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37,800 | 1,101,723,609 | Dendrochronology | [
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"plaintext": "Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed. As well as dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from wood. Dendrochronology derives from Ancient Greek (), meaning \"tree\", (), meaning \"time\", and (), \"the study of\".",
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"plaintext": "Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages.",
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"plaintext": "New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life. As of 2020, securely dated tree-ring data for the Northern Hemisphere are available going back 13,910 years. A new method is based on measuring variations in oxygen isotopes in each ring, and this 'isotope dendrochronology' can yield results on samples which are not suitable for traditional dendrochronology due to too few or too similar rings.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek botanist Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) first mentioned that the wood of trees has rings. In his Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that their thickness is determined by the conditions under which they grew. In 1737, French investigators Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon examined the effect of growing conditions on the shape of tree rings. They found that in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree ring, which served as a reference for subsequent European naturalists. In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining (1801–1884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronologies of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past climates across entire regions. The English polymath Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geological strata (1835, 1838).",
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"plaintext": "During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the scientific study of tree rings and the application of dendrochronology began. In 1859, the German-American Jacob Kuechler (1823–1893) used crossdating to examine oaks (Quercus stellata) in order to study the record of climate in western Texas. In 1866, the German botanist, entomologist, and forester Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg (1801–1871) observed the effects on tree rings of defoliation caused by insect infestations. By 1882, this observation was already appearing in forestry textbooks. In the 1870s, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn (1851–1922) was using crossdating to reconstruct the climates of the Netherlands and Germany. In 1881, the Swiss-Austrian forester Arthur von Seckendorff-Gudent (1845–1886) was using crossdating. From 1869 to 1901, Robert Hartig (1839–1901), a German professor of forest pathology, wrote a series of papers on the anatomy and ecology of tree rings. In 1892, the Russian physicist Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov (; 1841–1905) wrote that he had used patterns found in tree rings to predict droughts in 1882 and 1891.",
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"plaintext": "During the first half of the twentieth century, the astronomer A. E. Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Douglass sought to better understand cycles of sunspot activity and reasoned that changes in solar activity would affect climate patterns on earth, which would subsequently be recorded by tree-ring growth patterns (i.e., sunspots → climate → tree rings).",
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"plaintext": "Horizontal cross sections cut through the trunk of a tree can reveal growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual rings. Growth rings result from new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark that botanists classify as a lateral meristem; this growth in diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Removal of the bark of the tree in a particular area may cause deformation of the rings as the plant overgrows the scar.",
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"plaintext": "The rings are more visible in trees which have grown in temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. The inner portion of a growth ring forms early in the growing season, when growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dense) and is known as \"early wood\" (or \"spring wood\", or \"late-spring wood\"); the outer portion is the \"late wood\" (sometimes termed \"summer wood\", often being produced in the summer, though sometimes in the autumn) and is denser.",
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"plaintext": "Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth-ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one.",
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"plaintext": "Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree species may present \"missing rings\", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.",
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"plaintext": "Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring-for-ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one can match these tree-ring patterns across successive trees in the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be built up—both for entire geographical regions and for sub-regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with known chronologies can be matched to the tree-ring data (a technique called cross-dating), and the age of the wood can thereby be determined precisely. Dendrochronologists originally carried out cross-dating by visual inspection; more recently, they have harnessed computers to do the task, applying statistical techniques to assess the matching. To eliminate individual variations in tree-ring growth, dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the tree-ring widths of multiple tree-samples to build up a ring history, a process termed replication. A tree-ring history whose beginning- and end-dates are not known is called a floating chronology. It can be anchored by cross-matching a section against another chronology (tree-ring history) whose dates are known.",
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"plaintext": "A fully anchored and cross-matched chronology for oak and pine in central Europe extends back 12,460 years, and an oak chronology goes back 7,429 years in Ireland and 6,939 years in England. Comparison of radiocarbon and dendrochronological ages supports the consistency of these two independent dendrochronological sequences. Another fully anchored chronology that extends back 8,500 years exists for the bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains of California).",
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"plaintext": "The dendrochronological equation defines the law of growth of tree rings. The equation was proposed by Russian biophysicist Alexandr N. Tetearing in his work \"Theory of populations\" in the form:",
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"plaintext": "where ΔL is width of annual ring, t is time (in years), ρ is density of wood, kv is some coefficient, M(t) is function of mass growth of the tree.",
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"plaintext": "Ignoring the natural sinusoidal oscillations in tree mass, the formula for the changes in the annual ring width is:",
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"plaintext": "where c1, c2, and c4 are some coefficients, a1 and a2 are positive constants.",
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"plaintext": "The formula is useful for correct approximation of samples data before data normalization procedure. The typical forms of the function ΔL(t) of annual growth of wood ring are shown in the figures.",
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"plaintext": "Dendrochronology allows specimens of once-living material to be accurately dated to a specific year. Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where \"present\" refers to 1 January 1950.",
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"plaintext": "Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from different sites within a particular region, researchers can build a comprehensive historical sequence. The techniques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree-ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition, some genera of trees are more suitable than others for this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is exceptionally long-lived and slow growing, and has been used extensively for chronologies; still-living and dead specimens of this species provide tree-ring patterns going back thousands of years, in some regions more than 10,000 years. Currently, the maximum span for fully anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P.",
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"plaintext": "IntCal20 is the 2020 \"Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve\", which provides a calibrated carbon 14 dated sequence going back 55,000 years. The most recent part, going back 13,900 years, is based on tree rings.",
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"plaintext": "European chronologies derived from wooden structures initially found it difficult to bridge the gap in the fourteenth century when there was a building hiatus, which coincided with the Black Death,. However, there do exist unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times, for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree-ring growths not only provides a match by year, but can also match location because climate varies from place to place. This makes it possible to determine the source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from wood, but which were transported long distances, such as panels for paintings and ship timbers.",
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"plaintext": "Solar storms of known date, such as the ones in 774-775 and 993-994, can provide a fixed reference point in an unknown sequence as they cause a spike in carbon 14 in tree rings for that year all round the world. For example, wooden houses in the Viking site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland were dated by finding the layer with the 993 spike, which showed that the wood is from a tree felled in 1021.",
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"plaintext": "Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration and check of radiocarbon dating. This can be done by checking radiocarbon dates against long master sequences, with Californian bristle-cone pines in Arizona being used to develop this method of calibration as the longevity of the trees (up to c.4900 years) in addition to the use of dead samples meant a long, unbroken tree ring sequence could be developed (dating back to c.6700 BC). Additional studies of European oak trees, such as the master sequence in Germany that dates back to c.8500 BC, can also be used to back up and further calibrate radiocarbon dates.",
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"plaintext": "Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees primarily from the properties of the annual tree rings. Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous.",
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"plaintext": "Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usually have to be measured in a museum conservation department, which places limitations on the techniques that can be used.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of \"Baltic oak\" shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in a number of northern countries such as England, France and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were rarely used by Netherlandish painters.",
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"plaintext": "Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates. Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a \"terminus post quem\" (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors. As a result of establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date 85–90% of the 250 paintings from the fourteenth to seventeenth century analysed between 1971 and 1982; by now a much greater number have been analysed.",
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"plaintext": "A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an eighteenth-century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. It is now regarded as an original sixteenth-century painting by an unknown artist.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ expelling the money-lenders from the Temple. The results showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch.",
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"plaintext": "While dendrochronology has become an important tool for dating oak panels, it is not effective in dating the poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of the erratic growth rings in poplar.",
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"plaintext": "The sixteenth century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings. In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other supports during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.",
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"plaintext": "The dating of buildings with wooden structures and components is also done by dendrochronology; dendroarchaeology is the term for the application of dendrochronology in archaeology. While archaeologists can date wood and when it was felled, it may be difficult to definitively determine the age of a building or structure in which the wood was used; the wood could have been reused from an older structure, may have been felled and left for many years before use, or could have been used to replace a damaged piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronology thus requires knowledge of the history of building technology. Many prehistoric forms of buildings used \"posts\" that were whole young tree trunks; where the bottom of the post has survived in the ground these can be especially useful for dating.",
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"plaintext": "Examples:",
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"plaintext": "The Post Track and Sweet Track, ancient timber trackways in the Somerset levels, England, have been dated to 3838 BC and 3807 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Navan Fort where in Prehistoric Ireland a large structure was built with more than two hundred posts. The central oak post was felled in 95 BC. ",
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"plaintext": " The Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts. While the house had long been claimed to have been built circa 1640 (and being the oldest wood-framed house in North America), core samples of wood taken from a summer beam confirmed the wood was from an oak tree felled in 1637–8, as wood was not seasoned before use in building at that time in New England. An additional sample from another beam yielded a date of 1641, thus confirming the house had been constructed starting in 1638 and finished sometime after 1641 .",
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"plaintext": " The burial chamber of Gorm the Old, who died c. 958, was constructed from wood of timbers felled in 958.",
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"plaintext": " Veliky Novgorod, where, between the tenth and the fifteenth century, numerous consecutive layers of wooden log pavement have been placed over the accumulating dirt.",
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"plaintext": "There are many different file formats used to store tree ring width data. Effort for standardisation was made with the development of TRiDaS. Further development led to the database software Tellervo, which is based on the new standard format whilst being able to import lots of different data formats. The desktop application can be attached to measurement devices and works with the database server that is installed separately.",
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"plaintext": "Herbchronology is the analysis of annual growth rings (or simply annual rings) in the secondary root xylem of perennial herbaceous plants. Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for a frozen-over lake versus an ice-free lake, and with the fineness of the sediment. Sclerochronology is the study of algae deposits.",
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"plaintext": "Some columnar cacti also exhibit similar seasonal patterns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a manner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to archaeologists and paleoclimatologists.",
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"plaintext": "A similar technique is used to estimate the age of fish stocks through the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones.",
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"plaintext": " Video & commentary on Tree Rings – Formation and Purpose",
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"plaintext": " Digital Collaboratory for Cultural Dendrochronology (DCCD)",
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"plaintext": " International Tree-Ring Data Bank",
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"plaintext": " \"Tree Ring Science\", the academic site of Prof. Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, Department of Geography, The University of Tennessee, and the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Science",
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37,802 | 1,105,690,784 | Ovid | [
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"plaintext": "Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained a decade until his death.",
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"plaintext": "A contemporary of the older poets Virgil and Horace, Ovid was the first major Roman poet to begin his career during Augustus's reign. Collectively, they are considered the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian described Ovid as the last of the Latin love elegists. He enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, but the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error (\"a poem and a mistake\"). His reluctance to disclose specifics has resulted in much speculation among scholars.",
