelia is gone. It is later revealed that this encounter - the Powers That Be repaying their debt to Cordelia - allowed Cordelia to pass one last vision over to Angel, giving him the knowledge he needs to bring down the Circle of the Black Thorn.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2001 and 2004, Joss Whedon and Jeph Loeb developed a 4-minute pilot episode for Buffy the Animated Series, which was set during the show's first season. Had the series been picked up by a network, it would have featured Cordelia (voiced by Charisma Carpenter) in more high-school adventures. Following a 2008 leak of the pilot to YouTube, Loeb expressed some hope that the series may be resurrected in some form.",
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"plaintext": "Cordelia also appears in comic books and novels based on the Buffy and Angel television series. The Cordelia Collection, Vol. 1 by Nancy Krulik is a novelization of the Buffy episodes \"Out of Mind, Out of Sight\", \"Some Assembly Required\" and \"Homecoming\". These episodes tell specific incidents in which Cordelia becomes targeted: by a scorned classmate, to become a zombie's bride and by hunters in a case of mistaken identity. She appears in numerous Angel novels as a member of Angel Investigations, but some feature Cordelia more prominently; in Not Forgotten she uncovers exploitation of child immigrants, while in Haunted she appears as a contestant on a supernatural-themed reality television show when she has a vision about another applicant. Cordelia appears in the majority of Angel comics, published by Dark Horse Comics during 2000–2002 and set between episodes of the television series. She appears less frequently in those by IDW Publishing between 2005 and 2011, mainly in stories set in and after the fifth season. Cordelia typically plays a minimal role in the Dark Horse Angel comics. However, issue seventeen was a \"Cordelia Special\", in which demonic items are stashed in Cordelia's apartment. In the Dark Horse Presents story \"Lovely dark and deep\", Cordelia lands a role as the star of a demonic movie. Cordelia appears in the IDW Publishing comic mini-series The Curse, set after season five, in flashback scenes. She subsequently reappears in the mini-series Old Friends, which sees Angel battle evil clones of his friends. Cordelia claims to be the genuine article, having returned from the dead, but Angel is unconvinced and kills her; his suspicions prove correct when her body immediately disintegrates like the other clones.",
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"plaintext": " After the Fall, a canonical comic book continuation of the television series plotted by Joss Whedon and written by Brian Lynch, features the characters of Angel and all of Los Angeles condemned to Hell after the events of the series finale \"Not Fade Away\". Cordelia does not appear until the twelfth issue, in which she acts as a guide to Angel in his dying moments; it is revealed she serves in some capacity as a higher power now. The character departs in issue thirteen. Cordelia also appears in a dream sequence within the twentieth issue of Buffys canonical continuation, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, titled \"After These Messages... We'll Be Right Back!\". Buffy dreams of when she was in her first year at Sunnydale High; Cordelia's physical appearance is based on the art style of Loeb and Whedon's unproduced Buffy animated series.",
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"plaintext": "Cordelia was originally intended to serve as a dramatic foil to the series' main character Buffy Summers. Adapting the concept of the movie into a television series, Whedon decided to reinvent the character of Buffy. The shallow cheerleader of the 1992 Buffy film, as played by Kristy Swanson, had grown more mature and open-minded. Buffy now identified with the social outcasts, such as Willow and Xander. As a result, Cordelia Chase was created to embody the traits of that shallower Buffy. Despite portraying a shallow, valley girl stock character, actress Charisma Carpenter felt that Cordelia in early seasons was not \"one-dimensional\", nor was she \"as superficial as people thought\". At the same time, Carpenter was critical of her frequent role as the damsel in distress. Angel co-creator and executive producer David Greenwalt describes Cordelia in her Buffy years as \"a somewhat shallow, somewhat vain, somewhat self-centered but [a] lively and honest character who spoke her mind\". Indeed, even not when superhuman, she showed a lot of hardiness.",
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"plaintext": "Charisma Carpenter had originally planned to read for the role of Buffy, but was late for her audition and instead tried out for Cordelia. Carpenter, who had dressed casually for the role of Buffy—who she believed \"could really be herself\"—felt unprepared to read for Cordelia because she \"was definitely a character to dress for\". Although she had only fifteen minutes to prepare for the character, the producers were \"really responsive\" to Carpenter's audition, and she left feeling confident she had got the part. After Carpenter's audition, actress Sarah Michelle Gellar, who had been offered the role of Cordelia before Carpenter, was asked to come back and audition for the part of Buffy. Bianca Lawson originally won the role of Cordelia Chase, but turned it down due to other contractual obligations. Lawson would later be cast as vampire slayer Kendra in the show's second season. Carpenter, proud of her own character's growth across the two series, did not envy Gellar for winning the role of Buffy over her.",
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"plaintext": "Cordelia's representation of an assertive modern woman and her character arc in Buffy has been commented on in several academic texts, particularly in gender studies, such as \"Praising Cordelia: Aggression and Adaptation Among Adolescent Girls\", or Sex and the Slayer. In the latter, Dr. Lorna Jowett of the University of Northampton describes Cordelia's initial place in the series where \"At first glance, Cordelia seems to have the 'normal life' Buffy often longs for. She is a familiar character from the teen drama: popular, a cheerleader, the center of cliques (power as status). Elizabeth Rambo notes how Cordelia's status is highlighted by her nickname, \"Queen C\", and Harmony's remark to her, \"Cordy, you reign.\" Cordelia functions recognizably as the typical female victim of horror, often screaming and running away, and this makes her a perfect contrast for other female characters.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Praising Cordelia\" argues that both Buffy and Cordelia are representations of assertive and competitive young women, who \"represent two kinds of aggressive adolescent girls\". The article focuses on the competitive relationship between the characters. Buffy's initial friendship with Cordelia is compromised once Cordelia sees the attractive, socially competent Buffy as a threat to her. Even after Cordelia joins the Scooby Gang and becomes Buffy's friend, theirs is not a friendship of \"mutual support, warmth, and intimacy\" but rather one of \"mutual antipathy\". The authors opine that Cordelia, unlike Buffy, is a \"representation of the archetypal 'feminine type'\", one who conforms to the \"pervasive stereotypes of femininity while, at the same time, dominating the other girls in the school\" and commanding the attention of the boys. Describing her character arc in Buffy, Mary Alice Money views Cordelia as one of many transformed or redeemed Buffy characters, one who \"reveals a previously unexpected vulnerability that nullifies some of their less attractive traits.\" Jowett argues that Cordelia's assimilation within the main group is due largely to her relationship with main character Xander, and she is rendered sympathetic to the audience once they witness her rebuff the peer pressure from her old friends. She is further endeared to the viewer when Xander betrays her because the scenes showing her pain are shown only to the viewer. After Cordelia is cheated on by Xander with Willow she chooses not to go back to him and instead retains her autonomy.",
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"plaintext": "Others such as Susanne Kord and Elisabeth Krimer note how Cordelia is also a subversive representation of feminine stereotypes, describing \"Although superficially, Cordelia conforms to the stereotype of the insensitive bitch\", what she actually does is \"offers her viewers the clandestine pleasures of female self-assertion\". One of Cordelia's strongest traits, her honesty, is also highlighted in \"Earshot\", where Buffy temporarily develops telepathic powers and can hear the thoughts of her friends, who avoid her to hide these thoughts. For Cordelia however, \"her thought processes and actual utterances are completely identical\" and because of this, she embodies an \"antithesis of female self-sacrifice\" in these years but also \"the opposite of the kind of hypocrisy that is typically attributed to women\". Writer Jennifer Crusie interprets this as Cordelia's \"lack of depth\" becoming \"her strength\". She does not mean to argue that Cordelia is stupid, however, pointing out \"Cordy's solipsism could easily be mistaken for stupidity, but it comes coupled with a keen intelligence and a fixity of purpose that makes her almost invincible.\" Jowett feels Cordelia's confidence is based in her wealth. Despite becoming more sympathetic as the series progressed, \"bitchiness enhances Cordelia's comic appeal\", as it offers viewers an opportunity to relish its honest truth-telling.",
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"plaintext": "In early seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Cordelia was often used both as comic relief and occasionally for the damsel in distress plot device, which would require series' heroine Buffy to save her. Any concerns that she was simply one-dimensional were alleviated for the actress when writers developed the character through her relationships with Xander and later Wesley, which led Carpenter to become more convinced of her potential. In an article about the psychology of characters in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Steven C. Schlozman writes about how \"Cordelia is wealthy and, at first glance, superficial, appearing to care most about her own popularity. However, as the show progresses, we learn that her mother has chronic fatigue syndrome and her father was prosecuted for income tax evasion. She is a reluctant participant, baffled at her own loyal feelings and bewildered at her attraction to the unpopular Xander.\" He goes on to describe how Cordelia, and \"all the characters of Buffy the Vampire Slayer are particularly compelling for their depictions of important adolescent themes.\"",
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"plaintext": "Discussing Cordelia's relationship with Xander, Carpenter says, \"A lot of Cordy's conflict, and a lot of who she is, comes out around Xander. Because she is in love with him in spite of herself, or in spite of him. I have my best moments with [Nicholas Brendon].\" However, her character's growing involvement with Buffy and her friends caused the actress some concern; \"I wasn't sure how I felt about it, because I didn't want to lose my edge. I didn't want her to be nice; I didn't want her to change because that's who she is.\" Carpenter's challenge was to find a balance between the good and bad sides of Cordelia, and she explains, \"That's why I enjoy playing her so much. She's got to be somewhat tolerable or why would they hang out with her? But I [try] not to lose her edge, her honesty.\" Carpenter claims that Cordelia's \"rough edges\" made for difficult experiences with fans, who expected her to be snobby like her character. Charisma continually pleaded to get to slay a vampire, which the writers let her do in her final Buffy appearance, \"Graduation Day, Part Two\".",
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"plaintext": "Over the course of her appearances in Angel, Cordelia would develop enormously as a character. Describing this evolution, Carpenter comments, \"When I first started playing Cordelia, she wasn't nice. She has really deepened and has a stronger sense of responsibility. She's a team player, which was not the case in the beginning.\" Carpenter cherishes what playing a multi-faceted character like Cordelia meant for her as an actress, describing Cultural critic Jennifer Crusie points out how Cordelia was initially perfect for the transition to \"selfish, superficial Los Angeles\", which turned out to be her \"trial by fire\".",
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"plaintext": "Executive producer David Greenwalt was very keen to acquire the character of Cordelia for the spin-off series, commenting, \"I desperately wanted her to come to Angel because Angel being dark and broody, we need a big bright smile.\" At the same time, Whedon felt her presence was sorely missed in the fourth season of Buffy where \"All of our characters got to the point where they were loving and hugging, and it was sort of like, where's Cordelia?\", leading him to introduce Spike (James Marsters) to the cast to accommodate her absence. Kelly A. Manners describes Cordelia as a \"rich gal whose family ended up losing everything to the IRS. So in episode one of Angel, Cordelia showed up in LA trying to start a career as an actress because her family was in jail, actually.\" Crusie states that in mourning for Doyle Cordelia also begins \"finding within herself a new level of humanity\".",
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"plaintext": "Greenwalt discusses how Cordelia \"is sort of forced to become a deeper character\" when she starts to receive the visions of the suffering and helpless, \"She's sort of living with one foot in the world of 'I want to be an actress' and with another foot in the world of 'I want to save and help people, and I have a deeper purpose and mission.'\" Greenwalt felt that this development allowed Cordelia to develop from a \"vainglorious high schooler to someone who's almost like a superhero\"; this also provided Carpenter with the opportunity to stretch her potential as an actress. From the tenth episode, \"Parting Gifts\", Cordelia begins to actively function as a supernatural character in the series while the introduction of Wesley also contributes some added comic relief to the series. It is from this episode Cordelia is also forced to mature as she mourns the death of Doyle, whose visions serve as a painful reminder of him. The first-season finale saw Cordelia's visions inflict all the suffering of the human world upon her, and to effectively act this, Carpenter's acting coach showed her pictures of real human pain as motivation. The scene took over eight hours to film, and Carpenter was relieved when it was over. The experience saw Cordelia further resolve to help those in need, stating \"I saw the world and there's so much pain. We have to help them.\" Carpenter explains, \"Through the suffering of the world, and through her own experiences, she discovers what's important in life.\"",
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"plaintext": "Carpenter pleaded to the producers to let her cut her hair in the second season of Angel, but they were dissatisfied with the darker tone and cut which created a \"dark edge of Cordelia\" which wasn't as \"warm and effervescent as she usually is\", so for the third season they wanted her to \"go shorter and blonder\". Angel third season demonstrates Cordelia's development into a full-fledged heroine. The episode \"Birthday\" saw her being offered the chance to live a life where she never met Angel, but her inner desire to help others sees her sacrifice this life and her humanity to become a half-demon who can better withstand the visions she carries. In \"Billy\", Cordelia begins to train alongside Angel to become a better fighter and learns quickly. Carpenter began to train extensively with the show's stunt co-ordinators both to learn how to fight and to handle weaponry. In the episode \"Waiting in the Wings\", both Angel and Lorne remark on what a fine woman Cordelia has finally become, with Cordelia noting she is more like a superhero than she ever expected to be growing up in Sunnydale. Also in this episode, she and Angel both realize they have fallen for one another, but their love goes unconsummated. Critically, Jennifer Crusie considers Cordelia's ascension to the heavens at the end of season three to be the \"point that the Mutant Enemy Productions writers evidently lost their minds\". She goes on to describe how Cordelia's compliance with Skip seems entirely out of character. Jes Battis also argues that a paradox is created when \"the character who embraces her privilege (Cordelia) gets to become a higher being and exit Angel, and as an overwhelmingly positive force\" where later Fred (Amy Acker), \"the character who is conflicted about her privilege\" in season five \"ends up being possessed by a millennia-old demon\".",
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"plaintext": "Angel season four played with audience's expectations of the now heroic Cordelia by revealing her to be the season's Big Bad; it was later established that Cordelia had been possessed by a manipulative deity called Jasmine. The storyline was controversial with fans, and Carpenter has admitted hating how a possessed Cordelia seduced Angel's teenage son. Carpenter has said, \"I'm in denial about that whole storyline. It was creepy.\" She tried to keep a positive attitude about the situation, though; director Terrence O'Hara commented that he thought Carpenter had \"a lot of fun\" playing a manipulative Cordelia in the episode \"Orpheus\" because she enjoyed coming up with Cordelia's new \"schizophrenic madwoman\" characterization. David Boreanaz was also unsettled by the incestuous pairing. At a 2004 convention, he admitted that the season four storyline \"freaked him out.\" The episode \"Inside Out\" saw the height of this inversion of Cordelia's character, where she is seen urging Connor to murder an innocent girl in order to expedite the birth of the child they conceived together. In an effort to stop Connor, the Powers That Be send the spirit of Connor's mother Darla (Julie Benz) to convince him not to go through with it. The episode sees Carpenter dressed in black, while Benz appears in heavenly white as she becomes the voice of reason and morality. Steven S. DeKnight, who wrote and directed the episode, felt this was a brilliant role-reversal for both actresses as Carpenter is accustomed to playing the benevolent Cordelia where Darla is normally seen as a sinister vampire. Much of season four's storyline had to be adjusted due to Carpenter's real-life pregnancy; after Cordelia gives birth to Jasmine in the episode \"Inside Out\" she is left in a coma for the remainder of the fourth season. Crusie discusses what she felt were the flaws in the execution of the fourth season, ",
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"plaintext": "Matt Hills and Rebecca Williams also discuss the treatment of Cordelia (and Darla) in \"Angel Monstrous Mothers and Vampires with Soul: Investigating the Abject in 'Television Horror'\", from The TV Spin-off With a Soul by Stacey Abbot. They see the send-offs of Cordelia, Fred and other characters as part of a pattern of highly gendered \"elaborated abjection\" seen in Angel. They also see Cordelia's possession in season four as part of a recurring pattern: \"More so than other characters in [Buffy] and Angel, Cordelia has suffered or been threatened with bodily invasion and rape, either symbolically or literally\" and recounts the demon impregnation in \"Expecting\", and similarly in \"Epiphany\", where she develops a gestating demon in her head and then told she must mate with the Groosalugg in \"Through the Looking Glass\". Cordelia even remarks on this, as Hills and Williams quote her as she remarks on her \"status as a violated and devalued character\"; Cordelia states, \"If you ever figure out how to get us out of here, I want you to find me a dimension where some demon doesn't want to impregnate me with his spawn!\" They liken the horror motif in these examples, and in \"Inside Out\", to what Barbara Creed called the 'monstrous womb' in her book The Monstrous-feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. Jes Battis also comments how, in comparison with the Fred-Illyria season five storyline, Cordelia's storyline is not as positive as Fred's rebirth, because Fred got to \"'live on' through Illyria, whereas Cordelia is taken right out of the show and receives no interesting blue-haired reincarnation\". Continuing, they say that in fact, there is no meaningful connection between the \"real\" Cordelia and Jasmine, as the Cordelia who did those bad things is killed the moment Jasmine is, \"and the 'true' Cordy wakes up from her coma\". Further illustrating the comparisons, \"Fred/Illyria become a joined mother/daughter subjectivity, a dual being whose constituent essences are inseparable; Cordelia is never so intimately connected with her evil child and is remembered as the healthy, vibrant Cordy that everyone knew.\" Pointing out symbolic parallels in the subtexts of these gestations, Battis notes ",
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"plaintext": "For Angel fifth season, as with Buffy fourth, Spike steps in to replace Cordelia as a source of comedic dialogue within the series. It is also noted by critics that, in the fifth season, \"it doesn't take long for Illyria to become a version of Cordelia, giving everyone the cold and honest truth whether they want it or not\". Concerning Cordelia's last appearance in Angel fifth and final season, Joss Whedon says he used the 100th episode to reinforce the \"mission statement\" of the show, as well as assess where the characters are now compared to how they began. Whedon explains this episode presents an ideal opportunity to—through Cordelia, who was \"there at the beginning\"—ask of Angel, \"Where are you now? Where were you when you started and where are you now and how do you feel about that?\" The return to the show's \"original concerns\" is echoed by the flashback to Doyle's first season advertisement; Sara Upstone points out aerial images of Los Angeles reappear at the same time Cordelia tells Angel \"You forgot who you are,\" bringing back the show's link to the city. Buffy Summers was originally intended to appear in the 100th episode to get Angel 'back on track', but Sarah Michelle Gellar had other obligations. Writer/director David Fury explains that since \"we couldn't get Sarah\" the episode was instead written for Cordelia. He adds, \"This turned out to be a Godsend because Charisma was fantastic.\" In the original script, Fury wrote a conversation between Wesley and Angel while driving to the hospital that set up Cordelia as a possible vegetable. The scene was never shot because \"the shock of seeing her up and around after a 9-month coma was enough. We just didn't want to tip it too soon,\" says Fury.",
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"plaintext": "For her role as Cordelia Chase, as she appeared in the television series Angel, Charisma Carpenter has been nominated four times by the Saturn Awards. Carpenter earned back-to-back nominations in 2000 and 2001 for Best Genre TV Supporting Actress and Best Actress on Television, respectively. The actress did not receive any nominations in 2002, but again obtained two back-to-back nominations in 2003 and 2004 for Best Actress in a Television Series and Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series, respectively.",
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37,575 | 1,106,317,120 | Airport | [
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"plaintext": "An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport. Airports usually consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and to land or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals, to maintain and monitor aircraft. Larger airports may have airport aprons, taxiway bridges, air traffic control centres, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. In some countries, the US in particular, airports also typically have one or more fixed-base operators, serving general aviation.",
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"plaintext": "Operating airports is extremely complicated, with a complex system of aircraft support services, passenger services, and aircraft control services contained within the operation. Thus airports can be major employers, as well as important hubs for tourism and other kinds of transit. Because they are sites of operation for heavy machinery, a number of regulations and safety measures have been implemented in airports, in order to reduce hazards. Additionally, airports have major local environmental impacts, as both large sources of air pollution, noise pollution and other environmental impacts, making them sites that acutely experience the environmental effects of aviation. Airports are also vulnerable infrastructure to extreme weather, climate change caused sea level rise and other disasters.",
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"plaintext": "The terms aerodrome, airfield, and airstrip also refer to airports, and the terms heliport, seaplane base, and STOLport refer to airports dedicated exclusively to helicopters, seaplanes, and short take-off and landing aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "In colloquial use in certain environments, the terms airport and aerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general, the term airport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that other aerodromes may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions, airport is a legal term of art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the relevant civil aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory requirements.",
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"plaintext": "That is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. In jurisdictions where there is no legal distinction between aerodrome and airport, which term to use in the name of an aerodrome may be a commercial decision. In US technical/legal usage, landing area is used instead of aerodrome, and airport means \"a landing area used regularly by aircraft for receiving or discharging passengers or cargo\".",
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"plaintext": "An airport solely serving helicopters is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up.",
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"plaintext": "An international airport has additional facilities for customs and passport control as well as incorporating all the aforementioned elements. Such airports rank among the most complex and largest of all built typologies, with 15 of the top 50 buildings by floor area being airport terminals.",
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"plaintext": "Smaller or less-developed airfields, which represent the vast majority, often have a single runway shorter than . Larger airports for airline flights generally have paved runways of or longer. Skyline Airport in Inkom, Idaho has a runway that is only long.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the minimum dimensions for dry, hard landing fields are defined by the FAR Landing And Takeoff Field Lengths. These include considerations for safety margins during landing and takeoff.",
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"plaintext": "The longest public-use runway in the world is at Qamdo Bamda Airport in China. It has a length of . The world's widest paved runway is at Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport in Russia and is wide.",
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"plaintext": ", the CIA stated that there were approximately 44,000 \"airports or airfields recognizable from the air\" around the world, including 15,095 in the US, the US having the most in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the world's large airports are owned by local, regional, or national government bodies who then lease the airport to private corporations who oversee the airport's operation. For example, in the UK the state-owned British Airports Authority originally operated eight of the nation's major commercial airports – it was subsequently privatized in the late 1980s, and following its takeover by the Spanish Ferrovial consortium in 2006, has been further divested and downsized to operating just Heathrow. Germany's Frankfurt Airport is managed by the quasi-private firm Fraport. While in India GMR Group operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International Airport and Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Bengaluru International Airport and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport are controlled by GVK Group. The rest of India's airports are managed by the Airports Authority of India. In Pakistan nearly all civilian airports are owned and operated by the Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority except for Sialkot International Airport which has the distinction of being the first privately owned public airport in Pakistan and South Asia.",
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"plaintext": "In the US, commercial airports are generally operated directly by government entities or government-created airport authorities (also known as port authorities), such as the Los Angeles World Airports authority that oversees several airports in the Greater Los Angeles area, including Los Angeles International Airport.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, the federal authority, Transport Canada, divested itself of all but the remotest airports in 1999/2000. Now most airports in Canada are owned and operated by individual legal authorities or are municipally owned.",
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"plaintext": "Many US airports still lease part or all of their facilities to outside firms, who operate functions such as retail management and parking. All US commercial airport runways are certified by the FAA under the Code of Federal Regulations Title 14 Part 139, \"Certification of Commercial Service Airports\" but maintained by the local airport under the regulatory authority of the FAA.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the reluctance to privatize airports in the US (contrary to the FAA sponsoring a privatization program since 1996), the government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) arrangement is the standard for the operation of commercial airports in the rest of the world.",
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"plaintext": "The Airport & Airway Trust Fund (AATF) was created by the Airport and Airway Development in 1970 which finances aviation programs in the United States. Airport Improvement Program (AIP), Facilities and Equipment (F&E), and Research, Engineering, and Development (RE&D) are the three major accounts of Federal Aviation Administration which are financed by the AATF, as well as pays for the FAA's Operation and Maintenance (O&M) account. The funding of these accounts are dependent on the taxes the airports generate of revenues. Passenger tickets, fuel, and cargo tax are the taxes that are paid by the passengers and airlines help fund these accounts.",
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"plaintext": "Airports revenues are divided into three major parts: aeronautical revenue, non-aeronautical revenue, and non-operating revenue. Aeronautical revenue makes up 56%, non-aeronautical revenue makes up 40%, and non-operating revenue makes up 4% of the total revenue of airports.",
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"plaintext": "Aeronautical revenue are generated through airline rents and landing, passenger service, parking, and hangar fees. Landing fees are charged per aircraft for landing an airplane in the airport property. Landing fees are calculated through the landing weight and the size of the aircraft which varies but most of the airports have a fixed rate and a charge extra for extra weight. Passenger service fees are charges per passengers for the facilities used on a flight like water, food, wifi and shows which is paid while paying for an airline ticket. Aircraft parking is also a major revenue source for airports. Aircraft are parked for a certain amount of time before or after takeoff and have to pay to park there. Every airport has its own rates of parking, for example, John F Kennedy airport in New York City charges $45 per hour for a plane of 100,000 pounds and the price increases with weight.",
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"plaintext": "Non-aeronautical revenue is gained through things other than aircraft operations. It includes lease revenue from compatible land-use development, non-aeronautical building leases, retail and concession sales, rental car operations, parking and in-airport advertising. Concession revenue is one big part of non-aeronautical revenue airports makes through duty free, bookstores, restaurants and money exchange. Car parking is a growing source of revenue for airports, as more people use the parking facilities of the airport. O'Hare International Airport in Chicago charges $2 per hour for every car.",
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"plaintext": "Airports are divided into landside and airside zones. The landside is subject to fewer special laws and is part of the public realm, while access to the airside zone is tightly controlled. Landside facilities may include publicly accessible airport check-in desks, shops and ground transportation facilities. The airside area includes all parts of the airport around the aircraft, and the parts of the buildings that are restricted to staff, and sections of these extended to travelling, airside shopping, dining, or waiting passengers. Depending on the airport, passengers and staff must be checked by security or border control before being permitted to enter the airside zone. Conversely, passengers arriving from an international flight must pass through border control and customs to access the landside area, in which they exit, unless in airside transit. Most multi-terminal airports have (variously termed) flight/passenger/air connections buses, moving walkways and/or people movers for inter-terminal airside transit. Their airlines can arrange for baggage to be routed directly to the passenger's destination. Most major airports issue a secure keycard, an airside pass to employees, to assist in their reliable, standardized and efficient verification of identity.",
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"plaintext": "A terminal is a building with passenger facilities. Small airports have one terminal. Large ones often have multiple terminals, though some large airports like Amsterdam Airport Schiphol still have one terminal. The terminal has a series of gates, which provide passengers with access to the plane.",
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"plaintext": "The following facilities are essential for departing passengers:",
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"plaintext": "Check-in facilities, including a baggage drop-off",
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"plaintext": "The following facilities are essential for arriving passengers:",
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"plaintext": "A landside meeting place",
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"plaintext": "For both sets of passengers, there must be a link between the passenger facilities and the aircraft, such as jet bridges or airstairs. There also needs to be a baggage handling system, to transport baggage from the baggage drop-off to departing planes, and from arriving planes to the baggage reclaim.",
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"plaintext": "The area where the aircraft parks to load passengers and baggage is known as an apron or ramp (or incorrectly, \"the tarmac\").",
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"plaintext": "Airports with international flights have customs and immigration facilities. However, as some countries have agreements that allow travel between them without customs and immigrations, such facilities are not a definitive need for an international airport. International flights often require a higher level of physical security, although in recent years, many countries have adopted the same level of security for international and domestic travel.",
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"plaintext": "\"Floating airports\" are being designed which could be located out at sea and which would use designs such as pneumatic stabilized platform technology.",
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"plaintext": "Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11 attacks and the Real ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically increased and got tighter and stricter than ever before.",
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"plaintext": "Most major airports provide commercial outlets for products and services. Most of these companies, many of which are internationally known brands, are located within the departure areas. These include clothing boutiques and restaurants and in the US amounted to $4.2billion in 2015. Prices charged for items sold at these outlets are generally higher than those outside the airport. However, some airports now regulate costs to keep them comparable to \"street prices\". This term is misleading as prices often match the manufacturers' suggested retail price (MSRP) but are almost never discounted.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from major fast food chains, some airport restaurants offer regional cuisine specialties for those in transit so that they may sample local food without leaving the airport.",
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"plaintext": "Some airport structures include on-site hotels built within or attached to a terminal building. Airport hotels have grown popular due to their convenience for transient passengers and easy accessibility to the airport terminal. Many airport hotels also have agreements with airlines to provide overnight lodging for displaced passengers.",
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"plaintext": "Major airports in such countries as Russia and Japan offer miniature sleeping units within the airport that are available for rent by the hour. The smallest type is the capsule hotel popular in Japan. A slightly larger variety is known as a sleep box. An even larger type is provided by the company YOTEL.",
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"plaintext": "Airports may also contain premium and VIP services. The premium and VIP services may include express check-in and dedicated check-in counters. These services are usually reserved for first and business class passengers, premium frequent flyers, and members of the airline's clubs. Premium services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of a different airline's frequent flyer program. This can sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as a ploy to attract premium customers away from rival airlines.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes these premium services will be offered to a non-premium passenger if the airline has made a mistake in handling of the passenger, such as unreasonable delays or mishandling of checked baggage.",
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"plaintext": "Airline lounges frequently offer free or reduced cost food, as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Lounges themselves typically have seating, showers, quiet areas, televisions, computer, Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers may use for their electronic equipment. Some airline lounges employ baristas, bartenders and gourmet chefs.",
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"plaintext": "Airlines sometimes operate multiple lounges within the one airport terminal allowing ultra-premium customers, such as first class customers, additional services, which are not available to other premium customers. Multiple lounges may also prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to people, airports move cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to transfer parcels between ground and air.",
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"plaintext": "Cargo Terminal Facilities are areas where international airports export cargo has to be stored after customs clearance and prior to loading the aircraft. Similarly, import cargo that is offloaded needs to be in bond before the consignee decides to take delivery. Areas have to be kept aside for examination of export and import cargo by the airport authorities. Designated areas or sheds may be given to airlines or freight forward ring agencies.",
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"plaintext": "Every cargo terminal has a landside and an airside. The landside is where the exporters and importers through either their agents or by themselves deliver or collect shipments while the airside is where loads are moved to or from the aircraft. In addition, cargo terminals are divided into distinct areas – export, import, and interline or transshipment.",
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"plaintext": "Airports require parking lots, for passengers who may leave the cars at the airport for a long period of time. Large airports will also have car-rental firms, taxi ranks, bus stops and sometimes a train station.",
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"plaintext": "Many large airports are located near railway trunk routes for seamless connection of multimodal transport, for instance Frankfurt Airport, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, London Heathrow Airport, Tokyo Haneda Airport, Tokyo Narita Airport, London Gatwick Airport and London Stansted Airport. It is also common to connect an airport and a city with rapid transit, light rail lines or other non-road public transport systems. Some examples of this would include the AirTrain JFK at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Link light rail that runs from the heart of downtown Seattle to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and the Silver Line T at Boston's Logan International Airport by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). Such a connection lowers risk of missed flights due to traffic congestion. Large airports usually have access also through controlled-access highways ('freeways' or 'motorways') from which motor vehicles enter either the departure loop or the arrival loop.",
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"plaintext": "The distances passengers need to move within a large airport can be substantial. It is common for airports to provide moving walkways, buses, and rail transport systems. Some airports like Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport and London Stansted Airport have a transit system that connects some of the gates to a main terminal. Airports with more than one terminal have a transit system to connect the terminals together, such as John F. Kennedy International Airport, Mexico City International Airport and London Gatwick Airport.",
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"plaintext": "There are three types of surface that aircraft operate on:",
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"plaintext": "Runways, for takeoff and landing",
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"plaintext": "Taxiways, where planes \"taxi\" (transfer to and from a runway)",
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"plaintext": "Apron or ramp: a surface where planes are parked, loaded, unloaded or refuelled.",
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"plaintext": "Air traffic control (ATC) is the task of managing aircraft movements and making sure they are safe, orderly and expeditious. At the largest airports, air traffic control is a series of highly complex operations that requires managing frequent traffic that moves in all three dimensions.",
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"plaintext": "A \"towered\" or \"controlled\" airport has a control tower where the air traffic controllers are based. Pilots are required to maintain two-way radio communication with the controllers, and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions. A \"non-towered\" airport has no operating control tower and therefore two-way radio communications are not required, though it is good operating practice for pilots to transmit their intentions on the airport's common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) for the benefit of other aircraft in the area. The CTAF may be a Universal Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight Service Station (FSS), or tower frequency.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of the world's airports are small facilities without a tower. Not all towered airports have 24/7 ATC operations. In those cases, non-towered procedures apply when the tower is not in use, such as at night. Non-towered airports come under area (en-route) control. Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system in which ATC is handled by controllers who are not present at the airport itself.",
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"plaintext": "Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into at least two main areas: ground and tower, though a single controller may work both stations. The busiest airports may subdivide responsibilities further, with clearance delivery, apron control, and/or other specialized ATC stations.",
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"plaintext": "Ground control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated \"movement areas\", except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, stair trucks, airline food trucks, conveyor belt vehicles and other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to takeoff it will be turned over to tower control. Conversely, after a plane has landed it will depart the runway and be \"handed over\" from Tower to Ground Control.",
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"plaintext": "Tower control is responsible for aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in 3D space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual observation. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact tower control to be sure they remain clear of other traffic.",
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"plaintext": "At all airports the use of a traffic pattern (often called a traffic circuit outside the US) is possible. They may help to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. There is no technical need within modern commercial aviation for performing this pattern, provided there is no queue. And due to the so-called SLOT-times, the overall traffic planning tend to assure landing queues are avoided. If for instance an aircraft approaches runway 17 (which has a heading of approx. 170 degrees) from the north (coming from 360/0 degrees heading towards 180 degrees), the aircraft will land as fast as possible by just turning 10 degrees and follow the glidepath, without orbit the runway for visual reasons, whenever this is possible. For smaller piston engined airplanes at smaller airfields without ILS equipment, things are very different though.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five \"legs\" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs forming three more sides). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually above ground level (AGL). Standard traffic patterns are left-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. One of the main reason for this is that pilots sit on the left side of the airplane, and a Left-hand patterns improves their visibility of the airport and pattern. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain, or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps traffic flow smoothly because all pilots know what to expect, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision.",
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"plaintext": "At controlled airports, a circuit can be in place but is not normally used. Rather, aircraft (usually only commercial with long routes) request approach clearance while they are still hours away from the airport; the destination airport can then plan a queue of arrivals, and planes will be guided into one queue per active runway for a \"straight-in\" approach. While this system keeps the airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of aids, both visual and electronic, though not at all airports. A visual approach slope indicator (VASI) helps pilots fly the approach for landing. Some airports are equipped with a VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) to help pilots find the direction to the airport. VORs are often accompanied by a distance measuring equipment (DME) to determine the distance to the VOR. VORs are also located off airports, where they serve to provide airways for aircraft to navigate upon. In poor weather, pilots will use an instrument landing system (ILS) to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the ground. The number of instrument approaches based on the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) is rapidly increasing and may eventually become the primary means for instrument landings.",
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"plaintext": "Larger airports sometimes offer precision approach radar (PAR), but these systems are more common at military air bases than civilian airports. The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the approach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.",
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"plaintext": "Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles. Smaller aerodromes may have few or no signs, relying instead on diagrams and charts.",
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"plaintext": "Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog.",
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"plaintext": "On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting consists of white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edges. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach (an approach lighting system, or ALS). Low-traffic airports may use pilot-controlled lighting to save electricity and staffing costs.",
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"plaintext": "Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.",
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"plaintext": "Weather observations at the airport are crucial to safe takeoffs and landings. In the US and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form of automated airport weather station, whether an AWOS, ASOS, or AWSS, a human observer or a combination of the two. These weather observations, predominantly in the METAR format, are available over the radio, through automatic terminal information service (ATIS), via the ATC or the flight service station.",
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"plaintext": "Planes take-off and land into the wind to achieve maximum performance. Because pilots need instantaneous information during landing, a windsock can also be kept in view of the runway. Aviation windsocks are made with lightweight material, withstand strong winds and some are lit up after dark or in foggy weather. Because visibility of windsocks is limited, often multiple glow-orange windsocks are placed on both sides of the runway.",
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"plaintext": "Most airports have groundcrew handling the loading and unloading of passengers, crew, baggage and other services. Some groundcrew are linked to specific airlines operating at the airport.",
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"plaintext": "Among the vehicles that serve an airliner on the ground are:",
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{
"plaintext": "A tow tractor to move the aircraft in and out of the berth.",
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"plaintext": "A jet bridge (in some airports) or stairs unit to allow passengers to embark and disembark.",
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"plaintext": "A ground power unit for supplying electricity. As the engines will be switched off, they will not be generating electricity as they do in flight.",
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{
"plaintext": "A cleaning service.",
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{
"plaintext": "A catering service to deliver food and drinks for a flight.",
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{
"plaintext": "A toilet waste truck to empty the tank which holds the waste from the toilets in the aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "A water truck to fill the water tanks of the aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "A refueling vehicle. The fuel may come from a tanker, or from underground fuel tanks.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A conveyor belt unit for loading and unloading luggage.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A vehicle to transport luggage to and from the terminal.",
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{
"plaintext": "The length of time an aircraft remains on the ground in between consecutive flights is known as \"turnaround time\". Airlines pay great attention to minimizing turnaround times in an effort to keep aircraft use (flying time) high, with times scheduled as low as 25 minutes for jet aircraft operated by low-cost carriers on narrow-body aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "Like industrial equipment or facility management, airports require tailor-made maintenance management due to their complexity. With many tangible assets spread over a large area in different environments, these infrastructures must therefore effectively monitor these assets and store spare parts to maintain them at an optimal level of service.",
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"plaintext": "To manage these airport assets, several solutions are competing for the market: CMMS (computerized maintenance management system) predominate, and mainly enable a company's maintenance activity to be monitored, planned, recorded and rationalized.",
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"plaintext": "Aviation safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations. Airport crash tender crews are equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammable aviation fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats, hijacking, and terrorist activities.",
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"plaintext": "Hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance is airfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (see foreign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.",
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"plaintext": "Many airports are built near open fields or wetlands. These tend to attract bird populations, which can pose a hazard to aircraft in the form of bird strikes. Airport crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence.",
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"plaintext": "Some airports are located next to parks, golf courses, or other low-density uses of land. Other airports are located near densely populated urban or suburban areas.",
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"plaintext": "An airport can have areas where collisions between aircraft on the ground tend to occur. Records are kept of any incursions where aircraft or vehicles are in an inappropriate location, allowing these \"hot spots\" to be identified. These locations then undergo special attention by transportation authorities (such as the FAA in the US) and airport administrators.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s, a phenomenon known as microburst became a growing concern due to aircraft accidents caused by microburst wind shear, such as Delta Air Lines Flight 191. Microburst radar was developed as an aid to safety during landing, giving two to five minutes' warning to aircraft in the vicinity of the field of a microburst event.",
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"plaintext": "Some airfields now have a special surface known as soft concrete at the end of the runway (stopway or blastpad) that behaves somewhat like styrofoam, bringing the plane to a relatively rapid halt as the material disintegrates. These surfaces are useful when the runway is located next to a body of water or other hazard, and prevent the planes from overrunning the end of the field.",
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"plaintext": "Airports often have on-site firefighters to respond to emergencies. These use specialized vehicles, known as airport crash tenders. Most civil aviation authorities have required levels of on-site emergency response capabilities based on an airport's traffic. At airports where civil and military operations share a common set of runways and infrastructure, emergency response is often managed by the relevant military unit as part of their base's operations.",
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"plaintext": "Aircraft noise is a major cause of noise disturbance to residents living near airports. Sleep can be affected if the airports operate night and early morning flights. Aircraft noise occurs not only from take-offs and landings but also from ground operations including maintenance and testing of aircraft. Noise can have other health effects as well. Other noises and environmental concerns are vehicle traffic causing noise and pollution on roads leading to the airport.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of new airports or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on countryside, historical sites, and local flora and fauna. Due to the risk of collision between birds and aircraft, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be susceptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land. Airports are often built on low-lying coastal land, globally 269 airports are at risk of coastal flooding now. A temperature rise of 2oC – consistent with the Paris Agreement - would lead to 100 airports being below mean sea level and 364 airports at risk of flooding. If global mean temperature rise exceeds this then as many as 572 airports will be at risk by 2100, leading to major disruptions without appropriate adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the airport administrations prepare and publish annual environmental reports to show how they consider these environmental concerns in airport management issues and how they protect environment from airport operations. These reports contain all environmental protection measures performed by airport administration in terms of water, air, soil and noise pollution, resource conservation and protection of natural life around the airport.",
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"plaintext": "A 2019 report from the Cooperative Research Programs of the US Transportation Research Board showed all airports have a role to play in advancing greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction initiatives. Small airports have demonstrated leadership by using their less complex organizational structure to implement newer technologies and to serve as a proving ground for their feasibility. Large airports have the economic stability and staff resources necessary to grow in-house expertise and fund comprehensive new programs.",
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"plaintext": "A growing number of airports are installing solar photovoltaic arrays to offset their electricity use. The National Renewable Energy Lab has shown this can be done safely. This can also be done on the roofs of the airports and it has been found that the solar panels on these buildings work more effectively when compared to residential panels.",
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"plaintext": "The world's first airport to be fully powered by solar energy is located at Kochi, India. Another airport known for considering environmental concerns is Seymour Airport in the Galapagos Islands.",
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"plaintext": "An airbase, sometimes referred to as an air station or airfield, provides basing and support of military aircraft. Some airbases, known as military airports, provide facilities similar to their civilian counterparts. For example, RAF Brize Norton in the UK has a terminal that caters to passengers for the Royal Air Force's scheduled flights to the Falkland Islands. Some airbases are co-located with civilian airports, sharing the same ATC facilities, runways, taxiways and emergency services, but with separate terminals, parking areas and hangars. Bardufoss Airport, Bardufoss Air Station in Norway and Pune Airport in India are examples of this.",
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"plaintext": "An aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a mobile airbase. Aircraft carriers allow a naval force to project air power without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. After their development in World War I, aircraft carriers replaced the battleship as the centrepiece of a modern fleet during World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Most airports in the United States are designated \"private-use airports\" meaning that, whether publicly- or privately owned, the airport is not open or available for use by the public (although use of the airport may be made available by invitation of the owner or manager).",
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"plaintext": "Airports are uniquely represented by their IATA airport code and ICAO airport code.",
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"plaintext": "Most airport names include the location. Many airport names honour a public figure, commonly a politician (e.g., Charles de Gaulle Airport, George Bush Intercontinental Airport, Lennart Meri Airport, O.R. Tambo International Airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport), a monarch (e.g. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, King Shaka International Airport), a cultural leader (e.g. Liverpool John Lennon Airport, Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport, Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport) or a prominent figure in aviation history of the region (e.g. Sydney Kingsford Smith Airport), sometimes even famous writers (e.g. Allama Iqbal International Airport) and explorers (e.g. Venice Marco Polo Airport).",
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"plaintext": "Some airports have unofficial names, possibly so widely circulated that its official name is little used or even known.",
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"plaintext": "Some airport names include the word \"International\" to indicate their ability to handle international air traffic. This includes some airports that do not have scheduled international airline services (e.g. Port Elizabeth International Airport).",
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"plaintext": "The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight improvement was the dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass. However, these functioned well only in dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces would allow landings regardless of meteorological conditions.",
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"plaintext": "The title of \"world's oldest airport\" is disputed. Toussus-le-Noble airport near Paris, France was established in 1907 and has been operating since. College Park Airport in Maryland, US, established in 1909 by Wilbur Wright serves only general aviation traffic.",
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"plaintext": "Beijing Nanyuan Airport in China, which was built to accommodate planes in 1904, and airships in 1907, opened in 1910. It was in operation until September 2019. Pearson Field Airport in Vancouver, Washington, United States, was built to accommodate planes in 1905 and airships in 1911, and is still in use as of January 2022.",
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"plaintext": "Hamburg Airport opened in January 1911, making it the oldest commercial airport in the world which is still in operation. Bremen Airport opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an American military field between 1945 and 1949. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol opened on September 16, 1916, as a military airfield, but has accepted civil aircraft only since December 17, 1920, allowing Sydney Airport—which started operations in January 1920—to claim to be one of the world's oldest continuously operating commercial airports. Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in the US opened in 1920 and has been in continuous commercial service since. It serves about 35,000,000 passengers each year and continues to expand, recently opening a new 11,000-foot (3,355 m) runway. Of the airports constructed during this early period in aviation, it is one of the largest and busiest that is still currently operating. Rome Ciampino Airport, opened 1916, is also a contender, as well as the Don Mueang International Airport near Bangkok, Thailand, which opened in 1914.",
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"plaintext": "Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft had to approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope.",
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"plaintext": "Following the war, some of these military airfields added civil facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Paris – Le Bourget Airport at Le Bourget, near Paris. The first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services was Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919, but it was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was opened at Flughafen Devau near what was then Königsberg, East Prussia. The airports of this era used a paved \"apron\", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "The first lighting used on an airport was during the latter part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The colours and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, airport design became more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.",
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"plaintext": "An improvement in the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete surface. These run perpendicular to the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to draw off excess rainwater that could build up in front of the plane's wheels.",
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"plaintext": "Airport construction boomed during the 1960s with the increase in jet aircraft traffic. Runways were extended out to . The fields were constructed out of reinforced concrete using a slip-form machine that produces a continuous slab with no disruptions along the length. The early 1960s also saw the introduction of jet bridge systems to modern airport terminals, an innovation which eliminated outdoor passenger boarding. These systems became commonplace in the United States by the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "The malicious use of UAVs has led to the deployment of counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies such as the Aaronia AARTOS which have been installed on major international airports.",
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"plaintext": "Airports have played major roles in films and television programs due to their very nature as a transport and international hub, and sometimes because of distinctive architectural features of particular airports. One such example of this is The Terminal, a film about a man who becomes permanently grounded in an airport terminal and must survive only on the food and shelter provided by the airport. They are also one of the major elements in movies such as The V.I.P.s, Speed, Airplane!, Airport (1970), Die Hard 2, Soul Plane, Jackie Brown, Get Shorty, Home Alone (1990), Lost in New York (1992), Liar Liar, Passenger 57, Final Destination (2000), Unaccompanied Minors, Catch Me If You Can, Rendition and The Langoliers. They have also played important parts in television series like Lost, The Amazing Race, America's Next Top Model (season 10), 90 Day Fiancé, Air Crash Investigation which have significant parts of their story set within airports. In other programmes and films, airports are merely indicative of journeys, e.g. Good Will Hunting.",
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"plaintext": "Several computer simulation games put the player in charge of an airport. These include the Airport Tycoon series, SimAirport and Airport CEO.",
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"plaintext": "Each civil aviation authority provides a source of information about airports in their country. This will contain information on airport elevation, airport lighting, runway information, communications facilities and frequencies, hours of operation, nearby NAVAIDs and contact information where prior arrangement for landing is necessary.",
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"plaintext": "Australia",
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"plaintext": "Information can be found on-line in the En route Supplement Australia (ERSA) which is published by Airservices Australia, a government owned corporation charged with managing Australian ATC.",
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"plaintext": "Brazil",
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"plaintext": "Infraero is responsible for the airports in Brazil",
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"plaintext": "Canada",
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"plaintext": "Two publications, the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) and the Water Aerodrome Supplement, published by Nav Canada under the authority of Transport Canada provides equivalent information.",
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"plaintext": "Europe",
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"plaintext": "The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL) provides an Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), aeronautical charts and NOTAM services for multiple European countries.",
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"plaintext": "Germany",
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"plaintext": "Provided by the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (Federal Office for Civil Aviation of Germany).",
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"plaintext": "France",
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"plaintext": "Aviation Generale Delage edited by Delville and published by Breitling.",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom",
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"plaintext": "The information is found in Pooley's Flight Guide, a publication compiled with the assistance of the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Pooley's also contains information on some continental European airports that are close to Great Britain. National Air Traffic Services, the UK's Air Navigation Service Provider, a public–private partnership also publishes an online AIP for the UK.",
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"plaintext": "The United States",
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"plaintext": "The US uses the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) (now officially termed the Chart Supplement) published in seven volumes. DAFIF also includes extensive airport data but has been unavailable to the public at large since 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Japan",
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"plaintext": "Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) is provided by Japan Aeronautical Information Service Center, under the authority of Japan Civil Aviation Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan.",
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"plaintext": "A comprehensive, consumer/business directory of commercial airports in the world (primarily for airports as businesses, rather than for pilots) is organized by the trade group Airports Council International.",
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"plaintext": " Airpark",
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"plaintext": " Altiport",
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"plaintext": " Environmental impact of aviation",
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"plaintext": " Model airport",
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"plaintext": " World's busiest airports",
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"plaintext": " Seaplane base",
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{
"plaintext": "Lists:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Index of aviation articles",
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"plaintext": " List of cities with more than one commercial airport",
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"plaintext": " Lutris is an open-source application to easily install Windows games on Linux.",
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"plaintext": " Bordeaux is a proprietary Wine GUI configuration manager that runs winelib applications. It also supports installation of third-party utilities, installation of applications and games, and the ability to use custom configurations. Bordeaux currently runs on Linux, FreeBSD, PC-BSD, Solaris, OpenSolaris, OpenIndiana, and macOS computers.",
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"plaintext": "Bottles is an open-source graphical Wine prefix and runners manager for Wine based on GTK. It provides a repository-based dependency installation system and bottle versioning to restore a previous state.",
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"plaintext": " WineGUI is a free and open-source graphical interface to manage Wine. It allows you to easily create Wine bottles and install Windows applications or games.",
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"plaintext": "The developers of the Direct3D portions of Wine have continued to implement new features such as pixel shaders to increase game support. Wine can also use native DLLs directly, thus increasing functionality, but then a license for Windows is needed unless the DLLs were distributed with the application itself.",
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"plaintext": "Wine also includes its own open-source implementations of several Windows programs, such as Notepad, WordPad, Control Panel, Internet Explorer, and Windows Explorer.",
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"plaintext": "The Wine Application Database (AppDB) is a community-maintained on-line database about which Windows programs works with Wine and how well they work.",
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"plaintext": "Wine ensures good backward compatibility with legacy Windows applications, including those written for Windows 3.1x. Wine can mimic different Windows versions required for some programs, going as far back as Windows version 2.0. However, Windows 1.x and Windows 2.x support was removed from Wine development version 1.3.12. If DOSBox is installed on the system (see below on MS-DOS), Wine development version 1.3.12 and later nevertheless show the \"Windows 2.0\" option for the Windows version to mimic, but Wine still will not run most Windows 2.0 programs because MS-DOS and Windows functions are not currently integrated.",
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"plaintext": "Backward compatibility in Wine is generally superior to that of Windows, as newer versions of Windows can force users to upgrade legacy Windows applications, and may break abandoned software forever as there is nobody adjusting the program for the changes in the operating system. In many cases, Wine can offer better legacy support than newer versions of Windows with \"Compatibility Mode\". Wine can run 16-bit Windows programs (Win16) on a 64-bit operating system, which uses an x86-64 (64-bit) CPU, a functionality not found in 64-bit versions of Microsoft Windows. WineVDM allows 16-bit Windows applications to run on 64-bit versions of Windows.",
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"plaintext": "Wine partially supports Windows console applications, and the user can choose which backend to use to manage the console (choices include raw streams, curses, and user32). When using the raw streams or curses backends, Windows applications will run in a Unix terminal.",
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"plaintext": "Preliminary support for 64-bit Windows applications was added to Wine 1.1.10, in December 2008. , the support is considered stable. The two versions of Wine are built separately, and as a result only building wine64 produces an environment only capable of running x86-64 applications.",
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"plaintext": ", Wine has stable support for a WoW64 build, which allows both 32-bit and 64-bit Windows applications to run inside the same Wine instance. To perform such a build, one must first build the 64-bit version, and then build the 32-bit version referencing the 64-bit version. Just like Microsoft's WoW64, the 32-bit build process will add parts necessary for handling 32-bit programs to the 64-bit build. This functionality is seen from at least 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Early versions of Microsoft Windows run on top of MS-DOS, and Windows programs may depend on MS-DOS programs to be usable. Wine does not have good support for MS-DOS, but starting with development version 1.3.12, Wine tries running MS-DOS programs in DOSBox if DOSBox is available on the system. However, due to a bug, current versions of Wine incorrectly identify Windows 1.x and Windows 2.x programs as MS-DOS programs, attempting to run them in DOSBox (which does not work).",
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"plaintext": "Wine provides Winelib, which allows its shared-object implementations of the Windows API to be used as actual libraries for a Unix program. This allows for Windows code to be built into native Unix executables. Since October 2010, Winelib also works on the ARM platform.",
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"plaintext": "Support for Solaris SPARC was dropped in version 1.5.26.",
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"plaintext": "Wine provides some support for ARM (as well as ARM64/AArch64) processors and the Windows flavors that run on it. , Wine can run ARM/Win32 applications intended for unlocked Windows RT devices (but not Windows RT programs). Windows CE support (either x86 or ARM) is missing, but an unofficial, pre-alpha proof-of-concept version called WineCE allows for some support.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 February 2013 at the FOSDEM talk in Brussels, Alexandre Julliard demonstrated an early demo of Wine running on Google's Android operating system.",
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"plaintext": "Experimental builds of WINE for Android (x86 and ARM) were released in late 2017. It has been routinely updated by the official developers ever since. The default builds do not implement cross-architecture emulation via QEMU, and as a result ARM versions will only run ARM applications that use the Win32 API.",
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"plaintext": "Wine, by default, uses specialized Windows builds of Gecko and Mono to substitute for Microsoft's Internet Explorer and .NET Framework. Wine has built-in implementations of JScript and VBScript. It is possible to download and run Microsoft's installers for those programs through winetricks or manually.",
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"plaintext": "Wine is not known to have good support for most versions of Internet Explorer (IE). Of all the reasonably recent versions, Internet Explorer 8 for Windows XP is the only version that reports a usable rating on Wine's AppDB, out-of-the-box. However Google Chrome gets a gold rating (as of Wine 5.5-staging), and Microsoft's IE replacement web browser Edge, is known to be based on that browser (after switching from Microsoft's own rendering engine). Winetricks offer auto-installation for Internet Explorer 6 through 8, so these versions can be reasonably expected to work with its built-in workarounds.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative for installing Internet Explorer directly is to use the now-defunct IEs4Linux. It is not compatible with the latest versions of Wine, and the development of IEs4Linux is inactive.",
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"plaintext": "The core Wine development aims at a correct implementation of the Windows API as a whole and has sometimes lagged in some areas of compatibility with certain applications. Direct3D, for example, remained unimplemented until 1998, although newer releases have had an increasingly complete implementation.",
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"plaintext": "CodeWeavers markets CrossOver specifically for running Microsoft Office and other major Windows applications, including some games. CodeWeavers employs Alexandre Julliard to work on Wine and contributes most of its code to the Wine project under the LGPL. CodeWeavers also released a new version called CrossOver Mac for Intel-based Apple Macintosh computers on 10 January 2007.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2012, CrossOver includes the functionality of both the CrossOver Games and CrossOver Pro lines therefore CrossOver Games and CrossOver Pro are no longer available as single products.",
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"plaintext": "CrossOver Games was optimized for running Windows video games. Unlike CrossOver, it didn't focus on providing the most stable version of Wine. Instead, experimental features are provided to support newer games.",
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"plaintext": "The Russian company Etersoft has been developing a proprietary version of Wine since 2006. WINE@Etersoft supports popular Russian applications (for example, Enterprise by 1C Company).",
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"plaintext": "On 21 August 2018, Valve announced a new variation of Wine, named Proton, designed to integrate with the Linux version of the company's Steam software (including Steam installations built into their Linux-based SteamOS operating system and Steam Machine computers). Valve's goal for Proton is to enable Steam users on Linux to play games which lack a native Linux port (particularly back-catalog games), and ultimately, through integration with Steam as well as improvements to game support relative to mainline Wine, to give users \"the same simple plug-and-play experience\" that they would get if they were playing the game natively on Linux. Proton entered public beta immediately upon being announced.",
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"plaintext": "Valve had already been collaborating with CodeWeavers since 2016 to develop improvements to Wine's gaming performance, some of which have been merged to the upstream Wine project. Some of the specific improvements incorporated into Proton include Vulkan-based Direct3D 9, 10, 11, and 12 implementations via vkd3d, DXVK, and D9VK multi-threaded performance improvements via esync, improved handling of fullscreen games, and better automatic game controller hardware support.",
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"plaintext": "Proton is fully open-source and available via GitHub.",
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"plaintext": "Other projects using Wine source code include:",
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"plaintext": " OTVDM, a 16-bit app compatibility layer for 64-bit Windows.",
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"plaintext": " ReactOS, a project to write an operating system compatible with Windows NT versions 5.x and up (which includes Windows 2000 and its successors) down to the device driver level. ReactOS uses Wine source code considerably, but because of architectural differences, ReactOS code (such as DLLs written specifically for it, like ntdll, user32, kernel32, gdi32, and advapi) is not generally reused in Wine. In July 2009, Aleksey Bragin, the ReactOS project lead, started a new ReactOS branch called Arwinss, and it was officially announced in January 2010. Arwinss is an alternative implementation of the core Win32 components, and uses mostly unchanged versions of Wine's user32.dll and gdi32.dll.",
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"plaintext": " WineBottler, a wrapper around Wine in the form of a normal Mac application. It manages multiple Wine configurations for different programs in the form of \"bottles.\"",
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"plaintext": " Wineskin, an open source Wine GUI configuration manager for macOS. Wineskin creates a wrapper around Wine in the form of a normal Mac Application. The wrapper can also be used to make a distributable \"port\" of software.",
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"plaintext": " Odin, a project to run Win32 binaries on OS/2 or convert them to OS/2 native format. The project also provides the Odin32 API to compile Win32 programs for OS/2.",
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"plaintext": " Virtualization products such as Parallels Desktop for Mac and VirtualBox use WineD3D to make use of the GPU.",
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"plaintext": " WinOnX, a commercial package of Wine for macOS that includes a GUI for adding and managing applications and virtual machines.",
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"plaintext": " WineD3D for Windows, a compatibility wrapper which emulates old Direct3D versions and features that were removed by Microsoft in recent Windows releases, using OpenGL. This sometimes gets older games working again.",
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"plaintext": " Cedega / WineX: TransGaming Inc. (now Findev Inc. since the sale of its software businesses) produced the proprietary Cedega software. Formerly known as WineX, Cedega represented a fork from the last MIT-licensed version of Wine in 2002. Much like CrossOver Games, TransGaming's Cedega was targeted towards running Windows video games. On 7 January 2011, TransGaming Inc. announced continued development of Cedega Technology under the GameTree Developer Program. TransGaming Inc. allowed members to keep using their Cedega ID and password until 28 February 2011.",
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"plaintext": " Cider: TransGaming also produced Cider, a library for Apple–Intel architecture Macintoshes. Instead of being an end-user product, Cider (like Winelib) is a wrapper allowing developers to adapt their games to run natively on Intel Mac without any changes in source code.",
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"plaintext": " Darwine: an outdated port of the Wine libraries to Darwin and to macOS for both the PowerPC and Intel x86 architectures. All patches for the x86 version were merged back into the main branch of Wine in 2009. Development on the PPC version was abandoned (and in 2020 Wine 5.11 dropped support for PowerPC.). Mike Kronenberg previously created the WineHelper for Darwine to add a GUI and macOS style app for interacting with Wine, which was later replaced by WineBottler. Darwine now provides macOS compatible packages compiled from the Wine repository.",
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"plaintext": " : a project attempting to allow any program designed for any operating system to be run without the need to actually install any other operating system.",
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"plaintext": " Pipelight: a custom version of Wine (wine-compholio) that acts as a wrapper for Windows NPAPI plugins within Linux browsers. This tool permits Linux users to run Microsoft Silverlight, the Microsoft equivalent of Adobe Flash, and the Unity web plugin, along with a variety of other NPAPI plugins. The project provides an extensive set of patches against the upstream Wine project, some of which were approved and added to upstream Wine. Pipelight is largely obsolete, as modern browsers no longer support NPAPI plugins and Silverlight has been deprecated by Microsoft.",
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"plaintext": "The Wine project has received a number of technical and philosophical complaints and concerns over the years.",
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"plaintext": "Because of Wine's ability to run Windows binary code, concerns have been raised over native Windows viruses and malware affecting Unix-like operating systems as Wine can run limited malware made for Windows. A 2018 security analysis found that 5 out of 30 malware samples were able to successfully run through Wine, a relatively low rate that nevertheless posed a security risk. For this reason the developers of Wine recommend never running it as the superuser. Malware research software such as ZeroWine runs Wine on Linux in a virtual machine, to keep the malware completely isolated from the host system. An alternative to improve the security without the performance cost of using a virtual machine, is to run Wine in an LXC container, as Anbox software is doing by default with Android.",
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"plaintext": "Another security concern is when the implemented specifications are ill-designed and allow for security compromise. Because Wine implements these specifications, it will likely also implement any security vulnerabilities they contain. One instance of this problem was the 2006 Windows Metafile vulnerability, which saw Wine implementing the vulnerable SETABORTPROC escape.",
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"plaintext": "A common concern about Wine is that its existence means that vendors are less likely to write native Linux, macOS, and BSD applications. As an example of this, it is worth considering IBM's 1994 operating system, OS/2 Warp. An article describes the weaknesses of OS/2 which killed it, the first one being:",
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"plaintext": "However, OS/2 had many problems with end user acceptance. Perhaps the most serious was that most computers sold already came with DOS and Windows, and many people didn't bother to evaluate OS/2 on its merits due to already having an operating system. \"Bundling\" of DOS and Windows and the chilling effect this had on the operating system market frequently came up in United States v. Microsoft Corporation.",
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"plaintext": "The Wine project itself responds to the specific complaint of \"encouraging\" the continued development for the Windows API on one of its wiki pages:",
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"plaintext": "Also, the Wine Wiki page claims that Wine can help break the chicken-and-egg problem for Linux on the desktop:",
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"plaintext": "The use of Wine for gaming has proved specifically controversial in the Linux community, as some feel it is preventing, or at least hindering, the further growth of native Linux gaming on the platform.",
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"plaintext": "Until 2020, Microsoft had not made any public statements about Wine. However, the Windows Update software will block updates to Microsoft applications running in Wine. On 16 February 2005, Ivan Leo Puoti discovered that Microsoft had started checking the Windows Registry for the Wine configuration key and would block the Windows Update for any component. As Puoti noted: \"It's also the first time Microsoft acknowledges the existence of Wine.\"",
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"plaintext": "In January 2020, Microsoft cited Wine as a positive consequence of being able to reimplement APIs, in its amicus curiae brief for Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Anbox",
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"Linux_emulation_software",
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"Winelib",
"W.I.N.E.",
"WineHQ",
"Windows Emulator",
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37,584 | 1,105,870,683 | List_of_wine-producing_regions | [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Similkameen Valley (VQA defined viticultural area)",
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"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
10761429
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thompson Valley (wine region) (VQA defined viticultural area)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Vancouver Island (VQA defined viticultural area)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
53099
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nova Scotia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
21184
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Annapolis Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2245
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ontario",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
22218
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lake Erie North Shore and Pelee Island (VQA defined viticultural area)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
17946,
637254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
27,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Niagara Peninsula (VQA defined viticultural area)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
315456
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prince Edward County (VQA defined viticultural area)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
627793
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toronto",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
64646
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Quebec",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
7954867
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eastern Townships",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
195143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Villa de Leyva",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2245320
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle del Cauca ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
549733
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " La Unión",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
10719935
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aconcagua",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
34134448
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aconcagua Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
743103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Casablanca Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
10407597
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Atacama",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
72844
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Copiapó Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12285203
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Huasco Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12758001
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
23778857
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cachapoal Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12026577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maipo Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12026379
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mataquito Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
4439057
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maule Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
6440683
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coquimbo",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
72847
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Choapa Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12299540
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elqui Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2051101
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Limarí",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12281643
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pica – a wine-producing oasis before the Chilenization of Tarapacá",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
6186557,
33033431
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
42,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern Chile",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
41265331
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bío-Bío Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1977596
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Itata Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
7002309
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Malleco Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
8988924
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bueno Valley and Ranco Lake",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
10649002,
8619123
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
18,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aguascalientes",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
412275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aguascalientes Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
412275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baja California",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
199793
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Guadalupe",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2212295
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Calafia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Mexicali",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2774570
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de San Vicente",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Santo Tomás",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Zona Tecate",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coahuila / Durango, collectively known as La Laguna wine region",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
160592,
222234
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Parras",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Guanajuato",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
412827
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guanajuato City",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
180537
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " San Miguel de Allende",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1498071
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dolores Hidalgo",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
220881
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " San Felipe",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
11946946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Salvatierra",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
7657227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " San Francisco del Rincón",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1723950
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hidalgo",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
224021
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuevo León",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
222247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Las Maravillas",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Querétaro",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
222250
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Tequisquiapan",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sonora",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
83750
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Caborca",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12084677
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hermosillo",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
147209
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zacatecas",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
18952846
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de las Arcinas",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Arequipa region valleys",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
18952469
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Huaral District and Cañete Province – both in Lima Region; formerly in Surco were vineyards that have disappeared due to urban expansion",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
9171892,
1450431,
714904,
1474821
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
21,
36
],
[
47,
58
],
[
72,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ica Region – including Chincha, Pisco and Ica valleys",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
713288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pica – a wine-producing oasis before the Chilenization of Tarapacá",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
6186557,
22006168
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
59,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arizona",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14455550
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " California",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14660227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Central Coast AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13384131
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Livermore Valley AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1567057
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Paso Robles AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13378422
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "York Mountain AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
15414817
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Central Valley",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
82140
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Lodi AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13378084
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "North Coast AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13609956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mendocino AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13626408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Napa Valley AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
7734108
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sonoma County",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13376886
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sierra Foothills AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
13558732
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "South Coast AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
15054026
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colorado",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14455322
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Idaho",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
12040291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michigan",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
5053262
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Missouri",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1169880
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New Jersey",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
8848338
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New Mexico",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14058375
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New York",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
7806356
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Finger Lakes AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
15626660
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Hudson River Region AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
15640457
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Long Island AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
15640568
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ohio",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14438783
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oregon",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
6426696
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Willamette Valley AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
6470250
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pennsylvania",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14439891
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Texas",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
11953901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Texas High Plains AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14261597
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Texas Hill Country AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14250363
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Trans-Pecos",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
4582039
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Virginia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
14279488
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Washington",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Columbia Valley AVA",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montevideo",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
38261
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Canelones",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2227777
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maldonado",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
1442046
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Garzón",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " José Ignacio",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Colonia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
733690
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " San José",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2227843
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The wine-producing enterprise for Venezuela can be found here.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Carora, Lara State",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Americas",
"target_page_ids": [
2743590,
556273
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Berat",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
258683
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Korça",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
156505
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leskovik",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
20220809
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lezhë",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
541976
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Përmet",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1403085
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shkoder",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
59736375
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tirana County",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
546911
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burgenland",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
98935
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Northeastern and eastern Lower Austria",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
148988
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"anchor_spans": [
[
26,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kamptal",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
56946580
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kremstal",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
56946554
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wachau",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
30022552
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wagram",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3014485
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Weinviertel",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2745450
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern Styria",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
224474
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vienna and surrounding area",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
55866
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côtes de Sambre et Meuse, between the rivers Sambre et Meuse, since 2004",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hagelandse wijn, near Rotselaar/Leuven, since 1997",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Haspengouw, Limburg, since 2000",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3428757
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Heuvelland, since 2005",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
154428
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Čapljina",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1746030
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Čitluk",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2448377
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ljubuški",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1636754
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Međugorje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
355166
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mostar",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
551361
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stolac",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1633491
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trebinje",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1263291
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Black Sea region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3386
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Danubian Plain",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5783835
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rose Valley",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3083176
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thrace",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
36857
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valley of the Struma River",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
415437
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"anchor_spans": [
[
15,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Continental Croatia: Central Croatia and Slavonia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6724307,
149274
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"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
37
],
[
42,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Moslavina",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4770534
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plešivica",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Podunavlje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2067196
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pokuplje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6685020
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prigorje – Bilogora",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
40465837,
29333496
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slavonia",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
149274
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zagorje – Međimurje",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2652161,
435781
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Littoral Croatia: Northern Croatian Littoral and Dalmatia",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6724081,
47286
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"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
45
],
[
50,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Croatian Coast (Hrvatsko primorje)",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Dalmatian Interior (Dalmatinska zagora)",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
7393989
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central and South Dalmatia (Srednja i Južna Dalmacija)",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
47286
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"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Northern Dalmatia (Sjeverna Dalmacija)",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
47286
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"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Istria (Istra)",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
52036
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Commandaria",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
244372
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Laona – Akamas",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5210075
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"anchor_spans": [
[
9,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vouni Panagias – Ambelitis",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Krasochoria Lemesou",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pitsilia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
41104918
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diarizos Valley",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Moravia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
20216
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mikulov – Mikulovska wine",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1554283,
30554334
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slovácko",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4917347
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Velké Pavlovice",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
13004108
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Znojmo",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
248697
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bohemia",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4345
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Litoměřice",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
838782
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mělník",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
856899
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prague",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
23844
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gazebo at Gröbe’s Villa",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " St. Clare’s",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " St. Wenceslas’ Vineyard at Prague castle",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Salabka, Troja",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alsace – Alsace wine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
48129,
1083426
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bordeaux – Bordeaux wine",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4097,
2166602
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barsac",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4147807
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Entre-Deux-Mers",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
12494260
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fronsac",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14668145
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Graves",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1055202
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Haut-Médoc",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15623386
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Margaux",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2650205
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Médoc",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15623175
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pauillac",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
35595080
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pessac-Léognan",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1055895
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pomerol",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
24651755
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saint-Émilion",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
26617054
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saint-Estèphe",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
26601067
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saint-Julien",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
26601193
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sauternes – Sauternes",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1055202,
4147807
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burgundy (Bourgogne) – Burgundy wine",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
85451,
715978
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
24,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beaujolais",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
226501
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bugey",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2403967
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chablis",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
650981
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte Chalonnaise",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2897847
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte d'Or",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2583170
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte de Beaune",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2756908
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aloxe-Corton",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2939003
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Auxey-Duresses",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2939050
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beaune",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
328807
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chassagne-Montrachet",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3754983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Meursault",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2758491
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Santenay",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3337071
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte de Nuits",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2755475
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chambolle-Musigny",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2273454
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gevrey-Chambertin",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2747537
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuits-Saint-Georges",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2169398
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vosne-Romanée",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2361456
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mâconnais",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1933670
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pouilly-Fuissé",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2137773
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Champagne – Champagne",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
53755,
53754
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Corsica",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17572859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ajaccio",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17572859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cap Course",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17572859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Patrimonio",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17572859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Vin de Corse",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17572859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Calvi",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Figari",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Porto-Vecchio",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Sartène ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jura – Jura wine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
90577,
2655795
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
8,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Languedoc-Roussillon",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
86571
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Banyuls",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1125175
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Blanquette de Limoux",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9592964
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cabardès",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9573203
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Collioure",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2110010
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Corbières",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9689056
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côtes du Roussillon",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1125231
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fitou",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3012290
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maury",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1125255
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minervois",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3012246
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rivesaltes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1125283
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loire Valley – Loire Valley (wine region)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
81870,
14245677
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anjou – Saumur",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
24124649,
11089240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
9,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cognac",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1113125
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muscadet",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1781658
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pouilly-Fumé",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9997739
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sancerre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1606878
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Touraine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
79849
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lorraine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2393620
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madiran",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17476102
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Provence",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
48503
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhône – Rhône wine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
80790,
906659
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
9,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beaumes-de-Venise",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17001042
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Château-Grillet",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126768
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Châteauneuf-du-Pape",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1125502
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Condrieu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126755
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cornas",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126774
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte du Rhône-Villages, Rhône wine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126907,
906659
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
25,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côte-Rôtie",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126751
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Côtes du Rhône",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126907
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crozes-Hermitage",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126772
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gigondas",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hermitage",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
548758
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " St. Joseph",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
993209
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saint-Péray",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126785
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vacqueyras",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1126887
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Savoy",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14320875
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abkhazia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18933375
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kakheti, containing the micro-regions Telavi and Kvareli",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1101599,
1001374,
3915450
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
39,
45
],
[
50,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kartli",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1004391
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Imereti",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
44464
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3398901
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ahr",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15010808
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baden",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14989190
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Franconia (Franken)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14159305
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hessische Bergstraße",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14339778
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mittelrhein",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15012191
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mosel",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
441754
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nahe",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14994838
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Palatinate (Pfalz)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9223433
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rheingau",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
13160865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rheinhessen",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
11086596
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saale-Unstrut",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
581949
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saxony (Sachsen)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14340099
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Württemberg",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14991688
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aegean islands",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
427887
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crete",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Limnos",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
83010
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paros",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
182233
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhodes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
26773183
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samos",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3333684
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Santorini",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
29891803
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central Greece",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Attica",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
302613
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Epirus",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3267936
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zitsa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6174809
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thessaly",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
55804
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nea Anchialos",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1862510
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rapsani",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
33537569
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ionian Islands",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
302626
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kefalonia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
212191
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Macedonia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2741895
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amyntaion",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6802197
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Goumenissa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6204170
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Naousa, Imathia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5342569
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peloponnesus",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
45749
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mantineia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
264324
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nemea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
856535
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Patras",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
470691
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Balaton",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
38409410
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Badacsony",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Balaton-felvidék",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Balatonboglár",
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14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Balatonfüred-Csopak",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nagy-Somló",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Zala",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Duna",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Csongrád",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hajós-Baja",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kunság",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eger",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bükk",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eger",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Észak-Dunántúl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Etyek-Buda",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mátra",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mór",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Neszmély",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pannonhalma",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pannon",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pécs",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Szekszárd",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tolna",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Villány",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sopron",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tokaj",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cork",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Apulia",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bianco di Locorotondo e Martina Franca",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Primitivo di Manduria",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Calabria",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bivongi",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cirò",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gaglioppo",
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[
1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Greco di Bianco",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lamezia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Melissa",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sant'Anna di Isola Capo Rizzuto",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Savuto",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Scavigna",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Terre di Cosenza",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Campania",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Avellino",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Aglianico",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Falanghina",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fiano",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Greco di Tufo",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Benevento",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Aglianico",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Falanghina",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Solopaca",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Caserta",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Napoli",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Salerno",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Emilia-Romagna",
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15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Cesenate",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sangiovese Superiore di Romagna",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Trebbiano di Romagna",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liguria",
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1,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cinque Terre",
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1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lombardy",
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Franciacorta",
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1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oltrepo Pavese",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marche",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Castelli di Jesi",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Conero",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Piceno",
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Piedmont",
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Acqui",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alba",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Asti",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barolo",
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Tortonesi",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gattinara",
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1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gavi",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ghemme",
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Langhe",
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Monferrato",
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"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nizza",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ovada",
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1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sardinia",
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cagliari",
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cannonau",
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628171
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[
1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Monti",
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuragus",
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ogliastra",
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159884
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vermentino di Gallura",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sicily",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Etna",
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1,
5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Noto",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pantelleria",
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1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trentino-Alto Adige",
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " South Tyrol, known alternatively as Südtirol (in German) or Alto Adige (in Italian)",
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1,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": " Trentino",
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tuscany",
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1,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bolgheri",
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1,
9
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},
{
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1,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chianti Classico",
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7781
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[
1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Apuani",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Etruria Centrale",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Colline Lucchesi",
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elba",
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10479
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[
1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montalcino",
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20997
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[
1,
11
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montescudaio",
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6737325
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[
1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Parrina",
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[
1,
8
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]
},
{
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2026430
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[
1,
11
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]
},
{
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298616
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[
1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Scansano",
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29570
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[
1,
9
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},
{
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20951171
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[
1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Val di Cornia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Valdinievole",
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[
1,
13
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]
},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " Umbria",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Montefalco",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Orvieto",
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[
1,
8
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},
{
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1,
9
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},
{
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[
1,
7
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]
},
{
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[
1,
7
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},
{
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[
1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bardolino",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6552142
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bianco di Custoza",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Breganze",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6521248
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Berici",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
21661787
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli di Conegliano",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2915988
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colli Euganei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4363883
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gambellara",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6521999
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Garda",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1755915
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lessini Durello",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lison Pramaggiore",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lugana",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1053404
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montgello e Colli Asolani",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Piave",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
763968
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prosecco",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1118602
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Soave",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2109457
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valdadige",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Valpolicella",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
512432
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sabile",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
230646
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anykščių vynas – Anykščiai",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3679027
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mėmelio vynas – Priekulė",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6554285
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"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Moselle Valley",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4941982
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bardar",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
24576839
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Codri",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6323293
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cricova",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17401951
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hîncești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2744056
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Purcari",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15917542
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crmnica",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9416030
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plantaže, near Podgorica",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5935106,
172136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
16,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Groesbeek",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
118612
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Povardarie",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
19976129
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Skopsko vinogorje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tikveš",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4522958
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dolny Śląsk",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
322108
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kazimierz Dolny",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1042953
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Małopolska",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18671
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Podkarpacie",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
345194
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Warka, near Warsaw",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1064885,
32908
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
13,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zielona Góra",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
74687
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alentejo",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5862695
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bairrada",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1832113
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bucelas",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
24548833
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Carcavelos",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1711807
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colares",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6682343
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dão",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1832101
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lagoa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4442827
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lagos",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
85232
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madeira",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
19898
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Portimão",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
634989
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Porto e Douro",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
68691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Setúbal",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
907489
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tavira",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1039147
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vinhos Verdes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
464943
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Banat wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
271319
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arad",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
22537901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jamu Mare",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
7668221
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Măderat",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3885028
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miniș",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17600130
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Moldova Nouă",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
62223
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Recaș",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
10061894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Silagiu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2612892
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Teremia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18799530
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tirol",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Crișana wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
307845
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diosig",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18553559
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Săcuieni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2679042
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sâniob",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1237289
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sanislău",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
14851982
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea lui Mihai",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4048134
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Dobrogea wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
229277
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adamclisi",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1616273
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aliman",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9442645
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Babadag",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
64680
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Băneasa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9446417
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cernavodă",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
373276
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chirnogeni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9539901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dăeni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16981457
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hârșova",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1222320
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Istria",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
52036
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Măcin",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
416995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Medgidia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
391792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Murfatlar",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1277635
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oltina",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9539081
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ostrov, Constanța",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9539045
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ostrov, Tulcea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16981369
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Poarta Albă",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6109892
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sarica-Niculițel",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Simioc",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tulcea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
381177
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea Dacilor",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
391792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea Nucarilor",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16981357
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valu lui Traian",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
9166254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Moldavia wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
48098688
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Berești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18737649
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bohotin",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18788690
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cotești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18293773
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colinele Tutovei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Comarna",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18529661
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Copou",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
25699960
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Corod",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18578022
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cotnari",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5271034
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Covurlui",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2293376
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cucuteni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1594302
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealu Morii",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18516581
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealul Bujorului",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hârlău",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
457029
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hlipicani",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Huși",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
410261
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iași",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
215076
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ivești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18578103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jariștea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18295479
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nămoloasa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17595433
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nicorești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18578144
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odobești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6273201
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Panciu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1255933
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Păunești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18295588
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Probota",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
23770718
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tănăsoaia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18295754
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Târgu Frumos",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3946720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tecuci",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
410245
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Țifești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18295752
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tomești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18788917
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vaslui",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
385726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zeletin",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
11172878
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Muntenia wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
268039
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Seciu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4048037
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Breaza",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1277776
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cricov",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15150964
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealu Mare",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
30690308
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealurile Buzăului",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pietroasa",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4488150
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Râmnicu Sărat",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
410242
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Șercaia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16971398
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ștefănești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18779725
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tohani",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18817714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Topoloveni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1282276
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Urlați–Ceptura",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea Călugărească",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15534726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea Mare",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18516394
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zărnești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1230883
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zorești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4994419
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Oltenia wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
172232
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Banu Mărăcine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
55862210
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Calafat",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
410253
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cetate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18564686
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Corcova",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18804579
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dăbuleni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
11889122
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealul Viilor",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Dealurile Craiovei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Drăgășani",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
410258
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Golul Drincei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Greaca",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17570024
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iancu Jianu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
15384465
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Izvoarele",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
12721019
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Orevița",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16795316
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plaiurile Drâncei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Plenița",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18564995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Podgoria Dacilor",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Podgoria Severinului",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Poiana Mare",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18565012
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Potelu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18801156
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sadova-Corabia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sâmburești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18801721
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Segarcea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2368905
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tâmburești",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18565036
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vânju Mare",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3718444
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zimnicea",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1191425
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Transylvania wine regions:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
30853
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aiud",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
292385
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alba Iulia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
400475
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bistrița",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
415846
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Blaj",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1139430
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ighiu",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
16964586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jidvei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
8583279
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lechința",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18494410
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mediaș",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
446676
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Șamșud",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
17570792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sebeș-Apold",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Șimleu Silvaniei",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
873568
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Târnave",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
30111300
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Târnăveni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1060572
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Teaca",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
18494521
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Triteni",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
5448116
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valea Nirajului",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Caucasus",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
39282
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Krasnodar",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
474128
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stavropol",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
474075
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Banat region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
271319
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kosovo region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nišava – South Morava region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3245540,
4956000
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pocerina region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
875240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Srem region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
458802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Subotica – Horgoš region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
178184,
3485699
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Šumadija – Great Morava region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
869213,
1073414
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Timok Valley",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
871481
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " West Morava region",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1113295
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Malokarpatská (Small Carpathians)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nitrianska (region of Nitra)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tokaj (Tokaj region of Slovakia)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1060430
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The whole of southern Slovakia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Podravje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3491043
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Posavje",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
6921611
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Primorska",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
4065618
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andalusia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
2736
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Condado de Huelva",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
11003208
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jerez-Xeres-Sherry",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
160246
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Málaga and Sierras de Málaga",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
11136064
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manzanilla de Sanlúcar de Barrameda",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1076502,
885424
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
15,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montilla-Moriles",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
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17
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},
{
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7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Calatayud",
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1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Campo de Borja",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Campo de Cariñena",
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Somontano",
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10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Balearic Islands",
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17
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},
{
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1,
20
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},
{
"plaintext": " Plà i Llevant (DO)",
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19
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},
{
"plaintext": " Basque Country",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alavan Txakoli",
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15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Biscayan Txakoli",
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17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Getaria Txakoli",
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1,
16
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rioja (Alavesa)",
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16
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},
{
"plaintext": " Canary Islands",
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1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abona",
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6
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},
{
"plaintext": " El Hierro (DO)",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gran Canaria (DO)",
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1,
18
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Gomera (DO)",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Palma (DO)",
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14
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},
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"plaintext": " Lanzarote (DO)",
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15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tacoronte-Acentejo",
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1,
19
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},
{
"plaintext": " Valle de Güímar",
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1,
16
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Valle de la Orotava",
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ycoden-Daute-Isora",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Castile and León",
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"section_name": "Europe",
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arlanza",
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1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arribes del Duero",
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1,
18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bierzo",
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cigales",
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8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Espumosos de Castilla y León",
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1,
29
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Ribera del Duero",
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17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rueda",
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1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tierra del Vino de Zamora",
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1,
26
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},
{
"plaintext": " Toro",
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valles de Benavente",
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20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tierra de León",
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15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valtiendas",
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11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vino de la Tierra Castilla y León",