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"plaintext": "Today, Ovid is most famous for the Metamorphoses, a continuous mythological narrative in fifteen books written in the meter of epic. He is also known for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria (\"The Art of Love\") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology today.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid writes more about his own life than most other Roman poets. Information about his biography is drawn primarily from his poetry, especially Tristia 4.10, which gives a lengthy autobiographical account of his life. Other sources include Seneca the Elder and Quintilian.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid was born in the Paelignian town of Sulmo (modern-day Sulmona, in the province of L'Aquila, Abruzzo), in an Apennine valley east of Rome, to an important equestrian family, the gens Ovidia, on 20 March 43 BC – a significant year in Roman politics. Along with his brother, who excelled at oratory, Ovid was educated in rhetoric in Rome under the teachers Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro.",
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"plaintext": "His father wanted him to study rhetoric so that he might practice law. According to Seneca the Elder, Ovid tended to the emotional, not the argumentative pole of rhetoric. Following the death of his brother at 20 years of age, Ovid renounced law and travelled to Athens, Asia Minor, and Sicily. He held minor public posts, as one of the tresviri capitales, as a member of the Centumviral court and as one of the decemviri litibus iudicandis, but resigned to pursue poetry probably around 29–25 BC, a decision of which his father apparently disapproved.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid's first recitation has been dated to around 25 BC, when he was eighteen. He was part of the circle centered on the esteemed patron Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and likewise seems to have been a friend of poets in the circle of Maecenas. In Trist. 4.10.41–54, Ovid mentions friendships with Macer, Propertius, Horace, Ponticus and Bassus. (He only barely met Virgil and Tibullus, a fellow member of Messalla's circle, whose elegies he admired greatly).",
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"plaintext": "He married three times and had divorced twice by the time he was thirty. He had one daughter and grandchildren through her. His last wife was connected in some way to the influential gens Fabia and helped him during his exile in Tomis (now Constanța in Romania).",
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"plaintext": "Ovid spent the first 25 years of his literary career primarily writing poetry in elegiac meter with erotic themes. The chronology of these early works is not secure, but scholars have established tentative dates. His earliest extant work is thought to be the Heroides, letters of mythological heroines to their absent lovers, which may have been published in 19 BC, although the date is uncertain as it depends on a notice in Am. 2.18.19–26 that seems to describe the collection as an early published work.",
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"plaintext": "The authenticity of some of these poems has been challenged, but this first edition probably contained the first 14 poems of the collection. The first five-book collection of the Amores, a series of erotic poems addressed to a lover, Corinna, is thought to have been published in 16–15 BC; the surviving version, redacted to three books according to an epigram prefixed to the first book, is thought to have been published c. 8–3 BC. Between the publications of the two editions of the Amores can be dated the premiere of his tragedy Medea, which was admired in antiquity but is no longer extant.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid's next poem, the Medicamina Faciei (a fragmentary work on women's beauty treatments), preceded the Ars Amatoria (the Art of Love), a parody of didactic poetry and a three-book manual about seduction and intrigue, which has been dated to AD 2 (Books 1–2 would go back to 1 BC). Ovid may identify this work in his exile poetry as the carmen, or song, which was one cause of his banishment. The Ars Amatoria was followed by the Remedia Amoris in the same year. This corpus of elegiac, erotic poetry earned Ovid a place among the chief Roman elegists Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius, of whom he saw himself as the fourth member.",
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"plaintext": "By 8 AD, Ovid had completed Metamorphoses, his most ambitious work, a hexameter epic poem in 15 books. Here he catalogued encyclopedically transformations in Greek and Roman mythology, from the emergence of the cosmos to the apotheosis of Julius Caesar. The stories follow each other in the telling of human beings transformed to new bodies: trees, rocks, animals, flowers, constellations, etc. Simultaneously, he worked on the Fasti, a six-book poem in elegiac couplets on the theme of the calendar of Roman festivals and astronomy. The composition of this poem was interrupted by Ovid's exile, and it is thought that Ovid abandoned work on the piece in Tomis. It is probably in this period that the double letters (16–21) in the Heroides were composed, although there is some contention over their authorship.",
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"plaintext": "In AD 8, Ovid was banished to Tomis, on the Black Sea, by the exclusive intervention of the Emperor Augustus without any participation of the Senate or of any Roman judge. This event shaped all his following poetry. Ovid wrote that the reason for his exile was carmen et error – \"a poem and a mistake\", claiming that his crime was worse than murder, more harmful than poetry.",
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"plaintext": "The Emperor's grandchildren, Julia the Younger and Agrippa Postumus (the latter adopted by him), were also banished around the same time. Julia's husband, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was put to death for a conspiracy against Augustus, a conspiracy of which Ovid potentially knew.",
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"plaintext": "The Julian marriage laws of 18 BC, which promoted monogamous marriage to increase the population's birth rate, were fresh in the Roman mind. Ovid's writing in the Ars Amatoria concerned the serious crime of adultery. He may have been banished for these works, which appeared subversive to the emperor's moral legislation. However, in view of the long time that elapsed between the publication of this work (1 BC) and the exile (AD 8), some authors suggest that Augustus used the poem as a mere justification for something more personal.",
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"plaintext": "In exile, Ovid wrote two poetry collections, Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which illustrated his sadness and desolation. Being far from Rome, he had no access to libraries, and thus might have been forced to abandon his Fasti, a poem about the Roman calendar, of which only the first six books exist – January through June.",
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"plaintext": "The five books of the elegiac Tristia, a series of poems expressing the poet's despair in exile and advocating his return to Rome, are dated to AD 9–12. The Ibis, an elegiac curse poem attacking an adversary at home, may also be dated to this period. The Epistulae ex Ponto, a series of letters to friends in Rome asking them to effect his return, are thought to be his last compositions, with the first three books published in AD 13 and the fourth book between AD 14 and 16. The exile poetry is particularly emotive and personal. In the Epistulae he claims friendship with the natives of Tomis (in the Tristia they are frightening barbarians) and to have written a poem in their language (Ex P. 4.13.19–20).",
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"plaintext": "Yet he pined for Rome – and for his third wife, addressing many poems to her. Some are also to the Emperor Augustus, yet others are to himself, to friends in Rome, and sometimes to the poems themselves, expressing loneliness and hope of recall from banishment or exile.",
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"plaintext": "The obscure causes of Ovid's exile have given rise to endless explanations from scholars. The medieval texts that mention the exile offer no credible explanations: their statements seem incorrect interpretations drawn from the works of Ovid. Ovid himself wrote many references to his offense, giving obscure or contradictory clues.",
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"plaintext": "In 1923, scholar J. J. Hartman proposed a theory that is little considered among scholars of Latin civilization today: that Ovid was never exiled from Rome and that all of his exile works are the result of his fertile imagination. This theory was supported and rejected in the 1930s, especially by Dutch authors.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, a research paper by Fitton Brown advanced new arguments in support of Hartman's theory. Brown's article was followed by a series of supports and refutations in the short space of five years. Among the supporting reasons Brown presents are: Ovid's exile is only mentioned by his own work, except in \"dubious\" passages by Pliny the Elder and Statius, but no other author until the 4th century; that the author of Heroides was able to separate the poetic \"I\" of his own and real life; and that information on the geography of Tomis was already known by Virgil, by Herodotus and by Ovid himself in his Metamorphoses.",
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"plaintext": "Most scholars, however, oppose these hypotheses. One of the main arguments of these scholars is that Ovid would not let his Fasti remain unfinished, mainly because this poem meant his consecration as an imperial poet.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid died at Tomis in AD 17 or 18. It is thought that the Fasti, which he spent time revising, were published posthumously.",
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"plaintext": "The Heroides (\"Heroines\") or Epistulae Heroidum are a collection of twenty-one poems in elegiac couplets. The Heroides take the form of letters addressed by famous mythological characters to their partners expressing their emotions at being separated from them, pleas for their return, and allusions to their future actions within their own mythology. The authenticity of the collection, partially or as a whole, has been questioned, although most scholars would consider the letters mentioned specifically in Ovid's description of the work at Am. 2.18.19–26 as safe from objection. The collection comprises a new type of generic composition without parallel in earlier literature.",
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"plaintext": "The first fourteen letters are thought to comprise the first published collection and are written by the heroines Penelope, Phyllis, Briseis, Phaedra, Oenone, Hypsipyle, Dido, Hermione, Deianeira, Ariadne, Canace, Medea, Laodamia, and Hypermnestra to their absent male lovers. Letter 15, from the historical Sappho to Phaon, seems spurious (although referred to in Am. 2.18) because of its length, its lack of integration in the mythological theme, and its absence from Medieval manuscripts. The final letters (16–21) are paired compositions comprising a letter to a lover and a reply. Paris and Helen, Hero and Leander, and Acontius and Cydippe are the addressees of the paired letters. These are considered a later addition to the corpus because they are never mentioned by Ovid and may or may not be spurious.",
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"plaintext": "The Heroides markedly reveal the influence of rhetorical declamation and may derive from Ovid's interest in rhetorical suasoriae, persuasive speeches, and ethopoeia, the practice of speaking in another character. They also play with generic conventions; most of the letters seem to refer to works in which these characters were significant, such as the Aeneid in the case of Dido and Catullus 64 for Ariadne, and transfer characters from the genres of epic and tragedy to the elegiac genre of the Heroides. The letters have been admired for their deep psychological portrayals of mythical characters, their rhetoric, and their unique attitude to the classical tradition of mythology. They also contribute significantly to conversations on how gender and identity were constructed in Augustan Rome.",
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"plaintext": "A popular quote from the Heroides anticipates Machiavelli's \"the end justifies the means\". Ovid had written \"Exitus acta probat\" - the result justifies the means.",
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"plaintext": "The Amores is a collection in three books of love poetry in elegiac meter, following the conventions of the elegiac genre developed by Tibullus and Propertius. Elegy originates with Propertius and Tibullus, but Ovid is an innovator in the genre. Ovid changes the leader of his elegies from the poet, to Amor (Love or Cupid). This switch in focus from the triumphs of the poet, to the triumphs of love over people is the first of its kind for this genre of poetry. This Ovidian innovation can be summarized as the use of love as a metaphor for poetry. The books describe the many aspects of love and focus on the poet's relationship with a mistress called Corinna. Within the various poems, several describe events in the relationship, thus presenting the reader with some vignettes and a loose narrative.",
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"plaintext": "Book 1 contains 15 poems. The first tells of Ovid's intention to write epic poetry, which is thwarted when Cupid steals a metrical foot from him, changing his work into love elegy.",
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"plaintext": "Poem 4 is didactic and describes principles that Ovid would develop in the Ars Amatoria. The fifth poem, describing a noon tryst, introduces Corinna by name. Poems 8 and 9 deal with Corinna selling her love for gifts, while 11 and 12 describe the poet's failed attempt to arrange a meeting. Poem 14 discusses Corinna's disastrous experiment in dyeing her hair and 15 stresses the immortality of Ovid and love poets.",
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"plaintext": "The second book has 19 pieces; the opening poem tells of Ovid's abandonment of a Gigantomachy in favor of elegy. Poems 2 and 3 are entreaties to a guardian to let the poet see Corinna, poem 6 is a lament for Corinna's dead parrot; poems 7 and 8 deal with Ovid's affair with Corinna's servant and her discovery of it, and 11 and 12 try to prevent Corinna from going on vacation. Poem 13 is a prayer to Isis for Corinna's illness, 14 a poem against abortion, and 19 a warning to unwary husbands.",
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"plaintext": "Book 3 has 15 poems. The opening piece depicts personified Tragedy and Elegy fighting over Ovid. Poem 2 describes a visit to the races, 3 and 8 focus on Corinna's interest in other men, 10 is a complaint to Ceres because of her festival that requires abstinence, 13 is a poem on a festival of Juno, and 9 a lament for Tibullus. In poem 11 Ovid decides not to love Corinna any longer and regrets the poems he has written about her. The final poem is Ovid's farewell to the erotic muse. Critics have seen the poems as highly self-conscious and extremely playful specimens of the elegiac genre.",
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"plaintext": "About a hundred elegiac lines survive from this poem on beauty treatments for women's faces, which seems to parody serious didactic poetry. The poem says that women should concern themselves first with manners and then prescribes several compounds for facial treatments before breaking off. The style is not unlike the shorter Hellenistic didactic works of Nicander and Aratus.",
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"plaintext": "The Ars Amatoria is a didactic elegiac poem in three books that sets out to teach the arts of seduction and love. The first book addresses men and teaches them how to seduce women, the second, also to men, teaches how to keep a lover. The third addresses women and teaches seduction techniques. The first book opens with an invocation to Venus, in which Ovid establishes himself as a praeceptor amoris (1.17)– a teacher of love. Ovid describes the places one can go to find a lover, like the theater, a triumph, which he thoroughly describes, or arena– and ways to get the girl to take notice, including seducing her covertly at a banquet. Choosing the right time is significant, as is getting into her associates' confidence.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid emphasizes care of the body for the lover. Mythological digressions include a piece on the Rape of the Sabine women, Pasiphaë, and Ariadne. Book 2 invokes Apollo and begins with a telling of the story of Icarus. Ovid advises men to avoid giving too many gifts, keep up their appearance, hide affairs, compliment their lovers, and ingratiate themselves with slaves to stay on their lover's good side. The care of Venus for procreation is described as is Apollo's aid in keeping a lover; Ovid then digresses on the story of Vulcan's trap for Venus and Mars. The book ends with Ovid asking his \"students\" to spread his fame. Book 3 opens with a vindication of women's abilities and Ovid's resolution to arm women against his teaching in the first two books. Ovid gives women detailed instructions on appearance telling them to avoid too many adornments. He advises women to read elegiac poetry, learn to play games, sleep with people of different ages, flirt, and dissemble. Throughout the book, Ovid playfully interjects, criticizing himself for undoing all his didactic work to men and mythologically digresses on the story of Procris and Cephalus. The book ends with his wish that women will follow his advice and spread his fame saying Naso magister erat, \"Ovid was our teacher\". (Ovid was known as \"Naso\" to his contemporaries.)",