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34
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},
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Almansa",
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8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dominio de Valdepusa",
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21
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},
{
"plaintext": " Guijoso",
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8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jumilla",
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},
{
"plaintext": " La Mancha",
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10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Manchuela",
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10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Méntrida",
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9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mondéjar",
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9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ribera del Júcar",
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17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Valdepeñas",
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11
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},
{
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alella",
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1,
7
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},
{
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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1,
5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Conca de Barberà",
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17
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},
{
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Empordà",
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8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Montsant",
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9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Penedès",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pla de Bages",
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1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Priorat",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tarragona",
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Terra Alta",
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11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Extremadura",
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12
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ribera del Guadiana",
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20
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},
{
"plaintext": " Galicia",
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8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Monterrey",
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rías Baixas",
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12
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{
"plaintext": " Ribeira Sacra",
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14
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{
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8
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{
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11
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9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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1,
5
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{
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1,
6
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},
{
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1,
20
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},
{
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1,
16
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},
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1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bullas",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jumilla",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yecla",
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2336370
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Navarre",
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59731
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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27902304
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Navarra",
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59731
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rioja",
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68747
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1,
6
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},
{
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1,
20
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alicante",
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143456
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1,
9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cava",
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27902304
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1,
5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Utiel-Requena",
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1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Valencia",
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44741236
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1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gutevin – Gotland",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aargau",
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2467
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[
1,
7
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]
},
{
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1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shores of Lake Biel",
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1,
20
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]
},
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635581,
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1,
20
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[
22,
27
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[
30,
39
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]
},
{
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1,
9
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},
{
"plaintext": " Geneva",
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12521
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1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grisons",
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Neuchâtel",
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1,
10
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},
{
"plaintext": " St. Gallen",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
403902
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Schaffhausen",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
174298
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thurgau",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
322178
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ticino",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
84147
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valais",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
198789
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vaud",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
288702
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " La Côte",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3841268
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lavaux",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
3691830
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zürich",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
40334603
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In Ukraine, at the present time there are seven administrative regions (provinces) in which the wine industry has developed. Given the favorable climatic location, the law of Ukraine allocated 15 winegrowing areas (macrozones), which are the basis for growing certain varieties of grapes, and 58 natural wine regions (microzones). These are located mainly in the following areas.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol – 6 macrozones with 12 microzones (69 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
42133018,
51587
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
],
[
35,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kherson Oblast – 2 macrozones with 10 microzones (28 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
1273370
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mykolaiv Oblast – 2 macrozones with 7 microzones (31 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
494928
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odessa Oblast – 3 macrozones with 16 microzones (42 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
61438266
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zakarpattia Oblast – 1 macrozone with 12 microzones (24 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
494878
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zaporizhzhia Oblast – 1 macrozone with 1 microzone (5 wine grapes)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
494936
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In the UK, the area under vines is small, and whilst viticulture is not a major part of the rural economy, significant planting of new vines has occurred in the early 21st century. The greatest concentration of vineyards is found in the south east of England, in the counties of Hampshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Europe",
"target_page_ids": [
13861,
16766,
48189,
49699
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
279,
288
],
[
290,
294
],
[
296,
302
],
[
308,
314
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ararat Valley",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
8619884
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Areni, in the Vayots Dzor Province",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
18255938,
470518
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
15,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ijevan, in the Tavush Province",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
581506,
470516
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
16,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aghdam, Agdam District",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
13711238,
1275645
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baku, capital",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
4566
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ganja, Ganja-Basar zone in central Azerbaijan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
661551,
746
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
36,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madrasa village of Shamakhi Rayon, from Madrasa, indigenous only to this region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
18880566,
1492898
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
20,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tovuz and Shamkir, northwestern Azerbaijan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
7135935,
2813617
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
11,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shan State",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
493376
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Regions producing native wines have been present since the Qin Dynasty, with wines being brought to China from Persia. Some of the more famous wine-producing regions are:",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
43461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
59,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chang'an",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
186508
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gaochang",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
967482
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Luoyang",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
166420
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qiuci",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
863644
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yantai-Penglai",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
261441
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "With the import of Western wine-making technologies, especially French technology, production of wines similar to modern French wine has begun in many parts of China with the direction of experienced French wine-makers; China is now the sixth largest producer of wine in the world. The following regions produce significant quality of wine:",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
3398365
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
121,
132
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chang'an",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
186508
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dalian, Liaoning",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
250109,
155516
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tonghua, Jilin",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
7314963,
173797
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yantai, Shandong",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
261441,
105032
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yibin, Sichuan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
718354,
65185
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhangjiakou, Hebei",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
970556,
72664
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nashik, Maharashtra",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
746126,
20629
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bangalore, Karnataka",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
44275267,
16880
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vijayapura, Karnataka",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
873689,
16880
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Narayangaon",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1042535
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pune, Maharashtra",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
164634,
20629
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
7,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sangli, Maharashtra",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
546041,
20629
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Indonesia has been producing wine for over 18 years, with North Bali's vineyards producing three main grape varieties: the Belgia, the Alphonse Lavallee and the Probolinggo Biru. The main producer, Hatten Wines, has revolutionized the world of winemaking, with eight wines produced from these three varieties.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bali",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
4147
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Prior to the Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iran was a producer of wine. While production has stopped, the vineyards continue to exist and their product has been diverted to non-alcoholic purposes.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Malayer",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1170333
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shiraz",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
39622
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Takestan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
14068905
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Urmia",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
615663
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qazvin",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1052555
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Quchan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2068667
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Also includes wine regions in Israeli-occupied territories.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2781576
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
30,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bet Shemesh",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
323292
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galilee",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
12639
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Golan Heights",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
7515865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jerusalem",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
16043
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Judean Hills",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1898125
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Latrun",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
83446
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Carmel",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
381925
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rishon LeZion (wine production since 1886)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
312798
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yamanashi",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
181035
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hokkaido",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
58092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nagano",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
179782
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anseong, Gyeonggi-do",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
967674,
323103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gimcheon, Gyeongsangbuk-do",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
968608,
314848
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gyeongsan, Gyeongsangbuk-do",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
968621,
314848
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yeongcheon, Gyeongsangbuk-do",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
386404,
314848
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yeongdong, Chungcheongbuk-do",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
392154,
323091
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bekaa Valley",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2162385
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anjar",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1317271
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chtoura",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
9968354
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rashaya",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
17704914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zahlé",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
26856041
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Lebanon",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
381121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aley",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
4628068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baabda",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
3971243
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beit Mery",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
9409638
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bhamdoun",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
6570855
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brummana",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
10859561
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Byblos",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
176481
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chouf",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2430666
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Keserwan District",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
8176909
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " North Governorate",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
3028381
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chekka",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
10427275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ehden",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
4071233
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Koura",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
12140134
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qadisha Valley",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2444591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tripoli",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
268796
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zgharta",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1856747
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " South Governorate",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1283570
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jezzine",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
8975072
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marjayoun",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
6236310
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rmaich",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
9813948
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beit Jala",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
742227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hebron",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
38577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bloudan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
7661890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Homs District",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
11709847
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jabal el Druze",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
703150
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Latakia",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
195594
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sednaya",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
2351479
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Syrian Golan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
7515865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tartous",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
879212
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "White wine grapes:",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Altıntaş– Marmara region and Bozcaada",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Beylerce– Bilecik area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bornova Misketi– İzmir area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
890864
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emir– Nevşehir (Cappadocia) area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
43937629
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hasandede– Ankara and central Anatolia",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Narince– Tokat area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
42018787
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rumi, Kabarcık, Dökülgen– Southeastern Anatolia region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sultaniye– Aegean region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1209058
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yapıncak– Thracian region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Red wine grapes",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Adakarası– Marmara region and Avşa Island",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
33503254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Boğazkere– Elazığ and Diyarbakır areas",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
22801906
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Çalkarası– Çal, Denizli area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
10516359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dimrit– central Anatolia and eastern Aegean region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Horozkarası, Sergikarası– southeastern Anatolia region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kalecik Karası– Ankara area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
10514117
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karalahna– Tekirdağ region, Bozcaada ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
67687437
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karasakız, Kuntra– Çanakkale region",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
66349227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Öküzgözü– Elazığ area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
10651190
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Papazkarası– Kırklareli area",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
23325643
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Da Lat",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [
1994394
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Geographic indications for Australian wine are governed by law. The geographic indication must indicate where the grapes are grown, irrespective of where the wine itself is made. A geographic indication may be \"Australia\", \"South Eastern Australia\", a state name, zone, region or subregion if defined.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
4689096
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
252,
262
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The zones, regions and subregions in each state are listed below:",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Big Rivers",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50656018
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Murray Darling",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
14121273
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Perricoota",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50655509
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Riverina",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50659310
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Swan Hill",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50676738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central Ranges",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50712539
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cowra",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50712586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mudgee",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50712612
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Orange",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50712666
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hunter Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
506021
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hunter",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
29159120
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Broke Fordwich",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pokolbin",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Upper Hunter Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Northern Rivers",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
613760
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hastings River",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50649714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Northern Slopes",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
5342371
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New England Australia",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
323753
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " South Coast",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
5284934
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shoalhaven Coast",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
48504856
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern Highlands",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
741975
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern New South Wales",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
15749385
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Canberra District (includes the northern part of the Australian Capital Territory)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
553809,
1944
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
54,
82
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gundagai",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50704499
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hilltops",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50632178
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tumbarumba",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
50612731
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Granite Belt",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1712809
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " South Burnett",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
9553112
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Adelaide Super Zone includes Mount Lofty Ranges, Fleurieu and Barossa wine zones.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Barossa",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44377277
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barossa Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
25800172
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eden Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44292142
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " High Eden",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
14385830
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Far North",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44334731
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern Flinders Ranges",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
3289998
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fleurieu",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44295421
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Currency Creek",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44383513
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kangaroo Island",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44308465
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Langhorne Creek",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44382735
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " McLaren Vale",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1426476
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern Fleurieu",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44321383
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Limestone Coast",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44314127
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coonawarra",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
979580
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Benson",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1881891
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Gambier",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44312505
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Padthaway",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44381302
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robe",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44366654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wrattonbully",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1364625
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lower Murray",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44336013
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Riverland",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44353585
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Lofty Ranges",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44355735
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adelaide Hills",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44353744
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lenswood",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44359901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Piccadilly Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44360180
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adelaide Plains",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44345455
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clare Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1429931
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Peninsulas",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
44323829
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Regions, no zones defined",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coal River",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Derwent Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " East Coast",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " North West",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pipers River",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Southern",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tamar Valley",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
520755
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central Victoria",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Oceania",
"target_page_ids": [
1648376
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bendigo",
"section_idx": 6,
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] | [
"Wine_regions",
"Wine-related_lists"
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37,585 | 1,107,889,916 | Museum | [
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"plaintext": "A museum ( ; plural museums or, rarely, musea) is a building or institution that cares for and displays a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific importance. Many public museums make these items available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. The largest museums are located in major cities throughout the world, while thousands of local museums exist in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas. Museums have varying aims, ranging from the conservation and documentation of their collection, serving researchers and specialists, to catering to the general public. The goal of serving researchers is not only scientific, but intended to serve the general public.",
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"plaintext": "There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, and children's museums. According to the International Council of Museums (ICOM), there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries.",
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"plaintext": "The English \"museum\" comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as \"museums\" (or rarely, \"musea\"). It is originally from the Ancient Greek Μουσεῖον (Mouseion), which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the muses (the patron divinities in Greek mythology of the arts), and hence was a building set apart for study and the arts, especially the Musaeum (institute) for philosophy and research at Alexandria, built under Ptolemy I Soter about 280 BC.",
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"plaintext": "The purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display objects of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the study and education of the public. From a visitor or community perspective, this purpose can also depend on one's point of view. A trip to a local history museum or large city art museum can be an entertaining and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, an active museum community can be seen as a gauge of the cultural or economic health of a city, and a way to increase the sophistication of its inhabitants. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museum's mission, such as civil rights or environmentalism. Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithson's bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution \"for the increase and diffusion of knowledge\".",
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"plaintext": "Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the scientific desire for classification and for interpretations of the world. Gathering all examples for each field of knowledge for research and display was the purpose. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students. By the last quarter of the 19th century, scientific research in universities was shifting toward biological research on a cellular level, and cutting-edge research moved from museums to university laboratories. While many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is an ongoing debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museum's collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect and preserve cultural artifacts for future generations. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in preservation efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks, and buildings. All museums display objects that are important to a culture. As historian Steven Conn writes, \"To see the thing itself, with one's own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience, can be enchanting.\"",
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"plaintext": "Museum purposes vary from institution to institution. Some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects. They displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a historical printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia. Some museums seek to reach a wide audience, such as a national or state museum, while others have specific audiences, like the LDS Church History Museum or local history organizations. Generally speaking, museums collect objects of significance that comply with their mission statement for conservation and display.",
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"plaintext": "Major museum professional organizations from around the world offer some definitions as to what a museum is and their purpose. Common themes in all the definitions are public good and care, preservation, and interpretation of collections.",
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"plaintext": "The International Council of Museums' current definition of a museum (adopted in 2022): \"A museum is a not-for-profit, permanent institution in the service of society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets and exhibits tangible and intangible heritage. Open to the public, accessible and inclusive, museums foster diversity and sustainability. They operate and communicate ethically, professionally and with the participation of communities, offering varied experiences for education, enjoyment, reflection and knowledge sharing.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Canadian Museums Association's definition: \"A museum is a non-profit, permanent establishment, that does not exist primarily for the purpose of conducting temporary exhibitions and that is open to the public during regular hours and administered in the public interest for the purpose of conserving, preserving, studying, interpreting, assembling and exhibiting to the public for the instruction and enjoyment of the public, objects and specimens or educational and cultural value including artistic, scientific, historical and technological material.\"",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom's Museums Association's definition: \"Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society.\"",
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"plaintext": "While the American Alliance of Museums does not have a definition their list of accreditation criteria to participate in their Accreditation Program states a museum must: \"Be a legally organized nonprofit institution or part of a nonprofit organization or government entity; Be essentially educational in nature; Have a formally stated and approved mission; Use and interpret objects or a site for the public presentation of regularly scheduled programs and exhibits; Have a formal and appropriate program of documentation, care, and use of collections or objects; Carry out the above functions primarily at a physical facility or site; Have been open to the public for at least two years; Be open to the public at least 1,000 hours a year; Have accessioned 80 percent of its permanent collection; Have at least one paid professional staff with museum knowledge and experience; Have a full-time director to whom authority is delegated for day-to-day operations; Have the financial resources sufficient to operate effectively; Demonstrate that it meets the Core Standards for Museums; Successfully complete the Core Documents Verification Program\" ",
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"plaintext": "Additionally a there is a legal definition of museum in United States legislation in the authorizing the establishment of the Institute of Museum and Library Services: \"Museum means a public, tribal, or private nonprofit institution which is organized on a permanent basis for essentially educational, cultural heritage, or aesthetic purposes and which, using a professional staff: Owns or uses tangible objects, either animate or inanimate; Cares for these objects; and Exhibits them to the general public on a regular basis.\" (Museum Services Act 1976) ",
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"plaintext": "One of the oldest museums known is Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum, built by Princess Ennigaldi in modern Iraq at the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The site dates from c. 530 BCE, and contained artifacts from earlier Mesopotamian civilizations. Notably, a clay drum label—written in three languages—was found at the site, referencing the history and discovery of a museum item.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greeks and Romans collected and displayed art and objects but perceived museums differently from modern day views. In the classical period the museums were the temples and their precincts which housed collections of votive offerings. Paintings and sculptures were displayed in gardens, forums, theaters, and bathhouses. In the ancient past there was little differentiation between libraries and museums with both occupying the building and were frequently connected to a temple or royal palace. The Museum of Alexandria is believed to be one of the earliest museums in the world. While it connected to the Library of Alexandria it is not clear if the museum was in a different building from the library or was part of the library complex. While little was known about the museum it was an inspiration for museums during the early Renaissance period. The royal palaces also functioned as a kind of museum outfitted with art and objects from conquered territories and gifts from ambassadors from other kingdoms allowing the ruler to display the amassed collections to guests and to visiting dignitaries.",
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"plaintext": "Also in Alexandria from the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285-246 BCE), was the first zoological park. At first used by Philadelphus in an attempt to domesticate African elephants for use in war, the elephants were also used for show along with a menagerie of other animals specimens including hartebeests, ostriches, zebras, leopards, giraffes, rhinoceros, and pythons.",
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"plaintext": "Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts. These were often displayed in so-called \"wonder rooms\" or cabinets of curiosities. These contemporary museums first emerged in western Europe, then spread into other parts of the world.",
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"plaintext": "Public access to these museums was often possible for the \"respectable\", especially to private art collections, but at the whim of the owner and his staff. One way that elite men during this time period gained a higher social status in the world of elites was by becoming a collector of these curious objects and displaying them. Many of the items in these collections were new discoveries and these collectors or naturalists, since many of these people held interest in natural sciences, were eager to obtain them. By putting their collections in a museum and on display, they not only got to show their fantastic finds but also used the museum as a way to sort and \"manage the empirical explosion of materials that wider dissemination of ancient texts, increased travel, voyages of discovery, and more systematic forms of communication and exchange had produced\".",
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"plaintext": "One of these naturalists and collectors was Ulisse Aldrovandi, whose collection policy of gathering as many objects and facts about them was \"encyclopedic\" in nature, reminiscent of that of Pliny, the Roman philosopher and naturalist. The idea was to consume and collect as much knowledge as possible, to put everything they collected and everything they knew in these displays. In time, however, museum philosophy would change and the encyclopedic nature of information that was so enjoyed by Aldrovandi and his cohorts would be dismissed as well as \"the museums that contained this knowledge\". The 18th-century scholars of the Age of Enlightenment saw their ideas of the museum as superior and based their natural history museums on \"organization and taxonomy\" rather than displaying everything in any order after the style of Aldrovandi.",
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"plaintext": "The first \"public\" museums were often accessible only by the middle and upper classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. When the British Museum opened to the public in 1759, it was a concern that large crowds could damage the artifacts. Prospective visitors to the British Museum had to apply in writing for admission, and small groups were allowed into the galleries each day. The British Museum became increasingly popular during the 19th century, amongst all age groups and social classes who visited the British Museum, especially on public holidays.",
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"plaintext": "The Ashmolean Museum, however, founded in 1677 from the personal collection of Elias Ashmole, was set up in the University of Oxford to be open to the public and is considered by some to be the first modern public museum. The collection included that of Elias Ashmole which he had collected himself, including objects he had acquired from the gardeners, travellers and collectors John Tradescant the elder and his son of the same name. The collection included antique coins, books, engravings, geological specimens, and zoological specimens—one of which was the stuffed body of the last dodo ever seen in Europe; but by 1755 the stuffed dodo was so moth-eaten that it was destroyed, except for its head and one claw. The museum opened on 24 May 1683, with naturalist Robert Plot as the first keeper. The first building, which became known as the Old Ashmolean, is sometimes attributed to Sir Christopher Wren or Thomas Wood.",
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"plaintext": "In France, the first public museum was the Louvre Museum in Paris, opened in 1793 during the French Revolution, which enabled for the first time free access to the former French royal collections for people of all stations and status. The fabulous art treasures collected by the French monarchy over centuries were accessible to the public three days each \"décade\" (the 10-day unit which had replaced the week in the French Republican Calendar). The Conservatoire du muséum national des Arts (National Museum of Arts's Conservatory) was charged with organizing the Louvre as a national public museum and the centerpiece of a planned national museum system. As Napoléon I conquered the great cities of Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections grew and the organizational task became more and more complicated. After Napoleon was defeated in 1815, many of the treasures he had amassed were gradually returned to their owners (and many were not). His plan was never fully realized, but his concept of a museum as an agent of nationalistic fervor had a profound influence throughout Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese and Japanese visitors to Europe were fascinated by the museums they saw there, but had cultural difficulties in grasping their purpose and finding an equivalent Chinese or Japanese term for them. Chinese visitors in the early 19th century named these museums based on what they contained, so defined them as \"bone amassing buildings\" or \"courtyards of treasures\" or \"painting pavilions\" or \"curio stores\" or \"halls of military feats\" or \"gardens of everything\". Japan first encountered Western museum institutions when it participated in Europe's World's Fairs in the 1860s. The British Museum was described by one of their delegates as a 'hakubutsukan', a 'house of extensive things' – this would eventually become accepted as the equivalent word for 'museum' in Japan and China.",
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"plaintext": "American museums eventually joined European museums as the world's leading centers for the production of new knowledge in their fields of interest. A period of intense museum building, in both an intellectual and physical sense was realized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (this is often called \"The Museum Period\" or \"The Museum Age\"). While many American museums, both natural history museums and art museums alike, were founded with the intention of focusing on the scientific discoveries and artistic developments in North America, many moved to emulate their European counterparts in certain ways (including the development of Classical collections from ancient Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, and Rome). Drawing on Michel Foucault's concept of liberal government, Tony Bennett has suggested the development of more modern 19th-century museums was part of new strategies by Western governments to produce a citizenry that, rather than be directed by coercive or external forces, monitored and regulated its own conduct. To incorporate the masses in this strategy, the private space of museums that previously had been restricted and socially exclusive were made public. As such, objects and artifacts, particularly those related to high culture, became instruments for these \"new tasks of social management\". Universities became the primary centers for innovative research in the United States well before the start of World War II. Nevertheless, museums to this day contribute new knowledge to their fields and continue to build collections that are useful for both research and display.",
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"plaintext": "The late twentieth century witnessed intense debate concerning the repatriation of religious, ethnic, and cultural artifacts housed in museum collections. In the United States, several Native American tribes and advocacy groups have lobbied extensively for the repatriation of sacred objects and the reburial of human remains. In 1990, Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), which required federal agencies and federally funded institutions to repatriate Native American \"cultural items\" to culturally affiliate tribes and groups. Similarly, many European museum collections often contain objects and cultural artifacts acquired through imperialism and colonization. Some historians and scholars have criticized the British Museum for its possession of rare antiquities from Egypt, Greece, and the Middle East.",
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"plaintext": "The roles associated with the management of a museum largely depend on the size of the institution. Together, the Board and the Director establish a system of governance that is guided by policies that set standards for the institution. Documents that set these standards include an institutional or strategic plan, institutional code of ethics, bylaws, and collections policy. The American Alliance of Museums (AAM) has also formulated a series of standards and best practices that help guide the management of museums.",
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"plaintext": " Board of Trustees or Board of directors – The board governs the museum and is responsible for ensuring the museum is financially and ethically sound. They set standards and policies for the museum. Board members are often involved in fundraising aspects of the museum and represent the institution. Some museum use the terms \"directors\" and \"trustees\" interchangeably but both are different legal instruments. A board of directors governs a nonprofit corporation, a board of trustees is responsible for governing a charitable trust, foundation, or endowment. In the case of small museums and all volunteer museums, a board may be more hands-on in the day-to-day operations of the museum.",
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"plaintext": " Director- The director is the face of the museum to the professional and public community. They communicate closely with the board to guide and govern the museum. They work with the staff to ensure the museum runs smoothly. According to museum professionals Hugh H. Genoways and Lynne M. Ireland, \"Administration of the organization requires skill in conflict management, interpersonal relations, budget management and monitoring, and staff supervision and evaluation. Managers must also set legal and ethical standards and maintain involvement in the museum profession.\"",
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"plaintext": "Various positions within the museum carry out the policies established by the Board and the Director. All museum employees should work together toward the museum's institutional goal. Here is a list of positions commonly found at museums:",
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"plaintext": " Curator – Curators are the intellectual drivers behind exhibits. They research the museum's collection and topic of focus, develop exhibition themes, and publish their research aimed at either a public or academic audience. Larger museums have curators in a variety of areas. For example, The Henry Ford has a Curator of Transportation, a Curator of Public Life, a Curator of Decorative Arts, etc. Many art museums have curators dedicated to specific historic periods and geographic regions, such as American art and modern or contemporary art.",
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"plaintext": " Collections Management – Collections managers are primarily responsible for the hands-on care, movement, and storage of objects. They are responsible for the accessibility of collections and collections policy.",
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"plaintext": " Registrar – Registrars are the primary record keepers of the collection. They insure that objects are properly accessioned, documented, insured, and, when appropriate, loaned. Ethical and legal issues related to the collection are dealt with by registrars. Along with collections managers, they uphold the museum's collections policy.",
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"plaintext": "Educator – Museum educators are responsible for educating museum audiences. Their duties can include designing tours and public programs for children and adults, teacher training, developing classroom and continuing education resources, community outreach, and volunteer management. Educators not only work with the public, but also collaborate with other museum staff on exhibition and program development to ensure that exhibits are audience-friendly.",
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"plaintext": "Exhibit Designer – Exhibit designers are in charge of the layout and physical installation of exhibits. They create a conceptual design and then bring it to fruition in the physical space.",
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"plaintext": " Conservator – Conservators focus on object restoration. More than preserving the object in its present state, they seek to stabilize and repair artifacts to the condition of an earlier era.",
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"plaintext": "Other positions commonly found at museums include: building operator, public programming staff, photographer, librarian, archivist, groundskeeper, volunteer coordinator, preparator, security staff, development officer, membership officer, business officer, gift shop manager, public relations staff, and graphic designer.",
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"plaintext": "At smaller museums, staff members often fulfill multiple roles. Some of these positions are excluded entirely or may be carried out by a contractor when necessary.",
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"plaintext": "The cultural property stored in museums is threatened in many countries by natural disaster, war, terrorist attacks or other emergencies. To this end, an internationally important aspect is a strong bundling of existing resources and the networking of existing specialist competencies in order to prevent any loss or damage to cultural property or to keep damage as low as possible. International partner for museums is UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999. For legal reasons, there are many international collaborations between museums, and the local Blue Shield organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Blue Shield has conducted extensive missions to protect museums and cultural assets in armed conflict, such as 2011 in Egypt and Libya, 2013 in Syria and 2014 in Mali and Iraq. During these operations, the looting of the collection is to be prevented in particular.",
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"plaintext": "The design of museums has evolved throughout history. However, museum planning involves planning the actual mission of the museum along with planning the space that the collection of the museum will be housed in. Intentional museum planning has its beginnings with the museum founder and librarian John Cotton Dana. Dana detailed the process of founding the Newark Museum in a series of books in the early 20th century so that other museum founders could plan their museums. Dana suggested that potential founders of museums should form a committee first, and reach out to the community for input as to what the museum should supply or do for the community. According to Dana, museums should be planned according to community's needs:",
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"plaintext": "\"The new museum... does not build on an educational superstition. It examines its community's life first, and then straightway bends its energies to supplying some the material which that community needs, and to making that material's presence widely known, and to presenting it in such a way as to secure it for the maximum of use and the maximum efficiency of that use.\"",
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"plaintext": "The way that museums are planned and designed vary according to what collections they house, but overall, they adhere to planning a space that is easily accessed by the public and easily displays the chosen artifacts. These elements of planning have their roots with John Cotton Dana, who was perturbed at the historical placement of museums outside of cities, and in areas that were not easily accessed by the public, in gloomy European style buildings.",
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"plaintext": "Questions of accessibility continue to the present day. Many museums strive to make their buildings, programming, ideas, and collections more publicly accessible than in the past. Not every museum is participating in this trend, but that seems to be the trajectory of museums in the twenty-first century with its emphasis on inclusiveness. One pioneering way museums are attempting to make their collections more accessible is with open storage. Most of a museum's collection is typically locked away in a secure location to be preserved, but the result is most people never get to see the vast majority of collections. The Brooklyn Museum's Luce Center for American Art practices this open storage where the public can view items not on display, albeit with minimal interpretation. The practice of open storage is all part of an ongoing debate in the museum field of the role objects play and how accessible they should be.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of modern museums, interpretive museums, as opposed to art museums, have missions reflecting curatorial guidance through the subject matter which now include content in the form of images, audio and visual effects, and interactive exhibits. Museum creation begins with a museum plan, created through a museum planning process. The process involves identifying the museum's vision and the resources, organization and experiences needed to realize this vision. A feasibility study, analysis of comparable facilities, and an interpretive plan are all developed as part of the museum planning process.",
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"plaintext": "Some museum experiences have very few or no artifacts and do not necessarily call themselves museums, and their mission reflects this; the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, being notable examples where there are few artifacts, but strong, memorable stories are told or information is interpreted. In contrast, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. uses many artifacts in their memorable exhibitions.",
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"plaintext": "Museums are laid out in a specific way for a specific reason and each person who enters the doors of a museum will see its collection completely differently to the person behind them- this is what makes museums fascinating because they are represented differently to each individual.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, some cities have turned to museums as an avenue for economic development or rejuvenation. This is particularly true in the case of postindustrial cities. Examples of museums fulfilling these economic roles exist around the world. For example, the spectacular Guggenheim Bilbao was built in Bilbao, Spain in a move by the Basque regional government to revitalize the dilapidated old port area of that city. The Basque government agreed to pay $100 million for the construction of the museum, a price tag that caused many Bilbaoans to protest against the project. Nonetheless, the gamble has appeared to pay off financially for the city, with over 1.1 million people visiting the museum in 2015. Key to this is the large demographic of foreign visitors to the museum, with 63% of the visitors residing outside of Spain and thus feeding foreign investment straight into Bilbao. A similar project to that undertaken in Bilbao was also built on the disused shipyards of Belfast, Northern Ireland. Titanic Belfast was built for the same price as the Guggenheim Bilbao (and which was incidentally built by the same architect, Frank Gehry) in time for the 100th anniversary of the Belfast-built ship's maiden voyage in 2012. Initially expecting modest visitor numbers of 425,000 annually, first year visitor numbers reached over 800,000, with almost 60% coming from outside Northern Ireland. In the United States, similar projects include the 81, 000 square foot Taubman Museum of Art in Roanoke, Virginia and The Broad Museum in Los Angeles.",
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"plaintext": "Museums being used as a cultural economic driver by city and local governments has proven to be controversial among museum activists and local populations alike. Public protests have occurred in numerous cities which have tried to employ museums in this way. While most subside if a museum is successful, as happened in Bilbao, others continue especially if a museum struggles to attract visitors. The Taubman Museum of Art is an example of a museum which cost a lot (eventually $66 million) but attained little success, and continues to have a low endowment for its size. Some museum activists also see this method of museum use as a deeply flawed model for such institutions. Steven Conn, one such museum proponent, believes that \"to ask museums to solve our political and economic problems is to set them up for inevitable failure and to set us (the visitor) up for inevitable disappointment.\"",
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"plaintext": " Museums are facing funding shortages. Funding for museums comes from four major categories, and as of 2009 the breakdown for the United States is as follows: Government support (at all levels) 24.4%, private (charitable) giving 36.5%, earned income 27.6%, and investment income 11.5%. Government funding from the National Endowment for the Arts, the largest museum funder in the United States, decreased by 19.586 million between 2011 and 2015, adjusted for inflation. The average spent per visitor in an art museum in 2016 was $8 between admissions, store and restaurant, where the average expense per visitor was $55. Corporations, which fall into the private giving category, can be a good source of funding to make up the funding gap. The amount corporations currently give to museums accounts for just 5% of total funding. Corporate giving to the arts, however, was set to increase by 3.3% in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Most mid-size and large museums employ exhibit design staff for graphic and environmental design projects, including exhibitions. In addition to traditional 2-D and 3-D designers and architects, these staff departments may include audio-visual specialists, software designers, audience research, evaluation specialists, writers, editors, and preparators or art handlers. These staff specialists may also be charged with supervising contract design or production services. The exhibit design process builds on the interpretive plan for an exhibit, determining the most effective, engaging and appropriate methods of communicating a message or telling a story. The process will often mirror the architectural process or schedule, moving from conceptual plan, through schematic design, design development, contract document, fabrication, and installation. Museums of all sizes may also contract the outside services of exhibit fabrication businesses.",
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"plaintext": "Some museum scholars have even begun to question whether museums truly need artifacts at all. Historian Steven Conn provocatively asks this question, suggesting that there are fewer objects in all museums now, as they have been progressively replaced by interactive technology. As educational programming has grown in museums, mass collections of objects have receded in importance. This is not necessarily a negative development. Dorothy Canfield Fisher observed that the reduction in objects has pushed museums to grow from institutions that artlessly showcased their many artifacts (in the style of early cabinets of curiosity) to instead \"thinning out\" the objects presented \"for a general view of any given subject or period, and to put the rest away in archive-storage-rooms, where they could be consulted by students, the only people who really needed to see them\". This phenomenon of disappearing objects is especially present in science museums like the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, which have a high visitorship of school-aged children who may benefit more from hands-on interactive technology than reading a label beside an artifact.",
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"plaintext": "There is no definitive standard as to the set types of museums. Additionally, the museum landscape has become so varied, that it may not be sufficient to use traditional categories to comprehend fully the vast variety existing throughout the world. However, it may be useful to categorize museums in different ways under multiple perspectives. Museums can vary based on size, from large institutions, to very small institutions focusing on a specific subjects, such as a specific location, a notable person, or a given period of time. Museums also can be based on the main source of funding: central or federal government, provinces, regions, universities; towns and communities; other subsidised; nonsubsidised and private.",
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"plaintext": "It may sometimes be useful to distinguish between diachronic museums - those that interpret the way in which its subject matter has developed and evolved through time (examples: Lower East Side Tenement Museum and Diachronic Museum of Larissa), and synchronic museums - those that interpret the way in which its subject matter exists at one point in time (examples:The Anne Frank House and Colonial Williamsburg). According to University of Florida's Professor Eric Kilgerman, \"While a museum in which a particular narrative unfolds within its halls is diachronic, those museums that limit their space to a single experience are called synchronic.\"",
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"plaintext": "In her book, Civilizing the Museum, author Elaine Heumann Gurian proposes that there are five categories of museums based on intention not content. Object Centered, Narrative, Client Centered, Community Centered, and National.",
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"plaintext": "Museums can also be categorized into major groups by the type of collections they display, to include: fine arts, applied arts, craft, archaeology, anthropology and ethnology, biography, history, cultural history, science, technology, children's museums, natural history, botanical and zoological gardens. Within these categories, many museums specialize further, e.g. museums of modern art, folk art, local history, military history, aviation history, philately, agriculture, or geology. The size of a museum's collection typically determines the museum's size, whereas its collection reflects the type of museum it is. Many museums normally display a \"permanent collection\" of important selected objects in its area of specialization, and may periodically display \"special collections\" on a temporary basis.",
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"plaintext": "The following is a list to give an idea of the major museum types. While comprehensive it is not a definitive list. ",
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"plaintext": "Agricultural",
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"plaintext": "Architecture",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological",
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"plaintext": "Art",
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"plaintext": "Design",
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"plaintext": "Biographical",
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"plaintext": "Children's",
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"plaintext": "Community",
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"plaintext": "Encyclopedic",
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"plaintext": "Folk",
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"plaintext": "Historic house",
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"plaintext": "Historic site",
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"plaintext": "Living history",
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"plaintext": "Local",
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"plaintext": "Maritime",
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"plaintext": "Medical",
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"plaintext": "Memorial",
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"plaintext": "Natural history",
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"plaintext": "Open-air",
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"plaintext": "Science",
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"plaintext": "Virtual",
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"plaintext": "Private museums are organized by individuals and managed by a board and museum officers, but public museums are created and managed by federal, state, or local governments. A government can charter a museum through legislative action but the museum can still be private as it is not part of the government. The distinction regulates the ownership and legal accountability for the care of the collections.",
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"plaintext": "Nonprofit means that an organization is classified as a charitable corporation and is exempt from paying most taxes and the money the organization earns is invested in the organization itself. Money made by a private, for-profit museum is paid to the museum's owners or shareholders.",
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"plaintext": "The nonprofit museum has a fiduciary responsibility in regards to the public, in essence the museum holds its collections and administers it for the benefit of the public. Collections of for-profit museums are legally corporate assets the museum administers for the benefit of the owners or shareholders.",
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"plaintext": "A trust is a legal instrument where trustees manage the trust's assets for the benefit of the museum following the specific wishes of the donor. This provides tax benefits for the donor, and also allows the donor to have control over how assets are distributed.",
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"plaintext": "Corporations are legal entities and may acquire property in a way similar to how an individual can own property. Museums under incorporation are usually organized by a community or group of individuals. While a board of director's loyalty is to the corporation, a board of trustee's loyalty has to be loyal to the intention of the trust. The ramification is that a trust is far less flexible than a corporation.",
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"plaintext": "During the beginning of the 21st century, a growing global movement for the decolonization of museums has arisen. Proponents of this movement argue that 'museums are a box of things' and do not represent complete stories; instead they show biased narratives based on ideologies, in which certain stories are intentionally disregarded. Through this, people are encouraging others to consider this missing perspective, when looking at museum collections, as every object viewed in such environments was placed by an individual to represent a certain viewpoint, be it historical or cultural.",
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"plaintext": "The 2018 report on the restitution of African cultural heritage is a prominent example regarding the decolonization of museums and other collections in France and the claims of African countries to regain artifacts illegally taken from their original cultural settings.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1868, several monolithic human figures known as Moai have been removed from Easter Island and put in display in major Western museums such as the National Museum of Natural History, the British Museum, the Louvre and the Royal Museums of Art and History. Several demands have been made by Easter Island residents for the return of the Moai. The figures are seen as ancestors and family or the soul by the Rapa Nui and hold deep cultural value to their people. Other examples include the Gweagal Shield, thought to be a very significant shield taken from Botany Bay in April 1770 or the Parthenon marble sculptures, which were taken from Greece by Lord Elgin in 1805. Successive Greek governments have unsuccessfully petitioned for the return of the Parthenon marbles. Another example among many others is the so-called Montezuma's headdress in the Museum of Ethnology, Vienna, which is a source of dispute between Austria and Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "Laura Van Broekhoven, director of the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, United Kingdom, stated in 2020 that \"ethnographic museums should redress their coloniality. They should be a pluriverse that shows the rich diversity of ways of being and knowing, not centering whiteness as the only way of being. Museums ought to allow for everyone to understand each other better.\"",
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"plaintext": "Background",
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"plaintext": "The past few years has seen a unionizing movement. US museums workers have initiated dialogs about labor and collective organizing in the cultural sector. In 2019 the workers in multiple museums voted to form unions with more protesting to press for a fair contract and against unfair labor practices. During that year over 3,000 cultural workers anonymously started to share their salaries online through an pay transparency spreadsheet. ",
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"plaintext": "The Marciano Art Foundation, a museum established by co-founders of Guess clothing, Maurice Marciano and Paul Marciano closed indefinitely in November 2019 after workers attempted to unionize. The Marciano Foundation released a statement a month later that the closure was permanent.",
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"plaintext": "In the country of Georgia 40 employees were fired May 2022 as part of a restructuring. The newly formed union, the Georgian Trade Union of Science, Education, and Culture Workers said in a statement they said the employees were fired illegally and the reorganization was \"carried out by the employer in an untransparent and maladministered manner\" and that the organization will \"definitely fight to the end to protect the rights of employees.\" Fired senior curator Maia Pataridze said the new management mentioned her social media posts criticizing the government. Among those fired was union chair, Nikoloz Tsikaridze, a senior researcher and archaeologist who associated the discharging of himself and other museum staff was for forming a union, and said that Thea Tsulukiani, the Georgia Minister of Culture had ‘punished’ them. ",
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"plaintext": "History",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, labor unrest within the arts and cultural sector go back at lest nearly a century to 1933 when a New York based collective of artists eventually known as the Artist’s Union used collective bargaining for state relief for unemployed artists. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1971 administrative staff at New York’s Museum of Modern Art formed the organization \"Professional and Staff Association of the Museum of Modern Art\" (PASTA), the first union of professional employees, as opposed to maintenance and service people, at a privately‐financed museum. The contract negotiated would provide a wage increase, protection against termination without cause, and direct access to trustees and policy-making processes at the museum. While there was some interest from workers at other museums at the time, for the next fifty years there was little change in museums adding union representation of their professional employees. ",
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"plaintext": "Increasingly museums have been responded to the ongoing climate crisis through enacting sustainable museum practices, and exhibitions highlighting the issues surrounding climate change and the Anthropocene.",
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"plaintext": " Audio tour",
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"plaintext": " Cell phone tour",
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"plaintext": " Computer Interchange of Museum Information",
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"plaintext": " Exhibition history",
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"plaintext": " Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum, world's first museum",
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"plaintext": " International Council of Museums",
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"plaintext": " International Museum Day (18 May)",
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"plaintext": " List of museums",
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"plaintext": " List of largest art museums",
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"plaintext": " List of most-visited museums",
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"plaintext": " List of most visited art museums",
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"plaintext": " List of most-visited museums by region",
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"plaintext": " .museum",
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"plaintext": " Virtual Library museums pages",
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"plaintext": " Rentzhog, Sten (2007). Open air museums: The history and future of a visionary idea. Stockholm and Östersund: Carlssons Förlag / Jamtli. ",
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"plaintext": " Simon, Nina K. (2010). The Participatory Museum. Santa Cruz: Museums 2.0",
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{
"plaintext": " – also available in English: ",
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"plaintext": " International Council of Museums",
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{
"plaintext": " VLmp directory of museums",
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"Museology",
"Tourist_activities",
"Educational_buildings"
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"museum-style institution",
"museal institution"
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37,586 | 1,096,180,125 | U-Boot_(beer_cocktail) | [
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"plaintext": "A U-Boot is a beer cocktail that is made by placing a shot of vodka into a glass of beer, typically a lager. It is popular in Germany, Poland, North Macedonia, and Flanders. In Germany, the liquor korn is sometimes used instead, while in Flanders and the Netherlands, jonge jenever is preferred.",
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"plaintext": "It is called a U-Boot (German abbreviation of Unterseeboot, \"submarine\") because the shot glass of vodka sinks to the bottom of the glass of beer. The shot glass then \"surfaces\" when the cocktail is drunk.",
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"plaintext": "Place a shot glass on upside down glass and fill it with vodka. Place a pint glass over the two glasses so it sits against the shot glass and flip them over. Fill the pint glass with lager and as the drink is consumed the vodka will leak into drink.",
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"plaintext": "In Flanders and the Netherlands, it is called a \"Duikboot\", literally translated \"Submarine\". It is seen as a variant on the kopstoot (lit. \"headbutt\") in the Netherlands. The kopstoot is a shot of jenever followed by a beer as a chaser.",
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"plaintext": "In North Macedonia it is called \"Подморница\" - \"Podmornica\", literally translated \"Submarine\". It uses tequila which is being dropped into a big pint.",
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"plaintext": "In southern Germany, U-Boot is usually served as a combination of Fanta and cognac instead of beer and vodka.",
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"plaintext": "In Mexico, it is called \"Submarino\", Spanish for \"Submarine\". Instead of vodka, it uses tequila, and the shot glass must be left inverted inside the beer glass.",
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"plaintext": "In Russia, it is most often called \"Глубинная бомба\", Russian for \"Depth charge\". Usually any coctail, mixing vodka and beer called in Russia \"Ёрш\", (Yorsh) literally meaning a wire brush. It is also rarely called \"Водолаз\" - \"Vodolaz\", literally translated as \"Diver\".",
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"plaintext": "In Sorbia, vodka and orange juice is used.",
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"plaintext": "In Brazil, it is called \"Submarino\", Portuguese for \"Submarine\". In the south, where it is more easily found, it is common practice to use steinhäger instead of vodka.",
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"plaintext": "In Sweden, it is called \"Ubåt\", Swedish for \"Submarine\". Jägermeister is used instead of vodka.",
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"plaintext": "In Greece, it is called \"υποβρύχιο\", Greek for \"Submarine\". Served as a shot glass of Jack Daniels sink into the bottom of a short glass of beer.",
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"plaintext": " Flaming Dr Pepper",
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"plaintext": " Jägerbomb",
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] | [
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"Cocktails_with_vodka",
"German_beer_culture",
"Shooters_(drinks)"
] | 2,161,225 | 1,653 | 11 | 28 | 0 | 0 | U-Boot | beer cocktail | [] |
37,587 | 1,030,094,911 | Padthaway,_South_Australia | [
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"plaintext": "Padthaway is a small town in the Australian state of South Australia located in the state's south-east within the Limestone Coast region about south east of the state capital of Adelaide and about south-east of the municipal seat of Bordertown. The name is derived from the Potawurutj, the Aboriginal name for Good Water. Padthaway is in the Tatiara District Council, the state electorate of MacKillop and the federal Division of Barker.",
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"plaintext": "Padthaway is also the name of a wine region surrounding the town. It is home to several large commercial vineyards. The oldest vineyard was established in 1964 by Seppelts, with Lindeman's, Hardys and Wynns also establishing vineyards in the 1960s. The wine region is long and wide with over of vineyards. There are only a few cellar doors operating in the region.",
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"plaintext": "Padthaway was the name of the original pastoral station which was established on Bodaruwitj Aboriginal lands in this area in 1847 by a successful Scottish businessman, Robert Lawson. In 1882 the Padthaway Estate Homestead was built by Eliza and Robert Lawson. The historic Padthaway Estate complex is listed on the South Australian Heritage Register.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952 Padthaway became the centre of a soldier settlement scheme. The first vineyards were planted here in 1964 and quickly transformed marginal grazing land into a top wine-producing region. White wines, especially, from the region are regular winners of major awards. These wines may be purchased at the local cellar door sales and at wine retailers around Australia. Agriculture is also strong in Padthaway with onion, olives and seeds being grown along with sheep and cattle which are reared for sale.",
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"plaintext": "Other public amenities include netball and tennis courts, football oval, town hall, sports complex, medical clinic, playground, skate park and rotunda. The toilets are right near the playground. In 2010 a new medical clinic was built.",
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"plaintext": "The Padthaway Conservation Park which is situated on a former coastal dune is located about north-east of the town centre. The conservation park has stands of yellow gum, ribbon gum, brown stringybark, manna gums, many acacias and banksias. It is also home to a variety of animals including koalas, birds, rabbits, kangaroos and many insects. Sometimes the rare fire orchid may be viewed in flower.",
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"plaintext": "Records for lawn bowls being played in Padthaway go back to 1963. Lawn bowls is played in Padthaway on Saturday during the summer time. Padthaway bowling club plays in the Upper South East association.",
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"plaintext": "The last A grade cricket premiership Padthaway won was in 1993. Padthaway has had a B grade side most years since. Padthaway came fifth in the competition in 2010–2011. In 2011 there was only one competition, an A grade side.",
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"plaintext": "Netball has been played in Padthaway since the mid-late 1960s. In 2011 the Padthaway Netball Club, also called the Lions, has more than seven different teams for netball.",
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"plaintext": "The Padthaway Football Club which commenced in 1967 is known as the Lions and is the main club of the town, competing in the Kowree-Naracoorte-Tatiara Football League. The football club won an A grade premiership grand final in 1993 against Bordertown.",
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"plaintext": "The Padthaway Tennis Club dates back to 1962 and 1972 when the club laid new concrete courts. The Padthaway Tennis club won many premierships between the mid-1970s and into the late 1980s. Tennis is currently played as a social competition on Wednesday nights for a six-eight-week season in the summer before Christmas.",
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"plaintext": "The Padthaway golf course is carved out of scrubland. This tight course is a challenge even for the most professional of golfers. The Padthaway golf club was opened in 1988 and has 9 holes with scrapes.",
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"plaintext": "Apex is a community group which operates in Padthaway composed of men between the ages of 18 and 45 who work together to promote social justice and raise awareness of charity causes by fundraising in interesting and creative ways.",
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"plaintext": "Padthaway has an active Women in Agricultural Business group. WAB is a statewide network with branches throughout SA. It is an organisation for women interested in rural, agricultural and business issues. It provides the opportunity for self-development and friendship.",
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"plaintext": "The school was built in 1935 and had its 75-year anniversary in 2010. The event was attended by many past, current and future students and staff and a time capsule was buried on the day. In 2011 Padthaway Primary School had 52 students and 12 staff members. Padthaway Primary School caters for years Reception-7 and also has a Child Parent Centre (CPC). At Padthaway Primary School the Student Representative Council (SRC) organises many fundraising activities for students to participate in.",
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"plaintext": "Padthaway Primary School is a school with many activities for students such as the Come out, SAPSASA, Youth Environmental Forum, pancake day, Student Young Leaders Day and school camp. SAPSASA events include football, netball, cricket, tennis, cross country, athletics running events, swimming, diving, golf, hockey and skiing.",
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"Padthaway, South Australia, Australia"
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37,588 | 1,096,637,900 | Offa's_Dyke | [
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"plaintext": "Offa's Dyke () is a large linear earthwork that roughly follows the border between England and Wales. The structure is named after Offa, the Anglo-Saxon king of Mercia from AD 757 until 796, who is traditionally believed to have ordered its construction. Although its precise original purpose is debated, it delineated the border between Anglian Mercia and the Welsh kingdom of Powys.",
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"plaintext": "The generally accepted theory of the earthwork attributes most of its construction to Offa, King of Mercia from 757 to 796. The structure did not represent a mutually agreed boundary between the Mercians and the Kingdom of Powys. It had a ditch on the Welsh (western) side, with the displaced soil piled into a bank on the Mercian (eastern) side. This suggests that Mercians constructed it as a defensive earthwork, or to demonstrate the power and intent of their kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout its entire length, the Dyke provides an uninterrupted view from Mercia into Wales. Where the earthwork encounters hills or high ground, it passes to the west of them.",
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"plaintext": "Although historians often overlook Offa's reign because of limitations in source material, he ranks as one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon rulers – as evidenced in his ability to raise the workforce and resources required to construct Offa's Dyke. The construction of the earthwork probably involved a corvée system requiring vassals to build certain lengths of the earthwork for Offa in addition to performing their normal services to their king. The Tribal Hidage, a primary document, shows the distribution of land within 8th-century Britain; it shows that peoples were located within specified territories for administration.",
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"plaintext": "The first historians and archaeologists to examine the Dyke seriously compared their conclusions with the late 9th-century writer Asser, who wrote: \"there was in Mercia in fairly recent time a certain vigorous king called Offa, who terrified all the neighbouring kings and provinces around him, and who had a great dyke built between Wales and Mercia from sea to sea\". In 1955, Sir Cyril Fox published the first major survey of the Dyke. He concurred with Asser that the earthwork ran 'from sea to sea', theorising that the Dyke ran from the River Dee estuary in the north to the River Wye in the south: approximately . Although Fox observed that Offa's Dyke was not a continuous linear structure, he concluded that earthworks were raised in only those areas where natural barriers did not already exist.",
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"plaintext": "Sir Frank Stenton, the UK's most eminent 20th-century scholar on Anglo-Saxon England, accepted Fox's conclusions. He wrote the introduction to Fox's account of the Dyke. Although Fox's work has now been revised to some extent, it still remains a vital record of some stretches of Offa's Dyke that still existed between 1926 and 1928, when his three field surveys took place, but have since been destroyed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, Dr Frank Noble challenged some of Fox's conclusions, stirring up new academic interest in Offa's Dyke. His MPhil thesis entitled \"Offa's Dyke Reviewed\" (1978) raised several questions concerning the accepted historiography of Offa's Dyke. Noble postulated that the gaps in the Dyke were not due to the incorporation of natural features as defensive barriers, but instead the gaps were a \"ridden boundary\", perhaps incorporating palisades, that left no archaeological trace. Noble also helped establish the Offa's Dyke Association, which maintains the Offa's Dyke Path. This long-distance footpath mostly follows the route of the dyke and is a designated British National Trail.",
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"plaintext": "John Davies wrote of Fox's study: \"In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain near Trelystan, the dyke veers to the east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; near Rhiwabon, it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden.\" And, for Gwent, Offa had the dyke built \"on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing that the River Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent\".",
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"plaintext": "Ongoing research and archaeology on Offa's Dyke has been undertaken for many years by the Extra-Mural Department of the University of Manchester. Interviews with Dr David Hill, broadcast in episode 1 of In Search of the Dark Ages (aired in 1979), show support for Noble's idea. Most recently, Hill and Margaret Worthington have undertaken considerable research on the Dyke. Their work, though far from finished, has demonstrated that there is little evidence for the Dyke stretching from sea to sea. Rather, they claim that it is a shorter structure stretching from Rushock Hill north of the Herefordshire Plain to Llanfynydd, near Mold, Flintshire, some 64 miles (103km). According to Hill and Worthington, dykes in the far north and south may have different dates, and though they may be connected with Offa's Dyke, there is as yet no compelling evidence behind this. However, not all experts accept this view.",
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"plaintext": "'Ofer' means 'border' or 'edge' in Old English, giving rise to the possibility of alternative derivations for some border features associated with Offa.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman historian Eutropius in his book Historiae Romanae Breviarium, written around 369, mentions the Wall of Severus, a structure built by Septimius Severus, who was Roman Emperor between 193 and 211:",
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"plaintext": "Novissimum bellum in Britannia habuit, utque receptas provincias omni securitate muniret, vallum per CXXXIII passuum milia a mari ad mare deduxit. Decessit Eboraci admodum senex, imperii anno sexto decimo, mense tertio. Historiae Romanae Breviarium, viii 19.1",
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"plaintext": "He had his most recent war in Britain, and to fortify the conquered provinces with all security, he built a wall for 133 miles from sea to sea. He died at York, a reasonably old man, in the sixteenth year and third month of his reign.",
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"plaintext": "This source is conventionally thought to be referring, in error, to either Hadrian's Wall, , or the Antonine Wall, , which were both shorter and built in the 2nd century. Recently, some writers have suggested that Eutropius may have been referring to the earthwork later called Offa's Dyke. Most archaeologists reject this theory.",
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"plaintext": "The Venerable Bede also mentions the barrier built by Septimus Severus, but Bede says that the rampart was made of earth and timber, a description which would closer match Offa's Dyke than Hadrian's Wall, though it would describe the Antonine Wall:",
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"plaintext": "After many great and severe battles, (Severus) thought fit to divide that part of the island, which he had recovered, from the other unconquered nations, not with a wall, as some imagine, but with a rampart. For a wall is made of stones, but a rampart, with which camps are fortified to repel the assaults of enemies, is made of sods, cut out of the earth, and raised high above the ground, like a wall, having in front of it the trench whence the sods were taken, with strong stakes of wood fixed above it. Thus Severus drew a great trench and strong rampart, fortified with several towers, from sea to sea. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of England, Bk 1-5",
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"plaintext": "However, the solution to the problem lies a few chapters later in Bede's account. In Book One Chapter Twelve of Bede's Ecclesiastical History, he writes that the Romans \"built a strong wall of stone directly from sea to sea in a straight line between the towns that had been built as strong-points, where Severus had built his earthwork ... straight from east to west\". The strong wall of stone cannot refer to the Antonine Wall or Offa's Dyke, so it clearly refers to Hadrian's Wall, especially as Offa's Dyke runs from north to south. Also, as Severus's earthwork is described as being in the same location as Hadrian's Wall, it cannot be Offa's Dyke either, so the earth rampart with a great trench that Bede refers to must be the Vallum, the adjoining earthen barrier immediately south of Hadrian's Wall. Where Bede got it wrong was in attributing the Vallum to Septimius Severus, and saying that it predated the Wall. In fact the Vallum was the work of Hadrian, and slightly post-dated the Wall.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence has also been found that challenges the accepted date of the construction of Offa's Dyke. In December 1999, Shropshire County Council archaeologists uncovered the remains of a hearth or fire on the original ground surface beneath Wat's Dyke near Oswestry. Carbon dating analysis of the burnt charcoal and burnt clay in situ showed it was covered by earth on or around AD 446. Archaeologists concluded that this part of Wat's Dyke, so long thought of as Anglo-Saxon and a mid-8th-century contemporary of Offa's Dyke, must have been built 300 years earlier in the post-Roman period.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, excavations by the Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust focused on nine samples of the Dyke near Chirk. Radiocarbon dating of redeposited turf resulted in a series of dates. In one section, these ranged from AD 430 to AD 652 and in another section from AD 887 to AD 1019: confirming that the bank is clearly post-Roman, and that at least some rebuilding work took place after Offa's reign. It has been suggested that Offa's Dyke may have been a long-term project by several Mercian kings. Further excavations by Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust on the Dyke at Chirk Castle found well-preserved remains of the ditch under later parkland; radiocarbon samples were recovered, but the results have not yet been made public.",
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"plaintext": "The England–Wales border still mostly passes within a few miles of the course of Offa's Dyke through the Welsh Marches. A section of the Dyke which overlooks Tintern Abbey and includes the Devil's Pulpit near Chepstow is now managed by English Heritage.",
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"plaintext": "All sections of Offa's Dyke that survive as visible earthworks, or as infilled but undeveloped ditch, are designated as a scheduled monument. However, some parts of the Dyke may also remain buried under later development. Some sections are also defined as Sites of Special Scientific Interest, including stretches within the Lower Wye Valley SSSI and the Highbury Wood National Nature Reserve. Parts are located within the Wye Valley and Shropshire Hills Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Most of the line of Offa's Dyke is designated as a public right of way, including those sections which form part of the Offa's Dyke Path.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2013, a section of Dyke, between Chirk and Llangollen, was destroyed by a local landowner. The destruction of the Dyke to build a stable was said to be like \"driving a road through Stonehenge\", but the perpetrator escaped punishment.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the Dyke was proposed by the Offa's Dyke Association and local authorities for World Heritage Site status. Part of the proposal stated:",
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"plaintext": "The proposal was rejected in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The Offa's Dyke Centre is a purpose-built information centre in the town of Knighton, on Offa's Dyke on the border between England (Shropshire) and Wales (Powys). Some of the best remains of the earthworks can be seen within a two-minute walk from the centre.",
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"plaintext": "The Offa's Dyke Path (Welsh: Llwybr Clawdd Offa) is a long-distance footpath close to the England–Wales border. Although large sections are close to the Dyke itself, the Path is longer, and in some places passes at some distance from the earthworks. Opened on 10 July 1971, the Path is one of Britain's longest National Trails, stretching for from the Severn estuary at Sedbury, near Chepstow, to Prestatyn on the north Wales coast. There is a visitor centre at Knighton.",
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"plaintext": "The dyke has a cultural significance symbolising the separation between England and Wales: a symbolism similar to Hadrian's Wall between England and Scotland in the Scottish Marches. George Borrow, in his Wild Wales (1862), drawn from folklore, claimed that:",
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"plaintext": "Cyril Fox, Offa's Dyke: a Field Survey of the Western Frontier Works of Mercia in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries AD (London, 1955)",
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"plaintext": "Frank Noble, Offa's Dyke Reviewed, MPhil thesis Open University (1978). Partly published in Offa's Dyke Reviewed, ed. Margaret Gelling (Oxford, 1983)",
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"plaintext": "Tyler, D.J. \"Offa’s Dyke: a historiographical appraisal,\" Journal of Medieval History (2011) 37#2 pp 145–161",
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"plaintext": "However, by the end of the 7th century, Dorset had fallen under Saxon control and been incorporated into the Kingdom of Wessex. The precise details of this West Saxon conquest and how it took place are not clear, but it appears to have substantially taken place by the start of the reign of Caedwalla in 685. The Saxons established a diocese at Sherborne and Dorset was made a shire—an administrative district of Wessex and predecessor to the English county system—with borders that have changed little since. In 789 the first recorded Viking attack on the British Isles took place in Dorset on the Portland coast, and they continued to raid into the county for the next two centuries.",
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"plaintext": "During the 18th century, much smuggling took place along the Dorset coast; its coves, caves and sandy beaches provided opportunities for gangs such as the Hawkhursts to stealthily bring smuggled goods ashore. Poole became Dorset's busiest port and established prosperous trade links with the fisheries of Newfoundland which supported cloth, rope and net manufacturing industries in the surrounding towns and villages. However, the industrial revolution largely bypassed Dorset which lacked coal resources and as a consequence the county remained predominantly agricultural. Farming has always been central to the economy of Dorset and the county became the birthplace of the modern trade union movement when, in 1834, six farm labourers formed a union to protest against falling wages. The labourers, who are now known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, were subsequently arrested for administering \"unlawful oaths\" and sentenced to transportation but they were pardoned following massive protests by the working classes.",
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"plaintext": "The Dorsetshire Regiment were the first British unit to face a gas attack during the First World War (1914–1918) and they sustained particularly heavy losses at the Battle of the Somme. In total some 4,500 Dorset servicemen died in the war and of the county's towns and villages, only one, Langton Herring, known as a Thankful Village, had no residents killed. During the Second World War (1939–1945) Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy: beach landing exercises were carried out at Studland and Weymouth and the village of Tyneham was requisitioned for army training. Tens-of-thousands of troops departed Weymouth, Portland and Poole harbours during D-Day and gliders from RAF Tarrant Rushton dropped troops near Caen to begin Operation Tonga. Dorset experienced an increase in holiday-makers after the war. First popularised as a tourist destination by George III's frequent visits to Weymouth, the county's coastline, seaside resorts and its sparsely populated rural areas attract millions of visitors each year. With farming declining across the country, tourism has edged ahead as the primary revenue-earning sector.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset covers an area of and contains considerable variety in its underlying geology, which is partly responsible for the diversity of landscape. A large percentage (66%) of the county comprises either chalk, clay or mixed sand and gravels. The remainder is less straightforward and includes Portland and Purbeck stone, other limestones, calcareous clays and shales. Portland and Purbeck stone are of national importance as a building material and for restoring some of Britain's most famous landmarks. Almost every type of rock known from the Early Jurassic to the Eocene epochs can be found in the county.",
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"plaintext": "A former river valley flooded by rising sea levels 6,000 years ago, Poole Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset's diverse geography ensures it has an assortment of rivers, although a moderate annual rainfall coupled with rolling hills, means most are typically lowland in nature. Much of the county drains into three rivers, the Frome, Piddle and Stour which all flow to the sea in a south-easterly direction. The Frome and Piddle are chalk streams but the Stour, which rises in Wiltshire to the north, has its origins in clay soil. The River Avon, which flows mainly through Wiltshire and Hampshire, enters Dorset towards the end of its journey at Christchurch Harbour. The rivers Axe and Yeo, which principally drain the counties of Devon and Somerset respectively, have their sources in the north-west of the county. In the south-west, a number of small rivers run into the sea along the Dorset coastline; most notable of these are the Char, Brit, Bride and Wey.",
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"plaintext": "Most of Dorset's coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site, which stretches for between Studland and Exmouth in Devon. This coast documents the entire Mesozoic era, from Triassic to Cretaceous, and is noted for its geological landforms. The Dorset section has yielded important fossils, including Jurassic trees and the first complete Ichthyosaur, discovered near Lyme Regis in 1811 by Mary Anning. The county features some notable coastal landforms, including examples of a cove (Lulworth Cove), a natural arch (Durdle Door) and chalk stacks (Old Harry Rocks). Jutting out into the English Channel at roughly the midpoint of the Dorset coastline is the Isle of Portland, a limestone island that is connected to the mainland by Chesil Beach, a long shingle barrier beach protecting Britain's largest tidal lagoon.",
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"plaintext": "The county has one of the highest proportions of conservation areas in England—and two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) covering 53% of the administrative county. It has two Heritage Coasts totalling and Sites of Special Scientific Interest covering . The South West Coast Path, National Trail, begins at South Haven Point at the entrance to Poole Harbour. There are also substantial areas of green belt surrounding the South East Dorset conurbation, filling in the area between this and the Cranborne Chase and the West Wiltshire Downs AONB.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset's climate of warm summers and mild winters is partly due to its position on Britain's south coast. The third most southerly county in the UK, Dorset is less affected by the more intense Atlantic winds than Cornwall and Devon. Dorset, along with the entire south-west, has higher winter temperatures, average , than the rest of the United Kingdom. However, Dorset maintains higher summer temperatures than Devon and Cornwall, with average highs of . Excluding hills such as the Dorset Downs, the average annual temperature of the county is .",
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"plaintext": "The south coast counties of Dorset, Hampshire, West Sussex, East Sussex and Kent enjoy more sunshine than anywhere else in the United Kingdom, receiving 1,541–1,885 hours a year. Average annual rainfall varies across the county—southern and eastern coastal areas receive per year; the Dorset Downs receive between per year; less than much of Devon and Cornwall to the west but more than counties to the east.",
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"plaintext": "The 2011 Census records Dorset's population as 744,041. This consisted of 412,905 for the non-metropolitan county (not including Bournemouth and Poole), 183,491 for the unitary authority of Bournemouth and 147,645 for the unitary authority of Poole. In 2013 it was estimated that the population had risen by around 1.4% to 754,460: 416,720 in the non-metropolitan county and 188,730 and 149,010 in Bournemouth and Poole respectively. More than half of the county's residents live in the Bournemouth, Poole and Christchurch conurbation.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset's population has a high proportion of older people and a lower than average proportion of young people: According to 2013 mid-year estimates, 23.6% are over 65 years of age, higher than the England and Wales average of 17.4%, and 18.6% are less than 17 years old, lower than the England and Wales average of 21.3%. The working age population (females and males between 16 and 64) is lower than England and Wales average, 60% compared to 64%. Data collected between 2010 and 2012 shows that average life expectancy at birth in the county is 85.3 years for females and 81.2 years for males. This compares favourably with the averages for England and Wales of 82.9 and 79.1 years respectively. Around 95.2% of Dorset's population are of white ethnicity, 60.9% of the population are Christian and 28.5% say they are not religious.",
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"plaintext": "Local government in Dorset consists of two unitary authorities (UA); Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole (BCP) Council, which governs the major conurbation comprising the three towns, and Dorset Council which serves the more rural remainder of the county. For the BCP council, voters choose 76 councillors from 33 wards, with ten wards returning three candidates apiece and 23 wards, two. Dorset elects 82 councillors representing six three-councillor wards, 18 two-councillor wards and 28 single-councillor wards - 52 wards in total. In both authorities, elections for the entire council occur every four years.",
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"plaintext": "The two authorities came into existence on 1 April 2019, when Bournemouth and Poole merged with Christchurch, one of six second-tier districts previously governed by Dorset County Council, leaving the other five districts - Weymouth and Portland, West Dorset, North Dorset, Purbeck and East Dorset - to form a second UA.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset County Council was first formed in 1888 by an act of government to govern the newly created administrative county of Dorset which had been based largely on the historic county borders. Dorset became a two-tier non-metropolitan county after a reorganisation of local government in 1974 and its border was extended eastwards to incorporate the former Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch. Following a review by the Local Government Commission for England, Bournemouth and Poole each became administratively independent single-tier unitary authorities in 1997.",
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"plaintext": "For representation in Parliament Dorset is divided into eight Parliamentary constituencies—five county constituencies and three borough constituencies. At the 2017 general election, the Conservative Party was dominant, taking all eight seats. The borough constituencies of Bournemouth East, Bournemouth West and Poole are traditionally Conservative safe seats and are all represented by Conservative members of parliament. The county constituencies of North Dorset and Christchurch are also represented by Conservative MPs. Between 1997 and 2019, West Dorset was represented by Conservative MP Oliver Letwin who was the Minister of State at the Cabinet Office in David Cameron's government. The seat was won by Chris Loder in the 2019 general election.",
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"plaintext": "The marginal seat of South Dorset is represented by Richard Drax, who gained the seat from Labour representative, Jim Knight, in 2010. Drax retained the seat in 2015 and 2017. The Mid Dorset and North Poole constituency has been represented by the Conservative MP, Michael Tomlinson since 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2019 general election, the Conservatives held all eight constituencies in Dorset.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003 the gross value added (GVA) for the non-metropolitan county was £4,673million, with an additional £4,705million for Poole and Bournemouth. The primary sector produced 2.03% of GVA, the secondary sector produced 22.44% and 75.53% came from the tertiary sector. The average GVA for the 16 regions of South West England was £4,693million.",
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"plaintext": "The principal industry in Dorset was once agriculture. It has not, however, been the largest employer since the mid 19th century as mechanisation substantially reduced the number of workers required. Agriculture has become less profitable and the industry has declined further. Within the administrative county between 1995 and 2003, GVA for primary industry (largely agriculture, fishing and quarrying) declined from £229million to £188million—7.1% to 4.0%. In 2007, of the county was in agricultural use, up from in 1989, although this was due to an increase in permanent grass, and land set aside. By contrast, in the same period, arable land decreased from . Excluding fowl, sheep are the most common animal stock in the county; between 1989 and 2006 their numbers fell from 252,189 to 193,500. Cattle and pig farming has declined similarly; during the same period the number of cattle fell from 240,413 to 170,700, and pigs from 169,636 to 72,700.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009 there were 2,340 armed forces personnel stationed in Dorset including the Royal Armoured Corps at Bovington, Royal Signals at Blandford and the Royal Marines at Poole. The military presence has had a mixed effect on the local economy, bringing additional employment for civilians, but on occasion having a negative impact on the tourist trade, particularly when popular areas are closed for military manoeuvres.",
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"plaintext": "Other major employers in the county include: BAE Systems, Sunseeker International, J.P. Morgan, Cobham plc and Bournemouth University. Dorset's three ports, Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and the smaller harbours of Christchurch, Swanage, Lyme Regis, Wareham and West Bay generate a substantial amount of international trade and tourism. Around 230 fishing vessels that predominantly catch crab and lobster are based in Dorset's ports. When the waters around Weymouth and Portland were chosen for the sailing events in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, the area underwent an increased investment in infrastructure and a growth in the marine leisure sector. It is expected that this will continue to have a positive effect on local businesses and tourism.",
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"plaintext": "Tourism has grown in Dorset since the late 18th century and is now the predominant industry. It is estimated that 37,500 people work in Dorset's tourism sector. Some 3.2million British and 326,000 foreign tourists visited the county in 2008, staying a total of 15.1 million nights. In addition there were 14.6million day visitors. The combined spending of both groups was £1,458million. Towns received 56% of Dorset's day trippers, 27% went to the coast and 17% to the countryside. A survey carried out in 1997 concluded that the primary reason tourists were drawn to Dorset was the attractiveness of the county's coast and countryside. Numbers of domestic and foreign tourists have fluctuated in recent years due to various factors including security and economic downturn, a trend reflected throughout the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Manufacturing industry in Dorset provided 10.3% of employment in 2008. This was slightly above the average for Great Britain but below that of the South West region which was at 10.7% for that period. The sector is the county's fourth largest employer, but a predicted decline suggests there will be 10,200 fewer jobs in manufacturing by 2026.",
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"plaintext": "As a largely rural county, Dorset has fewer major cultural institutions than larger or more densely populated areas. Major venues for concerts and theatre include Poole's Lighthouse arts centre, Bournemouth's BIC, Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy, and the Pavilion theatre in Weymouth. One of Dorset's most noted cultural institutions is the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was founded in 1893. Based in Poole, the orchestra performs over 130 concerts across southern England each year.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset has more than 30 general and specialist museums. The Dorset County Museum in Dorchester was founded in 1846 and contains an extensive collection of exhibits covering the county's history and environment. The Tank Museum at Bovington contains more than 300 tanks and armoured vehicles from 30 nations. The museum is the largest in Dorset and its collection has been designated of national importance. Other museums which reflect the cultural heritage of the county include The Keep Military Museum in Dorchester, the Russell-Cotes Museum in Bournemouth, the Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre, Poole Museum, Portland Museum and Wareham Town Museum.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset contains 190 conservation areas, more than 1,500 scheduled monuments, over 30 registered parks and gardens and 12,850 listed buildings. Grade I listed buildings include: Portland Castle, a coastal fort commissioned by Henry VIII; a castle with more than a 1,000 years of history at Corfe; a Roman ruin described by Historic England as the \"only Roman town house visible in Britain\"; Athelhampton, a Tudor manor house; Forde Abbey, a stately home and former Cistercian monastery; Christchurch Priory, the longest church in England; and St Edwold's church, one of the smallest.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset hosts a number of annual festivals, fairs and events including the Great Dorset Steam Fair near Blandford, one of the largest events of its kind in Europe, and the Bournemouth Air Festival, a free air show that attracted 1.3million visitors in 2009. The Spirit of the Seas is a maritime festival held in Weymouth and Portland. Launched in 2008, the festival features sporting activities, cultural events and local entertainers. The Dorset County Show, which was first held in 1841, is a celebration of Dorset's agriculture. The two-day event exhibits local produce and livestock and attracts some 55,000 people. Inside Out Dorset is an outdoor arts festival that takes place every two years in rural and urban locations across Dorset. In addition to the smaller folk festivals held in towns such as Christchurch and Wimborne, Dorset holds several larger musical events such as Camp Bestival, End of the Road and the Larmer Tree Festival.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset's only professional football club is AFC Bournemouth, which plays in the Premier League— the highest division in the English football league system. Non-League semi-professional teams in the county include Southern Premier Division teams Dorchester Town F.C., Poole Town F.C. and Weymouth F.C. Dorset County Cricket Club competes in the Minor Counties Cricket Championship and is based at Dean Park Cricket Ground in Bournemouth. Poole Stadium hosts regular greyhound racing and is the home to top-flight speedway team Poole Pirates. The county's coastline, on the English Channel, is noted for its watersports (particularly sailing, gig racing, windsurfing, power boating and kayaking) which take advantage of the sheltered waters in the bays of Weymouth and Poole, and the harbours of Poole and Portland. Dorset hosted the sailing events at the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Paralympics at the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy. The venue was completed in May 2009 and was used by international sailing teams in preparation for the Games. In motorsport, Dorset hosts the Extreme E Jurassic X Prix at Bovington Camp.",
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"plaintext": "Dorset's flag, which is known as the Dorset Cross or St Wite's Cross, was adopted in 2008 following a public competition organised by Dorset County Council. The winning design, which features a white cross with a red border on a golden background, attracted 54% of the vote. All three colours are used in Dorset County Council's coat of arms and the red and white was used in recognition of the English flag. The golden colour represents Dorset's sandy beaches and the Dorset landmarks of Golden Cap and Gold Hill. It is also a reference to the Wessex Dragon, a symbol of the Saxon Kingdom which Dorset once belonged to, and the gold wreath featured on the badge of the Dorset Regiment.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike all of its neighbouring counties, Dorset does not have a cathedral. Over 95% of the county falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury. A small section to the west comes under the Diocese of Bath and Wells and to the east Christchurch and much of Bournemouth—both historically part of Hampshire—belong to the Diocese of Winchester. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth incorporates most of Dorset with the exception of Christchurch and a portion of Bournemouth which belongs to the Diocese of Portsmouth. Few purpose-built places of worship exist in Dorset for faiths other than Christianity. In 2008 a Hindu temple was constructed in Blandford Forum for the Gurkhas based at the town's military camp. Bournemouth, which contains a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average, has three synagogues besides an Islamic Centre and a mosque for Muslims.",
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"plaintext": "Christianity was introduced to Dorset by the Romans. A 4th century Roman mosaic discovered near Hinton St Mary contains what is generally accepted to be an image of Christ. Christianity became firmly established in the county during the Saxon period although there are few surviving Saxon churches; the most complete is St. Martin's in Wareham which has features from the early 11th century. Mediaeval churches are more prevalent in Dorset; most are 15th century and are of a Perpendicular style. Sherborne Abbey, one of the county's largest, is noted for its broad fan vaulting added during an extensive 15th century rebuild. Founded in AD705 by Aldhelm, the Abbey contained the chair of the Bishop of Sherborne and was granted cathedral status until 1075 when the diocese was transferred to Old Sarum. Wimborne Minster features a chained library and a 14th-century astronomical clock; Christchurch Priory is renowned for its miraculous beam which, according to legend, was installed by Christ; and the 15th century roof spanning the nave at St John the Baptist Church in Bere Regis is described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as the \"finest timber roof of Dorset\". St Candida and Holy Cross at Whitchurch Canonicorum is the only church in the country, besides Westminster Abbey, to have a shrine that contains the relics of a saint.",
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"plaintext": "Monastic foundations were once abundant in Dorset, but all ceased to exist at the Dissolution of the monasteries. The Reformation and the political and religious turmoil that ensued largely checked the building of new churches until the turn of the 18th century. Notable examples of Early Georgian churches include the Bastard brothers' Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Blandford Forum, and St George's Church on the Isle of Portland, which has a steeple and tower inspired by the works of Christopher Wren. From the late 18th century onwards, churches in Dorset tended towards a Gothic Revival style. A notable exception to this trend, however, is the Church of St Mary in East Lulworth—the first freestanding Roman Catholic church built in England after the Reformation. George III gave permission to erect the building on the condition that it resembled a garden mausoleum rather than a church. It was completed in 1789. Bournemouth, founded in 1810, has a wealth of 19th-century churches including St Peter's and St Stephen's. St Dunstan's Church (formerly St Osmund's) in Poole is one of a small number of 20th-century churches in Dorset. The final major work of Edward Schroeder Prior, it is one of the last examples of the Neo Byzantine style. The Church of St Nicholas and St Magnus in Moreton is noted for its elaborate engraved glass windows designed by Laurence Whistler. Severely damaged by a stray German bomb in 1940, the church subsequently underwent extensive renovation and Whistler had replaced every window by 1984.",
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"plaintext": "Responsibility for state schools in Dorset is divided between three local education authorities: Dorset Council, which covers the majority of the county, and Bournemouth and Poole unitary authorities. Most of the Dorset Council area operates a two-tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend a primary school before completing their education at secondary school but Corfe Mullen, Dorchester, Ferndown and West Moors maintain a three-tier system (first, middle and high school). Bournemouth operates a two-tier system; Poole operates two and three-tier systems. Poole and Bournemouth are two of a minority of local authorities in England to maintain selective education, each containing two single-sex grammar schools which select pupils on the basis of an eleven-plus examination. Some of the county's schools are academies—self-governing state schools which have become independent of their local education authority and are maintained directly by the Department for Education. In 2017, the Progress 8 score for schools in the Dorset Council area was ranked below average, and 39.6% of pupils gained at least Grade 5 or above in English and maths GCSEs matching the national average of 39.6%. Poole recorded an above average Progress 8 score and 54% of pupils achieved Grade 5 or above in English and maths GCSEs. Bournemouth was ranked as average and 47.8% of pupils achieved Grade 5 or above in English and maths GCSEs.",
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"plaintext": "Four of the county's five largest towns contain a further education college: Weymouth College, Kingston Maurward College in Dorchester and Bournemouth and Poole College which is one of the largest in the UK. Dorset has two higher education establishments situated in the heart of the county's south east conurbation. Bournemouth University has facilities across Bournemouth and Poole and over 17,000 students. Previously named Bournemouth Polytechnic, it was granted university status as a result of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. The Arts University Bournemouth is situated between the border of Poole and Bournemouth. It became a higher education institute in 2001 and was given degree-awarding powers in 2008. It was granted full university status in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon () is one of the world's most widely recognized red wine grape varieties. It is grown in nearly every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Australia and British Columbia, Canada to Lebanon's Beqaa Valley. Cabernet Sauvignon became internationally recognized through its prominence in Bordeaux wines where it is often blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc. From France and Spain, the grape spread across Europe and to the New World where it found new homes in places like California's Santa Cruz Mountains, Paso Robles, Napa Valley, New Zealand's Hawke's Bay, South Africa's Stellenbosch region, Australia's Margaret River, McLaren Vale and Coonawarra regions, and Chile's Maipo Valley and Colchagua. For most of the 20th century, it was the world's most widely planted premium red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "However, by 2015, Cabernet Sauvignon had once again become the most widely planted wine grape, with a total of under vine worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its prominence in the industry, the grape is a relatively new variety, the product of a chance crossing between Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern France. Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation—the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and naturally low yielding, budding late to avoid frost and resistant to viticultural hazards such as rot and insects—and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character (\"typicity\") of the variety. Familiarity has helped to sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers, even when from unfamiliar wine regions. Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a \"colonizer\" that takes over wine regions at the expense of indigenous grape varieties.",
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"plaintext": "The classic profile of Cabernet Sauvignon tends to be full-bodied wines with high tannins and noticeable acidity that contributes to the wine's aging potential. In cooler climates, Cabernet Sauvignon tends to produce wines with blackcurrant notes that can be accompanied by green bell pepper notes, mint and cedar which will all become more pronounced as the wine ages. In more moderate climates the black currant notes are often seen with black cherry and black olive notes while in very hot climates the currant flavors can veer towards the over-ripe and \"jammy\" side. In parts of Australia, particularly the Coonawarra wine region of South Australia, Cabernet Sauvignon wines tend to have characteristic eucalyptus or menthol notes.",
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"plaintext": "For many years, the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood and many myths and conjectures surrounded it. Until recently the grape was rumored to have ancient origins, perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make ancient Roman wine and referenced by Pliny the Elder. This belief was widely held in the 18th century, when the grape was also known as Petite Vidure or Bidure, apparently a corruption of Biturica. There was also belief that Vidure was a reference to the hard wood (French vigne dure) of the vine, with a possible relationship to Carménère which was once known as Grand Vidure. Another theory was that the grapevine originated in the Rioja region of Spain.",
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"plaintext": "While the period when the name Cabernet Sauvignon became more prevalent over Petite Vidure is not certain, records indicate that the grape was a popular Bordeaux planting in the 18th century Médoc region. The first estates known to have actively grown the variety (and the likely source of Cabernet vines for other estates) were Château Mouton and Château d'Armailhac in Pauillac.",
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"plaintext": "The grape's true origins were discovered in 1996 with the use of DNA typing at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology, by a team led by Dr. Carole Meredith. The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century. Prior to this discovery, this origin had been suspected from the similarity of the grapes' names and the fact that Cabernet Sauvignon shares similar aromas with both grapes—such as the blackcurrant and pencil box aromas of Cabernet franc and the grassiness of Sauvignon blanc. In 2016 scientists at the UC Davis announced they had sequenced a draft of the whole genome of the Cabernet Sauvignon grape, the first genome of a commercial wine-producing grape to be sequenced.",
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"plaintext": "While not as prolific in mutating as Pinot noir, nor as widely used in production of offspring, Cabernet Sauvignon has been linked to other grape varieties. In 1961, a cross of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache produced the French wine grape Marselan. Cygne blanc is a white-berried seedling of Cabernet Sauvignon that was discovered in 1989 growing in a garden in Swan Valley, Western Australia. Cabernet blanc is a crossing of Cabernet Sauvignon and an unknown hybrid grape variety that was discovered in Switzerland in the late 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977 a vine producing 'bronze' grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia. They propagated this mutant, registered it under the name of Malian, and sold pale red wines under that name. In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes. Cleggett registered this \"White Cabernet\" under the name of Shalistin. Compared to its Cabernet parent, Malian appears to lack anthocyanins in the subepidermal cells but retains them in the epidermis, whereas Shalistin has no anthocyanins in either layer. The team that went on to discover the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 genes that control grape color have suggested that a gene involved in anthocyanin production has been deleted in the subepidermis of Malian, and then subepidermal cells invaded the epidermis to produce Shalistin.",
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"plaintext": "During a series of trials between 1924 and 1930, the pollen of Cabernet Sauvignon was used to fertilize Glera vines (the white wine grape used to make the sparkling wine Prosecco) to create the red Italian wine grape Incrocio Manzoni 2.15.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, the Australian agency CSIRO crossed Cabernet Sauvignon grapes with the Spanish Sumoll variety to create three new varieties: Cienna, Tyrian and Rubienne.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, Cabernet Sauvignon was crossed with the white German wine grape Bronner to create the white wine grape Souvignier gris.",
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"plaintext": "While Cabernet Sauvignon can grow in a variety of climates, its suitability as a varietal wine or as a blend component is strongly influenced by the warmth of the climate. The vine is one of the last major grape varieties to bud and ripen (typically 1–2 weeks after Merlot and Cabernet franc) and the climate of the growing season affects how early the grapes will be harvested. Many wine regions in California give the vine an abundance of sunshine with few problems in ripening fully, which increases the likelihood of producing varietal Cabernet wines. In regions like Bordeaux, under the threat of inclement harvest season weather, Cabernet Sauvignon is often harvested a little earlier than ideal and is then blended with other grapes to fill in the gaps. In some regions, climate will be more important than soil. In regions that are too cool, there is a potential for more herbaceous and green bell pepper flavours from less than ideally ripened grapes. In regions where the grape is exposed to excess warmth and over-ripening, there is a propensity for the wine to develop flavours of cooked or stewed blackcurrants.",
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"plaintext": "The Cabernet grape variety has thrived in a variety of vineyard soil types, making the consideration of soil less of concern particularly for New World winemakers. In Bordeaux, the soil aspect of terroir was historically an important consideration in determining which of the major Bordeaux grape varieties were planted. While Merlot seemed to thrive in clay- and limestone-based soils (such as those of the Right Bank regions of the Gironde estuary), Cabernet Sauvignon seemed to perform better in the gravel-based soil of the Médoc region on the Left Bank. The gravel soils offered the benefit of being well drained while absorbing and radiating heat to the vines, aiding ripening. Clay- and limestone-based soils are often cooler, allowing less heat to reach the vines, delaying ripening. In regions where the climate is warmer, there is more emphasis on soil that is less fertile, which promotes less vigor in the vine which can keep yields low. In the Napa Valley wine regions of Oakville and Rutherford, the soil is more alluvial and dusty. Rutherford Cabernet Sauvignon has been often quoted as giving a sense of terroir with a taste of \"Rutherford dust\". In the South Australian wine region of Coonawarra, Cabernet Sauvignon has produced vastly different results from grape vines planted in the region's terra rosa soil– so much so that the red soil is considered the \"boundary\" of the wine region, with some controversy from wine growers with Cabernet Sauvignon planted on red soil.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to ripeness levels, the harvest yields can also have a strong influence in the resulting quality and flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. The vine itself is prone to vigorous yields, particularly when planted on the vigorous SO4 rootstock. Excessive yields can result in less concentrated and flavorful wine with flavors more on the green or herbaceous side . In the 1970s, a particular clone of Cabernet Sauvignon that was engineered to be virus free was noted for its very high yields-causing many quality conscious producers to replant their vineyards in the late 20th century with different clonal varieties. To reduce yields, producers can plant the vines on less vigorous rootstock and also practice green harvesting with aggressive pruning of grape clusters soon after veraison.",
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"plaintext": "In general, Cabernet Sauvignon has good resistance to most grape diseases, powdery mildew being the most noted exception. It is, however, susceptible to the vine diseases Eutypella scoparia and excoriose.",
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"plaintext": "There are a couple of noted Cabernet Sauvignon flavors that are intimately tied to viticultural and climate influences. The most widely recognized is the herbaceous or green bell pepper flavor caused by pyrazines, which are more prevalent in underripened grapes. Pyrazine compounds are present in all Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and are gradually destroyed by sunlight as the grape continues to ripen. To the human palate this compound is detectable in wines with pyrazine levels as low as 2 nanograms (ng) per liter. At the time of veraison, when the grapes first start to fully ripen, there is the equivalent pyrazine level of 30ng/l. In cooler climates, it is difficult to get Cabernet Sauvignon grapes to ripen fully to the point where pyrazine is not detected. The green bell pepper flavor is not considered a wine fault but it may not be desirable to all consumers' tastes. The California wine region of Monterey was noted in the late 20th century for its very vegetal Cabernet Sauvignon with pronounced green pepper flavor, earning the nickname of \"Monterey veggies\". In addition to its cool climate, Monterey is also prone to being very windy, which can have the effect of shutting down the grape vines and further inhibiting ripeness.",
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"plaintext": "Two other well known Cabernet Sauvignon flavors are mint and eucalyptus. Mint flavors are often associated with wine regions that are warm enough to have low pyrazine levels but are still generally cool, such as Australia's Coonawarra region and some areas of Washington State. There is some belief that soil could also be a contributor to the minty notes, since the flavor also appears in some wines from the Pauillac region but not from the similar climate of Margaux. Resinous Eucalyptus flavors tend to appear in regions that are habitats for the eucalyptus tree, such as California's Napa and Sonoma valleys and parts of Australia, but there has been no evidence to conclusively prove a direct link between proximity of eucalyptus trees and the presence of that flavor in the wine.",
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"plaintext": "In many aspects, Cabernet Sauvignon can reflect the desires and personality of the winemaker while still presenting familiar flavors that express the typical character of the variety. The most pronounced effects are from the use of oak during production. Typically the first winemaking decision is whether or not to produce a varietal or blended wine. The \"Bordeaux blend\" of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet franc, with potentially some Malbec, Petit Verdot or Carménère, is the classic example of blended Cabernet Sauvignon, emulated in the United States with wines produced under the \"Meritage\" designation. But Cabernet Sauvignon can be blended with a variety of grapes such as Shiraz, Tempranillo and Sangiovese. The decision to blend is then followed by the decision of when to do the blending—before, during or after fermentation. Due to the different fermentation styles of the grapes, many producers will ferment and age each grape variety separately and blend the wine shortly before bottling.",
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"plaintext": "The Cabernet Sauvignon grape itself is very small, with a thick skin, creating a high 1:12 ratio of seed (pip) to fruit (pulp). From these elements the high proportions of phenols and tannins can have a stark influence on the structure and flavor of the wine—especially if the must is subjected to long periods of maceration (skin contact) before fermentation. In Bordeaux, the maceration period was traditionally three weeks, which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday. The results of these long maceration periods are very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of aging. Wine producers that wish to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as little as a few days. Following maceration, the Cabernet must can be fermented at high temperatures up to 30 °C (86 °F). The temperature of fermentation will play a role in the result, with deeper colors and more flavor components being extracted at higher temperatures while more fruit flavors are maintained at lower temperature. In Australia there has been experimentation with carbonic maceration to make softer, fruity Cabernet Sauvignon wines.",
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"plaintext": "The tannic nature of Cabernet Sauvignon is an important winemaking consideration. As the must is exposed to prolonged periods of maceration, more tannins are extracted from the skin and will be present in the resulting wine. If winemakers choose not to shorten the period of maceration, in favor of maximizing color and flavor concentrations, there are some methods that they can use to soften tannin levels. A common method is oak aging, which exposes the wine to gradual levels of oxidation that can mellow the harsh grape tannins as well as introduce softer \"wood tannins\". The choice of fining agents can also reduce tannins with gelatin and egg whites being positively-charged proteins that are naturally attracted to the negatively charged tannin molecules. These fining agents will bond with some of the tannins and be removed from the wine during filtration. One additional method is micro-oxygenation which mimics some of the gradual aeration that occurs with barrel aging, with the limited exposure to oxygen aiding in the polymerization of the tannins into larger molecules, which are perceived on the palate as being softer.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most noted traits of Cabernet Sauvignon is its affinity for oak, either during fermentation or in barrel aging. In addition to having a softening effect on the grape's naturally high tannins, the unique wood flavors of vanilla and baking spice complement the natural grape flavors of blackcurrant and tobacco. The particular success of Cabernet-based Bordeaux blends in the 225 liter (59 gallon) barrique were a significant influence in making that barrel size one of the most popular worldwide. In winemaking, the decision for the degree of oak influence (as well as which type of oak) will have a strong impact on the resulting wine. American oak, particularly from new barrels, imparts stronger oak flavors that are less subtle than those imparted by French oak. Even within the American oak family, the location of the oak source also plays a role with oak from the state of Oregon having more pronounced influence on Cabernet Sauvignon than oak from Missouri, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Winemakers often use a variety of oak barrels from different locations and of different ages and blend the wine as if they are blending different grape varieties.",
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"plaintext": "Winemakers can also control the influence of oak by using alternatives to the standard barrique barrels. Larger barrels have a smaller wood-to-wine ratio and therefore less pronounced oak flavors. Winemakers in Italy and Portugal sometimes use barrels made from other wood types such as chestnut and redwood. Another method that winemakers consider is tea bagging with oak chips or adding oak planks to the wines while fermenting or aging it in stainless steel tanks. While these methods are less costly than oak barrels, they create more pronounced oak flavors, which tend not to mellow or integrate with the rest of the wine's components; nor do they provide the gradual oxidation benefit of barrel aging.",
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"plaintext": "The Bordeaux wine region is intimately connected with Cabernet Sauvignon, even though wine is rarely made without the blended component of other grape varieties. It is the likely place of origin of the vine, and producers across the globe have invested heavily in trying to reproduce the structure and complexity of Bordeaux wines. While the \"Bordeaux blend\" of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Merlot created the earliest examples of acclaimed Cabernet Sauvignon wine, Cabernet Sauvignon was first blended in Bordeaux with Syrah (from the Northern Rhone), a pairing that is widely seen in Australia and some vin de pays wines from the Languedoc.",
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"plaintext": "The decision to first start blending Cabernet Sauvignon was partly derived from financial necessity. The sometime temperamental and unpredictable climate of Bordeaux during the \"Little Ice Age\" did not guarantee a successful harvest every year; producers had to insure themselves against the risk of losing an entire vintage by planting a variety of grapes. Over time it was discovered that the unique characteristics of each grape variety can complement each other and enhance the overall quality of wine. As a base, or backbone of the wine, Cabernet Sauvignon added structure, acidity, tannins and aging potential. By itself, particularly when harvested at less than ideal ripeness, it can lack a sense of fruit or \"fleshiness\" on the palate which can be compensated by adding the rounder flavors of Merlot. Cabernet franc can add additional aromas to the bouquet as well as more fruitiness. In the lighter soils of the Margaux region, Cabernet-based wines can lack color, which can be achieved by blending in Petit Verdot. Malbec, used today mostly in Fronsac, can add additional fruit and floral aromas.",
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"plaintext": "DNA evidence has shown Cabernet Sauvignon is the result of the crossing of two other Bordeaux grape varieties— Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc— which has led grapevine historians, or ampelographers, to believe that the grape originated in Bordeaux. Early records indicate that the grape was a popular planting in the Médoc region during the 18th century. The loose berry clusters and thick skins of the grape provided a good resistance to rot in the sometimes wet maritime climate of Bordeaux. The grape continued to grow in popularity until the Powdery mildew epidemic of 1852 exposed Cabernet Sauvignon's sensitivity to that grape disease. With vineyards severely ravaged or lost, many Bordeaux wine growers turned to Merlot, increasing its plantings to where it soon became the most widely planted grape in Bordeaux. As the region's winemakers started to better understand the area's terroir and how the different grape varieties performed in different regions, Cabernet Sauvignon increased in plantings all along the Left Bank region of the Gironde river in the Médoc as well as Graves region, where it became the dominant variety in the wine blends. In the Right bank regions of Saint-Émilion and Pomerol, Cabernet is a distant third in plantings behind Merlot & Cabernet franc.",
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"plaintext": "In the wine regions of the Left Bank, the Cabernet influence of the wine has shown unique characteristics in the different regions. In Saint-Estèphe and Pessac-Léognan, the grape develops more mineral flavors. Aromas of violets are a characteristic of Margaux. Pauillac is noted by a strong lead pencil scent and Saint-Julien by cedar and cigar boxes. The Cabernet wines of the Moulis are characterized by their soft tannins and rich fruit flavors while the southern Graves region is characterized by strong blackcurrant flavors, though in less intense wines over all. The percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon used in the blend will depend on terroir and the winemakers styles as well as the vintage. The First Growth estates of Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Latour are noted for regularly producing wines with some of the highest percentage of Cabernet— often around 75%.",
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"plaintext": "A common factor affecting the flavors of Bordeaux wines is the harvest yields of Cabernet Sauvignon. Throughout Bordeaux there is a legal maximum permitted yield of 50 hectoliters (hl) per hectare (ha). With the aid of global warming and vigorous rootstocks, many Bordeaux vineyards can easily surpass 60 hl/ha, with some estates taking advantage of the legal loophole of plafond limite de classement (\"ceiling limit classification\") that permits higher yields during \"exceptional\" years. This has had an adverse effect on the quality of production from some producers who regularly use grapes harvested at excessive yields. In recent years there has been more of an emphasis on keeping yields low, particularly for an estate's Grand vin.",
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"plaintext": "The Bordeaux wine region accounts for more than 60% of the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in France. Outside of Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon is found in varying quantities throughout Le Midi and in the Loire Valley. In general, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are lighter and less structured, drinkable much earlier than Bordeaux wine. In the southwest French appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOCs) of Bergerac and Buzet it is used to make rosé wine. In some regions it is used to add flavor and structure to Carignan while it is blended with Négrette in Gaillac and Fronton as well as Tannat in Madiran. In Provence, the grape had some presence in the region in the mid 19th century, when viticulturist Jules Guyot recommended it as a blending partner with Syrah. In recent years, several Midi wine estates, such as Mas de Daumas Gassac have received international acclaim for their Cabernet Sauvignon blended in Hérault, with Rhône grapes like Syrah. It is often made as a single varietal in the vin de pays of the Languedoc. The influence of Australian flying winemakers has been considerable in how Cabernet Sauvignon is treated by some Languedoc wine estates, with some producers making wines that can seem like they are from the New World. Overall, the grape has not exerted it dominance of the region, generally considered less ideally situated to the dry climate than Syrah. The Languedoc producers who give serious consideration to Cabernet Sauvignon, generally rely on irrigation to compensate for the climate.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon has a long history in Italian wines, being first introduced to the Piedmont region in 1820. In the mid-1970s, the grape earned notoriety and controversy as a component in the so-called \"Super Tuscan\" wines of Tuscany. Today the grape is permitted in several Denominazioni di origine controllata (DOCs) and is used in many Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) wines that are made outside DOC perimeters in certain regions. For most of its history the grape has been viewed with suspicion as a \"foreign influence\" that distracts from the native grape varieties. After decades of experimentation, the general view of Cabernet Sauvignon has improved as more winemakers find ways to complement their native grape varieties with Cabernet as a blending component.",
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"plaintext": "In Piedmont, the grape was sometimes used as an \"illegal\" blending partner with Nebbiolo for DOC classified Barolo with the intention of adding color and more fruit flavors. In the DOCs of Langhe and Monferrato, Cabernet is a permitted blending grape with Nebbiolo as well as Barbera. Wines that are composed of all three grape varieties are often subjected to considerable oak treatment to add a sense of sweet spiciness to compensate for the high tannins of Cabernet Sauvignon and Nebbiolo as well as the high acidity of Barbera. There are varietal styles of Cabernet Sauvignon produce in Piedmont with qualities varying depending on the location. In other regions of northern Italy, such as Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, the grape is often blended with Merlot to produce Bordeaux style blends. In the Veneto region, Cabernet Sauvignon is sometimes blended with the main grapes of Valpolicella-Corvina, Molinara and Rondinella. In southern Italy, the grape is mostly used as a blending component with local varieties-such as Carignan in Sardinia, Nero d'Avola in Sicily, Aglianico in Campania and Gaglioppo in Calabria.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon has had a controversial history in Tuscan wine, particularly for its role in the arrivals of \"Super Tuscan\" in the mid-1970s. The origin of Super Tuscans is rooted in the restrictive DOC practices of the Chianti zone prior to the 1990s. During this time Chianti could be composed of no more than 70% Sangiovese and had to include at least 10% of one of the local white wine grapes. Many Tuscan wine producers thought they could produce a better quality wine if they were not hindered by the DOC regulations, particularly if they had the freedom to use Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and not required to use white grape varieties. The marchese Piero Antinori was one of the first to create a \"Chianti-style\" wine that ignored the DOC regulations, releasing a 1971 Sangiovese-Cabernet Sauvignon blend known as Tignanello in 1978. Other producers followed suit and soon the prices for these Super Tuscans were consistently beating the prices of some of the most well known Chianti. Other Tuscan wine regions followed suit, blending Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese and even making varietal versions of the grape. Gradually the DOC system caught on and began allowing more regions to use the grape in their DOC designated wines. Cabernet Sauvignon in Tuscany is characterized by ripe black cherry flavors that can give a perception of sweetness as well as strong notes of blackcurrant. The wines typically reach an alcohol level around 14% but can still maintain notable levels of acidity. When blended with Sangiovese in significant quantities, Cabernet Sauvignon can dominate the blend with most Tuscan producers aiming to find a particular balance that suits their desired style.",
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"plaintext": "The introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon to Spain occurred in the Rioja region when the Marqués de Riscal planted cuttings from Bordeaux in the nineteenth century. It was not until the 1960s, however, before cultivation took off. By 2015, it was the sixth most widely planted red wine grape in Spain. Today it is permitted in about half of the Spanish DOPs (Denominación de Origen Protegida). The grape is most prominent in the Catalan wine region of Penedès, where its use was revived by the estates of Bodegas Torres and Jean León. There the grape is often blended with Tempranillo. It is also primarily a blending grape in the Ribera del Duero, but producers in Navarra have found some international acclaim for their varietal wines.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, English wine producers have experimented with growing the variety in plastic tunnels which can create a greenhouse effect and protect the grapes from the less than ideal climate of the wine region. While the grape is permitted to be planted in some German wine regions (such as the Mosel), the vineyard sites best suited for ripening Cabernet are generally already occupied with Riesling; many producers are ill-inclined to uproot the popular German variety in favor of Cabernet Sauvignon. In the 1980s, inexpensive Bulgarian Cabernet Sauvignon was highly touted for its value and helped to establish that country's wine industry and garner it more international presence in the wine market. The grape is performing a similar function for many countries in Central Europe, including Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, and Eastern Europe, including Moldova, Romania, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria and Ukraine. It can be found in the eastern Mediterranean wine regions of Cyprus, Greece, Israel and Lebanon.",
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"plaintext": "In California, Cabernet Sauvignon has developed its characteristic style and reputation, recognizable in the world's market. Production and plantings of the grape in California are similar in quantity to those of Bordeaux. The 1976 Judgment of Paris wine tasting event helped to catapult Californian Cabernet Sauvignons onto the international stage when Stag's Leap Wine Cellars' 1973 Stags Leap District Cabernet Sauvignon beat out classified Bordeaux estates like Château Mouton Rothschild, Château Montrose, Château Haut-Brion and Château Léoville-Las Cases in a blind tasting conducted by French wine experts. In the 1980s, a new epidemic of phylloxera hit California, devastating many vineyards, which needed replanting. There was some speculation that ravaged Cabernet vineyards would be replanted with other varietals (such as those emerging from the Rhone Rangers movement) but in fact California plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon doubled between 1988 and 1998; many wine regions— such as Napa Valley north of Yountville and Sonoma's Alexander Valley— were almost completely dominated by the grape variety. It also started to gain a foothold in Dry Creek Valley, Sonoma Mountain and Mendocino County. Cabernet from Sonoma County has shown a tendency to feature anise and black olive notes while Napa County Cabernets are characterized by their strong black fruit flavors.",
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"plaintext": "In California, the main stylistic difference in Cabernet Sauvignon is between hillside/mountain vineyards and those on flatter terrain like valley floors or some areas of the Central Valley. In Napa, the hillside vineyards of Diamond Mountain District, Howell Mountain, Mt. Veeder, Spring Mountain District have thinner, less fertile soils which produces smaller berries with more intense flavors, reminiscent of Bordeaux wines that require years of aging to mature. The yields are also much lower, typically in the range of 1–2 tons per acre in contrast to the 4–8 tons that can be produced in the more fertile valley floors. Wines produced from mountainside vineyards tend to be characterized by deep inky colors and strong berry aromas. Throughout California there are many wine regions that have the potential to grow Cabernet Sauvignon to full ripeness and produce fruity, full-bodied wines with alcohol levels regularly above the Bordeaux average of 12–13%—often in excess of 14%.",
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"plaintext": "The use of oak in California Cabernet has a long history, with many producers favoring the use of new oak barrels heavily composed of American oak. After the early 1980s' unsuccessful trend to create more \"food friendly\" wines, with less ripeness and less oak influence, winemakers' focus shifted back to oak influence, but producers were more inclined to limit and lighten the use of oak barrels, with many turning to French oak or a combination of new and older oak barrels.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted red grape variety in Washington state according to the Washington State Wine Commission. It is generally found in the warmer sites of the Columbia Valley. The vines are choice plantings for growers due to their hardy vine stalks and resistance to the cold winter frost that is commonplace in Eastern Washington. Washington Cabernet Sauvignon is characterized by its fruitiness and easy drinking styles that are not overly tannic. Recent Washington American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) that have seen some success with their Cabernet Sauvignons include Red Mountain, Walla Walla Valley and parts of the Yakima Valley AVA near the Tri-Cities region.",
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"plaintext": "In Oregon there are small quantities of Cabernet Sauvignon planted in the warmer southern regions of the Umpqua and Rogue Valleys.",
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"plaintext": "It has also started to develop a presence in the Arizona, New York, Ohio, Texas and Virginia wine industries, particularly in the Texas Hill Country and North Fork of Long Island AVAs. Throughout the United States, Cabernet Sauvignon is made in both varietal and blended styles. Under the American system, varietal Cabernet Sauvignon can include up to 25% other grapes.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon is grown in nearly every South American country including Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay. In Chile, the wines were historically limited by the excessively high yields that were commonplace throughout the country. As producers begun to concentrate on limiting yields, regional differences began to emerge that distinguished Chilean Cabernets. For vineyard plantings along flat river valleys, the climate of the region is the most important consideration; as plantings move to higher elevations and along hillsides, soil type is a greater concern. The wines of the Aconcagua region are noted for their ripe fruit but closed, tight structure that needs some time in the bottle to develop. In the Maipo Valley, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are characterized by their pervasive blackcurrant fruit and an earthy, dusty note. In warmer regions, such as the Colchagua Province and around Curicó, the grapes ripen more fully; they produce wines with rich fruit flavors that can be perceived as sweet due to the ripeness of the fruit. The acidity levels of these wines will be lower and the tannins will also be softer, making the wines more approachable at a younger age.",
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"plaintext": "In Argentina, Cabernet Sauvignon lags behind Malbec as the country's main red grape but its numbers are growing. The varietal versions often have lighter fruit flavors and are meant to be consumed young. Premium examples are often blended with Malbec and produce full, tannic wines with leather and tobacco notes. In recent years, there have been increased plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Uco Valley of the Mendoza Province; the wines coming from vineyards planted at higher altitudes garner some international attention.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s, the Coonawarra region first brought international attention to Australian Cabernet Sauvignons with intense fruit flavors and subtle minty notes. The Margaret River region soon followed with wines that were tightly structured with pronounced black fruit notes. In the 1980s, Australia followed California's contemporary trend in producing lighter, more \"food friendly\" wines with alcohol levels around 11-12% percent; by the early 1990s, the styles changed again to focus on balance and riper fruit flavors. Today Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted red wine grape in Australia, following Shiraz with which it is often blended. It can be found in several wine regions with many large producers using grapes from several states. Notable regional differences characterize Australian Cabernet Sauvignon: in addition to the wine styles of Coonawarra and Margaret River, the Barossa Valley produces big, full bodied wines while the nearby, cooler Clare Valley produces wines with more concentrated fruit, and wines of the Victorian wine region of the Yarra Valley are noted for their balance in acidity, tannins and fruit flavors.",