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"plaintext": "This elegiac poem proposes a cure for the love Ovid teaches in the Ars Amatoria, and is primarily addressed to men. The poem criticizes suicide as a means for escaping love and, invoking Apollo, goes on to tell lovers not to procrastinate and be lazy in dealing with love. Lovers are taught to avoid their partners, not perform magic, see their lover unprepared, take other lovers, and never be jealous. Old letters should be burned and the lover's family avoided. The poem throughout presents Ovid as a doctor and utilizes medical imagery. Some have interpreted this poem as the close of Ovid's didactic cycle of love poetry and the end of his erotic elegiac project.",
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"plaintext": "The Metamorphoses, Ovid's most ambitious and well-known work, consists of a 15-book catalogue written in dactylic hexameter about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology set within a loose mytho-historical framework. The word \"metamorphoses\" is of Greek origin and means \"transformations\". Appropriately, the characters in this work undergo many different transformations. Within an extent of nearly 12,000 verses, almost 250 different myths are mentioned. Each myth is set outdoors where the mortals are often vulnerable to external influences. The poem stands in the tradition of mythological and etiological catalogue poetry such as Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, Callimachus' Aetia, Nicander's Heteroeumena, and Parthenius' Metamorphoses.",
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"plaintext": "The first book describes the formation of the world, the ages of man, the flood, the story of Daphne's rape by Apollo and Io's by Jupiter. The second book opens with Phaethon and continues describing the love of Jupiter with Callisto and Europa. The third book focuses on the mythology of Thebes with the stories of Cadmus, Actaeon, and Pentheus. The fourth book focuses on three pairs of lovers: Pyramus and Thisbe, Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, and Perseus and Andromeda. The fifth book focuses on the song of the Muses, which describes the rape of Proserpina. The sixth book is a collection of stories about the rivalry between gods and mortals, beginning with Arachne and ending with Philomela. The seventh book focuses on Medea, as well as Cephalus and Procris. The eighth book focuses on Daedalus' flight, the Calydonian boar hunt, and the contrast between pious Baucis and Philemon and the wicked Erysichthon. The ninth book focuses on Heracles and the incestuous Byblis. The tenth book focuses on stories of doomed love, such as Orpheus, who sings about Hyacinthus, as well as Pygmalion, Myrrha, and Adonis. The eleventh book compares the marriage of Peleus and Thetis with the love of Ceyx and Alcyone. The twelfth book moves from myth to history describing the exploits of Achilles, the battle of the centaurs, and Iphigeneia. The thirteenth book discusses the contest over Achilles' arms, and Polyphemus. The fourteenth moves to Italy, describing the journey of Aeneas, Pomona and Vertumnus, and Romulus and Hersilia. The final book opens with a philosophical lecture by Pythagoras and the deification of Caesar. The end of the poem praises Augustus and expresses Ovid's belief that his poem has earned him immortality.",
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"plaintext": "In analyzing the Metamorphoses, scholars have focused on Ovid's organization of his vast body of material. The ways that stories are linked by geography, themes, or contrasts creates interesting effects and constantly forces the reader to evaluate the connections. Ovid also varies his tone and material from different literary genres; G. B. Conte has called the poem \"a sort of gallery of these various literary genres\". In this spirit, Ovid engages creatively with his predecessors, alluding to the full spectrum of classical poetry. Ovid's use of Alexandrian epic, or elegiac couplets, shows his fusion of erotic and psychological style with traditional forms of epic.",
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"plaintext": "A concept drawn from the Metamorphoses is the idea of the white lie or pious fraud: \"pia mendacia fraude\".",
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"plaintext": "Six books in elegiacs survive of this second ambitious poem that Ovid was working on when he was exiled. The six books cover the first semester of the year, with each book dedicated to a different month of the Roman calendar (January to June). The project seems unprecedented in Roman literature. It seems that Ovid planned to cover the whole year, but was unable to finish because of his exile, although he did revise sections of the work at Tomis, and he claims at Trist. 2.549–52 that his work was interrupted after six books. Like the Metamorphoses, the Fasti was to be a long poem and emulated etiological poetry by writers like Callimachus and, more recently, Propertius and his fourth book. The poem goes through the Roman calendar, explaining the origins and customs of important Roman festivals, digressing on mythical stories, and giving astronomical and agricultural information appropriate to the season. The poem was probably dedicated to Augustus initially, but perhaps the death of the emperor prompted Ovid to change the dedication to honor Germanicus. Ovid uses direct inquiry of gods and scholarly research to talk about the calendar and regularly calls himself a vates, a seer. He also seems to emphasize unsavory, popular traditions of the festivals, imbuing the poem with a popular, plebeian flavor, which some have interpreted as subversive to the Augustan moral legislation. While this poem has always been invaluable to students of Roman religion and culture for the wealth of antiquarian material it preserves, it recently has been seen as one of Ovid's finest literary works and a unique contribution to Roman elegiac poetry.",
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"plaintext": "The Ibis is an elegiac poem in 644 lines, in which Ovid uses a dazzling array of mythic stories to curse and attack an enemy who is harming him in exile. At the beginning of the poem, Ovid claims that his poetry up to that point had been harmless, but now he is going to use his abilities to hurt his enemy. He cites Callimachus' Ibis as his inspiration and calls all the gods to make his curse effective. Ovid uses mythical exempla to condemn his enemy in the afterlife, cites evil prodigies that attended his birth, and then in the next 300 lines wishes that the torments of mythological characters befall his enemy. The poem ends with a prayer that the gods make his curse effective.",
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"plaintext": "The Tristia consist of five books of elegiac poetry composed by Ovid in exile in Tomis.",
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"plaintext": "Book 1 contains 11 poems; the first piece is an address by Ovid to his book about how it should act when it arrives in Rome. Poem 3 describes his final night in Rome, poems 2 and 10 Ovid's voyage to Tomis, 8 the betrayal of a friend, and 5 and 6 the loyalty of his friends and wife. In the final poem Ovid apologizes for the quality and tone of his book, a sentiment echoed throughout the collection.",
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"plaintext": "Book 2 consists of one long poem in which Ovid defends himself and his poetry, uses precedents to justify his work, and begs the emperor for forgiveness.",
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"plaintext": "Book 3 in 14 poems focuses on Ovid's life in Tomis. The opening poem describes his book's arrival in Rome to find Ovid's works banned. Poems 10, 12, and 13 focus on the seasons spent in Tomis, 9 on the origins of the place, and 2, 3, and 11 his emotional distress and longing for home. The final poem is again an apology for his work.",
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"plaintext": "The fourth book has ten poems addressed mostly to friends. Poem 1 expresses his love of poetry and the solace it brings; while 2 describes a triumph of Tiberius. Poems 3–5 are to friends, 7 a request for correspondence, and 10 an autobiography.",
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"plaintext": "The final book of the Tristia with 14 poems focuses on his wife and friends. Poems 4, 5, 11, and 14 are addressed to his wife, 2 and 3 are prayers to Augustus and Bacchus, 4 and 6 are to friends, 8 to an enemy. Poem 13 asks for letters, while 1 and 12 are apologies to his readers for the quality of his poetry.",
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"plaintext": "The Epistulae ex Ponto is a collection in four books of further poetry from exile. The Epistulae are each addressed to a different friend and focus more desperately than the Tristia on securing his recall from exile. The poems mainly deal with requests for friends to speak on his behalf to members of the imperial family, discussions of writing with friends, and descriptions of life in exile. The first book has ten pieces in which Ovid describes the state of his health (10), his hopes, memories, and yearning for Rome (3, 6, 8), and his needs in exile (3). Book 2 contains impassioned requests to Germanicus (1 and 5) and various friends to speak on his behalf at Rome while he describes his despair and life in exile. Book 3 has nine poems in which Ovid addresses his wife (1) and various friends. It includes a telling of the story of Iphigenia in Tauris (2), a poem against criticism (9), and a dream of Cupid (3). Book 4, the final work of Ovid, in 16 poems talks to friends and describes his life as an exile further. Poems 10 and 13 describe Winter and Spring at Tomis, poem 14 is halfhearted praise for Tomis, 7 describes its geography and climate, and 4 and 9 are congratulations on friends for their consulships and requests for help. Poem 12 is addressed to a Tuticanus, whose name, Ovid complains, does not fit into meter. The final poem is addressed to an enemy whom Ovid implores to leave him alone. The last elegiac couplet is translated: \"Where’s the joy in stabbing your steel into my dead flesh?/ There’s no place left where I can be dealt fresh wounds.\"",
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"plaintext": "One loss, which Ovid himself described, is the first five-book edition of the Amores, from which nothing has come down to us. The greatest loss is Ovid's only tragedy, Medea, from which only a few lines are preserved. Quintilian admired the work a great deal and considered it a prime example of Ovid's poetic talent. Lactantius quotes from a lost translation by Ovid of Aratus' Phaenomena, although the poem's ascription to Ovid is insecure because it is never mentioned in Ovid's other works.",
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"plaintext": "A line from a work entitled Epigrammata is cited by Priscian.",
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"plaintext": "Even though it is unlikely, if the last six books of the Fasti ever existed, they constitute a great loss. Ovid also mentions some occasional poetry (Epithalamium, dirge, even a rendering in Getic) which does not survive. Also lost is the final portion of the Medicamina.",
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"plaintext": "The Consolatio is a long elegiac poem of consolation to Augustus' wife Livia on the death of her son Nero Claudius Drusus. The poem opens by advising Livia not to try to hide her sad emotions and contrasts Drusus' military virtue with his death. Drusus' funeral and the tributes of the imperial family are described as are his final moments and Livia's lament over the body, which is compared to birds. The laments of the city of Rome as it greets his funeral procession and the gods are mentioned, and Mars from his temple dissuades the Tiber river from quenching the pyre out of grief.",
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"plaintext": "Grief is expressed for his lost military honors, his wife, and his mother. The poet asks Livia to look for consolation in Tiberius. The poem ends with an address by Drusus to Livia assuring him of his fate in Elysium. Although this poem was connected to the Elegiae in Maecenatem, it is now thought that they are unconnected. The date of the piece is unknown, but a date in the reign of Tiberius has been suggested because of that emperor's prominence in the poem.",
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"plaintext": "The Halieutica is a fragmentary didactic poem in 134 poorly preserved hexameter lines and is considered spurious. The poem begins by describing how every animal possesses the ability to protect itself and how fish use ars to help themselves. The ability of dogs and land creatures to protect themselves is described. The poem goes on to list the best places for fishing, and which types of fish to catch. Although Pliny the Elder mentions a Halieutica by Ovid, which was composed at Tomis near the end of Ovid's life, modern scholars believe Pliny was mistaken in his attribution and that the poem is not genuine.",
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"plaintext": "This short poem in 91 elegiac couplets is related to Aesop's fable of \"The Walnut Tree\" that was the subject of human ingratitude. In a monologue asking boys not pelt it with stones to get its fruit, the tree contrasts the formerly fruitful golden age with the present barren time, in which its fruit is violently ripped off and its branches broken. In the course of this, the tree compares itself to several mythological characters, praises the peace that the emperor provides and prays to be destroyed rather than suffer. The poem is considered spurious because it incorporates allusions to Ovid's works in an uncharacteristic way, although the piece is thought to be contemporary with Ovid.",
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"plaintext": "This poem, traditionally placed at Amores 3.5, is considered spurious. The poet describes a dream to an interpreter, saying that he sees while escaping from the heat of noon a white heifer near a bull; when the heifer is pecked by a crow, it leaves the bull for a meadow with other bulls. The interpreter interprets the dream as a love allegory; the bull represents the poet, the heifer a girl, and the crow an old woman. The old woman spurs the girl to leave her lover and find someone else. The poem is known to have circulated independently and its lack of engagement with Tibullan or Propertian elegy argue in favor of its spuriousness; however, the poem does seem to be datable to the early empire.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid is traditionally considered the final significant love elegist in the evolution of the genre and one of the most versatile in his handling of the genre's conventions. Like the other canonical elegiac poets Ovid takes on a persona in his works that emphasizes subjectivity and personal emotion over traditional militaristic and public goals, a convention that some scholars link to the relative stability provided by the Augustan settlement. However, although Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius may have been inspired in part by personal experience, the validity of \"biographical\" readings of these poets' works is a serious point of scholarly contention.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid has been seen as taking on a persona in his poetry that is far more emotionally detached from his mistress and less involved in crafting a unique emotional realism within the text than the other elegists. This attitude, coupled with the lack of testimony that identifies Ovid's Corinna with a real person has led scholars to conclude that Corinna was never a real person – and that Ovid's relationship with her is an invention for his elegiac project. Some scholars have even interpreted Corinna as a metapoetic symbol for the elegiac genre itself.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid has been considered a highly inventive love elegist who plays with traditional elegiac conventions and elaborates the themes of the genre; Quintilian even calls him a \"sportive\" elegist. In some poems, he uses traditional conventions in new ways, such as the paraklausithyron of Am. 1.6, while other poems seem to have no elegiac precedents and appear to be Ovid's own generic innovations, such as the poem on Corinna's ruined hair (Am. 1.14). Ovid has been traditionally seen as far more sexually explicit in his poetry than the other elegists.",
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"plaintext": "His erotic elegy covers a wide spectrum of themes and viewpoints; the Amores focus on Ovid's relationship with Corinna, the love of mythical characters is the subject of the Heroides, and the Ars Amatoria and the other didactic love poems provide a handbook for relationships and seduction from a (mock-)\"scientific\" viewpoint. In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his enumeration, in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.",
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"plaintext": "Some commentators have also noted the influence of Ovid's interest in love elegy in his other works, such as the Fasti, and have distinguished his \"elegiac\" style from his \"epic\" style. Richard Heinze in his famous Ovids elegische Erzählung (1919) delineated the distinction between Ovid's styles by comparing the Fasti and Metamorphoses versions of the same legends, such as the treatment of the Ceres–Proserpina story in both poems. Heinze demonstrated that, \"whereas in the elegiac poems a sentimental and tender tone prevails, the hexameter narrative is characterized by an emphasis on solemnity and awe...\" His general line of argument has been accepted by Brooks Otis, who wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Otis wrote that in the Ovidian poems of love, he \"was burlesquing an old theme rather than inventing a new one\". Otis states that the Heroides are more serious and, though some of them are \"quite different from anything Ovid had done before [...] he is here also treading a very well-worn path\" to relate that the motif of females abandoned by or separated from their men was a \"stock motif of Hellenistic and neoteric poetry (the classic example for us is, of course, Catullus 66)\".",
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"plaintext": "Otis also states that Phaedra and Medea, Dido and Hermione (also present in the poem) \"are clever re-touchings of Euripides and Vergil\". Some scholars, such as Kenney and Clausen, have compared Ovid with Virgil. According to them, Virgil was ambiguous and ambivalent while Ovid was defined and, while Ovid wrote only what he could express, Virgil wrote for the use of language.",