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"plaintext": "Since the end of apartheid, the South African wine industry has been working to reestablish itself in the world's wine markets with many regions actively promoting their Cabernet Sauvignon. Today it is the most widely planted red wine grape in South Africa. It is produced in both varietal and blended styles; some producers favor a Bordeaux blend, while others follow the Australian example of blending with Syrah. Early examples of South African Cabernet Sauvignon were produced by grapes planted in vineyard locations that were cooler than ideal, creating very herbaceous wines with the distinctive \"green bell pepper\" notes. In the mid-1990s, there was more emphasis on harvesting at fuller ripeness, and new clones were introduced that produced riper, sweeter fruit. As the vines age, and better vineyards locations are identified, regional styles are starting to emerge among South African Cabernet Sauvignons: the Stellenbosch region is noted for heavy, full bodied wines while Constantia's wines are characterized by their herbal and minty flavors.",
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"plaintext": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and terroir. Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings.",
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"plaintext": "Canada produces cabernet sauvignon varietals and \"Bordeaux blends\", and some of its cabernet sauvignon is used to create ice wine.",
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"plaintext": "The first vintage produced by Emma Gao at Silver Heights Winery in Ningxia was praised by Chinese and international winemakers, and two of her red wines are among the best known produced in China. They are a Cabernet Sauvignon ‘Emma’s Reserve’ and a Bordeaux blend ‘The Summit’.",
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"plaintext": "In the past century, Cabernet Sauvignon has enjoyed a swell of popularity as one of the noble grapes in the world of wine. Built partially on its historical success in Bordeaux as well as New World wine regions like California and Australia, planting the grape is considered a solid choice in any wine region that is warm enough to cultivate it. Among consumers Cabernet has become a familiar wine which has aided in its accessibility and appeal even from obscure wine regions and producers. In the 1980s, the Bulgarian wine industry was largely driven and introduced to the international wine market by the success of its Cabernet Sauvignon wines. The widespread popularity of Bordeaux has contributed to criticism of the grape variety for its role as a \"colonizer\" grape, being planted in new and emerging wine regions at the expense of focus on the unique local grape varieties. Some regions, such as Portugal with its abundance of native grape varieties, have largely ignored Cabernet Sauvignon as it seeks to rejuvenate its wine industry beyond Port production.",
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"plaintext": "The style of Cabernet Sauvignon is strongly influenced by the ripeness of the grapes at harvest. When more on the unripe side, the grapes are high in pyrazines and will exhibit pronounced green bell peppers and vegetal flavors. When harvested overripe the wines can taste jammy and may have aromas of stewed blackcurrants. Some winemakers choose to harvest their grapes at different ripeness levels in order to incorporate these different elements and potentially add some layer of complexity to the wine. When Cabernet Sauvignon is young, the wines typically exhibit strong fruit flavors of black cherries and plum. The aroma of blackcurrants is one of the most distinctive and characteristic element of Cabernet Sauvignon that is present in virtually every style of the wine across the globe. Styles from various regions and producers may also have aromas of eucalyptus, mint and tobacco. As the wines age they can sometimes develop aromas associated with cedar, cigar boxes and pencil shavings. In general New World examples have more pronounced fruity notes while Old World wines can be more austere with heightened earthy notes.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th and 20th centuries, a large part of Cabernet Sauvignon's reputation was built on its ability to age and develop in the bottle. In addition to softening some of their austere tannins, as Cabernet wines age new flavors and aromas can emerge and add to the wines' complexity. Historically this was a trait characterized by Bordeaux with some premium examples in favorable vintages having the potential to last for over a century, but producers across the globe have developed styles that could age and develop for several decades. Even with the ability to age, some Cabernet Sauvignon wines can still be approachable a few years after vintage. In Bordeaux, the tannins of the wines tend to soften after ten years and can typically last for at least another decade-sometimes longer depending on the producer and vintage. Some Spanish and Italian Cabernet Sauvignons will need similar time as Bordeaux to develop but most examples are typically made to be drunk earlier.",
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"plaintext": "While New World Cabernets are characterized as being drinkable earlier than Bordeaux, premium producers such as the Californian cult wines will produce wines that need time to age and could potentially develop for two to three decades. Overall, the majority of Californian Cabernets are meant to be approachable after only a couple of years in the bottle but can still have the potential to improve further over time. Similarly many premium Australian Cabernet will also need at least ten years to develop though many are approachable after two to five years. New Zealand wines are typically meant to be consumed young and will often maintain their green herbal flavors even with extended bottle aging. South American Cabernets have very pronounced fruit flavors when they are young and the best made examples will maintain some of those flavors as they age. South African wines tend to favor more Old World styles and typically require six to eight years' aging before they start to develop further flavors.",
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"plaintext": "Cabernet Sauvignon is a very bold and assertive wine that has potential to overwhelm light and delicate dishes. The wine's high tannin content as well as the oak influences and high alcohol levels associated with many regional styles play important roles in influencing how well the wine matches with different foods. When Cabernet Sauvignon is young, all those elements are at their peak, but as the wine ages it mellows; possibilities for different food pairings open up. In most circumstances, matching the weight (alcohol level and body) of the wine to the heaviness of the food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins. Milder spices, such as black pepper, pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins—such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper-crusted ahi tuna.",
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"plaintext": "Fats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate. When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a heavy butter cream sauce, the tannins are neutralized, allowing the fruits of the wine to be more noticeable. In contrast, starches such as pastas and rice will have little effect on tannins. The bitterness of the tannins can also be counterbalanced by the use of bitter foods, such as radicchio and endive, or with cooking methods that involve charring like grilling. As the wine ages and the tannins lessen, more subtle and less bitter dishes will pair better with Cabernet Sauvignon. The oak influences of the wine can be matched with cooking methods that have similar influences on the food—such as grilling, smoking and plank roasting. Dishes that include oak-influenced flavors and aromas normally found in Cabernet Sauvignon—such as dill weed, brown sugar, nutmeg and vanilla—can also pair well.",
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"plaintext": "The different styles of Cabernet Sauvignon from different regions can also influence how well the wine matches up with certain foods. Old World wines, such as Bordeaux, have earthier influences and will pair better with mushrooms. Wines from cooler climates that have noticeable vegetal notes can be balanced with vegetables and greens. New World wines, with bolder fruit flavors that may even be perceived as sweet, will pair well with bolder dishes that have lots of different flavor influences. While Cabernet Sauvignon has the potential to pair well with bitter dark chocolate, it will not pair well with sweeter styles such as milk chocolate. The wine can typically pair well with a variety of cheeses, such as Cheddar, mozzarella and Brie, but full flavored or blue cheeses will typically compete too much with the flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon to be a complementary pairing.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2006, the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology published the result of studies conducted at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai that showed the beneficial relationship of resveratrol, a compound found in all red wine, in reducing the risk factors associated with Alzheimer's disease. The study showed that resveratrol found in Cabernet Sauvignon can reduce levels of amyloid beta peptides, which attack brain cells and are part of the etiology of Alzheimer's. Resveratrol has also been shown to promote the clearance of amyloid-beta peptides. It has also been shown that non-alcoholic extracts of Cabernet Sauvignon protect hypertensive rats during ischaemia and reperfusion.",
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37,592 | 1,083,680,444 | Grey_matter | [
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"plaintext": "Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axons. The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.",
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"plaintext": "Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence. Recent studies using cross-sectional neuroimaging have shown that by around the age of 8 the volume of grey matter begins to decrease. However, the density of grey matter appears to increase as a child develops into early adulthood. Males tend to exhibit grey matter of increased volume but lower density than that of females.",
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"plaintext": "Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.",
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"plaintext": " The anterior grey column contains motor neurons. These synapse with interneurons and the axons of cells that have travelled down the pyramidal tract. These cells are responsible for the movement of muscles.",
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"plaintext": "The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.",
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"plaintext": "High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume. Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter. However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum. Long-term cannabis use is also associated with alterations in white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner, with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood associated with the greatest amount of change.",
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"plaintext": "Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction of grey matter in the hippocampus while 3D platformer games have been reported to increase grey matter in the hippocampus.",
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"plaintext": "Women and men with equivalent IQ scores have differing proportions of grey to white matter in cortical brain regions associated with intelligence.",
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"plaintext": "Pregnancy renders substantial changes in brain structure, primarily reductions in grey matter volume in regions subserving social cognition. The grey matter reductions endured for at least 2 years post-pregnancy. The profile of brain changes is comparable to that taking place during adolescence, a hormonally similar transitional period of life.",
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"plaintext": "In the current edition of the official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, substantia grisea is used for English grey matter. The adjective grisea for grey is however not attested in classical Latin. The adjective grisea is derived from the French word for grey, gris. Alternative designations like substantia cana and substantia cinerea are being used alternatively. The adjective cana, attested in classical Latin, can mean grey, or greyish white. The classical Latin cinerea means ash-coloured.",
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"plaintext": " Grey matter heterotopia",
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37,595 | 1,103,737,865 | Weasel | [
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"plaintext": "Weasels are mammals of the genus Mustela of the family Mustelidae. The genus Mustela includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender bodies and short legs. The family Mustelidae, or mustelids (which also includes badgers, otters, and wolverines), is often referred to as the \"weasel family\". In the UK, the term \"weasel\" usually refers to the smallest species, the least weasel (M.nivalis), the smallest carnivoran species.",
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"plaintext": "Weasels feed on small mammals and have from time to time been considered vermin because some species took poultry from farms or rabbits from commercial warrens. They do, on the other hand, eat large numbers of rodents. Their range spans Europe, North America, much of Asia and South America, and small areas in North Africa.",
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"plaintext": "The English word \"weasel\" was originally applied to one species of the genus, the European form of the least weasel (Mustela nivalis). This usage is retained in British English, where the name is also extended to cover several other small species of the genus. However, in technical discourse and in American usage, the term \"weasel\" can refer to any member of the genus, or to the genus as a whole. Of the 16 extant species currently classified in the genus Mustela, 10 have \"weasel\" in their common names. Among those that do not are the three species of ermine, the polecats, the ferret, and the European mink.",
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"plaintext": "The American mink and the extinct sea mink were commonly included in this genus as Mustela vison and Mustela macrodon, respectively, but in 1999 they were moved to the genus Neovison. In 2021, both Neovison species, along with the long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), Amazon weasel (Mustela africana) and Colombian weasel (Mustela felipei) were moved to the genus Neogale, as the clade containing these 5 species was found to be fully distinct from Mustela.",
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"plaintext": "In Greek culture, a weasel near one's house is a sign of bad luck, even evil, \"especially if there is in the household a girl about to be married\", since the animal (based on its Greek etymology) was thought to be an unhappy bride who was transformed into a weasel and consequently delights in destroying wedding dresses. In Macedonia, however, weasels are generally seen as an omen of good fortune.",
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"plaintext": "In early-modern Mecklenburg, Germany, amulets from weasels were deemed to have strong magic; the period between 15 August and 8 September was specifically designated for the killing of weasels.",
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"plaintext": "In Montagne Noire (France), Ruthenia, and the early medieval culture of the Wends, weasels were not meant to be killed.",
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"plaintext": "According to Daniel Defoe also, meeting a weasel is a bad omen. In English-speaking areas, weasel can be an insult, noun or verb, for someone regarded as sneaky, conniving or untrustworthy. Similarly, \"weasel words\" is a critical term for words or phrasing that are vague, misleading or equivocal.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, were seen as yōkai (causing strange occurrences). According to the encyclopedia Wakan Sansai Zue from the Edo period, a pack of weasels would cause conflagrations, and the cry of a weasel was considered a harbinger of misfortune. In the Niigata Prefecture, the sound of a pack of weasels making a rustle resembled six people hulling rice, so was called the \"weasel's six-person mortar\", and it was an omen for one's home to decline or flourish. It is said that when people chase after this sound, the sound stops.",
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"plaintext": "They are also said to shapeshift like the fox (kitsune) or tanuki, and the nyūdō-bōzu told about in legends in the Tōhoku region and the Chūbu region are considered weasels in disguise, and they are also said to shapeshift into ōnyūdō and little monks.",
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"plaintext": "In the collection of depictions, the Gazu Hyakki Yagyō by Sekien Toriyama, they were depicted under the title 鼬, but they were read not as \"itachi\", but rather as \"ten\", and \"ten\" were considered to be weasels that have reached one hundred years of age and became yōkai that possessed supernatural powers. Another theory is that when weasels reach several hundred years of age, they become mujina (Japanese badgers).",
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"plaintext": "In Japanese weasels are called and in the Tōhoku Region and Shinshu, it was believed that there were families that were able to use a certain practice to freely use kudagitsune as iizuna-tsukai or kitsune-mochi. It is said that Mount Iizuna, from the Nagano Prefecture, got its name due to how the gods gave people mastery of this technique from there.",
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"plaintext": "In the Ainu language, ermines are called upas-čironnup or sáčiri, but since least weasels are also called sáčiri, Mashio Chiri surmised that the honorary title poy-sáčiri-kamuy (where poy means \"small\") refers to least weasels.",
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37,599 | 1,107,651,462 | Traffic_(2000_film) | [
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"plaintext": "The first cut of Traffic ran three hours and ten minutes. Soderbergh cut it down to two hours and twenty minutes. Early on, there were concerns that the film might get an NC-17 rating and he was prepared to release it with that rating, but the MPAA gave it an R.",
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] | [
"2000_films",
"2000s_Spanish-language_films",
"2000_crime_drama_films",
"American_crime_drama_films",
"American_crime_thriller_films",
"American_political_drama_films",
"American_political_thriller_films",
"BAFTA_winners_(films)",
"Edgar_Award-winning_works",
"Films_about_Mexican_drug_cartels",
"Films_based_on_television_series",
"Films_featuring_a_Best_Supporting_Actor_Academy_Award-winning_performance",
"Films_featuring_a_Best_Supporting_Actor_Golden_Globe_winning_performance",
"Films_set_in_Maryland",
"Films_set_in_Mexico",
"Films_set_in_Ohio",
"Films_set_in_Cincinnati",
"Films_set_in_San_Diego",
"Films_set_in_Texas",
"Films_set_in_Tijuana",
"Films_set_in_Washington,_D.C.",
"Films_shot_in_California",
"Films_shot_in_El_Paso,_Texas",
"Films_shot_in_Mexico",
"Films_shot_in_New_Mexico",
"Films_whose_director_won_the_Best_Directing_Academy_Award",
"Films_whose_editor_won_the_Best_Film_Editing_Academy_Award",
"Films_whose_writer_won_the_Best_Adapted_Screenplay_Academy_Award",
"Films_whose_writer_won_the_Best_Adapted_Screenplay_BAFTA_Award",
"Films_scored_by_Cliff_Martinez",
"Films_directed_by_Steven_Soderbergh",
"Films_with_screenplays_by_Stephen_Gaghan",
"Hyperlink_films",
"USA_Films_films",
"Tijuana_Cartel",
"2000s_English-language_films",
"2000s_American_films"
] | 142,292 | 29,084 | 266 | 195 | 1 | 0 | Traffic | 2000 American crime drama film directed by Steven Soderbergh | [] |
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37,602 | 1,107,356,834 | Eagle | [
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"plaintext": "Eagle is the common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. Most of the 60 species of eagle are from Eurasia and Africa. Outside this area, just 14 species can be found—2 in North America, 9 in Central and South America, and 3 in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Eagles are not a natural group but denote essentially any kind of bird of prey large enough to hunt sizeable (about 50 cm long or more overall) vertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with heavy heads and beaks. Even the smallest eagles, such as the booted eagle (Aquila pennata), which is comparable in size to a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) or red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis), have relatively longer and more evenly broad wings, and more direct, faster flight – despite the reduced size of aerodynamic feathers. Most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at and . The largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs, and powerful talons.",
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"plaintext": "The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey. Eagles' eyes are extremely powerful. It is estimated that the martial eagle, whose eyes are more than two times larger than the human eye, has a visual acuity up to 8 times that of humans. This acuity enables eagles to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction (scattering) of the incoming light. The female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male. ",
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"plaintext": "Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched. The parents take no action to stop the killing.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus. The Haliaeetus and Ichthyophaga eagles prefer to capture fish, though the species in the former often capture various animals, especially other water birds, and are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate they can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich genus Spizaetus, live predominantly in woodlands and forests. These eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based on their environment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart.",
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"plaintext": "They have at least one singular characteristic. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is after all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles.",
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"plaintext": "Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the very large harpy eagle, have relatively short wingspans, a feature necessary for being able to maneuver in quick, short bursts through densely forested habitats. Eagles in the genus Aquila, found almost exclusively in open country, are noted for their ability to soar, and have relatively long wings for their size.",
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"plaintext": "These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight, length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise noted by reference, the figures listed are the median reported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the World in which only measurements that could be personally verified by the authors were listed.",
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"plaintext": "The eagles are generally distributed in all types of habitats and nearly all parts of the world. The birds can be found in northern tundra to tropical rainforests and deserts. In North America, bald eagles and golden eagles are very common.",
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"plaintext": "The other nine species are endemic to Central and South America. The birds have a highly concentrated population in the Africa and eastern hemisphere. Several islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans are also rich and have distinct species of eagles.",
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"plaintext": " Australia: wedge-tailed eagle (range extends into southern New Guinea), white-bellied sea-eagle (range extends into Asia), little eagle.",
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"plaintext": "Neotropical (Central and South America): Spizaetus (four species), solitary eagles (two spp.), harpy eagle, crested eagle, black-chested buzzard-eagle.",
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"plaintext": "Africa: African fish eagle, Martial Eagle, Crowned eagle, Verreaux's eagle, Tawny eagle, Long-crested eagle",
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"plaintext": "The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae. The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have traditionally been placed in the subfamily Buteoninae together with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and harriers. Some authors may treat these groups as tribes of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell proposed separating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of Accipitridae.",
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"plaintext": "Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their diets, either fresh or as carrion.",
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"plaintext": "Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus, Ichthyophaga.",
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"plaintext": "Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the \"vulturine fish eagle\" (also called the palm-nut vulture) in this group. However, genetic analyses indicate it is related to a grouping of Neophron–Gypaetus–Eutriorchis (Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier), and Madagascar serpent eagle).",
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"plaintext": "The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly related to the Buteo group.",
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"plaintext": "Booted eagles or \"true eagles\" have feathered tarsi (lower legs).",
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"plaintext": "Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus; Ictinaetus, Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and Stephanoaetus.",
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"plaintext": "See comments under Species for changes to the composition of these genera.",
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"plaintext": "Snake or serpent eagles are, as the name suggests, adapted to hunting reptiles.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilornis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
441593
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies suggest that the Madagascar serpent eagle (Eutriorchis) is not related to them.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
12418642
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
77,
101
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Harpy eagles or \"giant forest eagles\" are large eagles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two to six species, depending on the author. Although these birds occupy similar niches and have traditionally been grouped, they are not all related: the solitary eagles are related to the black hawks and the Philippine eagle to the snake eagles.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Harpy eagles (proposed subfamily Harpiinae)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Harpia harpyja, harpy eagle ― Central and South America.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
357978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Morphnus guianensis, crested eagle ― Central and South America.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
9659288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harpyopsis novaeguineae, Papuan eagle ― New Guinea.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
7313591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
26,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippine eagle",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pithecophaga jefferyi, Philippine eagle ― Philippines.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
88847
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
24,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Solitary eagles",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chaco eagle or crowned solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) coronatus ― South America.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
4419369,
12418569,
12519092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
40,
51
],
[
62,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Solitary eagle or montane solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) solitarius ― South America.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Groups",
"target_page_ids": [
8325216,
12418569,
12519092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
43,
54
],
[
65,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus are not composed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassification of these genera will soon take place, with some species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
30463
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
30,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bonelli's eagle and the African hawk-eagle have been moved from Hieraaetus to Aquila.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
754674,
577272
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
],
[
24,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Either the greater spotted eagle and lesser spotted eagle should move from Aquila to join the long-crested eagle in Lophaetus, or, perhaps better, all three of these species should move to Ictinaetus with the black eagle.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
441559,
441551,
3184691,
578233
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
32
],
[
37,
57
],
[
94,
112
],
[
209,
220
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The steppe eagle and tawny eagle, once thought to be conspecific, are not even each other's nearest relatives.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
754740,
754711,
11579078
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
4,
16
],
[
21,
32
],
[
53,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Family Accipitridae",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Subfamily Buteoninae – hawks (buzzards), true eagles and seaeagles",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
441591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Geranoaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoaetus melanoleucus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
7018372
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Harpyhaliaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12519092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Chaco eagle, Harpyhaliaetus coronatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
4419369
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Solitary eagle, H. solitarius",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
8325216
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Morphnus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Crested eagle, Morphnus guianensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
9659288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Harpia",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
357978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Pithecophaga",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
88847
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Harpyopsis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Papuan eagle, Harpyopsis novaeguineae",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
7313591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Spizaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
7362421
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black hawk-eagle, S. tyrannus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12766315
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ornate hawk-eagle, S. ornatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2230701
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black-and-white hawk-eagle, S. melanoleucus – formerly Spizastur",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418941
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Black-and-chestnut eagle, S. isidori – formerly Oroaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418831
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Nisaetus – previously included in Spizaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
19504947
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Changeable hawk-eagle, N. cirrhatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
577765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Flores hawk-eagle N. floris – earlier a subspecies, S. c. floris",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
9378741
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sulawesi hawk-eagle, N. lanceolatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
9379433
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mountain hawk-eagle, N. nipalensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
577784
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Legge's hawk-eagle, Nisaetus kelaarti – previously a race of S. nipalensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
24167602
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Blyth's hawk-eagle, N. alboniger",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
7820814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Javan hawk-eagle, N. bartelsi",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
8243595
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "(Northern) Philippine hawk-eagle, N. philippensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418928
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pinsker's hawk-eagle (Southern Philippine hawk-eagle), Nisaetus pinskeri – earlier S. philippensis pinskeri",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
33654287
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Wallace's hawk-eagle, N. nanus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418919
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Lophaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Long-crested eagle, Lophaetus occipitalis – possibly belongs in Ictinaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
3184691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Stephanoaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus coronatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
42915368
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Malagasy crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus mahery",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
17513845
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Polemaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Martial eagle, Polemaetus bellicosus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
3241615
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Hieraaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
8397478
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ayres's hawk-eagle, H. ayresii",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418705
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Little eagle, H. morphnoides",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
6203976
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pygmy eagle, H. weiskei – previously subspecies H. m. weiskei",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418712
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Booted eagle, H. pennatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
441578
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Haast's eagle, †H. moorei",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
87160
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Lophotriorchis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Rufous-bellied eagle, L. kienerii ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
594254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Aquila",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2877357
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bonelli's eagle, Aquila fasciata – formerly Hieraaetus fasciatus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
754674
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "African hawk-eagle, A. spilogaster – formerly in Hieraaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
577272
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cassin's hawk-eagle, A. africana – formerly in Hieraaetus or Spizaetus genera",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
12418909
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Golden eagle, A. chrysaetos",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
88295
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Eastern imperial eagle, A. heliaca",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
88349
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Spanish imperial eagle A. adalberti",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2804118
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Steppe eagle, A. nipalensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
754740
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tawny eagle, A. rapax",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
754711
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Greater spotted eagle, A. clanga – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
441559
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Lesser spotted eagle, A. pomarina – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
441551
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Indian spotted eagle, A. hastata – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
6012711
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Verreaux's eagle, A. verreauxii",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
1984769
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Gurney's eagle, A. gurneyi",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
8346283
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Wahlberg's eagle, A. wahlbergi – to be moved to Hieraaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
577706
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Wedge-tailed eagle, A. audax",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
199882
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Ictinaetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
578233
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Haliaeetus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
1799818
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
201575
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bald eagle, H. leucocephalus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
4401
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Steller's sea eagle, H. pelagicus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2784262
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "African fish eagle, H. vocifer",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2490728
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "White-bellied sea eagle, H. leucogaster",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
201634
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sanford's sea eagle, H. sanfordi",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
4967811
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Madagascar fish eagle, H. vociferoides",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
2736950
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pallas' sea eagle, H. leucoryphus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
3210907
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Ichthyophaga",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Species",
"target_page_ids": [
1799818
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{
"plaintext": "Lesser fish eagle, Ichthyophaga humilis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Grey-headed fish eagle, I. ichthyaetus",
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{
"plaintext": "Subfamily Circaetinae: snake-eagles",
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10,
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{
"plaintext": "Genus Terathopius",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bateleur, Terathopius ecaudatus",
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{
"plaintext": "Genus Circaetus",
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{
"plaintext": "Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Beaudouin's snake eagle, Circaetus beaudouini",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Black-chested snake eagle, C. pectoralis",
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{
"plaintext": "Brown snake eagle, C. cinereus",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fasciated snake eagle, C. fasciolatus",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Western banded snake eagle, C. cinerascens",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Dryotriorchis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Congo serpent eagle, D. spectabilis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Spilornis",
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6,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Central Nicobar serpent eagle, S. minimus (subspecies or species)",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Great Nicobar serpent eagle, S. klossi",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mountain serpent eagle, S. kinabaluensis",
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12340053
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Sulawesi serpent eagle, S. rufipectus",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Philippine serpent eagle, S. holospilus",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Andaman serpent eagle, S. elgini",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Genus Eutriorchis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Madagascar serpent eagle, Eutriorchis astur",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The modern English term for the bird is derived from by way of . The origin of is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive from (meaning dark-colored, swarthy, or blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles.",
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{
"plaintext": "Old English used the term , related to Scandinavia's ørn/örn. It is similar to other Indo-European terms for \"bird\" or \"eagle\", including (), (), and .",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In the southern part of Finland, near the Gulf of Finland, is the town of Kotka, which literally means \"eagle\", while the town of L'Aquila in the central part of Italy literally means \"the eagle\".",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In Britain before 1678, eagle referred specifically to the golden eagle, with the other native species, the white-tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name \"golden eagle\" for aquila chrysaetos was introduced by the naturalist John Ray.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The village of Eagle in Lincolnshire, England, has nothing to do with the bird; its name is derived from the Old English words for \"oak\" and \"wood\" (compare Oakley).",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In ancient Sumerian mythology, the mythical king Etana was said to have been carried into heaven by an eagle. Classical writers such as Lucan and Pliny the Elder claimed that the eagle was able to look directly at the sun, and that they forced their fledglings to do the same. Those that blinked would be cast from the nest. This belief persisted until the Medieval era.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The eagle is the patron animal of the ancient Greek god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to have taken the form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there are numerous artistic depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present (see illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Psalm 103 (in Greek, Latin, and English) mentions renewing one's youth \"as the eagle\" (although the Hebrew word נשר apparently means vulture). Augustine of Hippo gives a curious explanation of this in his commentary on the Psalms.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "An eagle is a common form in the Anglican tradition, often used to support the Bible because of the symbolism of spreading the gospel over the world. Additional symbolic meanings for \"eagle\" include the pronouncements to the Israelites in Exodus 19:4; Psalms 103:5 and Isaiah 40:31.",
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{
"plaintext": "The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual reasons. In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for the booming U.S. market has sometimes resulted in the arrests of First Nations person for the crime.",
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"plaintext": "The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the eagle and often depicted eagles in their art.",
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"plaintext": "Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry, being considered the \"King of Birds\" in contrast to the lion, the \"King of Beasts\". Whereas the lion (e.g. England) usually represents authority, the eagle is the symbol of power. They are particularly popular in Germanic countries such as Austria, due to their association with the Holy Roman Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was two-headed, supposedly representing the two divisions, East and West, of the old Roman Empire. This motif, derived from the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire was also adopted by the Russian Empire and is still featured in the Flag of Albania. The Roman eagle was preceded by the eagle of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Achaemenid Empire. In the coat of arms of Kotka, Finland, the eagle is depicted carrying an anchor and the caduceus on its feet.",
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"plaintext": "Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with their wings and legs extended. They can also occur close, i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take flight. The heads, wings, and legs of eagles can also be found independently.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " PBS Nature: Eagles",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eagle photos on Oriental Bird Images",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eagle videos on the Internet Bird Collection",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Web of the Conservation Biology Team-Bonelli's Eagle, of the University of Barcelona",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Decorah Eagles: 24/7 Live Webcam from The Raptor Resource Project",
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},
{
"plaintext": " EagleCAM: White-bellied Sea Eagles Live Webcam at Discovery Centre in Sydney, Australia",
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}
] | [
"Eagles",
"Accipitridae",
"Apex_predators",
"Bird_common_names",
"Vultures",
"National_symbols_of_Armenia",
"National_symbols_of_Austria",
"National_symbols_of_the_Czech_Republic",
"National_symbols_of_Germany",
"National_symbols_of_Ghana",
"National_symbols_of_Liechtenstein",
"National_symbols_of_Mexico",
"National_symbols_of_Nigeria",
"National_symbols_of_Poland",
"National_symbols_of_Romania",
"National_symbols_of_Serbia",
"National_symbols_of_Spain",
"National_symbols_of_Syria",
"National_symbols_of_Yemen",
"National_symbols_of_Zambia"
] | 2,092,297 | 58,548 | 1,777 | 238 | 0 | 0 | eagle | large carnivorous bird | [] |
37,603 | 1,077,192,788 | Baltic | [
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"plaintext": "Baltic may refer to:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Baltic Sea, a sea in Europe",
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3335
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"plaintext": " Baltic region, an ambiguous term referring to the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea",
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},
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"plaintext": " Baltic states (also Baltic countries, Baltic nations, Baltics), a geopolitical term, currently referring to Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania",
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"plaintext": " Baltic Provinces or governorates, former parts of the Swedish Empire and then Russian Empire (in modern Latvia, Estonia)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Baltic Shield, the exposed Precambrian northwest segment of the East European Craton",
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"plaintext": " Baltic Plate, an ancient tectonic plate that is now fused onto the Eurasian Plate",
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"plaintext": "Baltic, Connecticut",
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"plaintext": "Baltic, Ohio",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic, South Dakota",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian",
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},
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"plaintext": "Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originating from the Baltic countries",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic Germans, historical ethnic German minority in Latvia and Estonia",
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0,
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]
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic Finnic peoples, the Finnic peoples historically inhabiting the area on the northeastern side of the Baltic sea",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic (steamship)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic (tug), a German emergency tow vessel",
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},
{
"plaintext": "CSS Baltic was an iron and cottonclad sidewheeler ship built in 1860",
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},
{
"plaintext": "HMS Baltic (1808), Royal Navy cutter, formerly the Russian Opyt",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic Exchange, a UK company that operates as a marketplace for shipbrokers, ship owners and charterers",
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"plaintext": "Baltic Dry Index, a daily shipping index published by the Baltic Exchange",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic Fleet, the Russian Navy's presence in the Baltic Sea",
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0,
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic Shipyard in Saint Petersburg, one of the oldest shipyards in Russia",
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{
"plaintext": "Baltics (poem), a 1974 long poem by Tomas Tranströmer",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art in Gateshead, United Kingdom",
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},
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"plaintext": "Baltic State Opera, the Opera House in Gdańsk, Poland",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic Cup, an international football tournament held between Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic League, a football club tournament held between the top club sides from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, defunct since 2011",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic Basketball League, a basketball league founded in 2004",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Baltic Mining Company, a copper mining operation in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Baltic, a locomotive with a 4-6-4 wheel arrangement",
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29,
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},
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"plaintext": " Baltica (disambiguation)",
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1,
25
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},
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"plaintext": " are the logographic Chinese characters taken from the Chinese script and used in the writing of Japanese. They were made a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are still used, along with the subsequently-derived syllabic scripts of hiragana and katakana. The characters have Japanese pronunciations; most have two, with one based on the Chinese sound. A few characters were invented in Japan by constructing character components derived from other Chinese characters. After World War II, Japan made its own efforts to simplify the characters, now known as shinjitai, by a process similar to China's simplification efforts, with the intention to increase literacy among the common folk. Since the 1920s, the Japanese government has published character lists periodically to help direct the education of its citizenry through the myriad Chinese characters that exist. There are nearly 3,000 kanji used in Japanese names and in common communication.",
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"plaintext": "The term kanji in Japanese literally means \"Han characters\". It is spelled in Japanese by using the same characters as in traditional Chinese, and both refer to the character writing system known in Chinese as hanzi (). The significant use of Chinese characters in Japan first began to take hold around the 5th century AD and has since made a profound influence in shaping Japanese culture, language, literature, history, and records. Inkstone artifacts at archaeological sites dating back to the earlier Yayoi period were also found to contain Chinese characters.",
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"plaintext": "Although some characters, as used in Japanese and Chinese, have similar meanings and pronunciations, others have meanings or pronunciations that are unique to one language or the other. For example, means 'honest' in both languages but is pronounced makoto or sei in Japanese, and chéng in Standard Mandarin Chinese. Individual kanji characters invented in Japan, or multi-kanji words coined in Japanese, have also influenced and been borrowed into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese in recent times. For example, the word for telephone, denwa in Japanese, is calqued as diànhuà in Mandarin Chinese, điện thoại in Vietnamese and jeonhwa in Korean. ",
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"plaintext": "Chinese characters first came to Japan on official seals, letters, swords, coins, mirrors, and other decorative items imported from China. The earliest known instance of such an import was the King of Na gold seal given by Emperor Guangwu of Han to a Wa emissary in 57 AD. Chinese coins as well as inkstones from the first century AD have also been found in Yayoi period archaeological sites. However, the Japanese people of that era probably had little to no comprehension of the script, and they would remain relatively illiterate until the fifth century AD, when writing in Japan became more widespread. According to the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki, a semi-legendary scholar called Wani was dispatched to Japan by the Kingdom of Baekje during the reign of Emperor Ōjin in the early fifth century, bringing with him knowledge of Confucianism and Chinese characters.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest Japanese documents were probably written by bilingual Chinese or Korean officials employed at the Yamato court. For example, the diplomatic correspondence from King Bu of Wa to Emperor Shun of Liu Song in 478 AD has been praised for its skillful use of allusion. Later, groups of people called fuhito were organized under the monarch to read and write Classical Chinese. During the reign of Empress Suiko (593–628), the Yamato court began sending full-scale diplomatic missions to China, which resulted in a large increase in Chinese literacy at the Japanese court.",
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"plaintext": "In ancient times, paper was so rare that people wrote kanji onto thin, rectangular strips of wood, called mokkan (). These wooden boards were used for communication between government offices, tags for goods transported between various countries, and the practice of writing. The oldest written kanji in Japan discovered so far were written in ink on wood as a wooden strip dated to the 7th century, a record of trading for cloth and salt.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese language had no written form at the time Chinese characters were introduced, and texts were written and read only in Chinese. Later, during the Heian period (794–1185), a system known as kanbun emerged, which involved using Chinese text with diacritical marks to allow Japanese speakers to read Chinese sentences and restructure them into Japanese on the fly, by changing word order and adding particles and verb endings, in accordance with the rules of Japanese grammar. This was essentially a kind of codified sight translation.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese characters also came to be used to write texts in the vernacular Japanese language, resulting in the modern kana syllabaries. Around 650 AD, a writing system called man'yōgana (used in the ancient poetry anthology Man'yōshū) evolved that used a number of Chinese characters for their sound, rather than for their meaning. Man'yōgana written in cursive style evolved into hiragana (literally \"fluttering kana\" in reference to the motion of the brush during cursive writing), or onna-de, that is, \"ladies' hand\", a writing system that was accessible to women (who were denied higher education). Major works of Heian-era literature by women were written in hiragana. Katakana (literally \"partial kana\", in reference to the practice of using a part of a kanji character) emerged via a parallel path: monastery students simplified man'yōgana to a single constituent element. Thus the two other writing systems, hiragana and katakana, referred to collectively as kana, are descended from kanji. In contrast with kana (, literally \"borrowed label\", in reference to the character being \"borrowed\" as a \"label\" for its sound), kanji are also called mana (, literally \"true label\", in reference to the character being used as a \"true label\" for its meaning).",
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"plaintext": "In modern Japanese, kanji are used to write certain words or parts of words (usually content words such as nouns, adjective stems, and verb stems), while hiragana are used to write inflected verb and adjective endings, phonetic complements to disambiguate readings (okurigana), particles, and miscellaneous words which have no kanji or whose kanji are considered obscure or too difficult to read or remember. Katakana are mostly used for representing onomatopoeia, non-Japanese loanwords (except those borrowed from ancient Chinese), the names of plants and animals (with exceptions), and for emphasis on certain words.",
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"plaintext": "Since ancient times, there has been a strong opinion in Japan that kanji is the orthodox form of writing, but there were also people who argued against it. Kamo no Mabuchi, a scholar of the Edo period, criticized the large number of characters in kanji. He also appreciated the small number of characters in kana characters and argued for the limitation of kanji.",
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"plaintext": "After the Meiji Restoration and as Japan entered an era of active exchange with foreign countries, the need for script reform in Japan began to be called for. Some scholars argued for the abolition of kanji and the writing of Japanese using only kana or Latin characters. However, these views were not so widespread.",
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"plaintext": "However, the need to limit the number of kanji characters was understood, and in May 1923, the Japanese government announced 1,962 kanji characters for regular use. In 1940, the Japanese Army decided on the which limited the number of kanji that could be used for weapons names to 1,235. In 1942, the National Language Council announced the with a total of 2,528 characters, showing the standard for kanji used by ministries and agencies and in general society.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, after World War II and under the Allied Occupation of Japan, the Japanese government, guided by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, instituted a series of orthographic reforms, to help children learn and to simplify kanji use in literature and periodicals.",
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"plaintext": "The number of characters in circulation was reduced, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established.",
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"plaintext": "Some characters were given simplified glyphs, called . Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged.",
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"plaintext": "These are simply guidelines, so many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used; these are known as .",
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"plaintext": "The are the 1,026 first kanji characters that Japanese children learn in elementary school, from first grade to sixth grade. The grade-level breakdown is known as the , or the . This list of kanji is maintained by the Japanese Ministry of Education and prescribes which kanji characters and which kanji readings students should learn for each grade.",
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"plaintext": "The are 2,136 characters consisting of all the , plus 1,110 additional kanji taught in junior high and high school. In publishing, characters outside this category are often given . The were introduced in 1981, replacing an older list of 1,850 characters known as the , introduced in 1946. Originally numbering 1,945 characters, the list was expanded to 2,136 in 2010. Some of the new characters were previously ; some are used to write prefecture names: , , , , , , , , , and .",
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"plaintext": "As of September 25, 2017, the consists of 863 characters. Kanji on this list are mostly used in people's names and some are traditional variants of . There were only 92 kanji in the original list published in 1952, but new additions have been made frequently. Sometimes the term refers to all 2,999 kanji from both the and lists combined.",
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"plaintext": " are any kanji not contained in the and lists. These are generally written using traditional characters, but extended shinjitai forms exist.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese Industrial Standards for kanji and kana define character code-points for each kanji and kana, as well as other forms of writing such as the Latin alphabet, Cyrillic script, Greek alphabet, Arabic numerals, etc. for use in information processing. They have had numerous revisions. The current standards are:",
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"plaintext": "JIS X 0208, the most recent version of the main standard. It has 6,355 kanji.",
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"plaintext": "JIS X 0212, a supplementary standard containing a further 5,801 kanji. This standard is rarely used, mainly because the common Shift JIS encoding system could not use it. This standard is effectively obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "JIS X 0213, a further revision which extended the JIS X 0208 set with 3,695 additional kanji, of which 2,743 (all but 952) were in JIS X 0212. The standard is in part designed to be compatible with Shift JIS encoding.",
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"plaintext": "JIS X 0221:1995, the Japanese version of the ISO 10646/Unicode standard.",
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"plaintext": " are kanji that are not represented in existing Japanese encoding systems. These include variant forms of common kanji that need to be represented alongside the more conventional glyph in reference works, and can include non-kanji symbols as well.",
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"plaintext": " can be either user-defined characters, system-specific characters or third-party add-on products. Both are a problem for information interchange, as the code point used to represent an external character will not be consistent from one computer or operating system to another.",
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"plaintext": " were nominally prohibited in JIS X 0208-1997 where the available number of code-points was reduced to only 940. JIS X 0213-2000 used the entire range of code-points previously allocated to , making them completely unusable. Most desktop and mobile systems have moved to Unicode negating the need for gaiji for most users. Nevertheless, they persist today in Japan's three major mobile phone information portals, where they are used for emoji (pictorial characters).",
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"plaintext": "Unicode allows for optional encoding of in private use areas, while Adobe's SING (Smart INdependent Glyphlets) technology allows the creation of customized gaiji.",
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"plaintext": "The Text Encoding Initiative uses a element to encode any non-standard character or glyph, including gaiji. (The g stands for .)",
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"plaintext": "There is no definitive count of kanji characters, just as there is none of Chinese characters generally. The Dai Kan-Wa Jiten, which is considered to be comprehensive in Japan, contains about 50,000 characters. The Zhonghua Zihai, published in 1994 in China, contains about 85,000 characters, but the majority of them are not in common use in any country, and many are obscure variants or archaic forms.",
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"plaintext": "A list of 2,136 jōyō kanji (常用漢字) is regarded as necessary for functional literacy in Japanese. Approximately a thousand more characters are commonly used and readily understood by the majority in Japan and a few thousand more find occasional use, particularly in specialized fields of study but those may be obscure to most out of context. A total of 13,108 characters can be encoded in various Japanese Industrial Standards for kanji.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the way they have been adopted into Japanese, a single kanji may be used to write one or more different words—or, in some cases, morphemes—and thus the same character may be pronounced in different ways. From the reader's point of view, kanji are said to have one or more different \"readings\". Although more than one reading may become activated in the brain, deciding which reading is appropriate depends on recognizing which word it represents, which can usually be determined from context, intended meaning, whether the character occurs as part of a compound word or an independent word, and sometimes location within the sentence. For example, is usually read kyō, meaning \"today\", but in formal writing is instead read konnichi, meaning \"nowadays\"; this is understood from context. Nevertheless, some cases are ambiguous and require a furigana gloss, which are used to simplify difficult readings or to specify a non-standard reading.",
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"plaintext": "Kanji readings are categorized as either on'yomi (, literally \"sound reading\", from Chinese) or kun'yomi (, literally \"meaning reading\", native Japanese), and most characters have at least two readings, at least one of each.",
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"plaintext": "However, some characters have only a single reading, such as or ; kun-only are common for Japanese-coined kanji (kokuji).",
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"plaintext": "Some common kanji have ten or more possible readings; the most complex common example is , which is read as sei, shō, nama, ki, o-u, i-kiru, i-kasu, i-keru, u-mu, u-mareru, ha-eru, and ha-yasu, totaling eight basic readings (the first two are on, while the rest are kun), or 12 if related verbs are counted as distinct; see okurigana § 生 for details.",
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"plaintext": "Most often, a character will be used for both sound and meaning, and it is simply a matter of choosing the correct reading based on which word it represents.",
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"plaintext": "The , the Sino-Japanese reading, is the modern descendant of the Japanese approximation of the base Chinese pronunciation of the character at the time it was introduced. It was often previously referred to as translation reading, as it was recreated readings of the Chinese pronunciation but was not the Chinese pronunciation or reading itself, similar to the English pronunciation of Latin loanwords. Old Japanese scripts often stated that on'yomi readings were also created by the Japanese during their arrival and re-borrowed by the Chinese as their own. There also exist kanji created by the Japanese and given an on'yomi reading despite not being a Chinese-derived or a Chinese-originating character. Some kanji were introduced from different parts of China at different times, and so have multiple on'yomi, and often multiple meanings. Kanji invented in Japan (kokuji) would not normally be expected to have on'yomi, but there are exceptions, such as the character \"to work\", which has the kun'yomi \"hataraku\" and the on'yomi \"dō\", and \"gland\", which has only the on'yomi \"sen\"—in both cases these come from the on'yomi of the phonetic component, respectively \"dō\" and \"sen\".",
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"plaintext": "Generally, on'yomi are classified into four types according to their region and time of origin:",
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"plaintext": " readings are from the pronunciation during the Northern and Southern dynasties of China during the 5th and 6th centuries. Go refers to the Wu region (in the vicinity of modern Shanghai), which still maintains linguistic similarities with modern Sino-Japanese vocabulary. See also: Wu Chinese and Shanghainese language.",
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"plaintext": " readings are from the pronunciation during the Tang dynasty of China in the 7th to 9th centuries, primarily from the standard speech of the capital, Chang'an (modern Xi'an). Here, Kan refers to Han Chinese people or China proper.",
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"plaintext": " readings are from the pronunciations of later dynasties of China, such as the Song and Ming. They cover all readings adopted from the Heian era to the Edo period. This is also known as .",
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"plaintext": " readings, which are mistaken or changed readings of the kanji that have become accepted into the Japanese language. In some cases, they are the actual readings that accompanied the character's introduction to Japan, but do not match how the character \"should\" (is prescribed to) be read according to the rules of character construction and pronunciation.",
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"plaintext": "The most common form of readings is the kan-on one, and use of a non-kan-on reading in a word where the kan-on reading is well known is a common cause of reading mistakes or difficulty, such as in (go-on), where is usually instead read as kai. The go-on readings are especially common in Buddhist terminology such as , as well as in some of the earliest loans, such as the Sino-Japanese numbers. The tō-on readings occur in some later words, such as , , and . The go-on, kan-on, and tō-on readings are generally cognate (with rare exceptions of homographs; see below), having a common origin in Old Chinese, and hence form linguistic doublets or triplets, but they can differ significantly from each other and from modern Chinese pronunciation.",
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"plaintext": "In Chinese, most characters are associated with a single Chinese sound, though there are distinct literary and colloquial readings. However, some homographs ( ) such as ( or ) (Japanese: an, gō, gyō) have more than one reading in Chinese representing different meanings, which is reflected in the carryover to Japanese as well. Additionally, many Chinese syllables, especially those with an entering tone, did not fit the largely consonant-vowel (CV) phonotactics of classical Japanese. Thus most on'yomi are composed of two morae (beats), the second of which is either a lengthening of the vowel in the first mora (to ei, ō, or ū), the vowel i, or one of the syllables ku, ki, tsu, chi, fu (historically, later merged into ō and ū), or moraic n, chosen for their approximation to the final consonants of Middle Chinese. It may be that palatalized consonants before vowels other than i developed in Japanese as a result of Chinese borrowings, as they are virtually unknown in words of native Japanese origin, but are common in Chinese.",
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"plaintext": "On'yomi primarily occur in , many of which are the result of the adoption, along with the kanji themselves, of Chinese words for concepts that either did not exist in Japanese or could not be articulated as elegantly using native words. This borrowing process is often compared to the English borrowings from Latin, Greek, and Norman French, since Chinese-borrowed terms are often more specialized, or considered to sound more erudite or formal, than their native counterparts (occupying a higher linguistic register). The major exception to this rule is family names, in which the native kun'yomi are usually used (though on'yomi are found in many personal names, especially men's names).",
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"plaintext": "The , the native reading, is a reading based on the pronunciation of a native Japanese word, or yamato kotoba, that closely approximated the meaning of the Chinese character when it was introduced. As with on'yomi, there can be multiple kun'yomi for the same kanji, and some kanji have no kun'yomi at all.",
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"plaintext": "For instance, the character for east, , has the on'yomi tō, from Middle Chinese . However, Japanese already had two words for \"east\": higashi and azuma. Thus the kanji had the latter readings added as kun'yomi. In contrast, the kanji , denoting a Chinese unit of measurement (about 30mm or 1.2inch), has no native Japanese equivalent; it only has an on'yomi, sun, with no native kun'yomi. Most kokuji, Japanese-created Chinese characters, only have kun'yomi, although some have back-formed a pseudo-on'yomi by analogy with similar characters, such as dō, from dō, and there are even some, such as sen \"gland\", that have only an on'yomi.",
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"plaintext": "Kun'yomi are characterized by the strict (C)V syllable structure of yamato kotoba. Most noun or adjective kun'yomi are two to three syllables long, while verb kun'yomi are usually between one and three syllables in length, not counting trailing hiragana called okurigana. Okurigana are not considered to be part of the internal reading of the character, although they are part of the reading of the word. A beginner in the language will rarely come across characters with long readings, but readings of three or even four syllables are not uncommon. This contrasts with on'yomi, which are monosyllabic, and is unusual in the Chinese family of scripts, which generally use one character per syllable—not only in Chinese, but also in Korean, Vietnamese, and Zhuang; polysyllabic Chinese characters are rare and considered non-standard.",
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"plaintext": " uketamawaru, kokorozashi, and mikotonori have five syllables represented by a single kanji, the longest readings in the jōyō character set. These unusually long readings are due to a single character representing a compound word:",
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"plaintext": " is a single character for a compound verb, one component of which has a long reading.",
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"plaintext": " It has an alternative spelling as u(ke)-tamawa(ru), hence (1+1)+3=5.",
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"plaintext": " Compare common u(ke)-tsu(keru).",
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"plaintext": " is a nominalization of the verb which has a long reading kokoroza(su).",
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"plaintext": " This is due to its being derived from a noun-verb compound, kokoro-za(su).",
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"plaintext": " The nominalization removes the okurigana, hence increasing the reading by one mora, yielding 4+1=5.",
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"plaintext": " Compare common hanashi 2+1=3, from hana(su).",
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"plaintext": " is a triple compound.",
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"plaintext": " It has an alternative spelling mi-koto-nori, hence 1+2+2=5.",
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"plaintext": "Further, some Jōyō characters have long non-Jōyō readings (students learn the character, but not the reading), such as omonpakaru for .",
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"plaintext": "In a number of cases, multiple kanji were assigned to cover a single Japanese word. Typically when this occurs, the different kanji refer to specific shades of meaning. For instance, the word , naosu, when written , means \"to heal an illness or sickness\". When written it means \"to fix or correct something\". Sometimes the distinction is very clear, although not always. Differences of opinion among reference works are not uncommon; one dictionary may say the kanji are equivalent, while another dictionary may draw distinctions of use. As a result, native speakers of the language may have trouble knowing which kanji to use and resort to personal preference or by writing the word in hiragana. This latter strategy is frequently employed with more complex cases such as もと moto, which has at least five different kanji: , and , the first three of which have only very subtle differences. Another notable example is sakazuki \"sake cup\", which may be spelt as at least five different kanji: , and ; of these, the first two are common—formally is a small cup and a large cup.",
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"plaintext": "Local dialectical readings of kanji are also classified under kun'yomi, most notably readings for words in Ryukyuan languages. Further, in rare cases gairaigo (borrowed words) have a single character associated with them, in which case this reading is formally classified as a kun'yomi, because the character is being used for meaning, not sound.",
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"plaintext": "Ateji (当て字, 宛字 or あてじ) are characters used only for their sounds. In this case, pronunciation is still based on a standard reading, or used only for meaning (broadly a form of ateji, narrowly jukujikun). Therefore, only the full compound—not the individual character—has a reading. There are also Special readings where the reading is completely different, often based on a historical or traditional reading.",
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"plaintext": "The analogous phenomenon occurs to a much lesser degree in Chinese varieties, where there are literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters—borrowed readings and native readings. In Chinese these borrowed readings and native readings are etymologically related, since they are between Chinese varieties (which are related), not from Chinese to Japanese (which are not related). They thus form doublets and are generally similar, analogous to different on'yomi, reflecting different stages of Chinese borrowings into Japanese.",
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"plaintext": "Longer readings exist for non-Jōyō characters and non-kanji symbols, where a long gairaigo word may be the reading (this is classed as kun'yomi—see Single character gairaigo, below)—the character has the seven kana reading senchimētoru \"centimeter\", though it is generally written as \"cm\" (with two half-width characters, so occupying one space); another common example is '%' (the percent sign), which has the five kana reading pāsento.",
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"plaintext": "There are many kanji compounds that use a mixture of on'yomi and kun'yomi, known as or words (depending on the order), which are themselves examples of this kind of compound (they are autological words): the first character of jūbako is read using on'yomi, the second kun'yomi (on-kun, 重箱読み). ",
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"plaintext": "It is the other way around with yu-tō (kun-on, 湯桶読み).",
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"plaintext": "Formally, these are referred to as and . Note that in both these words, the on'yomi has a long vowel; long vowels in Japanese generally are derived from sound changes common to loans from Chinese, hence distinctive of on'yomi. These are the Japanese form of hybrid words. Other examples include , and .",
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"plaintext": "Ateji often use mixed readings. For instance the city of Sapporo (サッポロ), whose name derives from the Ainu language and has no meaning in Japanese, is written with the on-kun compound (which includes sokuon as if it were a purely on compound).",
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"plaintext": "Gikun () and jukujikun () are readings of kanji combinations that have no direct correspondence to the characters' individual on'yomi or kun'yomi. From the point of view of the character, rather than the word, this is known as a (nankun, \"difficult reading\"), and these are listed in kanji dictionaries under the entry for the character.",
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"plaintext": "Gikun are other readings assigned to a character instead of its standard readings. An example is reading (meaning \"cold\") as fuyu (\"winter\") rather than the standard readings samu or kan, and instead of the usual spelling for fuyu of . Another example is using (lit. \"smoke grass\") with the reading tabako (\"tobacco\") rather than the otherwise-expected readings of kemuri-gusa or ensō. Some of these, such as for tabako, have become lexicalized, but in many cases this kind of use is typically non-standard and employed in specific contexts by individual writers. Aided with furigana, gikun could be used to convey complex literary or poetic effect (especially if the readings contradict the kanji), or clarification if the referent may not be obvious.",
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"plaintext": "Jukujikun are when the standard kanji for a word are related to the meaning, but not the sound. The word is pronounced as a whole, not corresponding to sounds of individual kanji. For example, (\"this morning\") is jukujikun. This word is not read as *ima'asa, the expected kun'yomi of the characters, and only infrequently as konchō, the on'yomi of the characters. The most common reading is kesa, a native bisyllabic Japanese word that may be seen as a single morpheme, or as a compound of ke (“this”, as in kefu, the older reading for , “today”), and asa, “morning”. Likewise, (\"today\") is also jukujikun, usually read with the native reading kyō; its on'yomi, konnichi, does occur in certain words and expressions, especially in the broader sense \"nowadays\" or \"current\", such as (\"present-day\"), although in the phrase konnichi wa (\"good day\"), konnichi is typically spelled wholly with hiragana rather than with the kanji .",
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"plaintext": "Jukujikun are primarily used for some native Japanese words, such as Yamato ( or , the name of the dominant ethnic group of Japan, a former Japanese province as well as ancient name for Japan), and for some old borrowings, such as (shishamo, literally \"willow leaf fish\") from Ainu, (tabako, literally “smoke grass”) from Portuguese, or (bīru, literally “wheat alcohol”) from Dutch, especially if the word was borrowed before the Meiji Period. Words whose kanji are jukujikun are often usually written as hiragana (if native), or katakana (if borrowed); some old borrowed words are also written as hiragana, especially Portuguese loanwords such as かるた (karuta) from Portuguese \"carta\" (English “card”) or (tempura) from Portuguese \"tempora\" (English “times, season”), as well as (tabako).",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes, jukujikun can even have more kanji than there are syllables, examples being kera (, “woodpecker”), gumi (, “silver berry, oleaster”), and Hozumi (, a surname). This phenomenon is observed in animal names that are shortened and used as suffixes for zoological compound names, for example when , normally read as koganemushi, is shortened to kogane in kurokogane, although zoological names are commonly spelled with katakana rather than with kanji. Outside zoology, this type of shortening only occurs on a handful of words, for example daigen(sui), or the historical male name suffix -emon, which was shortened from the word uemon.",
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"plaintext": "Jukujikun are quite varied. Often the kanji compound for jukujikun is idiosyncratic and created for the word, and there is no corresponding Chinese word with that spelling. In other cases a kanji compound for an existing Chinese word is reused, where the Chinese word and on'yomi may or may not be used in Japanese. For example, (“reindeer”) is jukujikun for tonakai, from Ainu, but the on'yomi reading of junroku is also used. In some cases, Japanese coinages have subsequently been borrowed back into Chinese, such as (ankō, “monkfish”).",
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"plaintext": "The underlying word for jukujikun is a native Japanese word or foreign borrowing, which either does not have an existing kanji spelling (either kun'yomi or ateji) or for which a new kanji spelling is produced. Most often the word is a noun, which may be a simple noun (not a compound or derived from a verb), or may be a verb form or a fusional pronunciation. For example, the word (sumō, “sumo”) is originally from the verb (sumau, “to vie, to compete”), while (kyō, “today”) is fusional (from older ke, “this” + fu, “day”). ",
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"plaintext": "In rare cases jukujikun is also applied to inflectional words (verbs and adjectives), in which case there is frequently a corresponding Chinese word. The most common example of an inflectional jukujikun is the adjective adjective (kawai-i, “cute”), originally kawafayu-i; the word is used in Chinese, but the corresponding on'yomi is not used in Japanese. By contrast, \"appropriate\" can be either (fusawa-shii, as jukujikun) or (sōō, as on'yomi). Which reading to use can be discerned by the presence or absence of the -shii ending (okurigana). A common example of a verb with jukujikun is (haya-ru, “to spread, to be in vogue”), corresponding to on'yomi (ryūkō). A sample jukujikun deverbal (noun derived from a verb form) is (yusuri, “extortion”), from (yusu-ru, “to extort”), spelling from (kyōsei, “extortion”). See the 義訓 and 熟字訓 articles in the Japanese Wikipedia for many more examples. Note that there are also compound verbs and, less commonly, compound adjectives, and while these may have multiple kanji without intervening characters, they are read using the usual kun'yomi. Examples include (omo-shiro-i, “interesting”, literally “face + white”) and (zuru-gashiko-i, “sly”, literally “cunning, crafty + clever, smart”).",
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"plaintext": "Typographically, the furigana for jukujikun are often written so they are centered across the entire word, or for inflectional words over the entire root—corresponding to the reading being related to the entire word—rather than each part of the word being centered over its corresponding character, as is often done for the usual phono-semantic readings.",
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"plaintext": "Broadly speaking, jukujikun can be considered a form of ateji, though in narrow usage \"ateji\" refers specifically to using characters for sound and not meaning (sound-spelling), whereas \"jukujikun\" refers to using characters for their meaning and not sound (meaning-spelling).",
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"plaintext": "Many jukujikun (established meaning-spellings) began life as gikun (improvised meaning-spellings). Occasionally a single word will have many such kanji spellings. An extreme example is , which may be spelt in a great many ways, including , , , , , , , ,, , and —many of these variant spellings are particular to haiku poems.",
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"plaintext": "In some rare cases, an individual kanji has a reading that is borrowed from a modern foreign language (gairaigo), though most often these words are written in katakana. Notable examples include , , , and . See list of single character gairaigo for more. These are classed as kun'yomi of a single character, because the character is being used for meaning only (without the Chinese pronunciation), rather than as ateji, which is the classification used when a gairaigo term is written as a compound (2 or more characters). However, unlike the vast majority of other kun'yomi, these readings are not native Japanese, but rather borrowed, so the \"kun'yomi\" label can be misleading. The readings are also written in katakana, unlike the usual hiragana for native kun'yomi. Note that most of these characters are for units, particularly SI units, in many cases using new characters (kokuji) coined during the Meiji period, such as .",
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"plaintext": "Some kanji also have lesser-known readings called , which are mostly used for names (often given names) and in general, are closely related to the kun'yomi. Place names sometimes also use nanori or, occasionally, unique readings not found elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "Although there are general rules for when to use on'yomi and when to use kun'yomi, the language is littered with exceptions, and it is not always possible for even a native speaker to know how to read a character without prior knowledge (this is especially true for names, both of people and places); further, a given character may have multiple kun'yomi or on'yomi. When reading Japanese, one primarily recognizes words (multiple characters and okurigana) and their readings, rather than individual characters, and only guess readings of characters when trying to \"sound out\" an unrecognized word.",
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"plaintext": "Homographs exist, however, which can sometimes be deduced from context, and sometimes cannot, requiring a glossary. For example, may be read either as kyō \"today (informal)\" (special fused reading for native word) or as konnichi \"these days (formal)\" (on'yomi); in formal writing this will generally be read as konnichi.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases multiple readings are common, as in \"pork soup\", which is commonly pronounced both as ton-jiru (mixed on-kun) and buta-jiru (kun-kun), with ton somewhat more common nationally. Inconsistencies abound—for example gyū-niku \"beef\" and yō-niku \"mutton\" have on-on readings, but buta-niku \"pork\" and tori-niku \"poultry\" have kun-on readings.",
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"plaintext": "The main guideline is that a single kanji followed by okurigana (hiragana characters that are part of the word)—as used in native verbs and adjectives—always indicates kun'yomi, while kanji compounds (kango) usually use on'yomi, which is usually kan-on; however, other on'yomi are also common, and kun'yomi are also commonly used in kango.",
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"plaintext": "For a kanji in isolation without okurigana, it is typically read using their kun'yomi, though there are numerous exceptions. For example, \"iron\" is usually read with the on'yomi tetsu rather than the kun'yomi kurogane. Chinese on'yomi which are not the common kan-on reading are a frequent cause of difficulty or mistakes when encountering unfamiliar words or for inexperienced readers, though skilled natives will recognize the word; a good example is (go-on), where is usually instead read as kai.",
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"plaintext": "Okurigana (送り仮名) are used with kun'yomi to mark the inflected ending of a native verb or adjective, or by convention. Note that Japanese verbs and adjectives are closed class, and do not generally admit new words (borrowed Chinese vocabulary, which are nouns, can form verbs by adding at the end, and adjectives via -no or -na, but cannot become native Japanese vocabulary, which inflect). For example: aka-i \"red\", atara-shii \"new\", mi-ru \"(to) see\". Okurigana can be used to indicate which kun'yomi to use, as in ta-beru versus ku-u (casual), both meaning \"(to) eat\", but this is not always sufficient, as in , which may be read as a-ku or hira-ku, both meaning \"(to) open\". is a particularly complicated example, with multiple kun and on'yomi—see 生 for details. Okurigana is also used for some nouns and adverbs, as in nasake \"sympathy\", kanarazu \"invariably\", but not for kane \"money\", for instance. Okurigana is an important aspect of kanji usage in Japanese; see that article for more information on kun'yomi orthography",
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"plaintext": "Kanji occurring in are generally read using on'yomi, especially for four-character compounds (yojijukugo). Though again, exceptions abound, for example, jōhō \"information\", gakkō \"school\", and shinkansen \"bullet train\" all follow this pattern. This isolated kanji versus compound distinction gives words for similar concepts completely different pronunciations. \"north\" and \"east\" use the kun'yomi kita and higashi, being stand-alone characters, but \"northeast\", as a compound, uses the on'yomi hokutō. This is further complicated by the fact that many kanji have more than one on'yomi: is read as sei in sensei \"teacher\" but as shō in isshō \"one's whole life\". Meaning can also be an important indicator of reading; is read i when it means \"simple\", but as eki when it means \"divination\", both being on'yomi for this character.",
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"plaintext": "These rules of thumb have many exceptions. Kun'yomi compound words are not as numerous as those with on'yomi, but neither are they rare. Examples include tegami \"letter\", higasa \"parasol\", and the famous kamikaze \"divine wind\". Such compounds may also have okurigana, such as (also written ) karaage \"Chinese-style fried chicken\" and origami, although many of these can also be written with the okurigana omitted (for example, or ). In general, compounds coined in Japan using japanese roots will be read in kun'yomi while those imported from China will be read in on'yomi.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, some on'yomi characters can also be used as words in isolation: ai \"love\", Zen, ten \"mark, dot\". Most of these cases involve kanji that have no kun'yomi, so there can be no confusion, although exceptions do occur. Alone may be read as kin \"gold\" or as kane \"money, metal\"; only context can determine the writer's intended reading and meaning.",
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"plaintext": "Multiple readings have given rise to a number of homographs, in some cases having different meanings depending on how they are read. One example is , which can be read in three different ways: jōzu (skilled), uwate (upper part), or kamite (stage left/house right). In addition, has the reading umai (skilled). More subtly, has three different readings, all meaning \"tomorrow\": ashita (casual), asu (polite), and myōnichi (formal). Furigana (reading glosses) is often used to clarify any potential ambiguities.",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, in some cases homophonous terms may be distinguished in writing by different characters, but not so distinguished in speech, and hence potentially confusing. In some cases when it is important to distinguish these in speech, the reading of a relevant character may be changed. For example, (privately established, esp. school) and (city established) are both normally pronounced shi-ritsu; in speech these may be distinguished by the alternative pronunciations watakushi-ritsu and ichi-ritsu. More informally, in legal jargon \"preamble\" and \"full text\" are both pronounced zen-bun, so may be pronounced mae-bun for clarity, as in \"Have you memorized the preamble [not 'whole text'] of the constitution?\". As in these examples, this is primarily using a kun'yomi for one character in a normally on'yomi term.",
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"plaintext": "As stated above, Mixed readings are also not uncommon. Indeed, all four combinations of reading are possible: on-on, kun-kun, kun-on and on-kun.",
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"plaintext": "Certain words take different readings depending on whether the context concerns legal matters or not. For example:",
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"plaintext": "For legal contexts where distinction must be made for homophonous words such as baishun and karyō, see Ambiguous readings below.",
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"plaintext": "In some instances where even context cannot easily provide clarity for homophones, alternative readings or mixed readings can be used instead of regular readings to avoid ambiguity. For example:",
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"plaintext": "Several famous place names, including those of Japan itself ( Nihon or sometimes Nippon), those of some cities such as Tokyo ( Tōkyō) and Kyoto ( Kyōto), and those of the main islands Honshu ( Honshū), Kyushu ( Kyūshū), Shikoku ( Shikoku), and Hokkaido ( Hokkaidō) are read with on'yomi; however, the majority of Japanese place names are read with kun'yomi: Ōsaka, Aomori, Hakone. Names often use characters and readings that are not in common use outside of names. When characters are used as abbreviations of place names, their reading may not match that in the original. The Osaka () and Kobe () baseball team, the Hanshin () Tigers, take their name from the on'yomi of the second kanji of Ōsaka and the first of Kōbe. The name of the Keisei () railway line—linking Tokyo () and Narita ()—is formed similarly, although the reading of from is kei, despite kyō already being an on'yomi in the word Tōkyō.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese family names are also usually read with kun'yomi: Yamada, Tanaka, Suzuki. Japanese given names often have very irregular readings. Although they are not typically considered jūbako or yutō, they often contain mixtures of kun'yomi, on'yomi and nanori, such as Daisuke [on-kun], Natsumi [kun-on]. Being chosen at the discretion of the parents, the readings of given names do not follow any set rules, and it is impossible to know with certainty how to read a person's name without independent verification. Parents can be quite creative, and rumours abound of children called Āsu (\"Earth\") and Enjeru (\"Angel\"); neither are common names, and have normal readings chikyū and tenshi respectively. Some common Japanese names can be written in multiple ways, e.g. Akira can be written as , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and many other characters and kanji combinations not listed, Satoshi can be written as , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , etc., and Haruka can be written as , , , , , , , , and several other possibilities. Common patterns do exist, however, allowing experienced readers to make a good guess for most names. To alleviate any confusion on how to pronounce the names of other Japanese people, most official Japanese documents require Japanese to write their names in both kana and kanji.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese place names and Chinese personal names appearing in Japanese texts, if spelled in kanji, are almost invariably read with on'yomi. Especially for older and well-known names, the resulting Japanese pronunciation may differ widely from that used by modern Chinese speakers. For example, Mao Zedong's name is pronounced as in Japanese, and the name of the legendary Monkey King, Sun Wukong, is pronounced Son Gokū () in Japanese.",
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"plaintext": "Today, Chinese names that are not well known in Japan are often spelled in katakana instead, in a form much more closely approximating the native Chinese pronunciation. Alternatively, they may be written in kanji with katakana furigana. Many such cities have names that come from non-Chinese languages like Mongolian or Manchu. Examples of such not-well-known Chinese names include:",
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"plaintext": "Internationally renowned Chinese-named cities tend to imitate the older English pronunciations of their names, regardless of the kanji's on'yomi or the Mandarin or Cantonese pronunciation, and can be written in either katakana or kanji. Examples include:",
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"plaintext": "Notes: ",
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"plaintext": "Guangzhou, the city, is pronounced Kōshū, while Guangdong, its province, is pronounced Kanton, not Kōtō (in this case, opting for a Tō-on reading rather than the usual Kan-on reading).",
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"plaintext": "Kaohsiung was originally pronounced Takao (or similar) in Hokkien and Japanese. It received this written name (kanji/Chinese) from Japanese, and later its spoken Mandarin name from the corresponding characters. The English name \"Kaohsiung\" derived from its Mandarin pronunciation. Today it is pronounced either カオシュン or タカオ in Japanese.",
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"plaintext": "Taipei is generally pronounced たいほく in Japanese.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases the same kanji can appear in a given word with different readings. Normally this occurs when a character is duplicated and the reading of the second character has voicing (rendaku), as in hito-bito \"people\" (more often written with the iteration mark as ), but in rare cases the readings can be unrelated, as in .",
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"plaintext": "Because of the ambiguities involved, kanji sometimes have their pronunciation for the given context spelled out in ruby characters known as furigana, (small kana written above or to the right of the character) or kumimoji (small kana written in-line after the character). This is especially true in texts for children or foreign learners. It is also used in newspapers and manga (comics) for rare or unusual readings, or for situations like the first time a character's name is given, and for characters not included in the officially recognized set of essential kanji. Works of fiction sometimes use furigana to create new \"words\" by giving normal kanji non-standard readings, or to attach a foreign word rendered in katakana as the reading for a kanji or kanji compound of the same or similar meaning.",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, specifying a given kanji, or spelling out a kanji word—whether the pronunciation is known or not—can be complicated, due to the fact that there is not a commonly used standard way to refer to individual kanji (one does not refer to \"kanji #237\"), and that a given reading does not map to a single kanji—indeed there are many homophonous words, not simply individual characters, particularly for kango (with on'yomi). Easiest is to write the word out—either on paper or tracing it in the air—or look it up (given the pronunciation) in a dictionary, particularly an electronic dictionary; when this is not possible, such as when speaking over the phone or writing implements are not available (and tracing in air is too complicated), various techniques can be used. These include giving kun'yomi for characters—these are often unique—using a well-known word with the same character (and preferably the same pronunciation and meaning), and describing the character via its components. For example, one may explain how to spell the word via the words , , and —the first two use the kun'yomi, the third is a well-known compound—saying \"kaori, karai, ryō as in inryō.\"",
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"plaintext": "In dictionaries, both words and individual characters have readings glossed, via various conventions. Native words and Sino-Japanese vocabulary are glossed in hiragana (for both kun and on readings), while borrowings (gairaigo)—including modern borrowings from Chinese—are glossed in katakana; this is the standard writing convention also used in furigana. By contrast, readings for individual characters are conventionally written in katakana for on readings, and hiragana for kun readings. Kun readings may further have a separator to indicate which characters are okurigana, and which are considered readings of the character itself. For example, in the entry for , the reading corresponding to the basic verb may be written as (ta.beru), to indicate that ta is the reading of the character itself. Further, kanji dictionaries often list compounds including irregular readings of a kanji.",
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"plaintext": "Since kanji are essentially Chinese hanzi used to write Japanese, the majority of characters used in modern Japanese still retain their Chinese meaning, physical resemblance with some of their modern traditional Chinese characters counterparts, and a degree of similarity with Classical Chinese pronunciation imported to Japan from 5th to 9th century. Nevertheless, after centuries of development, there is a notable number of kanji used in modern Japanese which have different meaning from hanzi used in modern Chinese. Such differences are the result of:",
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"plaintext": " the use of characters created in Japan,",
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"plaintext": " characters that have been given different meanings in Japanese, and ",
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"plaintext": " post-World War II simplifications (shinjitai) of the character.",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, the process of character simplification in mainland China since the 1950s has resulted in the fact that Japanese speakers who have not studied Chinese may not recognize some simplified characters.",
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"plaintext": "In Japanese, refers to Chinese characters made outside of China. Specifically, kanji made in Japan are referred to as . They are primarily formed in the usual way of Chinese characters, namely by combining existing components, though using a combination that is not used in China. The corresponding phenomenon in Korea is called gukja (), a cognate name; there are however far fewer Korean-coined characters than Japanese-coined ones. Other languages using the Chinese family of scripts sometimes have far more extensive systems of native characters, most significantly Vietnamese chữ Nôm, which comprises over 20,000 characters used throughout traditional Vietnamese writing, and Zhuang sawndip, which comprises over 10,000 characters, which are still in use.",
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"plaintext": "Since kokuji are generally devised for existing native words, these usually only have native kun readings. However, they occasionally have a Chinese on reading, derived from a phonetic, as in , dō, and in rare cases only have an on reading, as in , sen, from , which was derived for use in technical compounds ( means \"gland\", hence used in medical terminology).",
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"plaintext": "The majority of kokuji are ideogrammatic compounds (), meaning that they are composed of two (or more) characters, with the meaning associated with the combination. For example, is composed of (person radical) plus (action), hence \"action of a person, work\". This is in contrast to kanji generally, which are overwhelmingly phono-semantic compounds. This difference is because kokuji were coined to express Japanese words, so borrowing existing (Chinese) readings could not express these—combining existing characters to logically express the meaning was the simplest way to achieve this. Other illustrative examples (below) include sakaki tree, formed as \"tree\" and \"god\", literally \"divine tree\", and tsuji \"crossroads, street\" formed as () \"road\" and \"cross\", hence \"cross-road\".",
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"plaintext": "In terms of meanings, these are especially for natural phenomena (esp. flora and fauna species), including a very large number of fish, such as (sardine), (codfish), (seaperch), and (sillago), and trees, such as (evergreen oak), (Japanese cedar), (birch, maple) and (spindle tree). In other cases they refer to specifically Japanese abstract concepts, everyday words (like , \"crossroads\", see above), or later technical coinages (such as , \"gland\", see above).",
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"plaintext": "There are hundreds of kokuji in existence. Many are rarely used, but a number have become commonly used components of the written Japanese language. These include the following:",
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"plaintext": "Jōyō kanji has about nine kokuji; there is some dispute over classification, but generally includes these:",
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"plaintext": " dō, hatara(ku) \"work\", the most commonly used kokuji, used in the fundamental verb , included in elementary texts and on the Proficiency Test N5.",
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"plaintext": " ko(mu), used in the fundamental verb ",
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"plaintext": " nio(u), used in common verb ",
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"plaintext": " hatake \"field of crops\"",
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"plaintext": " sen, \"gland\"",
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"plaintext": " tōge \"mountain pass\"",
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"plaintext": " waku, \"frame\"",
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"plaintext": " hei, \"wall\"",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " shibo(ru), \"to squeeze\" (disputed; see below); ",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
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"plaintext": "jinmeiyō kanji",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " sakaki \"tree, genus Cleyera\"",
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"plaintext": " tsuji \"crossroads, street\"",
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"plaintext": " monme (unit of weight)",
"section_idx": 5,
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{
"plaintext": "Hyōgaiji:",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " shitsuke \"training, rearing (an animal, a child)\"",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "Some of these characters (for example, , \"gland\") have been introduced to China. In some cases the Chinese reading is the inferred Chinese reading, interpreting the character as a phono-semantic compound (as in how on readings are sometimes assigned to these characters in Chinese), while in other cases (such as ), the Japanese on reading is borrowed (in general this differs from the modern Chinese pronunciation of this phonetic). Similar coinages occurred to a more limited extent in Korea and Vietnam.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "Historically, some kokuji date back to very early Japanese writing, being found in the Man'yōshū, for example— iwashi \"sardine\" dates to the Nara period (8th century)—while they have continued to be created as late as the late 19th century, when a number of characters were coined in the Meiji era for new scientific concepts. For example, some characters were produced as regular compounds for some (but not all) SI units, such as ( \"meter\" + \"thousand, kilo-\") for kilometer, ( \"liter\" + \"thousand, kilo-\") for kiloliter, and ( \"gram\" + \"thousand, kilo-\") for kilogram. However, SI units in Japanese today are almost exclusively written using rōmaji or katakana such as or for km, for kl, and or for kg.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, the kokuji category is strictly defined as characters whose earliest appearance is in Japan. If a character appears earlier in the Chinese literature, it is not considered a kokuji even if the character was independently coined in Japan and unrelated to the Chinese character (meaning \"not borrowed from Chinese\"). In other words, kokuji are not simply characters that were made in Japan, but characters that were first made in Japan. An illustrative example is . This spelling was created in Edo period Japan from the ateji (phonetic kanji spelling) for the existing word ankō by adding the radical to each character—the characters were \"made in Japan\". However, is not considered kokuji, as it is found in ancient Chinese texts as a corruption of (魚匽). is considered kokuji, as it has not been found in any earlier Chinese text. Casual listings may be more inclusive, including characters such as . Another example is , which is sometimes not considered kokuji due to its earlier presence as a corruption of Chinese .",
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"plaintext": "In addition to kokuji, there are kanji that have been given meanings in Japanese that are different from their original Chinese meanings. These are not considered kokuji but are instead called kokkunyomi () and include characters such as the following:",
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"plaintext": "Han-dynasty scholar Xu Shen in his 2nd-century dictionary Shuowen Jiezi classified Chinese characters into six categories ( liùshū, Japanese: rikusho). The traditional classification is still taught but is problematic and no longer the focus of modern lexicographic practice, as some categories are not clearly defined, nor are they mutually exclusive: the first four refer to structural composition, while the last two refer to usage.",
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"plaintext": "Shōkei (Mandarin: xiàngxíng) characters are pictographic sketches of the object they represent. For example, is an eye, while is a tree. The current forms of the characters are very different from the originals, though their representations are more clear in oracle bone script and seal script. These pictographic characters make up only a small fraction of modern characters.",
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"plaintext": "Shiji (Mandarin: zhǐshì) characters are ideographs, often called \"simple ideographs\" or \"simple indicatives\" to distinguish them and tell the difference from compound ideographs (below). They are usually simple graphically and represent an abstract concept such as \"up\" or \"above\" and \"down\" or \"below\". These make up a tiny fraction of modern characters.",
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"plaintext": "Kaii (Mandarin: huìyì) characters are compound ideographs, often called \"compound indicatives\", \"associative compounds\", or just \"ideographs\". These are usually a combination of pictographs that combine semantically to present an overall meaning. An example of this type is (rest) from (person radical) and (tree). Another is the kokuji (mountain pass) made from (mountain), (up) and (down). These make up a tiny fraction of modern characters.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Keisei (Mandarin: xíngshēng) characters are phono-semantic or radical-phonetic compounds, sometimes called \"semantic-phonetic\", \"semasio-phonetic\", or \"phonetic-ideographic\" characters, are by far the largest category, making up about 90% of the characters in the standard lists; however, some of the most frequently used kanji belong to one of the three groups mentioned above, so keisei moji will usually make up less than 90% of the characters in a text. Typically they are made up of two components, one of which (most commonly, but by no means always, the left or top element) suggests the general category of the meaning or semantic context, and the other (most commonly the right or bottom element) approximates the pronunciation. The pronunciation relates to the original Chinese, and may now only be distantly detectable in the modern Japanese on'yomi of the kanji; it generally has no relation at all to kun'yomi. The same is true of the semantic context, which may have changed over the centuries or in the transition from Chinese to Japanese. As a result, it is a common error in folk etymology to fail to recognize a phono-semantic compound, typically instead inventing a compound-indicative explanation.",
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"plaintext": "Tenchū (Mandarin: zhuǎnzhù) characters have variously been called \"derivative characters\", \"derivative cognates\", or translated as \"mutually explanatory\" or \"mutually synonymous\" characters; this is the most problematic of the six categories, as it is vaguely defined. It may refer to kanji where the meaning or application has become extended. For example, is used for 'music' and 'comfort, ease', with different pronunciations in Chinese reflected in the two different on'yomi, gaku 'music' and raku 'pleasure'.",
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"plaintext": "Kasha (Mandarin: jiǎjiè) are rebuses, sometimes called \"phonetic loans\". The etymology of the characters follows one of the patterns above, but the present-day meaning is completely unrelated to this. A character was appropriated to represent a similar-sounding word. For example, in ancient Chinese was originally a pictograph for \"wheat\". Its syllable was homophonous with the verb meaning \"to come\", and the character is used for that verb as a result, without any embellishing \"meaning\" element attached. The character for wheat , originally meant \"to come\", being a keisei moji having 'foot' at the bottom for its meaning part and \"wheat\" at the top for sound. The two characters swapped meaning, so today the more common word has the simpler character. This borrowing of sounds has a very long history.",
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"plaintext": "The iteration mark () is used to indicate that the preceding kanji is to be repeated, functioning similarly to a ditto mark in English. It is pronounced as though the kanji were written twice in a row, for example and . This mark also appears in personal and place names, as in the surname Sasaki (). This symbol is a simplified version of the kanji , a variant of .",
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"plaintext": "Another abbreviated symbol is , in appearance a small katakana \"ke\", but actually a simplified version of the kanji , a general counter. It is pronounced \"ka\" when used to indicate quantity (such as , rokkagetsu \"six months\") or \"ga\" if used as a genitive (as in 関ヶ原 sekigahara \"Sekigahara\").",
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"plaintext": "The way how these symbols may be produced on a computer depends on the operating system. In macOS, typing will reveal the symbol as well as , and . To produce , type . Under Windows, typing will reveal some of these symbols, while in Google IME, may be used.",
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"plaintext": "Kanji, whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by conventions such as those used for the Latin script, are often collated using the traditional Chinese radical-and-stroke sorting method. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called radicals. Characters are grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. For example, the kanji character , meaning \"cherry\", is sorted as a ten-stroke character under the four-stroke primary radical meaning \"tree\". When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation.",
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"plaintext": "Other kanji sorting methods, such as the SKIP system, have been devised by various authors.",
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"plaintext": "Modern general-purpose Japanese dictionaries (as opposed to specifically character dictionaries) generally collate all entries, including words written using kanji, according to their kana representations (reflecting the way they are pronounced). The gojūon ordering of kana is normally used for this purpose.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese schoolchildren are expected to learn 1,026 basic kanji characters, the kyōiku kanji, before finishing the sixth grade. The order in which these characters are learned is fixed. The kyōiku kanji list is a subset of a larger list, originally of 1,945 kanji characters and extended to 2,136 in 2010, known as the jōyō kanji—characters required for the level of fluency necessary to read newspapers and literature in Japanese. This larger list of characters is to be mastered by the end of the ninth grade. Schoolchildren learn the characters by repetition and radical.",
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"plaintext": "Students studying Japanese as a foreign language are often required by a curriculum to acquire kanji without having first learned the vocabulary associated with them. Strategies for these learners vary from copying-based methods to mnemonic-based methods such as those used in James Heisig's series Remembering the Kanji. Other textbooks use methods based on the etymology of the characters, such as Mathias and Habein's The Complete Guide to Everyday Kanji and Henshall's A Guide to Remembering Japanese Characters. Pictorial mnemonics, as in the text Kanji Pict-o-graphix, are also seen. ",
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299,
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363,
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{
"plaintext": "The Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation provides the Kanji kentei ( Nihon kanji nōryoku kentei shiken; \"Test of Japanese Kanji Aptitude\"), which tests the ability to read and write kanji. The highest level of the Kanji kentei tests about six thousand kanji.",
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"plaintext": " Chinese influence on Japanese culture",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
58383660
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Braille kanji",
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41486390
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},
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"plaintext": " Hanja (Korean equivalent)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
158772
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1,
6
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},
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"plaintext": " Han-Nom (Vietnamese equivalent)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
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720287
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Han unification",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
187273
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Chinese family of scripts",
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18863483
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26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese script reform",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
15584148
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23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese typefaces (shotai)",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3203079
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1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese writing system",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1234482
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"plaintext": " Kanji of the year",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8431166
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of kanji by concept",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
221234
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of kanji by stroke count",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
221230
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1,
30
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Radical (Chinese character)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
234992
],
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1,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stroke order",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
464766
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1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Table of kanji radicals",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rōmaji",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
26263954
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7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " DeFrancis, John (1990). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. .",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hadamitzky, W., and Spahn, M., (1981) Kanji and Kana, Boston: Tuttle.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hannas, William. C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. (paperback); (hardcover).",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kaiser, Stephen (1991). \"Introduction to the Japanese Writing System\". In Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide. Tokyo: Kondansha International. .",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Miyake, Marc Hideo (2003). Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. New York, NY; London, England: RoutledgeCurzon.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
27284270
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Morohashi, Tetsuji. Dai Kan-Wa Jiten (Comprehensive Chinese–Japanese Dictionary) 1984–1986. Tokyo: Taishukan.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
2773062
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mitamura, Joyce Yumi and Mitamura, Yasuko Kosaka (1997). Let's Learn Kanji. Tokyo: Kondansha International. .",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Unger, J. Marshall (1996). Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines. .",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jim Breen's WWWJDIC server used to find Kanji from English or romanized Japanese",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Change in Script Usage in Japanese: A Longitudinal Study of Japanese Government White Papers on Labor, discussion paper by Takako Tomoda in the Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies, August 19, 2005.",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jisho—Online Japanese dictionary",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A simple Shinjitai—Kyūjitai converter",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A practical Shinjitai—Kyūjitai—Simplified Chinese character converter",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A complex Shinjitai—Kyūjitai converter",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A downloadable Shinjitai—Kyūjitai—Simplified Chinese character converter",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Chinese_characters",
"East_Asian_culture",
"East_Asia",
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"Kanji",
"Japanese_writing_system_terms",
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] | 82,772 | 53,865 | 2,522 | 322 | 0 | 0 | kanji | adopted logographic Chinese characters used in the modern Japanese writing system | [
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"Japanese/Kanji"
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37,605 | 1,103,001,148 | Norfolk | [
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"plaintext": "The area that was to become Norfolk was settled in pre-Roman times, (there were Palaeolithic settlers as early as 950,000 years ago) with camps along the higher land in the west, where flints could be quarried. A Brittonic tribe, the Iceni, emerged in the 1st century BC. The Iceni revolted against the Roman invasion in AD 47, and again in 60 led by Boudica. The crushing of the second rebellion opened the area to the Romans. During the Roman era roads and ports were constructed throughout the area and farming was widespread.",
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"plaintext": "Situated on the east coast, the homelands of the Iceni were vulnerable to attacks from continental Europe and other parts of Britain, and forts were built to defend against raids by the Saxons and the Picts. A period of depopulation, which may have been due to these threats, seems to have followed the departure of the Romans. Soon afterward, Germanic peoples from the North Sea area settled in the region. Though they became known as Angles, they were likely not affiliated to any tribe in particular at the time of their migration. It is thought that the settlement here was early (possibly beginning at the start of the fifth century, thereby preceding the alleged date of Hengist and Horsa's arrival in Kent) and that it occurred on a large scale.",
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"plaintext": "By the 5th century the Angles had established control of the region and later became the \"north folk\" and the \"south folk\"; hence \"Norfolk\" and \"Suffolk\". Norfolk, Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia (one of the heptarchy), which later merged with Mercia and then with Wessex. The influence of the early English settlers can be seen in the many place names ending in \"-ham\", \"-ingham\" and \"-ton\". Endings such as \"-by\" and \"-thorpe\" are also fairly common, indicating Danish toponyms: in the 9th century the region again came under attack, this time from Danes who killed the king, Edmund the Martyr. Several place names around the Fenland area contain Celtic elements; this has been taken by some scholars to represent a possibly significant concentration of Britons in the area.",
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"plaintext": "In the centuries before the Norman Conquest the wetlands of the east of the county began to be converted to farmland, and settlements grew in these areas. Migration into East Anglia must have been high: by the time of the Domesday Book survey it was one of the most densely populated parts of the British Isles. During the high and late Middle Ages the county developed arable agriculture and woollen industries. Norfolk's prosperity at that time is evident from the county's large number of medieval churches: out of an original total of over one thousand some 659 have survived, more than in any other county in Britain and the greatest concentration in the world. The economy was in decline by the time of the Black Death, which dramatically reduced the population in 1349.",
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"plaintext": "Kett's Rebellion occurred in Norfolk during the reign of Edward VI, largely in response to the enclosure of land by landlords, leaving peasants with nowhere to graze their animals, and to the general abuses of power by the nobility. It was led by Robert Kett, a yeoman farmer, who was joined by recruits from Norwich and the surrounding countryside. His group numbered some 16,000 by the time the rebels stormed Norwich on 29 July 1549 and took the city. Kett's rebellion ended on 27 August when the rebels were defeated by an army under the leadership of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland at the Battle of Dussindale. Some 3,000 rebels were killed. Kett was captured, held in the Tower of London, tried for treason, and hanged from the walls of Norwich Castle.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 16th century Norwich had grown to become the second-largest city in England, but over one-third of its population died in the plague epidemic of 1579, and in 1665 the Great Plague again killed around one-third of the population. During the English Civil War Norfolk was largely Parliamentarian. The economy and agriculture of the region declined somewhat. During the Industrial Revolution Norfolk developed little industry, except in Norwich which was a late addition to the railway network.",
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"plaintext": "Early military units included the Norfolk Militia.",
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century the county developed a role in aviation. The first development in airfields came with the First World War; there was then a massive expansion during the Second World War with the growth of the Royal Air Force and the influx of the American USAAF 8th Air Force which operated from many Norfolk airfields.",
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"plaintext": "The local British Army regiments included the Royal Norfolk Regiment (now the Royal Anglian Regiment) and the Norfolk Yeomanry.",
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"plaintext": "During the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since, with the establishment of large fields for growing cereals and oilseed rape.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998 Norfolk had a Gross Domestic Product of £9,319million, which represents 1.5% of England's economy and 1.25% of the United Kingdom's economy. The GDP per head was £11,825, compared to £13,635 for East Anglia, £12,845 for England and £12,438 for the United Kingdom. In 1999–2000 the county had an unemployment rate of 5.6%, compared to 5.8% for England and 6.0% for the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Data from 2017 provided a useful update on the county's economy. The median hourly gross pay was £12.17 and the median weekly pay was £496.80; on a per year basis, the median gross income was £25,458. The employment rate among persons aged 16 to 64 was 74.2% while the unemployment rate was 4.6%. The Norfolk economy was \"treading water with manufacturing sales and recruitment remaining static in the first quarter of the year\" according to research published in April 2018. A spokesperson for the",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk Chamber of Commerce made this comment: \"At a time when Norfolk firms face steep up-front costs, the apprenticeship system is in crisis, roads are being allowed to crumble, mobile phone and broadband 'not-spots' are multiplying, it's obvious that the key to improved productivity and competitiveness lies in getting the basics right\". The solution was seen as a need for the UK government to provide \"a far stronger domestic economic agenda ... to fix the fundamentals needed for business to thrive here...\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, tourism was adding £3.25billion to the economy per year and supported some 65,000 jobs, being the fifth most important employment in Norfolk. The visitor economy had increased in value by more than £500million since 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Important business sectors also include energy (oil, gas and renewables), advanced engineering and manufacturing, and food and farming.",
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"plaintext": "Much of Norfolk's fairly flat and fertile land has been drained for use as arable land. The principal arable crops are sugar beet, wheat, barley (for brewing) and oil seed rape. The county also boasts a saffron grower. Over 20% of employment in the county is in the agricultural and food industries.",
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"plaintext": "Well-known companies in Norfolk are Aviva (formerly Norwich Union), Colman's (part of Unilever), Lotus Cars and Bernard Matthews Farms. The Construction Industry Training Board is based on the former airfield of RAF Bircham Newton. The BBC East region is centred on Norwich, although it covers an area as far west as Milton Keynes; the BBC does however provide BBC Radio Norfolk solely for the county. Brewer Greene King, food producer Cranswick and feed supplier ForFarmers were seeing growth in 2016–2017.",
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"plaintext": "A Local Enterprise Partnership was being established by business leaders to help grow jobs across Norfolk and Suffolk. They secured an enterprise zone to help grow businesses in the energy sector, and established the two counties as a centre for growing services and products for the green economy.",
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"plaintext": "To help local industry in Norwich, the local council offered a wireless internet service but this was subsequently withdrawn as funding has ceased.",
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"plaintext": "The fishery business still continued in 2018, with individuals such as John Lee, a fifth generation crabman, who sells Cromer Crabs to eateries such as M Restaurants and the Blueprint Café. The problem that he has found is attracting young people to this small industry which calls for working many hours per week during the season. Lobster trapping also continued in North Norfolk, around Sheringham and Cromer, for example.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk's low-lying land and easily eroded cliffs, many of which are composed of chalk and clay, make it vulnerable to weathering by the sea. The most recent major erosion event occurred during the North Sea flood of 1953.",
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"plaintext": "The low-lying section of coast between Kelling and Lowestoft Ness in Suffolk is currently managed by the British Environment Agency to protect the Broads from sea flooding. Management policy for the North Norfolk coastline is described in the \"North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan\" published in 2006, but has yet to be accepted by local authorities. The Shoreline Management Plan states that the stretch of coast will be protected for at least another 50 years, but that in the event of sea level rise and post-glacial lowering of land levels in the South East, there may a need for further research to inform future management decisions, including the possibility that the sea defences may have to be realigned to a more sustainable position. Natural England have contributed some research into the impacts on the environment of various realignment options. The draft report of their research was leaked to the press, who created great anxiety by reporting that Natural England plan to abandon a large section of the Norfolk Broads, villages and farmland to the sea to save the rest of the Norfolk coastline from the impact of any adverse climate change.",
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"plaintext": "Before 2011, Norfolk had a completely comprehensive state education or \"maintained\" system managed by Norfolk County Council, with secondary school age from 11 to 16 or in some schools with sixth forms, 18 years old. Since then,a number of schools formerly in the \"maintained\" system have left it to become academies, or members of academy groups. Others have become free schools. Both academies and free schools are still publicly funded by the Department of Education, but are not with County Council management.",
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"plaintext": "In many of the rural areas, there is no nearby sixth form and so sixth form colleges are found in larger towns. There are twelve independent, or private schools, including Gresham's School in Holt in the north of the county, Thetford Grammar School in Thetford which is Britain's fifth oldest extant school, Langley School in Loddon, and several in the city of Norwich, including Norwich School and Norwich High School for Girls. The King's Lynn district has the largest school population. Norfolk is also home to Wymondham College, the UK's largest remaining state boarding school.",
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"plaintext": "The University of East Anglia is located on the outskirts of Norwich and Norwich University of the Arts is based in seven buildings in and around St George's Street in the city centre, next to the River Wensum.",
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"plaintext": "The City College Norwich and the College of West Anglia are colleges covering Norwich and King's Lynn as well as Norfolk as a whole. Easton & Otley College, west of Norwich, provides agriculture-based courses for the county, parts of Suffolk and nationally.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Suffolk also runs higher education courses in Norfolk, from multiple locations including Great Yarmouth College.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk is administered by Norfolk County Council which is the top tier local government authority, based at County Hall in Norwich. For details of the authority click on the link Norfolk County Council.",
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"plaintext": "Below Norfolk County Council the county is divided into seven second tier district councils: Breckland District, Broadland District, Great Yarmouth Borough, King's Lynn and West Norfolk Borough, North Norfolk District, Norwich City and South Norfolk District.",
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"plaintext": "Below the second tier councils the majority of the county is divided into Parish and Town Councils the lowest tier of local government, (the only exceptions being parts of Norwich and King's Lynn urban areas).",
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"plaintext": "As of 2018 the Conservative Party control six of the seven District Councils: Breckland District, Broadland District, King's Lynn and West Norfolk Borough, North Norfolk District, Great Yarmouth Borough and South Norfolk District while Norwich City is controlled by the Labour Party.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk County Council has been under Conservative control since 2017. There have been two periods when the council has not been run by the Conservative Party, both when no party had overall control, these were 1993–2001 and 2013–2017.",
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"plaintext": "For the full County Council election results for 2017 and previous elections click on the link Norfolk County Council elections.",
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"plaintext": "The county is divided into nine parliamentary constituencies:",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010 General Election seven seats were held by the Conservatives and two by the Liberal Democrats. The Labour Party no longer held the urban constituencies they once held in Norwich North and Great Yarmouth, leaving them with no MP's in the whole of East Anglia; the former Labour Home Secretary Charles Clarke was a high level casualty of that election.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2015 General Election seven seats were won by the Conservative Party, with Labour winning Norwich South and the Liberal Democrats winning North Norfolk.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2017 General Election the 2015 result was repeated.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2006, the Department for Communities and Local Government produced a Local Government White Paper inviting councils to submit proposals for unitary restructuring. In January 2007 Norwich submitted its proposal, but this was rejected in December 2007 as it did not meet the criteria for acceptance. In February 2008, the Boundary Committee for England (from 1 April 2010 incorporated in the Local Government Boundary Commission for England) was asked to consider alternative proposals for the whole or part of Norfolk, including whether Norwich should become a unitary authority, separate from Norfolk County Council. In December 2009, the Boundary Committee recommended a single unitary authority covering all of Norfolk, including Norwich.",
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"plaintext": "However, on 10 February 2010, it was announced that, contrary to the December 2009 recommendation of the Boundary Committee, Norwich would be given separate unitary status. The proposed change was strongly resisted, principally by Norfolk County Council and the Conservative opposition in Parliament. Reacting to the announcement, Norfolk County Council issued a statement that it would seek leave to challenge the decision in the courts. A letter was leaked to the local media in which the Permanent Secretary for the Department for Communities and Local Government noted that the decision did not meet all the criteria and that the risk of it \"being successfully challenged in judicial review proceedings is very high\". The Shadow Local Government and Planning Minister, Bob Neill, stated that should the Conservative Party win the 2010 general election, they would reverse the decision.",
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"plaintext": "Following the 2010 general election, Eric Pickles was appointed Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government on 12 May 2010 in a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. According to press reports, he instructed his department to take urgent steps to reverse the decision and maintain the status quo in line with the Conservative Party manifesto. However, the unitary plans were supported by the Liberal Democrat group on the city council, and by Simon Wright, LibDem MP for Norwich South, who intended to lobby the party leadership to allow the changes to go ahead.",
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"plaintext": "The Local Government Act 2010 to reverse the unitary decision for Norwich (and Exeter and Suffolk) received Royal Assent on 16 December 2010. The disputed award of unitary status had meanwhile been referred to the High Court, and on 21 June 2010 the court (Mr. Justice Ouseley, judge) ruled it unlawful, and revoked it. The city has therefore failed to attain unitary status, and the two-tier arrangement of County and District Councils (with Norwich City Council counted among the latter) remains as of 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk Fire and Rescue Service",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk's county town and only city is Norwich, one of the largest settlements in England during the Norman era. Norwich is home to the University of East Anglia, and is the county's main business and culture centre. Other principal towns include the port-town of King's Lynn and the seaside resort and Broads gateway town of Great Yarmouth.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the 2011 Census the county's largest centres of population are:",
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"plaintext": "Norwich (213,166),",
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"plaintext": "Great Yarmouth (63,434),",
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"plaintext": "King's Lynn (46,093),",
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"plaintext": "Thetford (24,883),",
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"plaintext": "Dereham (20,651),",
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"plaintext": "Wymondham (13,587),",
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"plaintext": "North Walsham (12,463),",
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"plaintext": "Attleborough (10,549),",
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"plaintext": "Downham Market (9,994),",
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"plaintext": "Diss (9,829),",
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"plaintext": "Fakenham (8,285),",
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"plaintext": "Cromer (7,749),",
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"plaintext": "Sheringham (7,367)",
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"plaintext": "and Swaffham (7,258).",
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"plaintext": "There are also several smaller market towns: Aylsham (6,016), Harleston (4,458) and Holt (3,810).",
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"plaintext": "Much of the county remains rural in nature and Norfolk is believed to have around 200 lost settlements which have been largely or totally depopulated since the medieval period. These include places lost to coastal erosion, agricultural enclosure, depopulation and the establishment of the Stanford Training Area in 1940.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk is one of the few counties in England that does not have a motorway. The A11 connects Norfolk to Cambridge and London, via the M11. From the west, there are only two routes from Norfolk that provide a direct link with the A1: the A47 to the East Midlands and Birmingham, via Peterborough, and the A17 to the East Midlands, via Lincolnshire. These two routes meet at King's Lynn, which is also the starting point of the A10, providing West Norfolk with a direct link with London, via Ely, Cambridge and Hertford.",
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"plaintext": "There are two main railway lines that link Norfolk with London. The Great Eastern Main Line hosts inter-city services from Norwich to Liverpool Street, via Ipswich and Colchester. The Fen line provides regular services between King's Lynn and King's Cross, via Ely and Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the Breckland line provides access from Norwich and Thetford to destinations to the west including Peterborough, Nottingham, Sheffield, Manchester and Liverpool.",
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"plaintext": "Norwich International Airport provides flights to various European destinations, including a link to Amsterdam which offers onward flights throughout the world.",
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"plaintext": "The Norfolk dialect is also known as \"Broad Norfolk\", although over the modern age much of the vocabulary and many of the phrases have died out due to a number of factors, such as radio, TV and people from other parts of the country coming to Norfolk. As a result, the speech of Norfolk is more of an accent than a dialect, though one part retained from the Norfolk dialect is the distinctive grammar of the region.",
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"plaintext": "People from Norfolk are sometimes known as Norfolk Dumplings, an allusion to the flour dumplings that were traditionally a significant part of the local diet.",
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"plaintext": "More cutting, perhaps, was the alleged pejorative medical slang term \"Normal for Norfolk\", alluding to the county's perceived status as a quirky rustic backwater due to a high level of inbreeding among residents.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk is a popular tourist destination and has several major holiday attractions. There are many seaside resorts, including some of the finest British beaches, such as those at Great Yarmouth, Cromer and Holkham. Norfolk contains the Broads and other areas of outstanding natural beauty and many areas of the coast are wild bird sanctuaries and reserves with some areas designated as national parks such as the Norfolk Coast AONB.",
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"plaintext": "The Queen's residence at Sandringham House in Sandringham, Norfolk provides an all-year-round tourist attraction whilst the coast and some rural areas are popular locations for people from the conurbations to purchase weekend holiday homes. Arthur Conan Doyle first conceived the idea for The Hound of the Baskervilles whilst holidaying in Cromer with Bertram Fletcher Robinson, after hearing local folklore tales regarding the mysterious hound known as Black Shuck.",
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"plaintext": "Norfolk has several amusement parks and zoos.",
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"plaintext": "Thrigby Hall near Great Yarmouth was built in 1736 by Joshua Smith Esquire and features a zoo which houses a large tiger enclosure, primate enclosures and the swamp house which has many crocodiles and alligators.",
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"plaintext": "Holkham Hall is an 18th-century stately home and visitor attraction, constructed in the Palladian style and at the centre of a 3,000 acre deer park on the North Norfolk coast with a woodland play area, walled garden and farming exhibition.",
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"plaintext": "Roarr! Dinosaur Adventure (formerly Dinosaur Adventure) is a dinosaur themed adventure park in Lenwade. It is set in 85 acres of parkland and has a dinosaur trail, indoor play area, high ropes course and outdoor water play area.",
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"plaintext": "Great Yarmouth Pleasure Beach is a free-entry theme park, hosting over 20 large rides as well as a crazy golf course, water attractions, children's rides and \"white knuckle\" rides.",
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"plaintext": "BeWILDerwood is an adventure park situated in the Norfolk Broads and is the setting for the book A Boggle at BeWILDerwood by local children's author Tom Blofeld.",
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"plaintext": "Britannia Pier on the coast of Great Yarmouth has rides which include a ghost train. Also on the pier is the famous Britannia Pier Theatre.",
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"plaintext": "Banham Zoo is set amongst of parkland and gardens with enclosures for animals including big cats, birds of prey, siamangs and shire horses. Its annual visitor attendance is in excess of 200,000 people. ",
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"plaintext": "Pensthorpe Nature Reserve, near the town of Fakenham in north Norfolk, is a nature reserve with many captive birds and animals. Such species include native birds such as lapwing and Eurasian crane, to much more exotic examples like Marabou stork, Greater flamingo, and Manchurian crane. The site played host to BBC's 'Springwatch' from 2008 until 2010. A number of man-made lakes are home to a range of wild birds, and provide stop-off points for many wintering ducks and geese.",
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"plaintext": "The Sea Life Centre in Great Yarmouth is One of the biggest sea life centres in the country. The Great Yarmouth centre is home to a tropical shark display, one resident of which is Britain's biggest shark 'Nobby' the Nurse Shark. The same display, with its walk-through underwater tunnel, also features the wreckage of a World War II aircraft. The centre also includes over 50 native species including shrimps, starfish, sharks, stingrays and conger eels.",
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"plaintext": "The Sea Life Sanctuary in Hunstanton is Norfolk's leading marine rescue centre and works both as a visitor attraction as well as a location for rescuing and rehabilitating sick and injured sea creatures found in the nearby Wash and North Sea. The attractions main features are similar to that of the Sea Life Centre in Great Yarmouth, albeit on a slightly smaller scale.",
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"plaintext": "The Pavilion Theatre (Cromer) is a 510-seater venue on the end of Cromer Pier, best known for hosting the 'end-of-the-pier' show, the Seaside Special. The theatre also presents comedy, music, dance, opera, musicals and community shows.",
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"plaintext": "The Britannia Pier Theatre (Great Yarmouth) mainly hosts popular comedy acts such as the Chuckle Brothers and Jim Davidson. The theatre has 1,200 seats and is one of the largest in Norfolk.",
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"plaintext": "The Theatre Royal (Norwich) has been on its present site for nearly 250 years, the Act of Parliament in the tenth year of the reign of George II having been rescinded in 1761. The 1,300-seat theatre, the largest in the city, hosts a mix of national touring productions including musicals, dance, drama, family shows, stand-up comedians, opera and pop.",
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"plaintext": "The Norwich Playhouse (Norwich) hosts theatre, comedy, music and other performing arts. It has a seating capacity of 300.",
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"plaintext": "The Maddermarket Theatre (Norwich) opened in 1921 and was the first permanent recreation of an Elizabethan theatre. The founder was Nugent Monck who had worked with William Poel. The theatre has a seating capacity of 312.",
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"plaintext": "The Norwich Puppet Theatre (Norwich) was founded in 1979 by Ray and Joan DaSilva as a permanent base for their touring company and was first opened as a public venue in 1980, following the conversion of the medieval church of St. James in the heart of Norwich. Under subsequent artistic directors– Barry Smith and Luis Z. Boy– the theatre established its current pattern of operation. It is a nationally unique venue dedicated to puppetry, and currently houses a 185-seat raked auditorium, 50 seat Octagon Studio, workshops, an exhibition gallery, shop and licensed bar. It is the only theatre in the Eastern region with a year-round programme of family-centred entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "The Garage studio theatre (Norwich) can seat up to 110 people in a range of different layouts. It can also be used for standing events and can accommodate up to 180 people.",
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"plaintext": "The Platform Theatre (Norwich) is in the grounds of City College Norwich (CCN), and has a large stage with raked seating for an audience of around 200. The theatre plays host to performances by both student and professional companies.",
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"plaintext": "The Sewell Barn Theatre (Norwich) is the smallest theatre in Norwich and has a seating capacity of 100. The auditorium features raked seating on three sides of an open acting space.",
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"plaintext": "The Norwich Arts Centre (Norwich) theatre opened in 1977 in St. Benedict's Street, and has a capacity of 290.",
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"plaintext": "The Princess Theatre (Hunstanton) stands overlooking the Wash and the green in the East Coast resort of Hunstanton. It is a 472-seat venue. Open all year round, the theatre plays host to a wide variety of shows from comedy to drama, celebrity shows to music for all tastes and children's productions. It has a six-week summer season plus an annual Christmas pantomime.",
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"plaintext": "Sheringham Little Theatre (Sheringham) has seating for 180. The theatre programmes a variety of plays, musicals and music, and also shows films.",
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"plaintext": "The Gorleston Pavilion (Gorleston) is an original Edwardian building with a seating capacity of 300, situated on the Norfolk coast. The theatre stages plays, pantomimes, musicals and concerts as well as a 26-week summer season.",
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"plaintext": "According to estimates by the Office for National Statistics, the population of Norfolk in 2018 was 903,680, split almost evenly between males and females. Roughly 24.3% of the population was aged 65 or older, compared to 18.2% for the whole of England.",
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"plaintext": "Source:",
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[
239,
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273,
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},
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166
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108,
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"plaintext": " Miranda Raison, actress, from north Norfolk, who was educated at Gresham's School",
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"plaintext": " Anna Sewell, writer, author of Black Beauty, born at Great Yarmouth, lived part of her life at Old Catton near Norwich and buried at Lamas, near Buxton",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Shadwell, playwright, satirist and Poet Laureate",
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"plaintext": " Allan Smethurst, 'The Singing Postman' who sang songs in his Norfolk dialect, was from Sheringham",
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"plaintext": " Hannah Spearritt, actress and former S Club 7 singer, who is from Gorleston",
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"plaintext": " Roger Taylor, drummer of the rock band Queen was born in King's Lynn and spent the early part of his childhood in Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Adam Thoroughgood, colonial leader in Virginia, namer of New Norfolk County, which later became Norfolk, Virginia",
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"plaintext": " Peter Trudgill, sociolinguist specialising in accents and dialects including his own native Norfolk dialect, was born and bred in Norwich",
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"plaintext": " George Vancouver, born King's Lynn. Captain and explorer in the Royal Navy",
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"plaintext": " Stella Vine, English artist, spent many of her early years in Norwich",
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"plaintext": " Sir Robert Walpole, first Earl of Orford, regarded as the first British prime minister",
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"plaintext": " Tim Westwood, rap DJ and Radio 1 presenter, grew up in and around Norwich",
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"plaintext": " Nick Youngs (1959–) and his two sons, Ben (1989–) and Tom (1987–) were both raised close to the town of Aylsham on their father's farm Youngs is a former rugby union player for Leicester Tigers and England. Both sons went on to represent the national rugby union team.",
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"plaintext": "William Gooderham Sr. (29 August 1790 – 20 August 1881) was an English distiller, businessman, and banker. He was a founder of the Gooderham and Worts distillery in Toronto,Canada.",
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"plaintext": "The following people were not born or brought up in Norfolk but are long-term residents of Norfolk, are well known for living in Norfolk at some point in their lives, or have contributed in some significant way to the county.",
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"plaintext": " Verily Anderson (1915–2010), writer, lived in North Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Stuart Ashen, comedian, animator, actor and online reviewer, born and lives in Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Julian Assange, Australian publisher, journalist, writer, computer programmer, Internet activist and editor in chief of WikiLeaks, lived since 16 December 2010 in Ellingham Hall, the mansion of Vaughan Smith, under house arrest whilst fighting extradition to Sweden, before relocating to Kent in December 2011",
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{
"plaintext": " Peter Baker (1921–1966), British Conservative MP for South Norfolk",
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"plaintext": "Mary Bristow (1781–1805), landscape gardener, owner of Quidenham Hall",
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{
"plaintext": " Bill Bryson, writer, has lived in the county since 2003",
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"plaintext": " Adam Buxton, comedian and one half of Adam and Joe, moved to Norfolk in 2008",
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"plaintext": " Richard Condon (1937–1991), Theatre Royal, Norwich and Pavilion Theatre, Cromer Pier manager",
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"plaintext": " Revd Richard Enraght (1837–1898), 19th century clergyman, religious controversialist, Rector of St Swithun, Bintree",
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"plaintext": " Liza Goddard TV and stage actress, lives in the village of Syderstone",
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"plaintext": " Trisha Goddard, TV personality, lives in Norwich and writes a column in the local newspaper the Eastern Daily Press",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Roderick Gordon, writer of Tunnels series, lives in North Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Adriana Hunter, translator of French novels, lives in Norfolk",
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Major, British Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997, has a holiday home in Weybourne",
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"plaintext": " Alan Partridge, fictional tongue-in-cheek media personality portrayed by Steve Coogan. His feature film Alpha Papa was set, filmed and had its world premiere in Norwich in 2013",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pocahontas (c. 1596–1617), who lived at Heacham Hall for part of her life when she was married to John Rolfe",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Martin Shaw, stage, television and film actor, is based in Norfolk",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Delia Smith, cookery writer and major Norwich City Football Club shareholder",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [
292214
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Wilson (1943–2018), angler, writer and broadcaster",
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4705718,
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1,
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26,
32
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},
{
"plaintext": " Custos Rotulorum of Norfolk – List of Keepers of the Rolls",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4476871
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Duke of Norfolk",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
78316
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Earl of Norfolk",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
249302
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Healthcare in Norfolk",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
48997502
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1,
22
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},
{
"plaintext": " High Sheriff of Norfolk",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
9414285
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of parliamentary constituencies in Norfolk",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2008641
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of future transport developments in the East of England",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
23397075
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of places in Norfolk",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1799954
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency) – List of MPs for the Norfolk constituency",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
11664139
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norfolk Police",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1476670
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norfolk Police and Crime Commissioner",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
50689314
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norfolk Terrier",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1580593