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"plaintext": "Ovid's works have been interpreted in various ways over the centuries with attitudes that depended on the social, religious and literary contexts of different times. It is known that since his own lifetime, he was already famous and criticized. In the Remedia Amoris, Ovid reports criticism from people who considered his books insolent. Ovid responded to this criticism with the following:",
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"plaintext": "After such criticism subsided, Ovid became one of the best known and most loved Roman poets during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.",
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"plaintext": "Writers in the Middle Ages used his work as a way to read and write about sex and violence without orthodox \"scrutiny routinely given to commentaries on the Bible\". In the Middle Ages the voluminous Ovide moralisé, a French work that moralizes 15 books of the Metamorphoses was composed. This work then influenced Chaucer. Ovid's poetry provided inspiration for the Renaissance idea of humanism, and more specifically, for many Renaissance painters and writers.",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, Arthur Golding moralized his own translation of the full 15 books, and published it in 1567. This version was the same version used as a supplement to the original Latin in the Tudor-era grammar schools that influenced such major Renaissance authors as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Many non-English authors were heavily influenced by Ovid's works as well. Montaigne, for example, alluded to Ovid several times in his Essais, specifically in his comments on Education of Children when he says:",
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"plaintext": " Miguel de Cervantes also used the Metamorphoses as a platform of inspiration for his prodigious novel Don Quixote.",
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"plaintext": "In the 16th century, some Jesuit schools of Portugal cut several passages from Ovid's Metamorphoses. While the Jesuits saw his poems as elegant compositions worthy of being presented to students for educational purposes, they also felt his works as a whole might corrupt students. The Jesuits took much of their knowledge of Ovid to the Portuguese colonies. According to Serafim Leite (1949), the ratio studiorum was in effect in Colonial Brazil during the early 17th century, and in this period Brazilian students read works like the Epistulae ex Ponto to learn Latin grammar.",
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"plaintext": "In Spain, Ovid is both praised and criticized by Cervantes in his Don Quixote, where he warns against satires that can exile poets, as happened to Ovid. In the 16th century, Ovid's works were criticized in England. The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London ordered that a contemporary translation of Ovid's love poems be publicly burned in 1599. The Puritans of the following century viewed Ovid as pagan, thus as an immoral influence.",
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"plaintext": "John Dryden composed a famous translation of the Metamorphoses into stopped rhyming couplets during the 17th century, when Ovid was \"refashioned [...] in its own image, one kind of Augustanism making over another\". The Romantic movement of the 19th century, in contrast, considered Ovid and his poems \"stuffy, dull, over-formalized and lacking in genuine passion\". Romantics might have preferred his poetry of exile.",
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"plaintext": "The picture Ovid among the Scythians, painted by Delacroix, portrays the last years of the poet in exile in Scythia, and was seen by Baudelaire, Gautier and Edgar Degas. Baudelaire took the opportunity to write a long essay about the life of an exiled poet like Ovid. This shows that the exile of Ovid had some influence in 19th century Romanticism since it makes connections with its key concepts such as wildness and the misunderstood genius.",
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"plaintext": "The exile poems were once viewed unfavorably in Ovid's oeuvre. They have enjoyed a resurgence of scholarly interest in recent years, though critical opinion remains divided on several qualities of the poems, such as their intended audience and whether Ovid was sincere in the \"recantation of all that he stood for before\".",
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"plaintext": "The 20th Century British poet laureate, the late Ted Hughes, follows in the tradition of portraying a wild, immoral and violent Ovid in his free verse modern translation of the Metamorphoses and Ovid's portrayal of the fickle and immoral nature of the Gods.",
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"plaintext": " (c. 800–810) Moduin, a poet in the court circle of Charlemagne, adopts the pen name Naso.",
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"plaintext": " (12th century) The troubadours and the medieval courtoise literature. In particular, the passage describing the Holy Grail in the Conte du Graal by Chrétien de Troyes contains elements from the Metamorphoses.",
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"plaintext": " (13th century) The Roman de la Rose, Dante Alighieri",
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"plaintext": " (14th century) Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer, Juan Ruiz",
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"plaintext": " (15th century) Sandro Botticelli",
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"plaintext": " (16th century–17th century) Luís de Camões, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, John Marston, Thomas Edwards",
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"plaintext": " (17th century) John Milton, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote, 1605 and 1615, Luis de Góngora's La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea, 1613, Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe by Nicolas Poussin, 1651, Stormy Landscape with Philemon and Baucis by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1620, \"Divine Narcissus\" by Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz c. 1689.",
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"plaintext": " (1820s) During his Odessa exile, Alexander Pushkin compared himself to Ovid; memorably versified in the epistle To Ovid (1821). The exiled Ovid also features in his long poem Gypsies, set in Moldavia (1824), and in Canto VIII of Eugene Onegin (1825–1832).",
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"plaintext": " (1916) James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has a quotation from Book 8 of Metamorphoses and introduces Stephen Dedalus. The Ovidian reference to \"Daedalus\" was in Stephen Hero, but then metamorphosed to \"Dedalus\" in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and in Ulysses.",
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"plaintext": " (1920s) The title of the second poetry collection by Osip Mandelstam, Tristia (Berlin, 1922), refers to Ovid's book. Mandelstam's collection is about his hungry, violent years immediately after the October Revolution.",
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"plaintext": " (1951) Six Metamorphoses after Ovid by Benjamin Britten, for solo oboe, evokes images of Ovid's characters from Metamorphoses.",
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"plaintext": " (1960) God Was Born in Exile, the novel by the Romanian writer Vintila Horia about Ovid's stay in exile (the novel received the Prix Goncourt in 1960).",
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"plaintext": " (1960s–2010s) Bob Dylan has made repeated use of Ovid's wording, imagery, and themes.",
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"plaintext": " (2006) His album Modern Times contains songs with borrowed lines from Ovid's Poems of Exile, from Peter Green's translation. The songs are \"Workingman's Blues #2\", \"Ain't Talkin'\", \"The Levee's Gonna Break\", and \"Spirit on the Water\".",
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"plaintext": " (1978) Australian author David Malouf's novel An Imaginary Life is about Ovid's exile in Tomis.",
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"plaintext": " (2000) The Art of Love by Robin Brooks, a comedy, emphasizing Ovid's role as lover. Broadcast 23 May on BBC Radio 4, with Bill Nighy and Anne-Marie Duff (not to be confused with the 2004 radio play by the same title on Radio 3).",
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"plaintext": " (2004) The Art of Love by Andrew Rissik, a drama, part of a trilogy, which speculates on the crime that sent Ovid into exile. Broadcast 11 April on BBC Radio 4, with Stephen Dillane and Juliet Aubrey (not to be confused with the 2000 radio play by the same title on Radio 4).",
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"plaintext": " (2007) Russian author Alexander Zorich's novel Roman Star is about the last years of Ovid's life.",
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"plaintext": " (2007) the play \"The Land of Oblivion \" by Russian-American dramatist Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky was published in Russian by Vagrius Plus (Moscow).The play was based on author's new hypothesis unrevealing the mystery of Ovid's exile to Tomi by Augustus.",
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"plaintext": " (2008) \"The Love Song of Ovid\", a two-hour radio documentary by Damiano Pietropaolo, recorded on location in Rome (the recently restored house of Augustus on the Roman forum), Sulmona (Ovid's birthplace) and Constanta (modern day Tomis, in Romania). Broadcast on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBC Radio One, 18 and 19 December 2008.",
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"plaintext": " (2012) The House Of Rumour, a novel by British author Jake Arnott, opens with a passage from Metamorphoses 12.39–63, and the author muses on Ovid's prediction of the internet in that passage.",
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"plaintext": " (2013) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky's \"To Ovid, 2000 years later, (A Road Tale)\" describes the author's visits to the places of Ovid's birth and death.",
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"plaintext": " (2015) In The Walking Dead season 5, episode 5 (\"Now\"), Deanna begins making a long-term plan to make her besieged community sustainable and writes on her blueprint a Latin phrase attributed to Ovid: \"Dolor hic tibi proderit olim\". The phrase is an excerpt from the longer phrase, \"Perfer et obdura, dolor hic tibi proderit olim\" (English translation: Be patient and tough; someday this pain will be useful to you\").",
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"plaintext": " (2017) Canadian composer Marc Sabat and German poet Uljana Wolf collaborated on a free homophonic translation of the first 88 lines of Ovid's Metamorphoseon to create the cantata Seeds of skies, alibis premiered by the vocal ensemble Ekmeles in New York on 22 February 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Dante twice mentions him in:",
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"plaintext": " De vulgari eloquentia, along with Lucan, Virgil and Statius as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7)",
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"plaintext": " Inferno as ranking alongside Homer, Horace, Lucan and Virgil (Inferno, IV, 88)",
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"plaintext": " (1609) The Wisdom of the Ancients, a retelling and interpretation of Ovidian fables by Francis Bacon",
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"plaintext": " (1767) Apollo et Hyacinthus, an early opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart",
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"plaintext": "(1916) Ovid's Metamorphoses Vols 1-2 translation by Frank Justus Miller",
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"plaintext": " (1938) Daphne, an opera by Richard Strauss",
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"plaintext": " (1949) Orphée, a film by Jean Cocteau, retelling of the Orpheus myth from the Metamorphoses",
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"plaintext": " (1978) Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), by Brookes More",
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"plaintext": " (2012) \"The Song of Phaethon\", a post-rock/musique concrète song written and performed by Ian Crause (former leader of Disco Inferno) in Greek epic style, based on a Metamorphoses tale (as recounted in Hughes' Tales from Ovid) and drawing parallels between mythology and current affairs",
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"plaintext": " Sexuality in ancient Rome",
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"plaintext": " a. The cognomen Naso means \"the one with the nose\" (i.e. \"Bignose\"). Ovid habitually refers to himself by his nickname in his poetry because the Latin name Ovidius does not fit into elegiac metre.",
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"plaintext": " d. Ovid cites Scythia in I 64, II 224, V 649, VII 407, VIII 788, XV 285, 359, 460, and others.",
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"plaintext": " Ryan, M. B.; Perkins, C. A. (ed.), Ovid's Amores, Book One: A Commentary (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011) (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture, 41).",
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"plaintext": " Tarrant, R. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Metamorphoses (Oxford: OUP, 2004) (Oxford Classical Texts).",
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"plaintext": " Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 1–5 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).",
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"plaintext": " Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 6–10 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).",
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"plaintext": " Kenney, E. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Amores, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris (Oxford: OUP, 19942) (Oxford Classical Texts).",
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"plaintext": " Myers, K. Sara Ovid Metamorphoses 14. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 2009).",
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"plaintext": " Ramírez de Verger, A. (ed.), Ovidius, Carmina Amatoria. Amores. Medicamina faciei femineae. Ars amatoria. Remedia amoris. (München & Leipzig: Saur, 20062) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).",
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"plaintext": " Dörrie, H. (ed.), Epistulae Heroidum / P. Ovidius Naso (Berlin & New York: de Gruyter, 1971) (Texte und Kommentare; Bd. 6).",
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"plaintext": " Fornaro, P. (ed.), Publio Ovidio Nasone, Heroides (Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso, 1999)",
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"plaintext": " Alton, E.H.; Wormell, D.E.W.; Courtney, E. (eds.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Fastorum libri sex (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 19974) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).",
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"plaintext": " Fantham, Elaine. Fasti. Book IV. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 1998).",
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"plaintext": " Wiseman, Anne and Peter Wiseman Ovid: Fasti. (Oxford University Press, 2013).",
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"plaintext": " Goold, G.P., et alii (eds.), Ovid, Heroides, Amores; Art of Love, Cosmetics, Remedies for Love, Ibis, Walnut-tree, Sea Fishing, Consolation; Metamorphoses; Fasti; Tristia, Ex Ponto, Vol. I-VI, (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: HUP, 1977–1989, revised ed.) (Loeb Classical Library)",
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"plaintext": " Hall, J.B. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Tristia (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner 1995) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).",
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"plaintext": " Ingleheart, Jennifer Tristia Book 2. (Oxford University Press, 2010).",
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"plaintext": " A free textbook for download.",
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"plaintext": " Brewer, Wilmon, Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978",
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"plaintext": " More, Brookes, Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century. Ed. Charles Martindale. Cambridge, 1988.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard A. Dwyer \"Ovid in the Middle Ages\" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 1989, pp.312–14",
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2123235
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"plaintext": " Federica Bessone. P. Ovidii Nasonis Heroidum Epistula XII: Medea Iasoni. Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1997. pp.324.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Theodor Heinze. P. Ovidius Naso. Der XII. Heroidenbrief: Medea an Jason. Mit einer Beilage: Die Fragmente der Tragödie Medea. Einleitung, Text & Kommentar. Mnemosyne Supplement 170 Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997. pp. xi, 288.",
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"plaintext": " R. A. Smith. Poetic Allusion and Poetic Embrace in Ovid and Virgil. Ann Arbor; The University of Michigan Press, 1997. pp. ix, 226.",
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"plaintext": " Michael Simpson, The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001. pp.498.",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " Philip Hardie (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ovid. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. pp. xvi, 408.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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73199