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norwich Terrier",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
863856
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Recreational walks in Norfolk",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5681922
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S. K. Baker, A Week on the Broads: Four Victorian gents at sail on a Norfolk gaffer in 1889, Adlard Coles ed. 2017.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Henry Munro Cautley, Norfolk Churches, Norman Adlard, 1949.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
62160649
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Thomas Kitson Cromwell, Excursions in the County of Norfolk, 2 vols., Longmans, 1818 & 1819.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
31593993
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Patsy Dallas, Roger Last & Tom Williamson, Norfolk Gardens and Designed Landscapes, Norfolk Gardens Trust, 2018.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "John A. Davies, The Little History of Norfolk, The History Press, 2020.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
17225318
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
47,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Daniel Defoe, Tour through the Eastern Counties (1722), East Anglian Magazine ed., 1949.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8193
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "David Dymond, The Norfolk Landscape, Alastair Press ed., 1990.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Lilias Rider Haggard, A Norfolk Notebook, Faber and Faber, 1946.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
48756031,
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Lilias Rider Haggard, Norfolk Life, Faber and Faber, 1943; written with Henry Williamson.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
260863
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"anchor_spans": [
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72,
88
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Wilhelmine Harrod & C. L. S. Linnell, Norfolk. A Shell Guide (Shell Guides), Faber and Faber, 1957; reprinted.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
55868881,
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "M. R. James, Suffolk and Norfolk: A Perambulation of the Two Counties with Notices of their History and their Ancient Buildings, J.M. Dent & Sons, 1930.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
37773
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "P. D. James, Devices and Desires, Faber and Faber, 1989.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
161757,
5080204,
692115
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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],
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13,
32
],
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34,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. W. Ketton-Cremer, A Norfolk Gallery, Faber and Faber, 1948.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
37974477
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Forty Norfolk Essays, Jarrold and Sons, 1961.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
3121895
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"anchor_spans": [
[
43,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Norfolk Assembly, Faber and Faber, 1957.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Norfolk in the Civil War: A Portrait of Society in Conflict, Faber and Faber, 1969.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Norfolk Portraits, Faber and Faber, 1944.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Arthur Mee, Norfolk. Green Pastures and Still Waters (The King's England series), Hodder and Stoughton, 1940; reprinted.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1371872,
50072390,
2823880
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
10
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54,
72
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82,
102
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Frank Meeres, A History of Norwich, The History Press, 2016.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "D. P. Mortlock & C. V. Roberts, The Guide to Norfolk Churches, Lutterworth Press, 3rd rev. ed. 2017.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
6197946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
63,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. H. Mottram, If Stones Could Speak. An Introduction to an Almost Human Family, Museum Press, 1953.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
19228844,
54469390
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
81,
93
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. H. Mottram, Norfolk (Vision of England series), Paul Elek, 1948.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
50856647
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
51,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "R. H. Mottram, The Broads (The Regional Books series), Robert Hale, 1952.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
47304299,
47186753
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
27,
45
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[
55,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Nikolaus Pevsner, Bill Wilson (ed.), Norfolk: North-West and South (The Buildings of England), Yale University Press, 2nd rev. ed. 1999.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
292440,
17749016,
1087837
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
],
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68,
92
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116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Nikolaus Pevsner, Bill Wilson (ed.), Norfolk: Norwich and North-East (The Buildings of England), Yale University Press, 2nd ed. 1997.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Matthew Rice, Building Norfolk, Frances Lincoln, 2009.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
3658093
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Arthur Ransome, Coot Club, Jonathan Cape, 1934; from his Swallows and Amazons series.",
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"plaintext": "Doreen Wallace & R. P. Bagnall-Oakeley, Norfolk (The County Books), Robert Hale, 1951.",
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"plaintext": "Tom Williamson, Ivan Ringwood & Sarah Spooner, Lost Country Houses of Norfolk: History, Archaeology and Myth'', The Boydell Press, 2015.",
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"plaintext": " Norfolk tourism (official site)",
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"plaintext": " Photos of Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Norfolk E-Map Explorer – historical maps and aerial photographs of Norfolk",
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"plaintext": " Norfolk Record Office – Government agency that collects and preserves records of historical significance for Norfolk and makes them publicly accessible – useful for genealogical research",
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"plaintext": "Guide to the Norfolk County, Collection of English Deeds ca. 1409-ca.1826 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center",
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"plaintext": "The word \"putamen\" is from Latin, referring to that which \"falls off in pruning\", from \"putare\", meaning \"to prune, to think, or to consider\".",
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"plaintext": "Until recently, most MRI research focused broadly on the basal ganglia as a whole, for various reasons (e.g. image resolution, rarity of isolated infarct or hemorrhage within the putamen, etc.). However, many studies have been done on the basal ganglia and relevant brain-behavior relationships. In the 1970s, the first single unit recordings were done with monkeys monitoring pallidal neuron activity related to movement. Since then, more extensive neuronal tracing, stimulation, and imaging research methods (e.g. fMRI, DWI) that allow for investigation of the putamen have been developed.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen is a structure in the forebrain. Along with the caudate nucleus it forms the dorsal striatum. The caudate and putamen contain the same types of neurons and circuits – many neuroanatomists consider the dorsal striatum to be a single structure, divided into two parts by a large fiber tract, the internal capsule, passing through the middle. The putamen, together with the globus pallidus, makes up the lentiform nucleus. The putamen is the outermost portion of the basal ganglia. These are a group of nuclei in the brain that are interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem. Basal ganglia include the dorsal striatum, substantia nigra, nucleus accumbens, and the subthalamic nucleus.",
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"plaintext": "In mammals, the basal ganglia are associated with motor control, cognition, emotions, learning, and domain-general functions important for executive functioning as well as support for domain-specific languages. The basal ganglia are located bilaterally, and have rostral and caudal divisions. The putamen is located in the rostral division as part of the striatum. The basal ganglia receive input from the cerebral cortex, via the striatum.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen is interconnected with the following structures:",
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"plaintext": "This description is rudimentary and does not nearly exhaust even the basic established circuitry of the putamen. The cortico-subcortico-cortical circuits with putaminal involvement are dense and complicated, consisting of a wide range of axonal, dendritic, chemical, afferent, and efferent substrates. The putamen's outputs are highly arborized across output structures, and cortical efferents arise from layers III-VI of the cortex, dependent on gyri and location within the putamen. Topographical organization of the putamen combines the following elements: anterior-to-posterior functional and somatotopic gradients, lateral-to-medial functional and somatotopic gradients, diffuse terminal output, patchy localized terminal output, segregated terminals from adjacent regions, finely interdigitated terminals from distal cortical regions in a seemingly overlapping fashion.",
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"plaintext": "The caudate works with the putamen to receive the input from cerebral cortex. Collectively, they can be considered the \"entrance\" to the basal ganglia. Projections from the putamen reach the caudate directly via the caudolenticular grey bridges. The putamen and caudate are jointly connected with the substantia nigra, however the caudate outputs more densely to the substantia nigra pars reticulata while the putamen sends more afferents to the internal globus pallidus.",
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"plaintext": "The substantia nigra contains two parts: the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr). The SNpc obtains input from the putamen and caudate, and sends information back. The SNpr also obtains input from the putamen and caudate. However, it sends the input outside the basal ganglia to control head and eye movements. The SNpc produces dopamine, which is crucial for movements. The SNpc is the part that degenerates during Parkinson's disease.",
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"plaintext": "The globus pallidus contains two parts: the globus pallidus pars externa (GPe) and the globus pallidus pars interna (GPi). Both regions acquire input from the putamen and caudate and communicate with the subthalamic nucleus. However, mostly the GPi sends GABAergic inhibitory output to the thalamus. The GPi also sends projections to parts of the midbrain, which have been assumed to affect posture control.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen (and striatum in general) has numerous, parallel circuits that allow for cortico-subcortico-cortico communication loops. These have been described, broadly, as the direct, indirect, and hyper direct pathways. GABAergic projections of the putamen have an inhibitory effect on the thalamus. Thalamic projections from the centromedian and parafascicular nuclei have an excitatory effect on the putamen. Unlike the thalamus, which has broad reciprocal connectivity, cortical projections with the putamen are afferent, thus sending information as opposed to receiving it. Cortical communication is accomplished via multi-fiber pathways as outlined previously (i.e. via other subcortical structures).",
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"plaintext": "Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that has a dominant role in the putamen, most of it is supplied from the substantia nigra. When a cell body of a neuron (in the putamen or caudate nuclei) fires an action potential, dopamine is released from the presynaptic terminal. Since projections from the putamen and caudate nuclei modulate the dendrites of the substantia nigra, the dopamine influences the substantia nigra, which affects motor planning. This same mechanism is involved in drug addiction. In order to control the amount of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, and the amount of dopamine binding to post synaptic terminals, presynaptic dopaminergic neurons function to reuptake the excess dopamine.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen also plays a role in modulation of other neurotransmitters. It releases GABA, enkephalin, substance P, and acetylcholine. It receives serotonin and glutamate.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen is interconnected with many other structures, and works in conjunction with them to influence many types of motor behaviors. These include motor planning, learning, and execution, motor preparation, specifying amplitudes of movement, and movement sequences.",
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"plaintext": "Some neurologists hypothesize that the putamen also plays a role in the selection of movement (e.g. Tourette syndrome) and the \"automatic\" performance of previously learned movements (e.g. Parkinson's disease).",
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"plaintext": "In one study it was found that the putamen controls limb movement. The goal of this study was to determine whether particular cell activity in the putamen of primates was related to the direction of limb movement or to the underlying pattern of muscular activity. Two monkeys were trained to perform tasks that involved the movement of loads. The tasks were created so that movement could be distinguished from muscle activity. Neurons in the putamen were selected for monitoring only if they were related both to the task and to arm movements outside the task. It was shown that 50% of the neurons that were monitored were related to the direction of movement, independent of the load.",
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"plaintext": "Another study was done to investigate movement extent and speed using PET mapping of regional cerebral blood flow in 13 humans. Movement tasks were performed with a joystick-controlled cursor. Statistical tests were done to calculate the extent of movements and what regions of the brain the movements correlate to. It was found that \"increasing movement extent was associated with parallel increases of rCBF in bilateral basal ganglia (BG; putamen and globus pallidus) and ipsilateral cerebellum.\" This not only shows that the putamen affects movement but it also shows that the putamen integrates with other structures in order to perform tasks.",
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"plaintext": "One study was done in order to specifically investigate how the basal ganglia influences the learning of sequential movements. Two monkeys were trained to press a series of buttons in sequence. The methods used were designed to be able to monitor the well-learned tasks versus the new tasks. Muscimol was injected into various parts of the basal ganglia, and it was found that \"the learning of new sequences became deficient after injections in the anterior caudate and putamen, but not the middle-posterior putamen\". This shows that different areas of the striatum are utilized when performing various aspects of the learning of sequential movements.",
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"plaintext": "In many studies, it has become apparent that the putamen plays a role in many types of learning. Some examples are listed below:",
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"plaintext": "Along with various types of movement, the putamen also affects reinforcement learning and implicit learning.",
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"plaintext": "Reinforcement learning is interacting with the environment and catering actions to maximize the outcome. Implicit learning is a passive process where people are exposed to information and acquire knowledge through exposure. Although the exact mechanisms are not known, it is clear that dopamine and tonically active neurons play a key role here. Tonically active neurons are cholinergic interneurons that fire during the entire duration of the stimulus and fire at about 0.5–3 impulses per second. Phasic neurons are the opposite and only fire an action potential when movement occurs.",
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"plaintext": "One particular study used patients with focal lesions on the basal ganglia (specifically the putamen) due to stroke in order to study category learning. The advantage to using these types of patients is that dopaminergic projections to the prefrontal cortex are more likely to be intact. Also, in these patients, it is easier to relate specific brain structures to function because the lesion only occurs in a specific place. The goal of this study was to determine whether or not these lesions affect rule-based and information-integration task learning. Rule-based tasks are learned via hypothesis-testing dependent on working memory. Information-integration tasks are ones wherein the accuracy is maximized when information from two sources are integrated at a pre-decisional stage, which follows a procedural-based system.",
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"plaintext": "Seven participants with basal ganglia lesions were used in the experiment, along with nine control participants. It is important to note that the caudate was not affected. The participants were tested for each type of learning during separate sessions, so the information processes would not interfere with each other. During each session, participants sat in front of a computer screen and various lines were displayed. These lines were created by using a randomization technique where random samples were taken from one of four categories. For ruled-based testing, these samples were used to construct lines of various length and orientation that fell into these four separate categories. After the stimulus was displayed, the subjects were asked to press 1 of 4 buttons to indicate which category the line fell into. The same process was repeated for information-integration tasks, and the same stimuli were used, except that the category boundaries were rotated 45°. This rotation causes the subject to integrate the quantitative information about the line before determining what category it is in.",
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"plaintext": "It was found that subjects in the experimental group were impaired while performing rule-based tasks, but not information-integration ones. After statistical testing, it was also hypothesized that the brain began using information-integration techniques to solve the rule-based learning tasks. Since rule-based tasks use the hypothesis-testing system of the brain, it can be concluded that the hypothesis-testing system of the brain was damaged/weakened. It is known that the caudate and working memories are part of this system. Therefore, it was confirmed that the putamen is involved in category learning, competition between the systems, feed-back processing in rule-based tasks, and is involved in the processing of pre-frontal regions (which relate to working memory and executive functioning). Now it is known that not only the basal ganglia and caudate affect category learning.",
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"plaintext": "Tentative studies have suggested that the putamen may play a role in the so-called \"hate circuit\" of the brain. A recent study was done in London by the department of cell and developmental biology at University College London. An fMRI was done on patients while they viewed a picture of people they hated and people who were \"neutral\". During the experiment, a \"hate score\" was recorded for each picture. The activity in sub-cortical areas of the brain implied that the \"hate circuit\" involves the putamen and the insula. It has been theorized that the \"putamen plays a role in the perception of contempt and disgust, and may be part of the motor system that's mobilized to take action.\" It was also found that the amount of activity in the hate circuit correlates with the amount of hate a person declares, which could have legal implications concerning malicious crimes.",
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"plaintext": "The putamen was found to have significantly larger amounts of grey matter in male to female transgender individuals compared to the putamen of a typical cisgender man. This possibly suggests that a fundamental difference in brain composition may or may not exist between trans women and cisgender men.",
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"plaintext": "After discovering the function of the putamen, it has become apparent to neurologists that the putamen and other parts of the basal ganglia play an important role in Parkinson's disease and other diseases that involve the degeneration of neurons.",
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"plaintext": "Parkinson's disease is the slow and steady loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta. In Parkinson's disease the putamen plays a key role because its inputs and outputs are interconnected to the substantia nigra and the globus pallidus. In Parkinson's disease the activity in direct pathways to interior globus pallidus decreases and activity in indirect pathways to external globus pallidus increases. It has also been noted that Parkinson's patients have a difficult time with motor planning.",
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"plaintext": "The following diseases and disorders are linked with the putamen:",
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"plaintext": " Cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease",
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"plaintext": " Huntington's disease",
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"plaintext": " Wilson's disease",
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"plaintext": " Dementia with Lewy bodies",
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"plaintext": " Corticobasal degeneration",
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"plaintext": " Tourette syndrome",
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"plaintext": " Chorea",
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"plaintext": " Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder",
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"plaintext": " Kernicterus",
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"plaintext": "The putamen in humans is relatively similar in structure and function to other animals. Therefore, many studies on the putamen have been done on animals (monkeys, rats, cats, etc.), as well as humans. However, inter-species variation are indeed observed in mammals, and have been documented for white matter putaminal connectivity. Variation is primarily related to structural connectivity patterns, while somatotopic organization principles are retained. Primate research since the 1980s through to the present has established that cortical regions relation to higher-order cognition primarily send afferent neurons to the rostal-most portion of the putamen, while the remainder of this structure in primates primarily serves sensori-motor functions and is densely interconnected with primary and supplementary motor regions.",
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"plaintext": " Lentiform nucleus",
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"plaintext": " Diagram at uni-tuebingen.de",
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"plaintext": " – \"The Visual Pathway from Below\"",
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"plaintext": "The striatum, or corpus striatum (also called the striate nucleus), is a nucleus (a cluster of neurons) in the subcortical basal ganglia of the forebrain. The striatum is a critical component of the motor and reward systems; receives glutamatergic and dopaminergic inputs from different sources; and serves as the primary input to the rest of the basal ganglia.",
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"plaintext": "Functionally, the striatum coordinates multiple aspects of cognition, including both motor and action planning, decision-making, motivation, reinforcement, and reward perception. The striatum is made up of the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus. The lentiform nucleus is made up of the larger putamen, and the smaller globus pallidus. Strictly speaking the globus pallidus is part of the striatum. It is common practice, however, to implicitly exclude the globus pallidus when referring to striatal structures.",
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"plaintext": "In primates, the striatum is divided into a ventral striatum, and a dorsal striatum, subdivisions that are based upon function and connections. The ventral striatum consists of the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. The dorsal striatum consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. A white matter, nerve tract (the internal capsule) in the dorsal striatum separates the caudate nucleus and the putamen. Anatomically, the term striatum describes its striped (striated) appearance of grey-and-white matter.",
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"plaintext": "The striatum is the largest structure of the basal ganglia. The striatum is divided into a ventral and a dorsal subdivision, based upon function and connections.",
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"plaintext": "The ventral striatum is composed of the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. The nucleus accumbens is made up of the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell, which differ by neural populations. The olfactory tubercle receives input from the olfactory bulb but has not been shown to play a role in processing smell. In non-primate species, the islands of Calleja are included. The ventral striatum is associated with the limbic system and has been implicated as a vital part of the circuitry for decision making and reward-related behavior.",
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"plaintext": "The dorsal striatum is composed of the caudate nucleus and the putamen.",
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"plaintext": "Staining can differentiate the striatum into two distinct compartments of striosomes or patches, and a surrounding matrix; this is particularly evident on the components of acetylcholinesterase and calbindin. More studies have been carried out on the dorsal striatum but the compartments have also been identified in the ventral striatum. In the dorsal striatum striosomes make up 10-15 per cent of the striatal volume.",
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"plaintext": "Types of cells in the striatum include:",
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"plaintext": " Medium spiny neurons (MSNs), which are the principal neurons of the striatum. They are GABAergic and, thus, are classified as inhibitory neurons. Medium spiny projection neurons comprise 95% of the total neuronal population of the human striatum. Medium spiny neurons have two characteristic types: D1-type MSNs and D2-type MSNs. A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately40% of striatal MSNs expressing both DRD1 and DRD2 mRNA.",
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"plaintext": " Cholinergic interneurons release acetylcholine, which has a variety of important effects in the striatum. In humans, other primates, and rodents, these interneurons respond to salient environmental stimuli with stereotyped responses that are temporally aligned with the responses of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. The large aspiny cholinergic interneurons themselves are affected by dopamine through D5 dopamine receptors. Dopamine also directly controls communication between cholinergic interneurons.",
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"plaintext": " There are many types of GABAergic interneurons. The best known are parvalbumin expressing interneurons, also known as fast-spiking interneurons, which participate in powerful feedforward inhibition of principal neurons. Also, there are GABAergic interneurons that express tyrosine hydroxylase, somatostatin, nitric oxide synthase and neuropeptide-y. Recently, two types of neuropeptide-y expressing GABAergic interneurons have been described in detail, one of which translates synchronous activity of cholinergic interneurons into inhibition of principal neurons. These neurons of the striatum are not distributed evenly.",
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"plaintext": "There are two regions of neurogenesis in the brain – the subventricular zone in the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus in the hippocampal formation. Neuroblasts that form in the lateral ventricle adjacent to the striatum, integrate in the striatum. This has been noted in the human striatum following an ischemic stroke. Injury caused to the striatum stimulates the migration of neuroblasts from the subventricular zone, to the striatum, where they differentiate into adult neurons. The normal passage of SVZ neuroblasts is to the olfactory bulb but this traffic is diverted to the striatum after an ischemic stroke. However, few of the new developed neurons survive.",
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"plaintext": " The largest connection is from the cortex, in terms of cell axons. Many parts of the neocortex innervate the dorsal striatum. The cortical pyramidal neurons projecting to the striatum are located in layers II-VI, with the most dense projections come from layer V. They end mainly on the dendritic spines of the spiny neurons. They are glutamatergic, exciting striatal neurons.",
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"plaintext": "The striatum is seen as having its own internal microcircuitry. The ventral striatum receives direct input from multiple regions in the cerebral cortex and limbic structures such as the amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus, as well as the entorhinal cortex and the inferior temporal gyrus. Its primary input is to the basal ganglia system. Additionally, the mesolimbic pathway projects from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens of the ventral striatum.",
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"plaintext": "Another well-known afferent is the nigrostriatal connection arising from the neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. While cortical axons synapse mainly on spine heads of spiny neurons, nigral axons synapse mainly on spine shafts.",
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"plaintext": "In primates, the thalamostriatal afferent comes from the central median-parafascicular complex of the thalamus (see primate basal ganglia system). This afferent is glutamatergic. The participation of truly intralaminar neurons is much more limited.",
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"plaintext": "The striatum also receives afferents from other elements of the basal ganglia such as the subthalamic nucleus (glutamatergic) or the external globus pallidus (GABAergic).",
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"plaintext": "The primary outputs of the ventral striatum project to the ventral pallidum, then the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus, which is part of the frontostriatal circuit. Additionally, the ventral striatum projects to the globus pallidus, and substantia nigra pars reticulata. Some of its other outputs include projections to the extended amygdala, lateral hypothalamus, and pedunculopontine nucleus.",
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"plaintext": "Striatal outputs from both the dorsal and ventral components are primarily composed of medium spiny neurons (MSNs), a type of projection neuron, which have two primary phenotypes: \"indirect\" MSNs that express D2-like receptors and \"direct\" MSNs that express D1-like receptors.",
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"plaintext": "The main nucleus of the basal ganglia is the striatum which projects directly to the globus pallidus via a pathway of striatopallidal fibers. The striato-pallidal pathway has a whitish appearance due to the myelinated fibers. This projection comprises successively the external globus pallidus (GPe), the internal globus pallidus (GPi), the pars compacta of the substantia nigra (SNc), and the pars reticulata of substantia nigra (SNr). The neurons of this projection are inhibited by GABAergic synapses from the dorsal striatum. Among these targets, the GPe does not send axons outside the system. Others send axons to the superior colliculus. Two others comprise the output to the thalamus, forming two separate channels: one through the internal segment of the globus pallidus to the ventral oralis nuclei of the thalamus and from there to the cortical supplementary motor area and another through the substantia nigra to the ventral anterior nuclei of the thalamus and from there to the frontal cortex and the occulomotor cortex.",
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"plaintext": "Deep penetrating striate arteries supply blood to the striatum. These arteries include the recurrent artery of Heubner arising from the anterior cerebral artery, and the lenticulostriate arteries arising from the middle cerebral artery.",
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"plaintext": "The ventral striatum, and the nucleus accumbens in particular, primarily mediates reward, cognition, reinforcement, and motivational salience, whereas the dorsal striatum primarily mediates cognition involving motor function, certain executive functions (e.g., inhibitory control and impulsivity), and stimulus-response learning; there is a small degree of overlap, as the dorsal striatum is also a component of the reward system that, along with the nucleus accumbens core, mediates the encoding of new motor programs associated with future reward acquisition (e.g., the conditioned motor response to a reward cue).",
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"plaintext": "Metabotropic dopamine receptors are present both on spiny neurons and on cortical axon terminals. Second messenger cascades triggered by activation of these dopamine receptors can modulate pre- and postsynaptic function, both in the short term and in the long term. In humans, the striatum is activated by stimuli associated with reward, but also by aversive, novel, unexpected, or intense stimuli, and cues associated with such events. fMRI evidence suggests that the common property linking these stimuli, to which the striatum is reacting, is salience under the conditions of presentation. A number of other brain areas and circuits are also related to reward, such as frontal areas. Functional maps of the striatum reveal interactions with widely distributed regions of the cerebral cortex important to a diverse range of functions.",
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"plaintext": "The interplay between the striatum and the prefrontal cortex is relevant for behavior, particularly adolescent development as proposed by the dual systems model.",
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"plaintext": "Parkinson's disease results in loss of dopaminergic innervation to the dorsal striatum (and other basal ganglia) and a cascade of consequences. Atrophy of the striatum is also involved in Huntington's disease, and movement disorders such as chorea, choreoathetosis, and dyskinesias. These have also been described as circuit disorders of the basal ganglia.",
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"plaintext": "Addiction, a disorder of the brain's reward system, arises through the overexpression of DeltaFosB (ΔFosB), a transcription factor, in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the ventral striatum. ΔFosB is an inducible gene which is increasingly expressed in the nucleus accumbens as a result of repeatedly overdosing on an addictive drug or overexposure to other addictive stimuli.",
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"plaintext": "An association has been observed between striatal expression of variants of the PDE10A gene and some bipolar I disorder patients. Variants of other genes, DISC1 and GNAS, have been associated with bipolar II disorder.",
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"plaintext": "Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by cognitive inflexibility and poor understanding of social systems. This inflexible behavior originates in defects in the pre-frontal cortex as well as the striatal circuits. The defects in the striatum seem to specifically contribute to the motor, social and communication impairments seen in ASD patients. In mice which have an ASD-like phenotype induced via the overexpression of the eukaryotic initiation of translation factor 4E, it has been shown that these defects seem to stem from the reduced ability to store and process information in the striatum, which leads to the difficulty seen in forming new motor patterns, as well as disengaging from existing ones.",
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"plaintext": "Dysfunction in the ventral striatum can lead to a variety of disorders, most notably, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Because of its involvement in reward pathways, the ventral striatum has also been implicated in playing a critical role in addiction. It has been well established that the ventral striatum is strongly involved in mediating the reinforcing effects of drugs, especially stimulants, through dopaminergic stimulation.",
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"plaintext": "In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the term \"corpus striatum\" was used to designate many distinct, deep, infracortical elements of the hemisphere. Etymologically it is derived from (Latin) \"striatus\" = \"grooved, striated\" and the English \"striated\" = having parallel lines or grooves on the surface. In 1876 David Ferrier contributed decades of research to the subject; concluding that the corpus striatum was vital in the \"organization and generation of voluntary movement\". In 1941, Cécile and Oskar Vogt simplified the nomenclature by proposing the term striatum for all elements in the basal ganglia built with striatal elements: the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the fundus striati, which is the ventral part linking the two preceding together ventrally to the inferior part of the internal capsule.",
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"plaintext": "The term neostriatum was forged by comparative anatomists comparing the subcortical structures between vertebrates, because it was thought to be a phylogenetically newer section of the corpus striatum. The term is still used by some sources, including Medical Subject Headings.",
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"plaintext": "In birds the term used was the paleostriatum augmentatum, and in the new avian terminology listing (as of 2002) for neostriatum this has been changed to the nidopallium.",
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"plaintext": "In non-primate species, the islands of Calleja are included in the ventral striatum.",
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"plaintext": " Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop",
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"plaintext": " List of regions in the human brain",
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"plaintext": " Striatopallidal fibres",
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37,612 | 1,095,491,609 | Voicelessness | [
{
"plaintext": "In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies voicing and that voicelessness is the lack of phonation.",
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"plaintext": "The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and modally voiced pairs of consonants (the obstruents), such as . Also, there are diacritics for voicelessness, and , which is used for letters with a descender. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiced sounds, such as vowels and sonorant consonants: .",
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"plaintext": "In Russian use of the IPA, the voicing diacritic may be turned for voicelessness, e.g. .",
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"plaintext": "Sonorants are sounds such as vowels and nasals that are voiced in most of the world's languages. However, in some languages sonorants may be voiceless, usually allophonically. For example, the Japanese word sukiyaki is pronounced and may sound like to an English speaker, but the lips can be seen to compress for the . Something similar happens in English words like peculiar and potato .",
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"plaintext": "Voiceless vowels are also an areal feature in languages of the American Southwest (like Hopi and Keres), the Great Basin (including all Numic languages), and the Great Plains, where they are present in Numic Comanche but also in Algonquian Cheyenne, and the Caddoan language Arikara.",
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"plaintext": "Sonorants may also be contrastively, not just environmentally, voiceless. Standard Tibetan, for example, has a voiceless in Lhasa, which sounds similar to but is less noisy than the voiceless lateral fricative in Welsh; it contrasts with a modally voiced . Welsh contrasts several voiceless sonorants: , , , and , the last represented by \"rh\".",
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"plaintext": "In Moksha, there is even a voiceless palatal approximant (written in Cyrillic as jh) along with and (written as lh and rh). The last two have palatalized counterparts and ( and ). Kildin Sami has also .",
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"plaintext": "Contrastively voiceless vowels have been reported several times without ever being verified (L&M 1996:315).",
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"plaintext": "Many languages lack a distinction between voiced and voiceless obstruents (stops, affricates, and fricatives). This is the case in nearly all Australian languages, and is widespread elsewhere, for example in Mandarin Chinese, Korean, Finnish, Estonian and the Polynesian languages.",
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"plaintext": "In many such languages, obstruents are realized as voiced in voiced environments, such as between vowels or between a vowel and a nasal, and voiceless elsewhere, such as at the beginning or end of the word or next to another obstruent. That is the case in Dravidian and Australian languages and in Korean but not in Mandarin or Polynesian. Usually, the variable sounds are transcribed with the voiceless IPA letters, but for Australian languages, the letters for voiced consonants are often used.",
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"plaintext": "It appears that voicelessness is not a single phenomenon in such languages. In some, such as the Polynesian languages, the vocal folds are required to actively open to allow an unimpeded (silent) airstream, which is sometimes called a breathed phonation (not to be confused with breathy voice). In others, such as many Australian languages, voicing ceases during the hold of a stop (few Australian languages have any other kind of obstruent) because airflow is insufficient to sustain it, and if the vocal folds open, that is only from passive relaxation.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, Polynesian stops are reported to be held for longer than Australian stops and are seldom voiced, but Australian stops are prone to having voiced variants (L&M 1996:53), and the languages are often represented as having no phonemically voiceless consonants at all.",
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"plaintext": "In Southeast Asia, when stops occur at the end of a word they are voiceless because the glottis is closed, not open, so they are said to be unphonated (have no phonation) by some phoneticians, who considered \"breathed\" voicelessness to be a phonation.",
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"plaintext": "Yidiny consonants, with no underlyingly voiceless consonants, are posited.",
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37,613 | 1,105,775,912 | BBC_World_News | [
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"plaintext": "BBC World News is an international English-language pay television network, operated under the BBC Global News Limited division of the BBC, which is a public corporation of the UK government's Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. According to its corporate PR, the combined seven channels of the Global News operations have the largest audience market share among all of its rivals, with an estimated 99 million viewers weekly in 2016/2017, part of the estimated 121million weekly audience of all its operations.",
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"plaintext": "Launched on 11 March 1991 as BBC World Service Television outside Europe, its name was changed to BBC World on 16 January 1995 and to BBC World News on 21 April 2008. It broadcasts news bulletins, documentaries, lifestyle programmes and interview shows. Unlike the BBC's domestic channels, it is owned and operated by BBC Global News Ltd, part of the BBC's commercial group of companies, and is funded by subscription and advertising revenues, not by the United Kingdom television licence.",
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"plaintext": "The channel is not broadcast in the UK, though BBC World News reports and programming are also used by the BBC News channel. It is distinct from the BBC Studios operations. The linear service is aimed at the overseas market, similar to RT, Al Jazeera, and France 24.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2022, BBC made the decision to merge both BBC News (for UK audiences) and BBC World News (for international audiences) as one news network, under the name BBC News. The channel is set to be launched on April 2023 and will include news from both the UK and around the world.",
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"plaintext": "The channel originally started as BBC World Service Television and was a commercial operation. The British government refused to fund the new television service using grant-in-aid. (BBC World Service radio was funded by a grant-in-aid from the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office until 2014.) The channel started broadcasting on 11 March 1991, after two weeks of real-time pilots, initially as a half-hour bulletin once a day at 19:00 GMT.",
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"plaintext": "On Thursday, 26 January 1995 at 19:00 GMT, BBC World Service Television was split into two services:",
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"plaintext": "BBC World started broadcasting on Monday, 16 January 1995 at 19:00 GMT and became a 24-hour English free-to-air international news channel.",
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"plaintext": "BBC Prime started broadcasting on Monday, 30 January 1995 at 19:00 GMT and became the BBC's light entertainment channel, later renamed BBC Entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "BBC World's on-air design was changed significantly on 3 April 2000, bringing it closer to the look of its sister channel in the UK which was then known as BBC News 24, the on-air look of which had been redesigned in 1999. The look of both channels was made up of red and cream and designed by Lambie-Nairn, with music based on a style described as 'drums and beeps' composed by David Lowe, a departure from the general orchestral nature of music used by other news programmes.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 December 2003 a second makeover, using the same 'drums and beeps' style music but new graphics took place, although on a much smaller scale to that of 2000. The music was changed slightly while the main colour scheme became black and red, with studios using frosted glass and white and red colours. Later in 2004, the channel's slogan became Putting News First, replacing Demand a Broader View.",
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"plaintext": "The channel's present name BBC World News was introduced on 21 April 2008 as part of a £550,000 rebranding of the BBC's overall news output and visual identity. BBC World News later moved to the renovated studio vacated by BBC News 24 (now the BBC News Channel). New graphics were produced by the Lambie-Nairn agency and music reworked by David Lowe.",
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"plaintext": "BBC World News relocated to Broadcasting House from its previous home at Television Centre on 14 January 2013. This was part of the move of BBC News and other audio and vision departments of the BBC into one building in Central London. Broadcasting House was refurbished at a cost of £1billion. A new newsroom and several state-of-the-art studios were built.",
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"plaintext": "Live news output originates from studios B and C in Broadcasting House with some recorded programming from Broadcasting House studio A and the BBC Millbank studio. The BBC World News newsroom is now part of the new consolidated BBC Newsroom in Broadcasting House along with BBC World Service and UK domestic news services.",
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"plaintext": "TV platforms in the UK (i.e. Freeview, Sky, BT TV, Freesat, Virgin) do not officially offer BBC World News as a standalone full-time channel because it carries and is funded by advertising (BBC's domestic channels are funded by a television licence fee which households and establishments that want to watch television programmes as they are being broadcast must pay), although it can be easily received due to its 'free-to-air' status on many European satellite systems, including Astra and Hot Bird and is available in selected London hotels. BBC World News can also be viewed in the public areas of Broadcasting House (the lobby and café).",
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"plaintext": "However, some BBC World News programmes are officially available to UK audiences. Such programmes air on the BBC's domestic channels, and some are available on demand on the BBC's iPlayer. From 00.00 to 05.00 UK time, the top-of-the-hour news bulletins on BBC World News are simulcast on the BBC News Channel. At 01.30 weekdays, Asia Business Report and Sport Today also air on both channels. There is a simulcast of the 05:00 UK edition of The Briefing and Business Briefing on BBC One and the BBC News channel. This programme was previously branded as The World Today (later a generic BBC World News bulletin) and World Business Report respectively. At 08.30 UK time, Worklife airs on the BBC News Channel. BBC World News also produces a version of Outside Source at 21:00 UK time Monday-Thursday (seen on the BBC News Channel), World News Today at 19:00 Monday-Friday (seen on BBC Four), and 21:00 Friday-Sunday (seen on the BBC News Channel). World News Today replaced The World, which had been broadcast as a simulcast on BBC Four between 2002 and 2007.",
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"plaintext": "The COVID-19 pandemic saw an increase of simulcasts between BBC News and BBC World News with simulcasting now running through the morning (10am to 11am) also shared with BBC Two, and the evening (7pm to 8pm & 9pm to 10pm) The additional simulcasting was made permanent in August 2020. Consequently, the two channels now simulcast between each day 10:00 to 11:00 and on weekdays 19:00 to 06:00, apart from the BBC News at Ten and for hour at 20:00, and between 21:00 to 06:00, apart from the evening BBC One bulletin, over the weekend.",
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"plaintext": "Both World and the BBC News Channel have also occasionally had to simulcast the same news programme due to strike action or technical issues; this occurred in 2003 when Television Centre in London was affected by electrical problems.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 May 2022, as part of planned cuts and streamlining across the broadcaster, the BBC announced plans for a further consolidation of content between the two services, which will both be rebranded as BBC News. The domestic and international versions would share a larger amount of content, while maintaining the ability for opt-outs when necessary.",
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"plaintext": "BBC World News – International news.",
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"plaintext": "The Context – Christian Fraser in London reports on international news, with a focus on the UK, Europe and the US (previously called 100 Days, 100 Days +, Beyond 100 Days and BBC News with Katy and Christian).",
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"plaintext": "World News Today – A daily news programme with in-depth analysis. Focus on the UK, Europe, Middle East and Africa. Presenters include Nancy Kacungira, Karin Giannone, Kasia Madera, Alpa Patel and Philippa Thomas.",
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"plaintext": "Pre-recorded programmes:",
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"plaintext": "Click – technology programme aimed at non-technical audiences.",
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"plaintext": "Dateline London – foreign correspondents based in London discuss the week's international news.",
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"plaintext": "HARDtalk – in-depth interviews with personalities from all walks of life.",
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"plaintext": "Panorama – current affairs programme, featuring interviews and investigative reports on a wide variety of subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Half-hour BBC World News bulletins are made available to PBS stations in the US through Los Angeles' KCET, a non-commercial independent public television station which has been separate from PBS since the beginning of 2011 due to a rights fee dispute (it returned to being a minor PBS member station in 2019 after a merger with the major PBS member station in the market). 80 to 90% of Americans are able to receive the bulletins, with PBS member stations having scheduling discretion. The programme is broadcast on several PBS stations in markets such as New York City and Washington DC.",
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"plaintext": "On PBS stations, BBC World News is not broadcast with traditional commercials (the breaks are filled with news stories) but omits the Met Office international weather forecast at the end of the programme, replacing it with underwriting announcements. The PBS broadcasts are tape-delayed on some stations.",
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"plaintext": "BBC America formerly aired a three-hour block of BBC World News programmes from 05:00 to 08:00 on weekdays until the stabilisation of the network's carriage in the United States. Met Office forecasts were removed, and it was broadcast with advertisements.",
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"plaintext": "Many airlines from across the world also play pre-recorded extracts of the BBC World News, have text headlines from it or have a full bulletin available on the in-flight entertainment systems.",
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"plaintext": "Another BBC World News programme, the hour-long BBC World News America, aired on BBC America at 19:00 Eastern Time Zone. A second broadcast at 22:00 Eastern Time ended in 2010 when BBC America introduced a second feed for the western time zones of the US on 18 February 2011, it was announced that BBC World News America would no longer be broadcast on BBC America and would instead be broadcast only on BBC World and local PBS stations in the US as a 30-minute programme.",
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"plaintext": "The channel also produced short bulletins for public transport services in Singapore and Hong Kong:",
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"plaintext": "These broadcasts began with the statement: \"Welcome to BBC World News on board the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit and Hong Kong MTR\". The short bulletin was updated twice a day, and has since been replaced by a similar programme from Mediacorp's CNA.",
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"plaintext": "Travellers on the Heathrow Express rail service between London Paddington and Heathrow Airport could watch a summary of the headlines from BBC World News on the LCD screens provided.",
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"plaintext": "BBC World News is, for the most part, the same channel all over the world; the commercials are intended to be the only differences. However, there are some regional programming variations. For example, a number of programmes are made exclusively for regional viewings, such as Indian feeds, and The Record Europe, which is only broadcast in Europe. Also, the weather forecasts focus more on the area the viewer is watching from.",
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"plaintext": "On most feeds of BBC World News, when there are no commercials being inserted by the cable or satellite provider similar to other channels, the break filler shows promotions for upcoming programmes on the channel. During BBC News, a news story that has not been promoted airs during what would be the television advertisement. This is the case on the broadband versions of BBC World News, and on versions of BBC World News aired in the US on PBS stations. However, there are some global commercials and sponsorships which air throughout the network.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 September 2007, the break filler was redesigned and now more closely resembles previous versions. The promotional videos now fill the entire screen and are interspersed with news and market updates, schedules, and other information. There is also no longer a unifying music composition. Instead, each 20-second promotional video uses music selected from a handful of themes, which have some unifying musical characteristics. The information screens, such as the 10-second plug for the website or YouTube channel, and the 15-second weather/time/coming up screens each feature their own theme. The colour theme was updated following the relaunch of the channel in April 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Since its inception, and more so since its extensive association with the BBC News channel, the countdown to the hourly news bulletin has been a feature of the channel's presentation, accompanied by music composed by David Lowe. The current style of countdown features reporters and technical staff in many different locations working to bring news stories to air. The countdown can range from 45 seconds to as little as 3 seconds.",
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] | 208,491 | 11,977 | 885 | 151 | 0 | 0 | BBC World News | international news and current affairs television channel | [
"BBC World Service Television",
"BBC World"
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37,618 | 1,104,951,433 | Finger | [
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"plaintext": "A finger is a limb of the body and a type of digit, an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of most of the Tetrapods, so also with humans and other primates. Most land vertebrates have five fingers (Pentadactyly).",
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"plaintext": "Chimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for manipulation, and (arguably) have fingers on their lower limbs as well. In the case of Primates in general, the digits of the hand are overwhelmingly referred to as \"fingers\". Primate fingers have both fingernails and fingerprints.",
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"plaintext": "Research has been carried out on the embryonic development of domestic chickens showing that an interdigital webbing forms between the tissues that become the toes, which subsequently regresses by apoptosis. If apoptosis fails to occur, the interdigital skin remains intact. Many animals have developed webbed feet or skin between the fingers from this like the Wallace's flying frog.",
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"plaintext": "Usually humans have five digits, the bones of which are termed phalanges, on each hand, although some people have more or fewer than five due to congenital disorders such as polydactyly or oligodactyly, or accidental or intentional amputations. The first digit is the thumb, followed by index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and little finger or pinkie. According to different definitions, the thumb can be called a finger, or not.",
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"plaintext": "English dictionaries describe finger as meaning either one of the five digits including the thumb, or one of the four excluding the thumb (in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index finger closest to the thumb).",
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"plaintext": "The thumb (connected to the trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm.",
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"plaintext": "The palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones, one to each of the five digits. Human hands contain fourteen digital bones, also called phalanges, or phalanx bones: two in the thumb (the thumb has no middle phalanx) and three in each of the four fingers. These are the distal phalanx, carrying the nail, the middle phalanx, and the proximal phalanx.",
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"plaintext": "Joints are formed wherever two or more of these bones meet. Each of the fingers has three joints:",
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"plaintext": "metacarpophalangeal joint (MCP) – the joint at the base of the finger",
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"plaintext": "proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) – the joint in the middle of the finger",
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"plaintext": "distal interphalangeal joint (DIP) – the joint closest to the fingertip.",
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"plaintext": "Sesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue. Many exist around the palm at the bases of the digits; the exact number varies between different people.",
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"plaintext": "The articulations are: interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones, and metacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal bones.",
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"plaintext": "Each finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct. Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. The muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement. Although each finger seems to move independently, moving one finger also moves the other fingers slightly which is called finger interdependence or finger enslaving.",
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"plaintext": "Fingers do not contain muscles (other than arrector pili). The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm. The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand.",
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"plaintext": "Muscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles.",
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"plaintext": "The extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.",
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"plaintext": "The fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (opponens and abductor brevis muscle), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.",
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"plaintext": "The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box. Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used for instance for pointing. The extensors are situated within six separate compartments. The first compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. The second compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis. The third compartment contains extensor pollicis longus. The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor digitorum communis are within the fourth compartment. Extensor digiti minimi is in the fifth, and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the sixth.",
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"plaintext": "The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles (thenar referring to the thumb, hypothenar to the small finger), the dorsal and palmar interossei muscles (between the metacarpal bones) and the lumbrical muscles. The lumbricals arise from the deep flexor (and are special because they have no bony origin) and insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from the genitals, the fingertips possess the highest concentration of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin, making them extremely sensitive to temperature, pressure, vibration, texture and moisture. Recent studies suggest fingers can feel nano-scale wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface, a level of sensitivity not previously recorded. This makes the fingers commonly used sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects encountered in the world, making them prone to injury.",
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"plaintext": "The of a finger is the fleshy mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger.",
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"plaintext": "Although a common phenomenon, the underlying functions and mechanism of fingertip wrinkling following immersion in water are relatively unexplored. Originally it was assumed that the wrinkles were simply the result of the skin swelling in water, but it is now understood that the furrows are caused by the blood vessels constricting due to signalling by the sympathetic nervous system in response to water exposure. One hypothesis for why this occurs, the “rain tread” hypothesis, posits that the wrinkles may help the fingers grip things when wet, possibly being an adaption from a time when humans dealt with rain and dew in forested primate habitats. A 2013 study supporting this hypothesis found that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects. However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips.",
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"plaintext": "Fingertips, after having been torn off children, have been observed to regrow in less than 8 weeks. However, these fingertips do not look the same, although they do look more appealing than a skin graft or a sewn fingertip. No healing occurs if the tear happens below the nail. This works because the distal phalanges are regenerative in youth, and stem cells in the nails create new tissue that ends up as the fingertip.",
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"plaintext": "Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b, part of area 1 and a distributed, overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area.",
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"plaintext": "The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened fingers. However, not only are the fingers of their hands fused, but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand. The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand. Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32-year-old man with the initials O. G.. They touched O. G.’s fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans. Before the surgery, the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together; afterward, the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand.",
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"plaintext": "A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits; this is known as polydactyly. A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly. Extra fingers can be functional. One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they \"gave him some advantages in playing the piano\".",
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"plaintext": "Phalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger. They can be damaged by cold, including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury (NFCI); and heat, including burns.",
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"plaintext": "The fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers.",
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"plaintext": "Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone, and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length and risk for development of alcohol dependence or video game addiction.",
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"plaintext": "The English word finger stems from Old English finger, ultimately from Proto-Germanic ('finger'). It is cognate with Gothic , Old Norse , or Old High German . Linguists generally assume that is a ro-stem deriving from a previous form , ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ('five').",
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"plaintext": "The name pinkie derives from Dutch , of uncertain origin. In English only the digits on the hand are known as fingers. However, in some languages the translated version of fingers can mean either the digits on the hand or feet. In English a digit on a foot has the distinct name of toe.",
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"plaintext": " Finger snapping",
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37,622 | 1,106,917,309 | Venus_(mythology) | [
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"plaintext": "Venus () is a Roman goddess, whose functions encompass love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity, and victory. In Roman mythology, she was the ancestor of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy. Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor. Venus was central to many religious festivals, and was revered in Roman religion under numerous cult titles.",
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"plaintext": "The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art and Latin literature. In the later classical tradition of the West, Venus became one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality.",
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"plaintext": "The Latin name Venus ('love, charm') stems from Proto-Italic *wenos- ('desire'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) ('desire'; compare with Messapic Venas, Old Indic vánas 'desire').",
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"plaintext": "It is cognate with the Latin venia (\"favour, permission\") through to common PIE root (\"to strive for, wish for, desire, love\"). The Latin verb venerārī (\"to honour, worship, pay homage\") is a derivative of Venus.",
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"plaintext": "Venus has been described as perhaps \"the most original creation of the Roman pantheon\", and \"an ill-defined and assimilative\" native goddess, combined \"with a strange and exotic Aphrodite\". Her cults may represent the religiously legitimate charm and seduction of the divine by mortals, in contrast to the formal, contractual relations between most members of Rome's official pantheon and the state, and the unofficial, illicit manipulation of divine forces through magic. The ambivalence of her persuasive functions has been perceived in the relationship of the root *wenos- with its Latin derivative venenum ('poison'; from *wenes-no 'love drink' or 'addicting'), in the sense of \"a charm, magic philtre\".",
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"plaintext": "In myth, Venus-Aphrodite was born, already in adult form, from the sea foam (Greek αφρός, aphros) produced by the severed genitals of Caelus-Uranus. Roman theology presents Venus as the yielding, watery female principle, essential to the generation and balance of life. Her male counterparts in the Roman pantheon, Vulcan and Mars, are active and fiery. Venus absorbs and tempers the male essence, uniting the opposites of male and female in mutual affection. She is essentially assimilative and benign, and embraces several otherwise quite disparate functions. She can give military victory, sexual success, good fortune and prosperity. In one context, she is a goddess of prostitutes; in another, she turns the hearts of men and women from sexual vice to virtue. Varro's theology identifies Venus with water as an aspect of the female principle. To generate life, the watery matrix of the womb requires the virile warmth of fire. To sustain life, water and fire must be balanced; excess of either one, or their mutual antagonism, are unproductive or destructive.",
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"plaintext": "Prospective brides offered Venus a gift \"before the wedding\"; the nature of the gift, and its timing, are unknown. The wedding ceremony itself, and the state of lawful marriage, belonged to Juno – whose mythology allows her only a single marriage, and no divorce from her habitually errant spouse, Jupiter – but Venus and Juno are also likely \"bookends\" for the ceremony; Venus prepares the bride for \"conubial bliss\" and expectations of fertility within lawful marriage. Some Roman sources say that girls who come of age offer their toys to Venus; it is unclear where the offering is made, and others say this gift is to the Lares. In dice-games played with knucklebones, a popular pastime among Romans of all classes, the luckiest, best possible roll was known as \"Venus\".",
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"plaintext": "Like other major Roman deities, Venus was given a number of epithets that referred to her different cult aspects, roles, and her functional similarities to other deities. Her \"original powers seem to have been extended largely by the fondness of the Romans for folk-etymology, and by the prevalence of the religious idea nomen-omen which sanctioned any identifications made in this way.\"",
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"plaintext": "Venus Acidalia, in Virgil's Aeneid (1.715–22, as mater acidalia). Servius speculates this as reference to a mooted \"Fountain of Acidalia\" (fons acidalia) where the Graces (Venus' daughters) were said to bathe; but he also connects it to the Greek word for \"arrow\", whence \"love's arrows\" and love's \"cares and pangs\". Ovid uses acidalia only in the latter sense. Venus Acidalia is likely a literary conceit, formed by Virgil from earlier usages in which acidalia had no evident connection to Venus. It was almost certainly not a cultic epithet. ",
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"plaintext": "Venus Anadyomene (Venus \"rising from the sea\"), based on a once-famous painting by the Greek artist Apelles showing the birth of Venus from sea-foam, as fully adult and supported by a more-than-lifesized scallop shell. The Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli used the type in his The Birth of Venus. Other versions of Venus' birth show her standing on land or shoreline, wringing the sea-water from her hair. ",
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"plaintext": "Venus Barbata (\"Bearded Venus\"), mentioned by Servius Macrobius describes a statue of Venus in Cyprus, bearded and manlike in her figure, but in female attire (see also Aphroditus). The idea of Venus thus being a mixture of the male and female nature seems to belong to a very late period of antiquity.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Caelestis (Celestial or Heavenly Venus), used from the 2ndcentury AD for Venus as an aspect of a syncretised supreme goddess. Venus Caelestis is the earliest known Roman recipient of a taurobolium (a form of bull sacrifice), performed at her shrine in Pozzuoli on 5October 134. This form of the goddess, and the taurobolium, are associated with the \"Syrian Goddess\", understood as a late equivalent to Astarte, or the Roman Magna Mater, the latter being another supposedly Trojan \"Mother of the Romans\", as well as \"Mother of the Gods\".",
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"plaintext": "Venus Calva (\"Venus the bald one\"), a legendary form of Venus, attested only by post-Classical Roman writings which offer several traditions to explain this appearance and epithet. In one, it commemorates the virtuous offer by Roman matrons of their own hair to make bowstrings during a siege of Rome. In another, king Ancus Marcius' wife and other Roman women lost their hair during an epidemic; in hope of its restoration, unafflicted women sacrificed their own hair to Venus.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Cloacina (\"Venus the Purifier\"); a fusion of Venus with the Etruscan water goddess Cloacina, who had an ancient shrine above the outfall of the Cloaca Maxima, originally a stream, later covered over to function as Rome's main sewer. The rites conducted at the shrine were probably meant to purify the culvert's polluted waters and noxious airs. Pliny the Elder, remarking Venus as a goddess of union and reconciliation, identifies the shrine with a legendary episode in Rome's earliest history, in which the Romans, led by Romulus, and the Sabines, led by Titus Tatius, met there to make peace following the rape of the Sabine women, carrying branches of myrtle. In some traditions, Titus Tatius was responsible for the introduction of lawful marriage to Rome, and Venus-Cloacina promoted, protected and purified sexual intercourse between married couples.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Erycina (\"Erycine Venus\"), a Punic statue of Astarte captured from Eryx, in Sicily, and worshiped in Romanised form by the elite and respectable matrons at a temple on the Capitoline Hill. A later temple, outside the Porta Collina and Rome's sacred boundary, may have preserved some Erycine features of her cult. It was considered suitable for \"common girls\" and prostitutes.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Euploia (Venus of the \"fair voyage\"), also known as Venus Pontia (Venus of the Sea\"), because she smooths the waves for mariners. She is probably based on the influential image of Aphrodite by Praxiteles, once housed in a temple by the sea but now lost. Most copies would have been supported by dolphins, and worn diadems and carved veils, inferring her birth from sea-foam, and a consequent identity as Queen of the Sea, and patron of sailors and navigation. Roman copies of her image would have embellished baths and gymnasiums. ",
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"plaintext": "Venus Frutis honoured by all the Latins with a federal cult at the temple named Frutinal in Lavinium. Inscriptions found at Lavinium attest the presence of federal cults, without giving precise details.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Felix (\"Lucky Venus\"), probably a traditional epithet, combining aspects of Venus and Fortuna, goddess of both good and bad fortune and personification of luck, whose iconography includes the rudder of a ship, found in some Pompeian examples of the regal Venus Physica. A form of Venus usually identified as Venus Felix was adopted by the dictator Sulla to legitimise his victories over his domestic and foreign opponents during Rome's late Republican civil and foreign wars; Rives finds it very unlikely that Sulla would have imposed this humiliating connection on unwilling or conquered domestic territories once allied to Samnium, such as Pompei.",
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"plaintext": "The emperor Hadrian built a temple to Venus Felix et Roma Aeterna on the Via Sacra. The same epithet is used for a specific sculpture at the Vatican Museums.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Genetrix (\"Venus the Mother\"), as a goddess of motherhood and domesticity, with a festival on September 26, a personal ancestress of the Julian lineage and, more broadly, the divine ancestress of the Roman people. Julius Caesar dedicated a Temple of Venus Genetrix in 46 BC. This name has attached to an iconological type of statue of Aphrodite/Venus.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Heliopolitana (\"Venus of Heliopolis Syriaca\"), a Romano-Syrian form of Venus at Baalbek, variously identified with Ashtart, Dea Syria and Atargatis, though inconsistently and often on very slender grounds. She has been historically identified as one third of a so-called Heliopolitan Triad, and thus a wife to presumed sun-god \"Syrian Jupiter\" (Baal) and mother of \"Syrian Mercury\" (Adon). The \"Syrian Mercury\" is sometimes thought another sun-god, or a syncretised form of Bacchus as a \"dying and rising\" god, and thus a god of Springtime. No such Triad seems to have existed prior to Baalbek's 15 BC colonisation by Augustus' veterans. It may be a modern scholarly artifice.",
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],
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"plaintext": "Venus Kallipygos (\"Venus with the beautiful buttocks\"), a statue, and possibly a statue type, after a lost Greek original. From Syracuse, Sicily.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Libertina (\"Venus the Freedwoman\"), probably arising through the semantic similarity and cultural links between libertina (as \"a free woman\") and lubentina (possibly meaning \"pleasurable\" or \"passionate\"). Further titles or variants acquired by Venus through the same process, or through orthographic variance, include Libentia, Lubentina, and Lubentini. Venus Libitina links Venus to a patron-goddess of funerals and undertakers, Libitina, who also became synonymous with death; a temple was dedicated to Venus Libitina in Libitina's grove on the Esquiline Hill, \"hardly later than 300 BC.\"",
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"plaintext": "Venus Murcia (\"Venus of the Myrtle\"), merging Venus with the little-known deity Murcia (or Murcus, or Murtia). Murcia was associated with Rome's Mons Murcia (the Aventine's lesser height), and had a shrine in the Circus Maximus. Some sources associate her with the myrtle-tree. Christian writers described her as a goddess of sloth and laziness.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Obsequens (\"Indulgent Venus\"), Venus' first attested Roman epithet. It was used in the dedication of her first Roman temple, on August 19 in 295 BC during the Third Samnite War by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges. It was sited somewhere near the Aventine Hill and Circus Maximus, and played a central role in the Vinalia Rustica. It was supposedly funded by fines imposed on women found guilty of adultery.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Physica: Venus as a universal, natural creative force that informs the physical world. She is addressed as \"Alma Venus\" (\"Mother Venus\") by Lucretius in the introductory lines of his vivid, poetic exposition of Epicurean physics and philosophy, De Rerum Natura. She seems to have been a favourite of Lucretius' patron, Memmius. ",
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"plaintext": "Venus Physica Pompeiana was Pompeii's protective goddess, antedating Sulla's imposition of a colonia named Colonia Veneria Cornelia after his family and Venus, following his siege and capture of Pompeii from the Samnites. Venus also had a distinctive, local form as Venus Pescatrice (\"Venus the Fisher-woman\") a goddess of the sea, and trade. For Sulla's claims of Venus' favour, see Venus Felix above). Pompeii's Temple of Venus was built sometime in the 1st century BC, before Sulla's colonisation. This local form of Venus had Roman, Oscan and local Pompeiian influences. Like Venus Physica, Venus Physica Pompeiana is also a regal form of \"Nature Mother\" and a guarantor of success in love.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Urania (\"Heavenly Venus\"), used as the title of a book by Basilius von Ramdohr, a relief by Pompeo Marchesi, and a painting by Christian Griepenkerl. (cf. Aphrodite Urania.)",
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"plaintext": "Venus Verticordia (\"Venus the Changer of Hearts\"). See Festivals and Veneralia.",
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"plaintext": "Venus Victrix (\"Venus the Victorious\"), a Romanised aspect of the armed Aphrodite that Greeks had inherited from the East, where the goddess Ishtar \"remained a goddess of war, and Venus could bring victory to a Sulla or a Caesar.\" Pompey vied with his patron Sulla and with Caesar for public recognition as her protégé. In 55 BC he dedicated a temple to her at the top of his theater in the Campus Martius. She had a shrine on the Capitoline Hill, and festivals on August 12 and October 9. A sacrifice was annually dedicated to her on the latter date. In neo-classical art, her epithet as Victrix is often used in the sense of 'Venus Victorious over men's hearts' or in the context of the Judgement of Paris (e.g. Canova's Venus Victrix, a half-nude reclining portrait of Pauline Bonaparte).",
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"plaintext": "The first known temple to Venus was vowed to Venus Obsequens (\"Indulgent Venus\") by Q. Fabius Gurges in the heat of a battle against the Samnites. It was dedicated in 295 BC, at a site near the Aventine Hill, and was supposedly funded by fines imposed on Roman women for sexual misdemeanours. Its rites and character were probably influenced by or based on Greek Aphrodite's cults, which were already diffused in various forms throughout Italian Magna Graeca. Its dedication date connects Venus Obsequens to the Vinalia rustica festival.",
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"plaintext": "In 217 BC, in the early stages of the Second Punic War with Carthage, Rome suffered a disastrous defeat at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Sibylline oracle suggested that Carthage might be defeated if the Venus of Eryx (, patron goddess of Carthage's Sicilian allies, could be persuaded to change her allegiance. Rome laid siege to Eryx and promised its goddess a magnificent temple as reward for her defection. They captured her image, brought it to Rome and installed it in a temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome's twelve . Shorn of her more overtly Carthaginian characteristics, this \"foreign Venus\" became Rome's Venus Genetrix (\"Venus the Mother\"), Roman tradition made Venus the mother and protector of the Trojan prince Aeneas, ancestor of the Romans, so as far as the Romans were concerned, this was the homecoming of an ancestral goddess to her people. Soon after, Rome's defeat of Carthage confirmed Venus's goodwill to Rome, her links to its mythical Trojan past, and her support of its political and military hegemony.",
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"plaintext": "The Capitoline cult to Venus seems to have been reserved to higher status Romans. A separate cult to Venus Erycina as a fertility deity, was established in 181 BC, in a traditionally plebeian district just outside Rome's sacred boundary, near the Colline Gate. The temple, cult and goddess probably retained much of the original's character and rites. Likewise, a shrine to Venus Verticordia (\"Venus the changer of hearts\"), established in 114 BC but with links to an ancient cult of Venus-Fortuna, was \"bound to the peculiar milieu of the Aventine and the Circus Maximus\" – a strongly plebeian context for Venus's cult, in contrast to her aristocratic cultivation as a Stoic and Epicurian \"all-goddess\".",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of the Roman Republic, some leading Romans laid personal claims to Venus' favour. The general and dictator Sulla adopted Felix (\"Lucky\") as a surname, acknowledging his debt to heaven-sent good fortune and his particular debt to Venus Felix, for his extraordinarily fortunate political and military career. His protégé Pompey competed for Venus' support, dedicating (in 55 BC) a large temple to Venus Victrix as part of his lavishly appointed new theatre, and celebrating his triumph of 54 BC with coins that showed her crowned with triumphal laurels.",
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"plaintext": "Pompey's erstwhile friend, ally, and later opponent Julius Caesar went still further. He claimed the favours of Venus Victrix in his military success and Venus Genetrix as a personal, divine ancestress – apparently a long-standing family tradition among the Julii. When Caesar was assassinated, his heir, Augustus, adopted both claims as evidence of his inherent fitness for office, and divine approval of his rule. Augustus' new temple to Mars Ultor, divine father of Rome's legendary founder Romulus, would have underlined the point, with the image of avenging Mars \"almost certainly\" accompanied by that of his divine consort Venus, and possibly a statue of the deceased and deified Caesar.",
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"plaintext": "Vitruvius recommends that any new temple to Venus be sited according to rules laid down by the Etruscan haruspices, and built \"near to the gate\" of the city, where it would be less likely to contaminate \"the matrons and youth with the influence of lust\". He finds the Corinthian style, slender, elegant, enriched with ornamental leaves and surmounted by volutes, appropriate to Venus' character and disposition. Vitruvius recommends the widest possible spacing between the temple columns, producing a light and airy space, and he offers Venus's temple in Caesar's forum as an example of how not to do it; the densely spaced, thickset columns darken the interior, hide the temple doors and crowd the walkways, so that matrons who wish to honour the goddess must enter her temple in single file, rather than arm-in arm.",
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"plaintext": "In 135 AD the Emperor Hadrian inaugurated a temple to Venus and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome) on Rome's Velian Hill, underlining the Imperial unity of Rome and its provinces, and making Venus the protective genetrix of the entire Roman state, its people and fortunes. It was the largest temple in Ancient Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Venus was offered official (state-sponsored) cult in certain festivals of the Roman calendar. Her sacred month was April (Latin Mensis Aprilis) which Roman etymologists understood to derive from aperire, \"to open,\" with reference to the springtime blossoming of trees and flowers. In the interpretatio romana of the Germanic pantheon during the early centuries AD, Venus became identified with the Germanic goddess Frijjo, giving rise to the loan translation \"Friday\" for dies Veneris.",
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460,
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"plaintext": "Veneralia (April 1) was held in honour of Venus Verticordia (\"Venus the Changer of Hearts\"), and Fortuna Virilis (Virile or strong Good Fortune), whose cult was probably by far the older of the two. Venus Verticordia was invented in 220 BC, in response to advice from a Sibylline oracle during Rome's Punic Wars, when a series of prodigies was taken to signify divine displeasure at sexual offenses among Romans of every category and class, including several men and three Vestal Virgins. Venus Verticordias statue was dedicated by a young woman, chosen as the most pudica (sexually pure) in Rome by a committee of Roman matrons. At first, this statue was probably housed in the temple of Fortuna Virilis, perhaps as divine reinforcement against the perceived moral and religious failings of its cult. In 114 BC Venus Verticordia was given her own temple. She was meant to persuade Romans of both sexes and every class, whether married or unmarried, to cherish the traditional sexual proprieties and morality known to please the gods and benefit the State. During her rites, her image was taken from her temple to the men's baths, where it was undressed and washed in warm water by her female attendants, then garlanded with myrtle. Women and men asked Venus Verticordia's help in affairs of the heart, sex, betrothal and marriage. For Ovid, Venus's acceptance of the epithet and its attendant responsibilities represented a change of heart in the goddess herself.",
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"plaintext": "Vinalia urbana (April 23), a wine festival shared by Venus and Jupiter, king of the gods. It offered opportunity to supplicants to ask Venus' intercession with Jupiter, who was thought to be susceptible to her charms, and amenable to the effects of her wine. Venus was patron of \"profane\" wine, for everyday human use. Jupiter was patron of the strongest, purest, sacrificial grade wine, and controlled the weather on which the autumn grape-harvest would depend. At this festival, men and women alike drank the new vintage of ordinary, non-sacral wine (pressed at the previous year's vinalia rustica) in honour of Venus, whose powers had provided humankind with this gift. Upper-class women gathered at Venus's Capitoline temple, where a libation of the previous year's vintage, sacred to Jupiter, was poured into a nearby ditch. Common girls (vulgares puellae) and prostitutes gathered at Venus' temple just outside the Colline gate, where they offered her myrtle, mint, and rushes concealed in rose-bunches and asked her for \"beauty and popular favour\", and to be made \"charming and witty\".",
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"plaintext": "Vinalia Rustica (August 19), originally a rustic Latin festival of wine, vegetable growth and fertility. This was almost certainly Venus' oldest festival and was associated with her earliest known form, Venus Obsequens. Kitchen gardens and market-gardens, and presumably vineyards were dedicated to her. Roman opinions differed on whose festival it was. Varro insists that the day was sacred to Jupiter, whose control of the weather governed the ripening of the grapes; but the sacrificial victim, a female lamb (agna), may be evidence that it once belonged to Venus alone.",
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"plaintext": "A festival of Venus Genetrix (September 26) was held under state auspices from 46 BC at her Temple in the Forum of Caesar, in fulfillment of a vow by Julius Caesar, who claimed her personal favour as his divine patron, and ancestral goddess of the Julian clan. Caesar dedicated the temple during his extraordinarily lavish quadruple triumph. At the same time, he was pontifex maximus and Rome's senior magistrate; the festival is thought to mark the unprecedented promotion of a personal, family cult to one of the Roman state. Caesar's heir, Augustus, made much of these personal and family associations with Venus as an Imperial deity. The festival's rites are not known.",
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"plaintext": "As with most major gods and goddesses in Roman mythology, the literary concept of Venus is mantled in whole-cloth borrowings from the literary Greek mythology of her counterpart, Aphrodite, but with significant exceptions. In some Latin mythology, Cupid was the son of Venus and Mars, the god of war. At other times, or in parallel myths and theologies, Venus was understood to be the consort of Vulcan or as mother of the \"second cupid\", by Mercury. Virgil, in compliment to his patron Augustus and the gens Julia, embellished an existing connection between Venus, whom Julius Caesar had adopted as his protectress, and the Trojan prince Aeneas, refugee from Troy's destruction and eventual ancestor of the Roman people. Virgil's Aeneas is guided to Latium by Venus in her heavenly form, the morning star, shining brightly before him in the daylight sky; much later, she lifts Caesar's soul to heaven. In Ovid's Fasti Venus came to Rome because she \"preferred to be worshipped in the city of her own offspring\". In Virgil's poetic account of Octavian's victory at the sea-battle of Actium, the future emperor is allied with Venus, Neptune and Minerva. Octavian's opponents, Antony, Cleopatra and the Egyptians, assisted by bizarre and unhelpful Egyptian deities such as \"barking\" Anubis, lose the battle.",
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"plaintext": "Cupid (lust or desire) and Amor (affectionate love) are taken to be different names for the same Roman love-god, the son of Venus, fathered by Mercury, Vulcan or Mars. Childlike or boyish winged figures who accompany Venus, whether singly, in pairs or more, have been variously identified as Amores, Cupids, Erotes or forms of Greek Eros. The most ancient of these is Eros, whom Hesiod categorises as a primordial deity, emerging from Chaos as a generative power with neither mother nor father. Eros was also the patron deity of Thespiae, embodied as an aniconic stone, as late as the 2nd century AD. From at least the 5th century BC he also had the form of an adolescent or pre-adolescent male, at Elis (on the Peloponnese) and elsewhere in Greece, acquiring wings, bow and arrows, and divine parents in the love-goddess Aphrodite and the war-god Ares. He had temples of his own, and shared others with Aphrodite.",
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"plaintext": "At Elis, and in Athens, Eros shared cult with a twin, named Anteros. Xenophon's Socratic Symposion 8. 1, features a dinner-guest with eros (love) for his wife; in return, she has anteros (reciprocal love) for him. Some sources suggest Anteros as avenger of \"slighted love\". In Servius' 4th century commentary on Virgil's Aeneas, Cupid is a deceptive agent of Venus, impersonating Aeneas' son and making Dido, queen of Carthage, forget her husband. When Aeneas rejects her love, and covertly leaves Carthge to fulfill his destiny as ancestor of the Roman people, Dido is said to invoke Anteros as \"contrary to Cupid\". She falls into hatred and despair, curses Rome, and when Aeneas leaves, commits suicide. ",
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"plaintext": "Ovid's Fasti, Book 4, invokes Venus not by name but as \"Mother of the Twin Loves\", the gemini amores. \"Amor\" is the Latin name preferred by Roman poets and literati for the personification of \"kindly\" love. Where Cupid (lust) can be imperious, cruel, prone to mischief or even war-like, Amor softly persuades. Cato the Elder, having a Stoic's outlook, sees Cupid as a deity of greed and blind passion, morally inferior to Amor. The Roman playwright Plautus, however, has Venus, Cupid and Amor working together.",
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"plaintext": "In Roman cult inscriptions and theology, \"Amor\" is rare, and \"Cupido\" relatively common. No Roman temples seem dedicated to Cupid alone but the joint dedication formula Venus Cupidoque (\"Venus and Cupid\") is evidence of his cult, shared with Venus at her Temple just outside the Colline Gate and elsewhere. He would also have featured in many private household cults. In private and public areas alike, statues of Venus and Mars attended by Cupid, or Venus, Cupid and minor erotes were sometimes donated by wealthy sponsors, to serve both religious and artistic purposes. Cupid's roles in literary myth are usually limited to actions on behalf of Venus; in Cupid and Psyche, one of the stories within The Golden Ass, by the Roman author Apuleius, the plot and its resolution are driven by Cupid's love for Psyche (\"soul\"), his filial disobedience, and his mother's envy.",
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"plaintext": "Images of Venus have been found in domestic murals, mosaics and household shrines (lararia). Petronius, in his Satyricon, places an image of Venus among the Lares (household gods) of the freedman Trimalchio's lararium. ",
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"plaintext": "The Venus types known as Venus Pompeiana (\"Venus of Pompeii\") and Venus Pescatrice (\"Venus the Fisher-woman\") are almost exclusive to Pompeii. Both forms of Venus are represented within Pompeian homes of the well-off, with Venus Pompeiana more commonly found in formal reception spaces, typically depicted in full regalia, draped with a mantle, standing rigidly upright with her right arm across her chest. Images of Venus Pescatrice tend to be more playful, usually found in less formal and less public \"non-reception\" areas: here, she usually holds a fishing rod, and sits amidst landscape scenery, accompanied by at least one cupid.",
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"plaintext": "Venus' signs are for the most part the same as Aphrodite's. They include roses, which were offered in Venus' Porta Collina rites, and above all, myrtle (Latin myrtus), which was cultivated for its white, sweetly scented flowers, aromatic, evergreen leaves and its various medical-magical properties. Venus' statues, and her worshipers, wore myrtle crowns at her festivals. Before its adoption into Venus' cults, myrtle was used in the purification rites of Cloacina, the Etruscan-Roman goddess of Rome's main sewer; later, Cloacina's association with Venus' sacred plant made her Venus Cloacina. Likewise, Roman folk-etymology transformed the ancient, obscure goddess Murcia into \"Venus of the Myrtles, whom we now call Murcia\".",
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"plaintext": "Myrtle was thought a particularly potent aphrodisiac. As goddess of love and sex, Venus played an essential role at Roman prenuptial rites and wedding nights, so myrtle and roses were used in bridal bouquets. Marriage itself was not a seduction but a lawful condition, under Juno's authority; so myrtle was excluded from the bridal crown. Venus was also a patron of the ordinary, everyday wine drunk by most Roman men and women; the seductive powers of wine were well known. In the rites to Bona Dea, a goddess of female chastity, Venus, myrtle and anything male were not only excluded, but unmentionable. The rites allowed women to drink the strongest, sacrificial wine, otherwise reserved for the Roman gods and Roman men; the women euphemistically referred to it as \"honey\". Under these special circumstances, they could get virtuously, religiously drunk on strong wine, safe from male intrusion and Venus' temptations. Outside of this context, ordinary wine (that is, Venus' wine) tinctured with myrtle oil was thought particularly suitable for women.",
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"plaintext": "Venus' long association with wine reflects the inevitable connections between wine, intoxication and sex, expressed in the proverbial phrase sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus (loosely translated as \"without food and wine, Venus freezes). It was used in various forms, notably by the Roman playwright, Terence, probably by others before him, and certainly into the early modern era. Although Venus played a central role in several wine festivals, the Roman god of wine was Bacchus, identified with Greek Dionysus and the early Roman wine-god Liber Pater (Father of Freedom). ",
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},
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"plaintext": "Roman generals given an ovation, a lesser form of Roman triumph, wore a myrtle crown, perhaps to purify themselves and their armies of blood-guilt. The ovation ceremony was assimilated to Venus Victrix (\"Victorious Venus\"), who was held to have granted and purified its relatively \"easy\" victory.",
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"plaintext": "Roman and Hellenistic art produced many variations on the goddess, often based on the Praxitlean type Aphrodite of Cnidus. Many female nudes from this period of sculpture whose subjects are unknown are in modern art history conventionally called \"Venus\", even if they originally may have portrayed a mortal woman rather than operated as a cult statue of the goddess.",
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"plaintext": "Examples include:",
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"plaintext": " Venus de Milo (130 BC)",
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"plaintext": " Venus Pudica",
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{
"plaintext": " Capitoline Venus",
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"plaintext": " Venus de' Medici",
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"plaintext": " Esquiline Venus",
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{
"plaintext": " Venus Felix",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Venus of Arles",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Venus Anadyomene (also here)",
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"plaintext": " Venus, Pan and Eros",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Venus Genetrix",
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"plaintext": " Venus of Capua",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Venus Kallipygos",
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"plaintext": "Venus is remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.",
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"plaintext": "Venus became a popular subject of painting and sculpture during the Renaissance period in Europe. As a \"classical\" figure for whom nudity was her natural state, it was socially acceptable to depict her unclothed. As the goddess of sexuality, a degree of erotic beauty in her presentation was justified, which appealed to many artists and their patrons. Over time, venus came to refer to any artistic depiction in post-classical art of a nude woman, even when there was no indication that the subject was the goddess.",
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"plaintext": " The Birth of Venus (Botticelli) (c. 1485)",
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"plaintext": " Sleeping Venus (c. 1501)",
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"plaintext": " Venus of Urbino (1538)",
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"plaintext": " Venus with a Mirror (c. 1555)",
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"plaintext": " Rokeby Venus (1647–1651)",
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"plaintext": " Olympia (1863)",
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"plaintext": " The Birth of Venus (Cabanel) (1863)",
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"plaintext": " The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau) (1879)",
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"plaintext": " Venus of Cherchell, Gsell museum in Algeria",
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"plaintext": " Venus Victrix, and Venus Italica by Antonio Canova",
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"plaintext": "In the field of prehistoric art, since the discovery in 1908 of the so-called \"Venus of Willendorf\" small Neolithic sculptures of rounded female forms have been conventionally referred to as Venus figurines. Although the name of the actual deity is not known, the knowing contrast between the obese and fertile cult figures and the classical conception of Venus has raised resistance to the terminology.",
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"plaintext": " History of nude art",
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"plaintext": " Love goddess",
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},
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"plaintext": " Planets in astrology",
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"plaintext": " Hottentot Venus",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Venus (planet)",
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"plaintext": " Venus symbol",
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"plaintext": " Schilling, R., in Bonnefoy, Y., and Doniger, W. (Editors), Roman and European Mythologies, (English translation), University of Chicago Press, 1991. pp.146. ",
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"plaintext": " Wagenvoort, Hendrik, \"The Origins of the goddess Venus\" (first published as \"De deae Veneris origine\", Mnemnosyne, Series IV, 17, 1964, pp.47 – 77) in Pietas: selected studies in Roman religion, Brill, 1980.",
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"plaintext": "Hildegard Knef was born in Ulm in 1925. Her parents were Hans Theodor and Friede Augustine Knef. Her father, a decorated First World War veteran, died when she was only six months old, and her mother moved to Berlin and worked in a factory. Knef began studying acting at age 14 in 1940. She left school at 15 to become an apprentice animator with Universum Film AG. After she had a successful screen test, she went to the State Film School at Babelsberg, Berlin, where she studied acting, ballet, and elocution. Joseph Goebbels, who was Hitler's propaganda minister, wrote to her and asked to meet her, but Knef's friends wanted her to stay away from him.",
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"plaintext": "She began her singing career in the United States on Broadway. She began her new career in 1963 as a singer and surprised her audiences with the deep, smoky quality of her voice and the many lyrics, which she wrote herself. Fans around the world rallied in her support as she defeated cancer several times. She returned to Berlin after the reunification. In her peak, entertainment columnist called her the \"\"willowy blonde\" who had \"dusty voice\" and \"generous mouth\". ",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s and 1970s, she enjoyed considerable success as a singer of German chansons, which she often co-wrote. The song she is mostly remembered for is \"Für mich soll's rote Rosen regnen\" (\"Red roses are to rain for me\"). She is also known for her version of the song \"Ich hab noch einen Koffer in Berlin\" (\"I still have a suitcase in Berlin\") and \"Mackie Messer\" (\"Mack the knife\"). She sold more than three million records in total.",
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"plaintext": "She launched 23 original albums which counted for 320 different songs. She wrote the lyrics for 130 songs herself.",
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"plaintext": "She published several books. Her autobiography Der geschenkte Gaul: Bericht aus einem Leben (The Gift Horse: Report on a Life, 1970) was a candid recount of her life in Germany during and after the Second World War, and reportedly became the best-selling German book in the post-war years. Her second book Das Urteil (The Verdict, 1975) was a moderate success, and dealt with her struggle with breast cancer. Knef not only achieved international best-seller status, her books were also widely praised by critics because her autobiographies were \"better-than-the-average celebrity's\". Arthur Cooper of Newsweek claimed that the way in which Knef accounted in The Gift Horse: Report on a Life her childhood and difficult life being an actress and singer while living in Hitler's Berlin and after the war in Europe and America, was \"a bitterly honest book and a very good one\". The book is not considered a book of \"Hollywood-Broadway gossip. The book doesn't try to persuade the public depicting a made up celebrity's adventures. It seems a book that tells the real life of Knef. It refers to her struggles as a German woman who grew up in Berlin under the Nazis. The Gift Horse: Report on a Life was translated to English by Knef's second husband David Anthony Palastanga. In The Verdict which was also translated by Palastanga, Knef looked at her life in another perspective because she knew that she had cancer. Rachel MacKenzie wrote that Knef had her 56th operation, a mastectomy, in Salzburg on 10 August 1973. MacKenzie stated that from that cancer surgery, life had to be thought of in terms of pre-verdict and post-verdict. The book is divided in these two sections but they are not chronologically ordered because Knef wrote the two sections in a way that the reader is moved forward and backward in time and space. The Verdict describes in great detail the hospital scenes as well as the doctors and nurses in New York, Los Angeles, Zürich and Hamburg where she was hospitalised.",
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"plaintext": "At its launch, the Service was located along with most radio output in Broadcasting House. However, following the explosion of a parachute mine nearby on 8 December 1940, it relocated to premises away from the likely target of Broadcasting House. The Overseas service relocated to Oxford Street while the European service moved temporarily to the emergency broadcasting facilities at Maida Vale Studios. The European services moved permanently into Bush House towards the end of 1940, completing the move in 1941, with the Overseas services joining them in 1958. Bush House subsequently became the home of the BBC World Service and the building itself has gained a global reputation with the audience of the service. However, the building was vacated in 2012 as a result of the Broadcasting House redevelopment and the end of the building's lease that year; the first service to move was the Burmese Service on 11 March 2012 and the final broadcast from Bush House was a news bulletin broadcast at 11.00GMT on 12 July 2012.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC World Service encompasses an English 24-hour global radio network and separate services in 27 other languages. News and information is available in these languages on the BBC website, with many having RSS feeds and specific versions for use on mobile devices, and some also offer email notification of stories. In addition to the English service, 18 of the language services broadcast a radio service using the short wave, AM or FM bands. These are also available to listen live or can be listened to later (usually for seven days) over the Internet and, in the case of seven language services, can be downloaded as podcasts. News is also available from the BBC News 'app', which is available from both iTunes and the Google Play Store. In recent years, video content has also been used by the World Service: 16 language services show video reports on the website, and the Arabic and Persian services have their own television channels. TV is also used to broadcast the radio service, with local cable and satellite operators providing the English network (and occasionally some local language services) free to air. The English service is also available on digital radio in the UK and Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the Service relied on shortwave broadcasts, because of their ability to overcome barriers of censorship, distance, and spectrum scarcity. The BBC has maintained a worldwide network of shortwave relay stations since the 1940s, mainly in former British colonies. These cross-border broadcasts have also been used in special circumstances for emergency messages to British subjects abroad, such as the advice to evacuate Jordan during the Black September incidents of September 1970. These facilities were privatised in 1997 as Merlin Communications, and later acquired and operated as part of a wider network for multiple broadcasters by VT Communications (now part of Babcock International Group). It is also common for BBC programmes to air on Voice of America or ORF transmitters, while their programming is relayed by a station located inside the UK. However, since the 1980s, satellite distribution has made it possible for local stations to relay BBC programmes.",
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"plaintext": "This table lists the various language services operated by the BBC World Service with start and closure dates, where known/applicable.",
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"plaintext": "The World Service in English mainly broadcasts news and analysis. The mainstays of the current schedule are Newsday, Newshour and The Newsroom. There are daily science programmes: Health Check, the technology programme Digital Planet and Science in Action. At weekends, some of the schedule is taken up by Sportsworld, which often includes live commentary of Premier League football matches. Other weekend sport shows include The Sports Hour and Stumped, a cricket programme co-produced with All India Radio and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. On Sundays the international, interdisciplinary discussion programme The Forum is broadcast. Outlook is a human interest programme presented by Matthew Bannister and Jo Fidgen, which was first broadcast in July 1966 and presented for more than thirty years by John Tidmarsh. Trending describes itself as \"explaining the stories the world is sharing...\" Regular music programmes were reintroduced with the autumn schedule in 2015. Many programmes, particularly speech-based ones, are also available as podcasts. Business Daily is a weekday live international business news programme, which broadcasts from 8:32:30am to 8:59:00am UK time from Broadcasting House in London.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Radio programming in English",
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"plaintext": "Previous broadcasts included popular music programmes presented by John Peel and classical music programmes presented by Edward Greenfield. There have also been religious programmes, of mostly Anglican celebration and often from the Church of St. Martin in the Fields, weekly drama, English-language lessons, and comedy including Just A Minute. Other notable previous programmes include Letter from America by Alistair Cooke, which was broadcast for over fifty years; Off the Shelf with its daily reading from a novel, biography or history book; A Jolly Good Show, a music request programme presented by Dave Lee Travis; Waveguide, a radio reception guide; and The Merchant Navy Programme, a show for seafarers presented by Malcolm Billings; The Morning Show, Good Morning Africa and PM, all presented by Pete Myers in the 1960s and 1970s.",
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{
"plaintext": "Since the late 1990s, the station has focused more on news, with bulletins added every half-hour following the outbreak of the Iraq War.",
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"plaintext": "News is at the core of the scheduling. A five-minute bulletin is generally transmitted at 01 past the hour, with a two-minute summary at 30 past the hour. Sometimes these are separate from other programming, or alternatively made integral to the programme (such as with The Newsroom, Newshour or Newsday). During such time slots as weeknights 11pm-12am GMT and that of Sportsworld, no news summaries are broadcast. As part of the BBC's policy for breaking news, the Service is the first to receive a full report for foreign news.",
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"plaintext": "BBC World Service is available by subscription to Sirius XM's satellite radio service in the United States. Its Canadian affiliate, Sirius XM Canada, does the same in Canada. More than 300 public radio stations across the US carry World Service news broadcasts —mostly during the overnight and early-morning hours— over AM and FM radio, distributed by American Public Media (APM). Some public radio stations also carry the World Service in its entirely via HD Radio. The BBC and Public Radio International (PRI) co-produce the programme The World with WGBH Radio Boston, and the BBC was previously involved with The Takeaway morning news programme based at WNYC in New York City. BBC World Service programming also airs as part of CBC Radio One's CBC Radio Overnight schedule in Canada.",
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"plaintext": "BBC shortwave broadcasts to this region were traditionally enhanced by the Atlantic Relay Station and the Caribbean Relay Company, a station in Antigua run jointly with Deutsche Welle. In addition, an exchange agreement with Radio Canada International gave access to their station in New Brunswick. However, \"changing listening habits\" led the World Service to end shortwave radio transmission directed to North America and Australasia on 1 July 2001. A shortwave listener coalition formed to oppose the change.",
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{
"plaintext": "The BBC broadcasts to Central America and South America in several languages. It is possible to receive the Western African shortwave radio broadcasts from eastern North America, but the BBC does not guarantee reception in this area. It has ended its specialist programming to the Falkland Islands but continues to provide a stream of World Service programming to the Falkland Islands Radio Service.",
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"section_name": "Availability",
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"plaintext": "For several decades, the World Service's largest audiences have been in Asia, the Middle East, Near East and South Asia. Transmission facilities in the UK and Cyprus were supplemented by the former BBC Eastern Relay Station in Oman and the Far Eastern Relay Station in Singapore, formerly in Malaysia. The East Asian Relay Station moved to Thailand in 1997 when Hong Kong was handed over to Chinese sovereignty. The relay station in Thailand was closed in January 2017; currently, relay stations in Singapore and Oman serve the Asian region. Together, these facilities have given the BBC World Service an easily accessible signal in regions where shortwave listening has traditionally been popular. The English shortwave frequencies of 6.195 (49m band), 9.74 (31m band), 15.31/15.36 (19m band) and 17.76/17.79 (16m band) were widely known. On 25 March 2018, the long-established shortwave frequency of 9.74MHz was changed to 9.9MHz.",
"section_idx": 6,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The largest audiences are in English, Hindi, Urdu, Nepali, Bengali, Sinhala, Tamil, Marathi and other major languages of South Asia, where BBC broadcasters are household names. The Persian service is the de facto national broadcaster of Afghanistan, along with its Iranian audience. The World Service is available up to eighteen hours a day in English across most parts of Asia, and in Arabic for the Middle East. With the addition of relays in Afghanistan and Iraq these services are accessible in most of the Middle and Near East in the evening. In Singapore, the BBC World Service in English is essentially treated as a domestic broadcaster, easily available 24/7 through long-term agreement with MediaCorp Radio. For many years Radio Television Hong Kong broadcast BBC World Service 24/7 but as of 12 February 2021, Hong Kong has banned the BBC's World Service radio from its airwaves, following swiftly on the heels of China's decision to bar its World News television channels, seemingly in retaliation for Ofcom revoking the UK broadcasting licence of China Global Television Network. In the Philippines, DZRJ 810 AM broadcasts the BBC World Service in English from 12:00–05:00 PHT (GMT+8).",
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{
"plaintext": "Although this region has seen the launch of the only two foreign language television channels, several other services have had their radio services closed as a result of budget cuts and redirection of resources.",
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"section_name": "Availability",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Japan and Korea have little tradition of World Service listening, although during the 1970s to 1980s, shortwave listening was popular in Japan. In those two countries, the BBC World Service was only available via shortwave and the Internet. As of September 2007, a satellite transmission (subscription required) became available by Skylife (Channel 791) in South Korea. In November 2016, the BBC World Service announced it plans to start broadcasts in Korean. BBC Korean, a radio and web service, started on 25 September 2017.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Soviet Union, Iran, Iraq and Myanmar/Burma have all jammed the BBC in the past. Mandarin was heavily jammed by the People's Republic of China until shortwave transmissions for that service ceased but China continues to jam transmissions in Uzbek and has since started to jam transmissions in English throughout Asia.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC World Service is broadcast in Berlin on 94.8MHz. FM relays are also available in Ceske Budjovice, Karlovy Vary, Plzen, Usti nad Labem, Zlin and Prague in the Czech Republic, Pristina, Riga, Tallinn, Tirana and Vilnius. A BBC World Service channel is available on DAB+ in Brussels and Flanders and Amsterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam. Following a national reorganisation of DAB multiplexes in October 2017, the station is available on DAB+ across the whole of Denmark.",
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"plaintext": "The World Service employed a medium wave transmitter at Orford Ness to provide English-language coverage to Europe, including on the frequency 648 kHz (which could be heard in parts of the south-east of England during the day and most of the UK after dark). Transmissions on this frequency were stopped on 27 March 2011, as a consequence of the budgetary constraints imposed on the BBC World Service in the 2010 budget review. A second channel (1296kHz) traditionally broadcast in various Central European languages, but this frequency has also been discontinued and in 2005 it began regular English-language transmissions via the Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) format. This is a digital shortwave technology that VT expects to become the standard for cross-border transmissions in developed countries.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In the 1990s, the BBC purchased and constructed large medium wave and FM networks in the former Soviet bloc, particularly the Czech (BBC Czech Section), Slovak Republics (BBC Slovak Section), Poland (BBC Polish Section) (where it was a national network) and Russia (BBC Russian Service). It had built up a strong audience during the Cold War, whilst economic restructuring made it difficult for these governments to refuse Western investment. Many of these facilities have now returned to domestic control, as economic and political conditions have changed.",
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"section_name": "Availability",
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"plaintext": "On Monday, 18 February 2008, the BBC World Service stopped analogue shortwave transmissions to Europe. The notice stated, \"Increasing numbers of people around the world are choosing to listen to radio on a range of other platforms including FM, satellite and online, with fewer listening on shortwave.\" It is sometimes possible to pick up the BBC World Service in Europe on SW frequencies targeted at North Africa. The BBC's powerful 198kHz LW, which broadcasts the domestic BBC Radio 4 to Britain during the day (and carries the World Service during the night) can also be heard in nearby parts of Europe, including the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of France, Germany and Scandinavia.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Availability",
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"plaintext": "In Malta, BBC News bulletins are carried by a number of radio stations, including Radju Malta and Magic 91.7, owned by national broadcaster PBS Ltd. These are broadcast at various points in the day and supplement news bulletins broadcast in Maltese from the PBS Newsroom.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Availability",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Former BBC shortwave transmitters are located in the United Kingdom at Rampisham Down in Dorset, Woofferton in Shropshire and Skelton in Cumbria. The former BBC East Mediterranean Relay Station is in Cyprus.",
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"plaintext": "In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the BBC began broadcasting World Service English programming at shortwave frequencies 15.735MHz and 5875kHz for receivers in Ukraine and parts of Russia.",
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{
"plaintext": "The World Service is available as part of the subscription Digital Air package (available from Foxtel and Austar) in Australia. ABC NewsRadio, SBS Radio, and various community radio stations also broadcast many programmes. Many of these stations broadcast a straight feed during the midnight to dawn period. It is also available via the satellite service Optus Aurora, which is encrypted but available without subscription. In Sydney, Australia, a transmission of the service can be received at 152.025MHz. It is also available on the DAB+ Network in Australia on SBS Radio 4 (except during Eurovision and special events). 2MBS-FM 102.5, a classical music station in Sydney, also carries the BBC World Service news programmes at 7a.m. and 8a.m. on weekdays, during its Music for a New Day breakfast programme.",
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"plaintext": "Shortwave relays from Singapore (see Asia, above) continue, but historic relays via Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and Radio New Zealand International were wound down in the late 1990s. BBC World Service relays on Radio Australia now carry the BBC Radio news programmes.",
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{
"plaintext": "In the Pacific and New Zealand, the Auckland Radio Trust operates a BBC World Service network as a non-profit donation-funded public broadcaster. It broadcasts on 810kHz in Auckland, 107.0MHz in Whitianga and Whangamatā, 107.3MHz in Kaipara Harbour, 88.2MHz in Suva and Nadi, 100.0MHz in Bairiki and Tarawa, 101.1MHz in Pohnpei, 107.6MHz in Port Moresby, 105.9MHz in Honiara, 99.0MHz in Port Vila and Luganville, and 100.1MHz in Funafuti. The station also broadcasts local content.",
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{
"plaintext": "In New Zealand, Radio Tarana and members of the Association of Community Access Broadcasters carry some BBC World Service programmes. The BBC World Service was previously available on 1233kHz in Wellington between 1990 and 1994, and again from 1996 to 1997.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC World Service is broadcast on DAB, Freeview, Virgin Media and Sky platforms. It is also broadcast overnight on the frequencies of BBC Radio 4 and the Welsh language service BBC Radio Cymru following their closedown at 0000 or 0100 British time. The BBC World Service does not receive funding for broadcasts to the UK. In southeast England, the station could be picked up reliably on medium wave 648kHz, which was targeted at mainland Europe. The medium wave service was closed in 2011 as a cost-cutting measure.",
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{
"plaintext": "The World Service uses several tunes and sounds to represent the station. A previous signature tune of the station was a five note motif, composed by David Arnold and which comprises a variety of voices declaim \"This is the BBC in...\" before going on to name various cities (e.g. Kampala, Milan, Delhi, Johannesburg), followed by the station's slogan and the Greenwich Time Signal. This was heard throughout the network with a few variations – in the UK the full service name was spoken, whereas just the name of the BBC was used outside the UK. The phrase \"This is London\" was used previously in place of a station slogan.",
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"section_name": "Presentation",
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"plaintext": "The tune \"Lillibullero\" was another well known signature tune of the network following its broadcast previously as part of the top-of-the-hour sequence. This piece of music is no longer heard before news bulletins. The use of the tune gained minor controversy because of its background as a Protestant marching song in Northern Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "The Prince of Denmark's March (commonly known as the Trumpet Voluntary) was often broadcast by the BBC Radio during World War II, especially when programming was directed to occupied Denmark, as the march symbolised a connection between the two countries. It remained for many years the signature tune of the BBC European Service.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these tunes, the BBC World Service also uses several interval signals. The English service uses a recording of Bow Bells, made in 1926 and used a symbol of hope during the Second World War, only replaced for a brief time during the 1970s with the tune to the nursery rhyme \"Oranges and Lemons\". The morse code of the letter \"V\" has also been used as a signal and was introduced in January 1941 and had several variations including timpani, the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony (which coincide with the letter \"V\"), and electronic tones which until recently remained in use for some Western European services. In other languages, the interval signal is three notes, pitched B–B-C. However, these symbols have been used less frequently.",
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"plaintext": "The network operates using Greenwich Mean Time, regardless of the time zone and time of year, and is announced on the hour on the English service as \"13 hours GMT\" (1300 GMT) or \"Midnight Greenwich Mean Time\" (0000 GMT). The BBC World Service traditionally broadcasts the chimes of Big Ben in London at the start of a new year.",
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"plaintext": "A BBC News report would begin with its station identification phrase \"This is London\" or \"This is London calling\". The phrase has become a trademark of the BBC World Service, and has been influential in popular culture, such as music. In 1979, the British punk rock band The Clash released the hit song \"London Calling\", which was partly based on the station identification phrase.",
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"plaintext": "On the Eurovision Song Contest, before announcing the contest results for the UK, the broadcaster from the BBC delivering the votes usually begins with \"This is London Calling\". In 2019, the BBC started a weekly podcast called Eurovision Calling with Jayde Adams and Scott Mills.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC World Service previously published magazines and programme guides:",
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"plaintext": " London Calling: listings",
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"plaintext": " BBC on Air: mainly listings",
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"plaintext": "The World Service claims that its aim is to be \"the world's best-known and most-respected voice in international broadcasting, thereby bringing benefit to the UK, the BBC, and to audiences around the world\", while retaining a \"balanced British view\" of international developments. According to the American socialist magazine Monthly Review, former director Peter Horrocks inferred the World Service's scope to Russian state broadcaster RT as a means of extending international influence and soft power, with Tory MP John Whittingdale characterising the BBC's primary mission as fighting an 'Information War' (a role which some media scholars agree to), saying: \"We are being outgunned massively by the Russians and Chinese and that’s something I’ve raised with the BBC. It is frightening the extent to which we are losing the information war.”",
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"plaintext": "In the context of the Iranian Revolution, BBC Persian Service (The BBC World Service's Persian-language station) has been criticised for its role in promoting the Shah's regime and undermining local norms in favour of British-selected values, with The British Ambassador in Iran, Peter Ramsbotham, stating in reaction to a Service-sponsored poetry contest (in celebration of the 2500th anniversary of the founding of the Archaemenid empire) that the organisation \"seems to be damaging its image by acquiring a reputation for employing and supporting 'old brigade' expatriates.\" Furthermore, it appears that the Foreign & Commonwealth Office made a concerted effort to favourable of Persia to BBC World Service audiences in order to maintain cordiality with the Shah's regime. For example, in December 1973, a memo from Ramsbotham details a request from the Iranian Prime Minister for the text of a broadcast about Iran by Peter Avery, lecturer in Persian Studies and Fellow at King's College, Cambridge, which he deemed 'excellent' and wanted to show the Shah. This was later turned into the programme Iran: Oil and the Shah's Arab Neighbours which was aired globally on 1 December 1973, much to the chagrin of the Iranian people, who began airing their frustrations against the British government out on the BBC Persian Service; By 1976, Ramsbotham's successor, Sir Anthony Parsons, concluded that the Persian Service has lost its propaganda value and supported discontinuing the service: \"[It] is well known that the vernacular service is financed by the FCO and is therefore firmly considered by the Iranians as an official organ of the government.\"",
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"plaintext": "A neutron bomb, officially defined as a type of enhanced radiation weapon (ERW), is a low-yield thermonuclear weapon designed to maximize lethal neutron radiation in the immediate vicinity of the blast while minimizing the physical power of the blast itself. The neutron release generated by a nuclear fusion reaction is intentionally allowed to escape the weapon, rather than being absorbed by its other components. The neutron burst, which is used as the primary destructive action of the warhead, is able to penetrate enemy armor more effectively than a conventional warhead, thus making it more lethal as a tactical weapon.",
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"plaintext": "The concept was originally developed by the US in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It was seen as a \"cleaner\" bomb for use against massed Soviet armored divisions. As these would be used over allied nations, notably West Germany, the reduced blast damage was seen as an important advantage.",
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"plaintext": "ERWs were first operationally deployed for anti-ballistic missiles (ABM). In this role the burst of neutrons would cause nearby warheads to undergo partial fission, preventing them from exploding properly. For this to work, the ABM would have to explode within approximately of its target. The first example of such a system was the W66, used on the Sprint missile used in the US's Nike-X system. It is believed the Soviet equivalent, the A-135's 53T6 missile, uses a similar design.",
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"plaintext": "The weapon was once again proposed for tactical use by the US in the 1970s and 1980s, and production of the W70 began for the MGM-52 Lance in 1981. This time it led to protests as the growing anti-nuclear movement gained strength through this period. Opposition was so intense that European leaders refused to accept it on their territory. President Ronald Reagan ordered the production of the W70-3, which remained stockpiled in the US until they were retired in 1992. The last W70 was dismantled in February 1996.",
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"plaintext": "In a standard thermonuclear design, a small fission bomb is placed close to a larger mass of thermonuclear fuel. The two components are then placed within a thick radiation case, usually made from uranium, lead or steel. The case traps the energy from the fission bomb for a brief period, allowing it to heat and compress the main thermonuclear fuel. The case is normally made of depleted uranium or natural uranium metal, because the thermonuclear reactions give off massive numbers of high-energy neutrons that can cause fission reactions in the casing material. These can add considerable energy to the reaction; in a typical design as much as 50% of the total energy comes from fission events in the casing. For this reason, these weapons are technically known as fission-fusion-fission designs.",
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"plaintext": "In a neutron bomb, the casing material is selected either to be transparent to neutrons or to actively enhance their production. The burst of neutrons created in the thermonuclear reaction is then free to escape the bomb, outpacing the physical explosion. By designing the thermonuclear stage of the weapon carefully, the neutron burst can be maximized while minimizing the blast itself. This makes the lethal radius of the neutron burst greater than that of the explosion itself. Since the neutrons disappear from the environment rapidly, such a burst over an enemy column would kill the crews and leave the area able to be quickly reoccupied.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to a pure fission bomb with an identical explosive yield, a neutron bomb would emit about ten times the amount of neutron radiation. In a fission bomb, at sea level, the total radiation pulse energy which is composed of both gamma rays and neutrons is approximately 5% of the entire energy released; in neutron bombs it would be closer to 40%, with the percentage increase coming from the higher production of neutrons. Furthermore, the neutrons emitted by a neutron bomb have a much higher average energy level (close to 14 MeV) than those released during a fission reaction (1–2 MeV).",
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"plaintext": "Technically speaking, every low yield nuclear weapon is a radiation weapon, including non-enhanced variants. All nuclear weapons up to about 10 kilotons in yield have prompt neutron radiation as their furthest-reaching lethal component. For standard weapons above about 10 kilotons of yield, the lethal blast and thermal effects radius begins to exceed the lethal ionizing radiation radius. Enhanced radiation weapons also fall into this same yield range and simply enhance the intensity and range of the neutron dose for a given yield.",
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"plaintext": "The conception of neutron bombs is generally credited to Samuel T. Cohen of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, who developed the concept in 1958. Initial development was carried out as part of projects Dove and Starling, and an early device was tested underground in early 1962. Designs for a \"weaponized\" version were developed in 1963.",
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"plaintext": "Development of two production designs for the army's MGM-52 Lance short-range missile began in July 1964, the W63 at Livermore and the W64 at Los Alamos. Both entered phase three testing in July 1964, and the W64 was cancelled in favor of the W63 in September 1964. The W63 was in turn cancelled in November 1965 in favor of the W70 (Mod 0), a conventional design. By this time, the same concepts were being used to develop warheads for the Sprint missile, an anti-ballistic missile (ABM), with Livermore designing the W65 and Los Alamos the W66. Both entered phase three testing in October 1965, but the W65 was cancelled in favor of the W66 in November 1968. Testing of the W66 was carried out in the late 1960s, and it entered production in June 1974, the first neutron bomb to do so. Approximately 120 were built, with about 70 of these being on active duty during 1975 and 1976 as part of the Safeguard Program. When that program was shut down they were placed in storage, and eventually decommissioned in the early 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "Development of ER warheads for Lance continued, but in the early 1970s attention had turned to using modified versions of the W70, the W70 Mod 3. Development was subsequently postponed by President Jimmy Carter in 1978 following protests against his administration's plans to deploy neutron warheads to ground forces in Europe. On November 17, 1978, in a test the USSR detonated its first similar-type bomb. President Ronald Reagan restarted production in 1981. The Soviet Union renewed a propaganda campaign against the US's neutron bomb in 1981 following Reagan's announcement. In 1983 Reagan then announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, which surpassed neutron bomb production in ambition and vision and with that, neutron bombs quickly faded from the center of the public's attention.",
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"plaintext": "Three types of enhanced radiation weapons (ERW) were deployed by the United States. The W66 warhead, for the anti-ICBM Sprint missile system, was deployed in 1975 and retired the next year, along with the missile system. The W70 Mod 3 warhead was developed for the short-range, tactical MGM-52 Lance missile, and the W79 Mod 0 was developed for nuclear artillery shells. The latter two types were retired by President George H. W. Bush in 1992, following the end of the Cold War. The last W70 Mod 3 warhead was dismantled in 1996, and the last W79 Mod 0 was dismantled by 2003, when the dismantling of all W79 variants was completed.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Cox Report, as of 1999 the United States had never deployed a neutron weapon. The nature of this statement is not clear; it reads \"The stolen information also includes classified design information for an enhanced radiation weapon (commonly known as the \"neutron bomb\"), which neither the United States, nor any other nation, has ever deployed.\" However, the fact that neutron bombs had been produced by the US was well known at this time and part of the public record. Cohen suggests the report is playing with the definitions; while the US bombs were never deployed to Europe, they remained stockpiled in the US.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the two superpowers, France and China are known to have tested neutron or enhanced radiation bombs. France conducted an early test of the technology in 1967 and tested an \"actual\" neutron bomb in 1980. China conducted a successful test of neutron bomb principles in 1984 and a successful test of a neutron bomb in 1988. However, neither of those countries chose to deploy neutron bombs. Chinese nuclear scientists stated before the 1988 test that China had no need for neutron bombs, but it was developed to serve as a \"technology reserve\", in case the need arose in the future.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1998, Senior Pakistani Scientist, Dr. N. M. Butt, stated that \"PAEC built a sufficient number of neutron bombs—a battlefield weapon that is essentially a low yield device\".",
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"plaintext": "In August 1999, the Indian government stated that India was capable of producing a neutron bomb.",
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"plaintext": "Although no country is currently known to deploy them in an offensive manner, all thermonuclear dial-a-yield warheads that have about 10 kiloton and lower as one dial option, with a considerable fraction of that yield derived from fusion reactions, can be considered able to be neutron bombs in use, if not in name. The only country definitely known to deploy dedicated (that is, not dial-a-yield) neutron warheads for any length of time is the Soviet Union/Russia, which inherited the USSR's neutron warhead equipped ABM-3 Gazelle missile program. This ABM system contains at least 68 neutron warheads with a 10 kiloton yield each and it has been in service since 1995, with inert missile testing approximately every other year since then (2014). The system is designed to destroy incoming endoatmospheric nuclear warheads aimed at Moscow and other targets and is the lower-tier/last umbrella of the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system (NATO reporting name: ABM-3).",
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"plaintext": "By 1984, according to Mordechai Vanunu, Israel was mass-producing neutron bombs.",
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"plaintext": "Considerable controversy arose in the US and Western Europe following a June 1977 Washington Post exposé describing US government plans to equip US Armed Forces with neutron bombs. The article focused on the fact that it was the first weapon specifically intended to kill humans with radiation. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory director Harold Brown and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev both described neutron bombs as a \"capitalist bomb\", because it was designed to destroy people while preserving property.",
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"plaintext": "Neutron bombs are purposely designed with explosive yields lower than other nuclear weapons. Since neutrons are scattered and absorbed by air, neutron radiation effects drop off rapidly with distance in air. As such, there is a sharper distinction, relative to thermal effects, between areas of high lethality and areas with minimal radiation doses. All high yield (more than c.10kiloton) nuclear bombs, such as the extreme example of a device that derived 97% of its energy from fusion, the 50 megaton Tsar Bomba, are not able to radiate sufficient neutrons beyond their lethal blast range when detonated as a surface burst or low altitude air burst and so are no longer classified as neutron bombs, thus limiting the yield of neutron bombs to a maximum of about 10 kilotons. The intense pulse of high-energy neutrons generated by a neutron bomb is the principal killing mechanism, not the fallout, heat or blast.",
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"plaintext": "The inventor of the neutron bomb, Sam Cohen, criticized the description of the W70 as a neutron bomb since it could be configured to yield 100 kilotons:",
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"plaintext": "Although neutron bombs are commonly believed to \"leave the infrastructure intact\", with current designs that have explosive yields in the low kiloton range, detonation in (or above) a built-up area would still cause a sizable degree of building destruction, through blast and heat effects out to a moderate radius, albeit considerably less destruction, than when compared to a standard nuclear bomb of the exact same total energy release or \"yield\".",
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"plaintext": "The Warsaw Pact tank strength was over twice that of NATO, and Soviet deep battle doctrine was likely to be to use this numerical advantage to rapidly sweep across continental Europe if the Cold War ever turned hot. Any weapon that could break up their intended mass tank formation deployments and force them to deploy their tanks in a thinner, more easily dividable manner, would aid ground forces in the task of hunting down solitary tanks and using anti-tank missiles against them, such as the contemporary M47 Dragon and BGM-71 TOW missiles, of which NATO had hundreds of thousands.",
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"plaintext": "Rather than making extensive preparations for battlefield nuclear combat in Central Europe, the Soviet military leadership believed that conventional superiority provided the Warsaw Pact with the means to approximate the effects of nuclear weapons and achieve victory in Europe without resort to those weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Neutron bombs, or more precisely, enhanced [neutron] radiation weapons were also to find use as strategic anti-ballistic missile weapons, and in this role they are believed to remain in active service within Russia's Gazelle missile.",
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"plaintext": "Upon detonation, a near-ground airburst of a 1 kiloton neutron bomb would produce a large blast wave and a powerful pulse of both thermal radiation and ionizing radiation in the form of fast (14.1MeV) neutrons. The thermal pulse would cause third degree burns to unprotected skin out to approximately 500 meters. The blast would create pressures of at least 4.6psi (32 kPa) out to a radius of 600 meters, which would severely damage all non-reinforced concrete structures. At the conventional effective combat range against modern main battle tanks and armored personnel carriers (<690–900m), the blast from a 1kt neutron bomb would destroy or damage to the point of nonusability almost all un-reinforced civilian buildings.",
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"plaintext": "Using neutron bombs to stop an enemy armored attack by rapidly incapacitating crews with a dose of 80+ Gy of radiation would require exploding large numbers of them to blanket the enemy forces, destroying all normal civilian buildings within c.600 meters of the immediate area. Neutron activation from the explosions could make many building materials in the city radioactive, such as galvanized steel (see Use as an area denial weapon below).",
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"plaintext": "Because liquid-filled objects like the human body are resistant to gross overpressure, the 4–5psi (28-34 kPa) blast overpressure would cause very few direct casualties at a range of c.600m. The powerful winds produced by this overpressure, however, could throw bodies into objects or throw debris at high velocity, including window glass, both with potentially lethal results. Casualties would be highly variable depending on surroundings, including potential building collapses.",
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"plaintext": "The pulse of neutron radiation would cause immediate and permanent incapacitation to unprotected outdoor humans in the open out to 900 meters, with death occurring in one or two days. The median lethal dose (LD50) of 6 Gray would extend to between 1350 and 1400 meters for those unprotected and outdoors, where approximately half of those exposed would die of radiation sickness after several weeks.",
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"plaintext": "A human residing within, or simply shielded by, at least one concrete building with walls and ceilings thick, or alternatively of damp soil 24 inches (60cm) thick, would receive a neutron radiation exposure reduced by a factor of 10. Even near ground zero, basement sheltering or buildings with similar radiation shielding characteristics would drastically reduce the radiation dose.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, the neutron absorption spectrum of air is disputed by some authorities, and depends in part on absorption by hydrogen from water vapor. Thus, absorption might vary exponentially with humidity, making neutron bombs far more deadly in desert climates than in humid ones.",
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"plaintext": "The questionable effectiveness of ER weapons against modern tanks is cited as one of the main reasons that these weapons are no longer fielded or stockpiled. With the increase in average tank armor thickness since the first ER weapons were fielded, it was argued in the March 13, 1986, New Scientist magazine that tank armor protection was approaching the level where tank crews would be almost fully protected from radiation effects. Thus, for an ER weapon to incapacitate a modern tank crew through irradiation, the weapon must be detonated at such proximity to the tank that the nuclear explosion's blast would now be equally effective at incapacitating it and its crew.",
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"plaintext": "However although the author did note that effective neutron absorbers and neutron poisons such as boron carbide can be incorporated into conventional armor and strap-on neutron moderating hydrogenous material (substances containing hydrogen atoms), such as explosive reactive armor, can both increase the protection factor, the author holds that in practice combined with neutron scattering, the actual average total tank area protection factor is rarely higher than 15.5 to 35. According to the Federation of American Scientists, the neutron protection factor of a \"tank\" can be as low as 2, without qualifying whether the statement implies a light tank, medium tank, or main battle tank.",
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"plaintext": "A composite high density concrete, or alternatively, a laminated graded-Z shield, 24 units thick of which 16 units are iron and 8 units are polyethylene containing boron (BPE), and additional mass behind it to attenuate neutron capture gamma rays, is more effective than just 24 units of pure iron or BPE alone, due to the advantages of both iron and BPE in combination. During Neutron transport Iron is effective in slowing down/scattering high-energy neutrons in the 14-MeV energy range and attenuating gamma rays, while the hydrogen in polyethylene is effective in slowing down these now slower fast neutrons in the few MeV range, and boron 10 has a high absorption cross section for thermal neutrons and a low production yield of gamma rays when it absorbs a neutron. The Soviet T-72 tank, in response to the neutron bomb threat, is cited as having fitted a boronated polyethylene liner, which has had its neutron shielding properties simulated.",
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"plaintext": "However, some tank armor material contains depleted uranium (DU), common in the US's M1A1 Abrams tank, which incorporates steel-encased depleted uranium armor, a substance that will fast fission when it captures a fast, fusion-generated neutron, and thus on fissioning will produce fission neutrons and fission products embedded within the armor, products which emit among other things, penetrating gamma rays. Although the neutrons emitted by the neutron bomb may not penetrate to the tank crew in lethal quantities, the fast fission of DU within the armor could still ensure a lethal environment for the crew and maintenance personnel by fission neutron and gamma ray exposure, largely depending on the exact thickness and elemental composition of the armor—information usually hard to attain. Despite this, Ducrete—which has an elemental composition similar (but not identical) to the ceramic second generation heavy metal Chobham armor of the Abrams tank—is an effective radiation shield, to both fission neutrons and gamma rays due to it being a graded Z material. Uranium, being about twice as dense as lead, is thus nearly twice as effective at shielding gamma ray radiation per unit thickness.",
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"plaintext": "As an anti-ballistic missile weapon, the first fielded ER warhead, the W66, was developed for the Sprint missile system as part of the Safeguard Program to protect United States cities and missile silos from incoming Soviet warheads.",
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"plaintext": "A problem faced by Sprint and similar ABMs was that the blast effects of their warheads change greatly as they climb and the atmosphere thins out. At higher altitudes, starting around and above, the blast effects begin to drop off rapidly as the air density becomes very low. This can be countered by using a larger warhead, but then it becomes too powerful when used at lower altitudes. An ideal system would use a mechanism that was less sensitive to changes in air density.",
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"plaintext": "Neutron-based attacks offer one solution to this problem. The burst of neutrons released by an ER weapon can induce fission in the fissile materials of primary in the target warhead. The energy released by these reactions may be enough to melt the warhead, but even at lower fission rates the \"burning up\" of some of the fuel in the primary can cause it to fail to explode properly, or \"fizzle\". Thus a small ER warhead can be effective across a wide altitude band, using blast effects at lower altitudes and the increasingly long-ranged neutrons as the engagement rises.",
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"plaintext": "The use of neutron-based attacks was discussed as early as the 1950s, with the US Atomic Energy Commission mentioning weapons with a \"clean, enhanced neutron output\" for use as \"antimissile defensive warheads.\" Studying, improving and defending against such attacks was a major area of research during the 1950s and 60s. A particular example of this is the US Polaris A-3 missile, which delivered three warheads travelling on roughly the same trajectory, and thus with a short distance between them. A single ABM could conceivably destroy all three through neutron flux. Developing warheads that were less sensitive to these attacks was also a major area of research in the US and UK during the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Some sources claim that the neutron flux attack was also the main design goal of the various nuclear-tipped anti-aircraft weapons like the AIM-26 Falcon and CIM-10 Bomarc. One F-102 pilot noted:",
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"plaintext": "It has also been suggested that neutron flux's effects on the warhead electronics are another attack vector for ER warheads in the ABM role. Ionization greater than 50 Gray in silicon chips delivered over seconds to minutes will degrade the function of semiconductors for long periods. However, while such attacks might be useful against guidance systems which used relatively advanced electronics, in the ABM role these components have long ago separated from the warheads by the time they come within range of the interceptors. The electronics in the warheads themselves tend to be very simple, and hardening them was one of the many issues studied in the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Lithium-6 hydride (Li6H) is cited as being used as a countermeasure to reduce the vulnerability and \"harden\" nuclear warheads from the effects of externally generated neutrons. Radiation hardening of the warhead's electronic components as a countermeasure to high altitude neutron warheads somewhat reduces the range that a neutron warhead could successfully cause an unrecoverable glitch by the transient radiation effects on electronics (TREE) effects.",
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"plaintext": "At very high altitudes, at the edge of the atmosphere and above it, another effect comes into play. At lower altitudes, the x-rays generated by the bomb are absorbed by the air and have mean free paths on the order of meters. But as the air thins out, the x-rays can travel further, eventually outpacing the area of effect of the neutrons. In exoatmospheric explosions, this can be on the order of in radius. In this sort of attack, it is the x-rays promptly delivering energy on the warhead surface that is the active mechanism; the rapid ablation (or \"blow off\") of the surface creates shock waves that can break up the warhead.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2012, during the planning stages of Operation Hammer, British Labour peer Lord Gilbert suggested that multiple enhanced radiation reduced blast (ERRB) warheads could be detonated in the mountain region of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border to prevent infiltration. He proposed to warn the inhabitants to evacuate, then irradiate the area, making it unusable and impassable. Used in this manner, the neutron bomb(s), regardless of burst height, would release neutron activated casing materials used in the bomb, and depending on burst height, create radioactive soil activation products.",
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"plaintext": "In much the same fashion as the area denial effect resulting from fission product (the substances that make up most fallout) contamination in an area following a conventional surface burst nuclear explosion, as considered in the Korean War by Douglas MacArthur, it would thus be a form of radiological warfare—with the difference that neutron bombs produce half, or less, of the quantity of fission products relative to the same-yield pure fission bomb. Radiological warfare with neutron bombs that rely on fission primaries would thus still produce fission fallout, albeit a comparatively cleaner and shorter lasting version of it in the area than if air bursts were used, as little to no fission products would be deposited on the direct immediate area, instead becoming diluted global fallout.",
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"plaintext": "However the most effective use of a neutron bomb with respect to area denial would be to encase it in a thick shell of material that could be neutron activated, and use a surface burst. In this manner the neutron bomb would be turned into a salted bomb; a case of zinc-64, produced as a byproduct of depleted zinc oxide enrichment, would for example probably be the most attractive for military use, as when activated, the zinc-65 so formed is a gamma emitter, with a half life of 244 days.",
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"plaintext": "With considerable overlap between the two devices, the prompt radiation effects of a pure fusion weapon would similarly be much higher than that of a pure-fission device: approximately twice the initial radiation output of current standard fission-fusion-based weapons. In common with all neutron bombs that must presently derive a small percentage of trigger energy from fission, in any given yield a 100% pure fusion bomb would likewise generate a more diminutive atmospheric blast wave than a pure-fission bomb. The latter fission device has a higher kinetic energy-ratio per unit of reaction energy released, which is most notable in the comparison with the D-T fusion reaction. A larger percentage of the energy from a D-T fusion reaction, is inherently put into uncharged neutron generation as opposed to charged particles, such as the alpha particle of the D-T reaction, the primary species, that is most responsible for the coulomb explosion/fireball.",
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"plaintext": "Anti-ballistic missile warheads",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "List of US neutron weapons",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " W65 (cancelled)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "List of US neutron weapons",
"target_page_ids": [
12297414
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " W66 (1975–1976)",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [
4561374
],
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Ballistic missile warheads",
"section_idx": 5,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " W64 (cancelled)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " W70 Mod 3 (1981–1992)",
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"target_page_ids": [
3676802
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},
{
"plaintext": "Artillery",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " W79 Mod 0 (1976–1992)",
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4731301
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},
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"plaintext": " W82 Mod 0 (cancelled)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "List of US neutron weapons",
"target_page_ids": [
12287006
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Atomic demolition munition – similar strategic use, low yield nuclear weapons.",
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"target_page_ids": [
21713669
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cobalt bomb",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
92208
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Neutron transport",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
879282
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear strategy",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
45959
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear warfare",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
36880
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear weapon design",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
172911
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Strategic Implications of Enhanced Radiation Weapons",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear Files.org Definition and history of the neutron bomb",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Creator of Neutron Bomb Leaves an Explosive Legacy",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Kernwaffentechnik",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"American_inventions",
"Energy_weapons",
"Neutron",
"Nuclear_weapons"
] | 719,349 | 18,839 | 133 | 157 | 0 | 0 | neutron bomb | low yield thermonuclear weapon | [
"enhanced radiation weapon",
"ERW"
] |
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