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{
"plaintext": " Ovid's Fasti: Historical Readings at its Bimillennium. Edited by Geraldine Herbert-Brown. Oxford, OUP, 2002, 327 pp.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Susanne Gippert, Joseph Addison's Ovid: An Adaptation of the Metamorphoses in the Augustan Age of English Literature. Die Antike und ihr Weiterleben, Band 5. Remscheid: Gardez! Verlag, 2003. pp.304.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Heather van Tress, Poetic Memory. Allusion in the Poetry of Callimachus and the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Mnemosyne, Supplementa 258. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004. pp. ix, 215.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Ziolkowski, Theodore, Ovid and the Moderns. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005. pp.262.",
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{
"plaintext": " Desmond, Marilynn, Ovid's Art and the Wife of Bath: The Ethics of Erotic Violence. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006. pp.232.",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Rimell, Victoria, Ovid's Lovers: Desire, Difference, and the Poetic Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp.235.",
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{
"plaintext": " Pugh, Syrithe, Spenser and Ovid. Burlington: Ashgate, 2005. p.302.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Montuschi, Claudia, Il tempo in Ovidio. Funzioni, meccanismi, strutture. Accademia la colombaria studi, 226. Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2005. p.463.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pasco-Pranger, Molly, Founding the Year: Ovid's Fasti and the Poetics of the Roman Calendar. Mnemosyne Suppl., 276. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2006. p.326.",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Martin Amann, Komik in den Tristien Ovids. (Schweizerische Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft, 31). Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2006. pp.296.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " P. J. Davis, Ovid & Augustus: A political reading of Ovid's erotic poems. London: Duckworth, 2006. p.183.",
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1273
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},
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"plaintext": " Lee Fratantuono, Madness Transformed: A Reading of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2011.",
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"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Peter E. Knox (ed.), Oxford Readings in Ovid. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. p.541.",
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48518
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{
"plaintext": " Andreas N. Michalopoulos, Ovid Heroides 16 and 17. Introduction, text and commentary. (ARCA: Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs, 47). Cambridge: Francis Cairns, 2006. pp. x, 409.",
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{
"plaintext": " R. Gibson, S. Green, S. Sharrock, The Art of Love: Bimillennial Essays on Ovid's Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp.375.",
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{
"plaintext": " Johnson, Patricia J. Ovid before Exile: Art and Punishment in the Metamorphoses. (Wisconsin Studies in Classics). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2008. pp. x, 184.",
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"plaintext": "Nandini Pandey, The Poetics of Power in Augustan Rome: Latin Poetic Responses to Early Imperial Iconography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018)",
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"plaintext": " University of Virginia, \"Ovid Illustrated: The Renaissance Reception of Ovid in Image and Text\"",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Nihon University, \"Ovid Metamorphoses: Paris 1651 (1619)",
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"plaintext": " Dickinson College Commentaries: Amores Book 1",
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"plaintext": " Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”: A Common Core Exemplar",
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"plaintext": " SORGLL: Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII, 183–235, (Daedalus & Icarus); read by Stephen Daitz",
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"plaintext": " Updated list of 29 digitized medieval manuscripts and 207 early printed editions on the internet.",
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"plaintext": " Perseus/Tufts: P. Ovidius Naso Amores, Ars Amatoria, Heroides (on this site called Epistulae), Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris. Enhanced brower. Not downloadable.",
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"plaintext": " Sacred Texts Archive: Ovid Amores, Ars Amatoria, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris.",
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"plaintext": " The Metamorphoses of Publius Ovidius Naso ; elucidated by an analysis and explanation of the fables, together with English notes, historical, mythological and critical, and illustrated by pictorial embellishments: with a dictionary, giving the meaning of all the words with critical exactness. By Nathan Covington Brooks. Publisher: New York, A. S. Barnes & co.; Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & co., 1857 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)",
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"plaintext": " Works by Ovid",
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"plaintext": " New translations by A. S. Kline Amores, Ars Amatoria, Epistulae ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Ibis, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, Tristia with enhanced browsing facility, downloadable in HTML, PDF, or MS Word DOC formats. Site also includes wide selection of works by other authors.",
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"plaintext": " Two translations from Ovid's Amores by Jon Corelis.",
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"plaintext": " English translations of Ovid's Amores with introductory essay and notes by Jon Corelis",
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"plaintext": " Perseus/Tufts: Commentary on the Heroides of Ovid",
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37,803 | 1,107,162,499 | Cubism | [
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"plaintext": "Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from a single viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre and Montparnasse) or near Paris (Puteaux) during the 1910s and throughout the 1920s.",
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"plaintext": "The movement was pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Juan Gris, and Fernand Léger. One primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. A retrospective of Cézanne's paintings was held at the Salon d'Automne of 1904, current works were displayed at the 1905 and 1906 Salon d'Automne, followed by two commemorative retrospectives after his death in 1907.",
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"plaintext": "In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, abstract art and later Purism. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging. In France and other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, Vorticism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Early Futurist paintings hold in common with Cubism the fusing of the past and the present, the representation of different views of the subject pictured at the same time or successively, also called multiple perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity, while Constructivism was influenced by Picasso's technique of constructing sculpture from separate elements. Other common threads between these disparate movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization and modern life.",
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"plaintext": "Historians have divided the history of Cubism into phases. In one scheme, the first phase of Cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, a phrase coined by Juan Gris a posteriori, was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1910 and 1912 in France. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity. English art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. According to Cooper there was \"Early Cubism\", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second phase being called \"High Cubism\", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent (after 1911); and finally Cooper referred to \"Late Cubism\" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's restrictive use of these terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) implied an intentional value judgement.",
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"plaintext": "Cubism burgeoned between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work.",
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"plaintext": "In 1908, in his review of Georges Braque's exhibition at Kahnweiler's gallery, the critic Louis Vauxcelles called Braque a daring man who despises form, \"reducing everything, places and a figures and houses, to geometric schemas, to cubes\".",
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"plaintext": "Vauxcelles recounted how Matisse told him at the time, \"Braque has just sent in [to the 1908 Salon d'Automne] a painting made of little cubes\". The critic Charles Morice relayed Matisse's words and spoke of Braque's little cubes. The motif of the viaduct at l'Estaque had inspired Braque to produce three paintings marked by the simplification of form and deconstruction of perspective.",
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"plaintext": "Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at L’Estaque (and related works) prompted Vauxcelles, in Gil Blas, 25 March 1909, to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called 'Salle 41'; it included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso or Braque were exhibited.",
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"plaintext": "By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while Braque's importance and precedence was argued later, with respect to his treatment of space, volume and mass in the L’Estaque landscapes. But \"this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists,\" wrote the art historian Christopher Green: \"Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1911 [...]\"",
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"plaintext": "The assertion that the Cubist depiction of space, mass, time, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920, but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, especially by Clement Greenberg.",
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"plaintext": "Contemporary views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the \"Salle 41\" Cubists, whose methods were too distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to be considered merely secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the \"Salle 41\" artists, e.g., Francis Picabia; the brothers Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp, who beginning in late 1911 formed the core of the Section d'Or (or the Puteaux Group); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well as Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens; and painters such as Louis Marcoussis, Roger de La Fresnaye, František Kupka, Diego Rivera, Léopold Survage, Auguste Herbin, André Lhote, Gino Severini (after 1916), María Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (after 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were \"later undermined by interpretations of the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation.\"",
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"plaintext": "John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. \"The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram: The diagram being a visible symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as signs not as imitations or recreations.\"",
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"plaintext": "There was a distinct difference between Kahnweiler's Cubists and the Salon Cubists. Prior to 1914, Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger (to a lesser extent) gained the support of a single committed art dealer in Paris, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who guaranteed them an annual income for the exclusive right to buy their works. Kahnweiler sold only to a small circle of connoisseurs. His support gave his artists the freedom to experiment in relative privacy. Picasso worked in Montmartre until 1912, while Braque and Gris remained there until after the First World War. Léger was based in Montparnasse.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, the Salon Cubists built their reputation primarily by exhibiting regularly at the Salon d'Automne and the Salon des Indépendants, both major non-academic Salons in Paris. They were inevitably more aware of public response and the need to communicate. Already in 1910 a group began to form which included Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay and Léger. They met regularly at Henri le Fauconnier's studio near the boulevard du Montparnasse. These soirées often included writers such as Guillaume Apollinaire and André Salmon. Together with other young artists, the group wanted to emphasise a research into form, in opposition to the Neo-Impressionist emphasis on color.",
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"plaintext": "Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of the 26th Salon des Indépendants (1910), made a passing and imprecise reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Léger and Le Fauconnier as \"ignorant geometers, reducing the human body, the site, to pallid cubes.\" At the 1910 Salon d'Automne, a few months later, Metzinger exhibited his highly fractured Nu à la cheminée (Nude), which was subsequently reproduced in both Du \"Cubisme\" (1912) and Les Peintres Cubistes (1913).",
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"plaintext": "The first public controversy generated by Cubism resulted from Salon showings at the Indépendants during the spring of 1911. This showing by Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, le Fauconnier and Léger brought Cubism to the attention of the general public for the first time. Amongst the Cubist works presented, Robert Delaunay exhibited his Eiffel Tower, Tour Eiffel (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York).",
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"plaintext": "At the Salon d'Automne of the same year, in addition to the Indépendants group of Salle 41, were exhibited works by André Lhote, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye, André Dunoyer de Segonzac and František Kupka. The exhibition was reviewed in the October 8, 1911 issue of The New York Times. This article was published a year after Gelett Burgess' The Wild Men of Paris, and two years prior to the Armory Show, which introduced astonished Americans, accustomed to realistic art, to the experimental styles of the European avant garde, including Fauvism, Cubism, and Futurism. The 1911 New York Times article portrayed works by Picasso, Matisse, Derain, Metzinger and others dated before 1909; not exhibited at the 1911 Salon. The article was titled The \"Cubists\" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon and subtitled Eccentric School of Painting Increases Its Vogue in the Current Art Exhibition – What Its Followers Attempt to Do.",
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"plaintext": "Among all the paintings on exhibition at the Paris Fall Salon none is attracting so much attention as the extraordinary productions of the so-called \"Cubist\" school. In fact, dispatches from Paris suggest that these works are easily the main feature of the exhibition. [...]",
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"plaintext": "In spite of the crazy nature of the \"Cubist\" theories the number of those professing them is fairly respectable. Georges Braque, André Derain, Picasso, Czobel, Othon Friesz, Herbin, Metzinger—these are a few of the names signed to canvases before which Paris has stood and now again stands in blank amazement.",
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"plaintext": "What do they mean? Have those responsible for them taken leave of their senses? Is it art or madness? Who knows?",
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"plaintext": "The subsequent 1912 Salon des Indépendants located in Paris (20 March to 16 May 1912) was marked by the presentation of Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, which itself caused a scandal, even amongst the Cubists. It was in fact rejected by the hanging committee, which included his brothers and other Cubists. Although the work was shown in the Salon de la Section d'Or in October 1912 and the 1913 Armory Show in New York, Duchamp never forgave his brothers and former colleagues for censoring his work. Juan Gris, a new addition to the Salon scene, exhibited his Portrait of Picasso (Art Institute of Chicago), while Metzinger's two showings included La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) 1911–1912 (National Gallery of Denmark). Delaunay's monumental La Ville de Paris (Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris) and Léger's La Noce, The Wedding (Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris), were also exhibited.",
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"plaintext": "In 1912, Galeries Dalmau presented the first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide (Exposició d'Art Cubista), with a controversial showing by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Marie Laurencin and Marcel Duchamp (Barcelona, 20 April to 10 May 1912). The Dalmau exhibition comprised 83 works by 26 artists. Jacques Nayral's association with Gleizes led him to write the Preface for the Cubist exhibition, which was fully translated and reproduced in the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya. Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 was exhibited for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "Extensive media coverage (in newspapers and magazines) before, during and after the exhibition launched the Galeries Dalmau as a force in the development and propagation of modernism in Europe. While press coverage was extensive, it was not always positive. Articles were published in the newspapers Esquella de La Torratxa and El Noticiero Universal attacking the Cubists with a series of caricatures laced with derogatory text. Art historian Jaime Brihuega writes of the Dalmau show: \"No doubt that the exhibition produced a strong commotion in the public, who welcomed it with a lot of suspicion.",
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"plaintext": "The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created scandal regarding the use of government owned buildings, such as the Grand Palais, to exhibit such artwork. The indignation of the politician Jean Pierre Philippe Lampué made the front page of Le Journal, 5 October 1912. The controversy spread to the Municipal Council of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Députés about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat.",
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"plaintext": "It was against this background of public anger that Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote Du \"Cubisme\" (published by Eugène Figuière in 1912, translated to English and Russian in 1913). Among the works exhibited were Le Fauconnier's vast composition Les Montagnards attaqués par des ours (Mountaineers Attacked by Bears) now at Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Joseph Csaky's Deux Femme, Two Women (a sculpture now lost), in addition to the highly abstract paintings by Kupka, Amorpha (The National Gallery, Prague), and Picabia, La Source (The Spring) (Museum of Modern Art, New York).",
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"plaintext": "The most extreme forms of Cubism were not those practiced by Picasso and Braque, who resisted total abstraction. Other Cubists, by contrast, especially František Kupka, and those considered Orphists by Apollinaire (Delaunay, Léger, Picabia and Duchamp), accepted abstraction by removing visible subject matter entirely. Kupka's two entries at the 1912 Salon d'Automne, Amorpha-Fugue à deux couleurs and Amorpha chromatique chaude, were highly abstract (or nonrepresentational) and metaphysical in orientation. Both Duchamp in 1912 and Picabia from 1912 to 1914 developed an expressive and allusive abstraction dedicated to complex emotional and sexual themes. Beginning in 1912 Delaunay painted a series of paintings entitled Simultaneous Windows, followed by a series entitled Formes Circulaires, in which he combined planar structures with bright prismatic hues; based on the optical characteristics of juxtaposed colors his departure from reality in the depiction of imagery was quasi-complete. In 1913–14 Léger produced a series entitled Contrasts of Forms, giving a similar stress to color, line and form. His Cubism, despite its abstract qualities, was associated with themes of mechanization and modern life. Apollinaire supported these early developments of abstract Cubism in Les Peintres cubistes (1913), writing of a new \"pure\" painting in which the subject was vacated. But in spite of his use of the term Orphism these works were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category.",
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"plaintext": "Also labeled an Orphist by Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp was responsible for another extreme development inspired by Cubism. The ready-made arose from a joint consideration that the work itself is considered an object (just as a painting), and that it uses the material detritus of the world (as collage and papier collé in the Cubist construction and Assemblage). The next logical step, for Duchamp, was to present an ordinary object as a self-sufficient work of art representing only itself. In 1913 he attached a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and in 1914 selected a bottle-drying rack as a sculpture in its own right.",
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"plaintext": "The Section d'Or, also known as Groupe de Puteaux, founded by some of the most conspicuous Cubists, was a collective of painters, sculptors and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism, active from 1911 through about 1914, coming to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the 1911 Salon des Indépendants. The Salon de la Section d'Or at the Galerie La Boétie in Paris, October 1912, was arguably the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition; exposing Cubism to a wide audience. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact that many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective.",
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"plaintext": "The group seems to have adopted the name Section d'Or to distinguish themselves from the narrower definition of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, and to show that Cubism, rather than being an isolated art-form, represented the continuation of a grand tradition (indeed, the golden ratio had fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years).",
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"plaintext": "The idea of the Section d'Or originated in the course of conversations between Metzinger, Gleizes and Jacques Villon. The group's title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci's Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian and Native American art. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.",
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"plaintext": "The art historian Douglas Cooper states that Paul Gauguin and Paul Cézanne \"were particularly influential to the formation of Cubism and especially important to the paintings of Picasso during 1906 and 1907\". Cooper goes on to say: \"The Demoiselles is generally referred to as the first Cubist picture. This is an exaggeration, for although it was a major first step towards Cubism it is not yet Cubist. The disruptive, expressionist element in it is even contrary to the spirit of Cubism, which looked at the world in a detached, realistic spirit. Nevertheless, the Demoiselles is the logical picture to take as the starting point for Cubism, because it marks the birth of a new pictorial idiom, because in it Picasso violently overturned established conventions and because all that followed grew out of it.\"",
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"plaintext": "The most serious objection to regarding the Demoiselles as the origin of Cubism, with its evident influence of primitive art, is that \"such deductions are unhistorical\", wrote the art historian Daniel Robbins. This familiar explanation \"fails to give adequate consideration to the complexities of a flourishing art that existed just before and during the period when Picasso's new painting developed.\" Between 1905 and 1908, a conscious search for a new style caused rapid changes in art across France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, and Russia. The Impressionists had used a double point of view, and both Les Nabis and the Symbolists (who also admired Cézanne) flattened the picture plane, reducing their subjects to simple geometric forms. Neo-Impressionist structure and subject matter, most notably to be seen in the works of Georges Seurat (e.g., Parade de Cirque, Le Chahut and Le Cirque), was another important influence. There were also parallels in the development of literature and social thought.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to Seurat, the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Cézanne's later work: first his breaking of the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and second his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones. However, the cubists explored this concept further than Cézanne. They represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the way objects could be visualized in painting and art.",
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"plaintext": "The historical study of Cubism began in the late 1920s, drawing at first from sources of limited data, namely the opinions of Guillaume Apollinaire. It came to rely heavily on Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler's book Der Weg zum Kubismus (published in 1920), which centered on the developments of Picasso, Braque, Léger, and Gris. The terms \"analytical\" and \"synthetic\" which subsequently emerged have been widely accepted since the mid-1930s. Both terms are historical impositions that occurred after the facts they identify. Neither phase was designated as such at the time corresponding works were created. \"If Kahnweiler considers Cubism as Picasso and Braque,\" wrote Daniel Robbins, \"our only fault is in subjecting other Cubists' works to the rigors of that limited definition.\"",
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"plaintext": "The traditional interpretation of \"Cubism\", formulated post facto as a means of understanding the works of Braque and Picasso, has affected our appreciation of other twentieth-century artists. It is difficult to apply to painters such as Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, whose fundamental differences from traditional Cubism compelled Kahnweiler to question whether to call them Cubists at all. According to Daniel Robbins, \"To suggest that merely because these artists developed differently or varied from the traditional pattern they deserved to be relegated to a secondary or satellite role in Cubism is a profound mistake.\"",
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"plaintext": "The history of the term \"Cubism\" usually stresses the fact that Matisse referred to \"cubes\" in connection with a painting by Braque in 1908, and that the term was published twice by the critic Louis Vauxcelles in a similar context. However, the word \"cube\" was used in 1906 by another critic, Louis Chassevent, with reference not to Picasso or Braque but rather to Metzinger and Delaunay:",
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"plaintext": "\"M. Metzinger is a mosaicist like M. Signac but he brings more precision to the cutting of his cubes of color which appear to have been made mechanically [...]\".",
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"plaintext": "The critical use of the word \"cube\" goes back at least to May 1901 when Jean Béral, reviewing the work of Henri-Edmond Cross at the Indépendants in Art et Littérature, commented that he \"uses a large and square pointillism, giving the impression of mosaic. One even wonders why the artist has not used cubes of solid matter diversely colored: they would make pretty revetments.\" (Robert Herbert, 1968, p.221)",
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"plaintext": "The term Cubism did not come into general usage until 1911, mainly with reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, and Léger. In 1911, the poet and critic Guillaume Apollinaire accepted the term on behalf of a group of artists invited to exhibit at the Brussels Indépendants. The following year, in preparation for the Salon de la Section d'Or, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote and published Du \"Cubisme\" in an effort to dispel the confusion raging around the word, and as a major defence of Cubism (which had caused a public scandal following the 1911 Salon des Indépendants and the 1912 Salon d'Automne in Paris). Clarifying their aims as artists, this work was the first theoretical treatise on Cubism and it still remains the clearest and most intelligible. The result, not solely a collaboration between its two authors, reflected discussions by the circle of artists who met in Puteaux and Courbevoie. It mirrored the attitudes of the \"artists of Passy\", which included Picabia and the Duchamp brothers, to whom sections of it were read prior to publication. The concept developed in Du \"Cubisme\" of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously, i.e., the act of moving around an object to seize it from several successive angles fused into a single image (multiple viewpoints, mobile perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity), is a generally recognized device used by the Cubists.",
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"plaintext": "The 1912 manifesto Du \"Cubisme\" by Metzinger and Gleizes was followed in 1913 by Les Peintres Cubistes, a collection of reflections and commentaries by Guillaume Apollinaire. Apollinaire had been closely involved with Picasso beginning in 1905, and Braque beginning in 1907, but gave as much attention to artists such as Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Picabia, and Duchamp.",
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"plaintext": "The fact that the 1912 exhibition had been curated to show the successive stages through which Cubism had transited, and that Du \"Cubisme\" had been published for the occasion, indicates the artists' intention of making their work comprehensible to a wide audience (art critics, art collectors, art dealers and the general public). Undoubtedly, due to the great success of the exhibition, Cubism became avant-garde movement recognized as a genre or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal.",
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"plaintext": "A significant modification of Cubism between 1914 and 1916 was signaled by a shift towards a strong emphasis on large overlapping geometric planes and flat surface activity. This grouping of styles of painting and sculpture, especially significant between 1917 and 1920, was practiced by several artists; particularly those under contract with the art dealer and collector Léonce Rosenberg. The tightening of the compositions, the clarity and sense of order reflected in these works, led to its being referred to by the critic Maurice Raynal as 'crystal' Cubism. Considerations manifested by Cubists prior to the outset of World War I—such as the fourth dimension, dynamism of modern life, the occult, and Henri Bergson's concept of duration—had now been vacated, replaced by a purely formal frame of reference.",
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"plaintext": "Crystal Cubism, and its associative rappel à l'ordre, has been linked with an inclination—by those who served the armed forces and by those who remained in the civilian sector—to escape the realities of the Great War, both during and directly following the conflict. The purifying of Cubism from 1914 through the mid-1920s, with its cohesive unity and voluntary constraints, has been linked to a much broader ideological transformation towards conservatism in both French society and French culture.",
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"plaintext": "The most innovative period of Cubism was before 1914. After World War I, with the support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg, Cubism returned as a central issue for artists, and continued as such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris. Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Léger, Gleizes, and Metzinger, while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well after 1925. Cubism reemerged during the 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson. In France, however, Cubism experienced a decline beginning in about 1925. Léonce Rosenberg exhibited not only the artists stranded by Kahnweiler's exile but others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de l’Effort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made by Louis Vauxcelles to argue that Cubism was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indépendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section d’Or in the same year, demonstrated it was still alive.",
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"plaintext": "The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from about 1917–24 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, among the artists, by Gris, Léger and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicism—figurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist work—experienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural dominance of a classical or Latin image of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism after 1918 can be seen as part of a wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French society and culture. Yet, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other as Braque, Léger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated movement became relatively unified and open to definition. Its theoretical purity made it a gauge against which such diverse tendencies as Realism or Naturalism, Dada, Surrealism and abstraction could be compared.",
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"plaintext": "Japan and China were among the first countries in Asia to be influenced by Cubism. Contact first occurred via European texts translated and published in Japanese art journals in the 1910s. In the 1920s, Japanese and Chinese artists who studied in Paris, for example those enrolled at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, brought back with them both an understanding of modern art movements, including Cubism. Notable works exhibiting Cubist qualities were Tetsugorō Yorozu's Self Portrait with Red Eyes (1912) and Fang Ganmin's Melody in Autumn (1934).",
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"plaintext": "The Cubism of Picasso and Braque had more than a technical or formal significance, and the distinct attitudes and intentions of the Salon Cubists produced different kinds of Cubism, rather than a derivative of their work. \"It is by no means clear, in any case,\" wrote Christopher Green, \"to what extent these other Cubists depended on Picasso and Braque for their development of such techniques as faceting, 'passage' and multiple perspective; they could well have arrived at such practices with little knowledge of 'true' Cubism in its early stages, guided above all by their own understanding of Cézanne.\" The works exhibited by these Cubists at the 1911 and 1912 Salons extended beyond the conventional Cézanne-like subjects—the posed model, still-life and landscape—favored by Picasso and Braque to include large-scale modern-life subjects. Aimed at a large public, these works stressed the use of multiple perspective and complex planar faceting for expressive effect while preserving the eloquence of subjects endowed with literary and philosophical connotations.",
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"plaintext": "In Du \"Cubisme\" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related the sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of ‘duration’ proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the present and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and space and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of the fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions between past, present and future. One of the major theoretical innovations made by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity, drawing to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, Charles Henry, Maurice Princet, and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions was comprehensively challenged. Linear perspective developed during the Renaissance was vacated. The subject matter was no longer considered from a specific point of view at a moment in time, but built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in multiple dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other.",
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"plaintext": "This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion) is pushed to a high degree of complexity in Metzinger's Nu à la cheminée, exhibited at the 1910 Salon d'Automne; Gleizes' monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing), exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or; Le Fauconnier's Abundance shown at the Indépendants of 1911; and Delaunay's City of Paris, exhibited at the Indépendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of the largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Léger's The Wedding, also shown at the Salon des Indépendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity by presenting different motifs as occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective force. The conjunction of such subject matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini and Carlo Carrà; themselves made in response to early Cubism.",
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"plaintext": "Cubism and modern European art was introduced into the United States at the now legendary 1913 Armory Show in New York City, which then traveled to Chicago and Boston. In the Armory show Pablo Picasso exhibited La Femme au pot de moutarde (1910), the sculpture Head of a Woman (Fernande) (1909–10), Les Arbres (1907) amongst other cubist works. Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints, while his brother Marcel Duchamp shocked the American public with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912). Francis Picabia exhibited his abstractions La Danse à la source and La Procession, Seville (both of 1912). Albert Gleizes exhibited La Femme aux phlox (1910) and L'Homme au balcon (1912), two highly stylized and faceted cubist works. Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye and Alexander Archipenko also contributed examples of their cubist works.",
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"plaintext": "Just as in painting, Cubist sculpture is rooted in Paul Cézanne's reduction of painted objects into component planes and geometric solids (cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones). And just as in painting, it became a pervasive influence and contributed fundamentally to Constructivism and Futurism.",
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"plaintext": "Cubist sculpture developed in parallel to Cubist painting. During the autumn of 1909 Picasso sculpted Head of a Woman (Fernande) with positive features depicted by negative space and vice versa. According to Douglas Cooper: \"The first true Cubist sculpture was Picasso's impressive Woman's Head, modeled in 1909–10, a counterpart in three dimensions to many similar analytical and faceted heads in his paintings at the time.\" These positive/negative reversals were ambitiously exploited by Alexander Archipenko in 1912–13, for example in Woman Walking. Joseph Csaky, after Archipenko, was the first sculptor in Paris to join the Cubists, with whom he exhibited from 1911 onwards. They were followed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and then in 1914 by Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine.",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, Cubist construction was as influential as any pictorial Cubist innovation. It was the stimulus behind the proto-Constructivist work of both Naum Gabo and Vladimir Tatlin and thus the starting-point for the entire constructive tendency in 20th-century modernist sculpture.",
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"plaintext": "Cubism formed an important link between early-20th-century art and architecture. The historical, theoretical, and socio-political relationships between avant-garde practices in painting, sculpture and architecture had early ramifications in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia. Though there are many points of intersection between Cubism and architecture, only a few direct links between them can be drawn. Most often the connections are made by reference to shared formal characteristics: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.",
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"plaintext": "Architectural interest in Cubism centered on the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form, using simple geometric shapes, juxtaposed without the illusions of classical perspective. Diverse elements could be superimposed, made transparent or penetrate one another, while retaining their spatial relationships. Cubism had become an influential factor in the development of modern architecture from 1912 (La Maison Cubiste, by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare) onwards, developing in parallel with architects such as Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius, with the simplification of building design, the use of materials appropriate to industrial production, and the increased use of glass.",
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"plaintext": "Cubism was relevant to an architecture seeking a style that needed not refer to the past. Thus, what had become a revolution in both painting and sculpture was applied as part of \"a profound reorientation towards a changed world\". The Cubo-Futurist ideas of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti influenced attitudes in avant-garde architecture. The influential De Stijl movement embraced the aesthetic principles of Neo-plasticism developed by Piet Mondrian under the influence of Cubism in Paris. De Stijl was also linked by Gino Severini to Cubist theory through the writings of Albert Gleizes. However, the linking of basic geometric forms with inherent beauty and ease of industrial application—which had been prefigured by Marcel Duchamp from 1914—was left to the founders of Purism, Amédée Ozenfant and Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier,) who exhibited paintings together in Paris and published Après le cubisme in 1918. Le Corbusier's ambition had been to translate the properties of his own style of Cubism to architecture. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier concentrated his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and his cousin Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. His theoretical studies soon advanced into many different architectural projects.",
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"plaintext": "At the 1912 Salon d'Automne an architectural installation was exhibited that quickly became known as Maison Cubiste (Cubist House), with architecture by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and interior decoration by André Mare along with a group of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in Du \"Cubisme\", written during the assemblage of the \"Maison Cubiste\", wrote about the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the \"antithesis of the picture\". \"The true picture\" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, \"bears its raison d'être within itself. It can be moved from a church to a drawing-room, from a museum to a study. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it need not immediately satisfy the mind: on the contrary, it should lead it, little by little, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative light resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in general, with the universe: it is an organism...\".",
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"plaintext": "La Maison Cubiste was a fully furnished model house, with a facade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, and two rooms: a living room—the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Marcel Duchamp, Metzinger (Woman with a Fan), Gleizes, Laurencin and Léger were hung, and a bedroom. It was an example of L'art décoratif, a home within which Cubist art could be displayed in the comfort and style of modern, bourgeois life. Spectators at the Salon d'Automne passed through the plaster facade, designed by Duchamp-Villon, to the two furnished rooms. This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston, listed in the catalogue of the New York exhibit as Raymond Duchamp-Villon, number 609, and entitled \"Facade architectural, plaster\" (Façade architecturale).",
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"plaintext": "The furnishings, wallpaper, upholstery and carpets of the interior were designed by André Mare, and were early examples of the influence of cubism on what would become Art Deco. They were composed of very brightly colored roses and other floral patterns in stylized geometric forms.",
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"plaintext": "Mare called the living room in which Cubist paintings were hung the Salon Bourgeois. Léger described this name as 'perfect'. In a letter to Mare prior to the exhibition Léger wrote: \"Your idea is absolutely splendid for us, really splendid. People will see Cubism in its domestic setting, which is very important.",
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"plaintext": "\"Mare's ensembles were accepted as frames for Cubist works because they allowed paintings and sculptures their independence\", Christopher Green wrote, \"creating a play of contrasts, hence the involvement not only of Gleizes and Metzinger themselves, but of Marie Laurencin, the Duchamp brothers (Raymond Duchamp-Villon designed the facade) and Mare's old friends Léger and Roger La Fresnaye\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1927, Cubists Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Louis Marcoussis, Henri Laurens, the sculptor Gustave Miklos, and others collaborated in the decoration of a Studio House, rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine, designed by the architect Paul Ruaud and owned by the French fashion designer Jacques Doucet, also a collector of Post-Impressionist and Cubist paintings (including Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which he bought directly from Picasso's studio). Laurens designed the fountain, Csaky designed Doucet's staircase, Lipchitz made the fireplace mantel, and Marcoussis made a Cubist rug.",
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"plaintext": "The original Cubist architecture is very rare. Cubism was applied to architecture only in Bohemia (today Czech Republic) and especially in its capital, Prague. Czech architects were the first and only ones to ever design original Cubist buildings. Cubist architecture flourished for the most part between 1910 and 1914, but the Cubist or Cubism-influenced buildings were also built after World War I. After the war, the architectural style called Rondo-Cubism was developed in Prague fusing the Cubist architecture with round shapes.",
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"plaintext": "In their theoretical rules, the Cubist architects expressed the requirement of dynamism, which would surmount the matter and calm contained in it, through a creative idea, so that the result would evoke feelings of dynamism and expressive plasticity in the viewer. This should be achieved by shapes derived from pyramids, cubes and prisms, by arrangements and compositions of oblique surfaces, mainly triangular, sculpted facades in protruding crystal-like units, reminiscent of the so-called diamond cut, or even cavernous that are reminiscent of the late Gothic architecture. In this way, the entire surfaces of the facades including even the gables and dormers are sculpted. The grilles as well as other architectural ornaments attain a three-dimensional form. Thus, new forms of windows and doors were also created, e. g. hexagonal windows. Czech Cubist architects also designed Cubist furniture.",
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"plaintext": "The leading Cubist architects were Pavel Janák, Josef Gočár, Vlastislav Hofman, Emil Králíček and Josef Chochol. They worked mostly in Prague but also in other Bohemian towns. The best-known Cubist building is the House of the Black Madonna in the Old Town of Prague built in 1912 by Josef Gočár with the only Cubist café in the world, Grand Café Orient. Vlastislav Hofman built the entrance pavilions of Ďáblice Cemetery in 1912–1914, Josef Chochol designed several residential houses under Vyšehrad. A Cubist streetlamp has also been preserved near the Wenceslas Square, designed by Emil Králíček in 1912, who also built the Diamond House in the New Town of Prague around 1913.",
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"plaintext": "The influence of cubism extended to other artistic fields, outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Making of Americans (1906–08). Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. In turn, Picasso was an important influence on Stein's writing. In the field of American fiction, William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay Dying can be read as an interaction with the cubist mode. The novel features narratives of the diverse experiences of 15 characters which, when taken together, produce a single cohesive body.",
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"plaintext": "The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry \"is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada.\" Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, Éluard and himself, Reverdy was \"our immediate elder, the exemplary poet.\" Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work. Wallace Stevens' \"Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird\" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.",
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"plaintext": "John Berger said: \"It is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance of Cubism. It was a revolution in the visual arts as great as that which took place in the early Renaissance. Its effects on later art, on film, and on architecture are already so numerous that we hardly notice them.\"",
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"plaintext": " Fourth dimension in art",
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"plaintext": " Precisionism",
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"plaintext": " Proto-Cubism",
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"plaintext": " Rayonism",
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"plaintext": " Section d'Or",
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"plaintext": " Vorticism",
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"plaintext": " Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Cubism and Abstract Art, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1936.",
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"plaintext": " Paolo Vincenzo Genovese, Cubismo in architettura, Mancosu Editore, Roma, 2010. In Italian.",
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"plaintext": " John Golding, Cubism: A History and an Analysis, 1907-1914, New York: Wittenborn, 1959.",
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"plaintext": " Richardson, John. A Life Of Picasso, The Cubist Rebel 1907–1916. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. ",
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"plaintext": " Mark Antliff and Patricia Leighten, A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906–1914, The University of Chicago Press, 2008",
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"plaintext": " Christopher Green, Cubism and its Enemies, Modern Movements and Reaction in French Art, 1916–28, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987",
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"plaintext": " Mikhail Lifshitz, The Crisis of Ugliness: From Cubism to Pop-Art. Translated and with an Introduction by David Riff. Leiden: BRILL, 2018 (originally published in Russian by Iskusstvo, 1968)",
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"plaintext": " Daniel Robbins, Sources of Cubism and Futurism, Art Journal, Vol. 41, No. 4, (Winter 1981)",
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"plaintext": " Cécile Debray, Françoise Lucbert, La Section d'or, 1912-1920-1925, Musées de Châteauroux, Musée Fabre, exhibition catalogue, Éditions Cercle d'art, Paris, 2000",
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"plaintext": " Ian Johnston, Preliminary Notes on Cubist Architecture in Prague, 2004",
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"plaintext": "Cubism, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art",
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"plaintext": "Cubist pioneer Diego Rivera",
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"plaintext": "Cubism, Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées (RMN)",
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"plaintext": "Czech Cubist Architecture",
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"plaintext": "Cubism, Guggenheim Collection Online",
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"plaintext": "Index of Historic Collectors and Dealers of Cubism, Leonard A. Lauder Research Center for Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art",
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"plaintext": "Elizabeth Carlson, Cubist Fashion: Mainstreaming Modernism after the Armory, Winterthur Portfolio, Vol. 48, No. 1 (Spring 2014), pp.1–28. ",
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"plaintext": "Turnbull was born in London and educated at Westminster School and Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied politics and philosophy. During World War II he was in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve after which he was awarded a two-year grant in the Department of Indian Religion and Philosophy, Banaras Hindu University, India, from which he graduated with a master's degree in Indian Religion and Philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1951, after his graduation from Banaras, Turnbull traveled to the Belgian Congo (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) with Newton Beal, a schoolteacher from Ohio he met in India. Turnbull and Beal first studied the Mbuti pygmies during this time, though that was not the goal of the trip.",
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"plaintext": "An \"odd job\" Turnbull picked up while in Africa at this time was working for the Hollywood producer Sam Spiegel. Spiegel hired Turnbull to assist in the construction and transportation of a boat needed for his film. This boat was the African Queen, which was used for the feature film The African Queen (starring Humphrey Bogart and Katharine Hepburn; 1951). After his first trip to Africa, Turnbull traveled to Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories, where he worked as a geologist and gold miner for a year, before he went back to school to obtain another degree.",
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"plaintext": "Upon returning to Oxford in 1954, Turnbull began specializing in the anthropology of Africa. He remained in Oxford for two years before another field trip to Africa, finally focusing on the Belgian Congo (1957–58) and Uganda. After years of fieldwork, he finally achieved his anthropology doctorate from Oxford in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "Turnbull became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1965, after he moved to New York City to become curator in charge of African Ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History in 1959. He later resided in Lancaster County, and was on staff in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Virginia Commonwealth University, in Richmond, Virginia. Other professional associations included corresponding membership of Royal Museum for Central Africa and a fellowship in the British Royal Anthropological Institute. He first gained prominence with his book The Forest People (1961), a study of the Mbuti people.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, having been commissioned to come up with an explanation and solution to the difficulties experienced by the Ik people, the controversial The Mountain People was published. The Ik were a hunter-gatherer tribe who had been forced to stop moving around ancestral lands, through the seasons, because it now involved the three national borders of Uganda, Kenya and Sudan. Forced to become stationary in Uganda, and without a knowledge base and culture for survival under such conditions, they failed to thrive, even to the point of starvation and death.",
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"plaintext": "Turnbull's partner, Joseph Allen Towles, was born in Senora, Virginia, on August 17, 1937. In 1957 he moved to New York City to pursue a career as an actor and writer. He met Turnbull in 1959 and they exchanged marriage vows the following year.",
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"plaintext": "From 1965 to 1967, Turnbull and Towles conducted fieldwork among the Ik of Northern Uganda in Africa. In the Congo in 1970, they conducted fieldwork on the Nkumbi circumcision initiation ritual for boys and the Asa myth of origin among the Mbo of the Ituri forest.",
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"plaintext": "In 1979, they traveled studying the concept of tourism as pilgrimage. Towles criticised Turnbull's semi-autobiographical work The Human Cycle (1983), which omitted all references to their relationship.",
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"plaintext": "Turnbull arranged for Towles' research to be published posthumously. It appeared in 1993 as Nkumbi initiation ritual and structure among the Mbo of Zaïre and as Asa: Myth of Origin of the Blood Brotherhood Among the Mbo of the Ituri Forest, both in Annales of the Royal Museum for Central Africa (Tervuren, Belgium), vol. 137.",
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"plaintext": "Late in life Turnbull took up the political cause of death row inmates. After his partner's death, Turnbull donated all his belongings to the United Negro College Fund. He donated all their research materials, most of which were the product of his career, to the College of Charleston, insisting that the collection be known under Towles' name alone.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, Turnbull moved to Bloomington, Indiana, to participate in the building of Tibetan Cultural Center with his friend Thupten Jigme Norbu, elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama. Later Turnbull moved to Dharamsala, India where he took the monks' vow of Tibetan Buddhism, given to him by the Dalai Lama. Turnbull's partner, Joseph A Towles died of AIDS in 1988, and Turnbull had Towles book \"Nkumbi Initiation and Asa: Myth of Origin of the Blood Brotherhood Among the Mbo of the Ituri Forest\" published posthumously. Turnbull himself died of AIDS in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Bernd Heine exemplifies the strong reaction evoked by Turnbull's evaluation of the Ik in a 1985 article. Using information gained 20 years after Turnbull's researches, he provided new information that appeared to discredit the portrayal of the Ik provided by Turnbull.",
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"plaintext": "Many people found Turnbull's accounts of the Ik disturbing, however, his graphic descriptions were placed into context by interviews he did with older Ik to contrast the older society that existed prior to displacement. BBC Radio 4 broadcast 10 March 2021 a review by Matthew Syed of the influence of Turnbull's Mountain People and its subsequent reassessment and revision by anthropologists.",
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"plaintext": " 1961 The Forest People. ",
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"plaintext": " 1962 The Lonely African. ",
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"plaintext": " 1962 The Peoples of Africa.",
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"plaintext": " 1965 Wayward Servants: The Two Worlds of the African Pygmies. ",
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"plaintext": " 1966 Tradition and Change in African Tribal Life.",
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"plaintext": " 1968 Tibet: Its History, Religion and People. (with Thubten Jigme Norbu). ",
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"plaintext": " 1972 The Mountain People. ",
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"plaintext": " 1973 Africa and Change editor. ",
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"plaintext": " 1976 Man in Africa. ",
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"plaintext": " 1978 \"Rethinking the Ik: A functional Non-Social System\". In: Charles D. Laughlin, Jr.; Ivan A. Brady (ed.): Extinction and Survival in Human Populations. New York: Columbia University Press",
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"plaintext": " 1983 The Human Cycle. ",
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"plaintext": " 1983 The Mbuti Pygmies: Change and Adaptation. ",
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"plaintext": " 1992 Music of the Rain Forest Pygmies: The Historic Recordings Made By Colin M. Turnbull Label: Lyrichord Discs Inc.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Mbuti Pygmies: An Ethnographic Survey\" in Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 50: 139–282",
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"plaintext": " Simha Arom, who also studied pygmy culture",
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"plaintext": " Grinker, Roy R. In the Arms of Africa: The Life of Colin M. Turnbull, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. ",
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"plaintext": " Smithsonian Institution: Review of In the Arms of Africa, AnthroNotes, Vol. 22, No. 1, Fall 2000.",
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"plaintext": " Inventory of the Joseph A. Towles Papers, c. 1920s – 2009, in the Avery Research Center at the College of Charleston",
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"plaintext": " Official website of Grinker's biography",
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"plaintext": " Podcast BBC Radio 4 \"Sideways\" 28 minute \"Matthew Syed examines the work of the controversial anthropologist Colin Turnbull who claimed to have discovered 'the most selfish people on earth'.\"",
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37,808 | 1,101,441,588 | Catalase | [
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"plaintext": "Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals) which catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is a very important enzyme in protecting the cell from oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Catalase has one of the highest turnover numbers of all enzymes; one catalase molecule can convert millions of hydrogen peroxide molecules to water and oxygen each second.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase is a tetramer of four polypeptide chains, each over 500 amino acids long. It contains four iron-containing heme groups that allow the enzyme to react with hydrogen peroxide. The optimum pH for human catalase is approximately 7, and has a fairly broad maximum: the rate of reaction does not change appreciably between pH 6.8 and 7.5. The pH optimum for other catalases varies between 4 and 11 depending on the species. The optimum temperature also varies by species.",
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"plaintext": "Human catalase forms a tetramer composed of four subunits, each of which can be conceptually divided into four domains. The extensive core of each subunit is generated by an eight-stranded antiparallel β-barrel (β1-8), with nearest neighbor connectivity capped by β-barrel loops on one side and α9 loops on the other. A helical domain at one face of the β-barrel is composed of four C-terminal helices (α16, α17, α18, and α19) and four helices derived from residues between β4 and β5 (α4, α5, α6, and α7). Alternative splicing may result in different protein variants.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase was first noticed in 1818 by Louis Jacques Thénard, who discovered hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Thénard suggested its breakdown was caused by an unknown substance. In 1900, Oscar Loew was the first to give it the name catalase, and found it in many plants and animals. In 1937 catalase from beef liver was crystallized by James B. Sumner and Alexander Dounce and the molecular weight was measured in 1938.",
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"plaintext": " H2O2 + Fe(III)-E → H2O + O=Fe(IV)-E(.+)",
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"plaintext": " H2O2 + O=Fe(IV)-E(.+) → H2O + Fe(III)-E + O2",
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"plaintext": "Here Fe()-E represents the iron center of the heme group attached to the enzyme. Fe(IV)-E(.+) is a mesomeric form of Fe(V)-E, meaning the iron is not completely oxidized to +V, but receives some stabilising electron density from the heme ligand, which is then shown as a radical cation (.+).",
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"plaintext": "As hydrogen peroxide enters the active site, it interacts with the amino acids Asn148 (asparagine at position 148) and His75, causing a proton (hydrogen ion) to transfer between the oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom coordinates, freeing the newly formed water molecule and Fe(IV)=O. Fe(IV)=O reacts with a second hydrogen peroxide molecule to reform Fe(III)-E and produce water and oxygen. The reactivity of the iron center may be improved by the presence of the phenolate ligand of Tyr358 in the fifth coordination position, which can assist in the oxidation of the Fe(III) to Fe(IV). The efficiency of the reaction may also be improved by the interactions of His75 and Asn148 with reaction intermediates. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by catalase proceeds according to first-order kinetics, the rate being proportional to the hydrogen peroxide concentration.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase can also catalyze the oxidation, by hydrogen peroxide, of various metabolites and toxins, including formaldehyde, formic acid, phenols, acetaldehyde and alcohols. It does so according to the following reaction:",
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"plaintext": " H2O2 + H2R → 2H2O + R",
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"plaintext": "The exact mechanism of this reaction is not known.",
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"plaintext": "Any heavy metal ion (such as copper cations in copper(II) sulfate) can act as a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalase. However, \"Copper deficiency can lead to a reduction in catalase activity in tissues, such as heart and liver.\" Furthermore, the poison cyanide is a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalase at high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide.",
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"plaintext": "Arsenate acts as an activator. Three-dimensional protein structures of the peroxidated catalase intermediates are available at the Protein Data Bank.",
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"plaintext": "Hydrogen peroxide is a harmful byproduct of many normal metabolic processes; to prevent damage to cells and tissues, it must be quickly converted into other, less dangerous substances. To this end, catalase is frequently used by cells to rapidly catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into less-reactive gaseous oxygen and water molecules.",
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"plaintext": "Mice genetically engineered to lack catalase are initially phenotypically normal. However, catalase deficiency in mice may increase the likelihood of developing obesity, fatty liver, and type 2 diabetes. Some humans have very low levels of catalase (acatalasia), yet show few ill effects.",
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"plaintext": "The increased oxidative stress that occurs with aging in mice is alleviated by over-expression of catalase. Over-expressing mice do not exhibit the age-associated loss of spermatozoa, testicular germ and Sertoli cells seen in wild-type mice. Oxidative stress in wild-type mice ordinarily induces oxidative DNA damage (measured as 8-oxodG) in sperm with aging, but these damages are significantly reduced in aged catalase over-expressing mice. Furthermore, these over-expressing mice show no decrease in age-dependent number of pups per litter. Overexpression of catalase targeted to mitochondria extends the lifespan of mice.",
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"plaintext": "In eukaryotes, catalase is usually located in a cellular organelle called the peroxisome. Peroxisomes in plant cells are involved in photorespiration (the use of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide) and symbiotic nitrogen fixation (the breaking apart of diatomic nitrogen (N2) to reactive nitrogen atoms). Hydrogen peroxide is used as a potent antimicrobial agent when cells are infected with a pathogen. Catalase-positive pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Legionella pneumophila, and Campylobacter jejuni, make catalase to deactivate the peroxide radicals, thus allowing them to survive unharmed within the host.",
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"plaintext": "Like alcohol dehydrogenase, catalase converts ethanol to acetaldehyde, but it is unlikely that this reaction is physiologically significant.",
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"plaintext": "The large majority of known organisms use catalase in every organ, with particularly high concentrations occurring in the liver in mammals. Catalase is found primarily in peroxisomes and the cytosol of erythrocytes (and sometimes in mitochondria)",
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"plaintext": "Almost all aerobic microorganisms use catalase. It is also present in some anaerobic microorganisms, such as Methanosarcina barkeri. Catalase is also universal among plants and occurs in most fungi.",
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"plaintext": "One unique use of catalase occurs in the bombardier beetle. This beetle has two sets of liquids that are stored separately in two paired glands. The larger of the pair, the storage chamber or reservoir, contains hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, while the smaller, the reaction chamber, contains catalases and peroxidases. To activate the noxious spray, the beetle mixes the contents of the two compartments, causing oxygen to be liberated from hydrogen peroxide. The oxygen oxidizes the hydroquinones and also acts as the propellant. The oxidation reaction is very exothermic (ΔH = −202.8 kJ/mol) and rapidly heats the mixture to the boiling point.",
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"plaintext": "Long-lived queens of the termite Reticulitermes speratus have significantly lower oxidative damage to their DNA than non-reproductive individuals (workers and soldiers). Queens have more than two times higher catalase activity and seven times higher expression levels of the catalase gene RsCAT1 than workers. It appears that the efficient antioxidant capability of termite queens can partly explain how they attain longer life.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase enzymes from various species have vastly differing optimum temperatures. Poikilothermic animals typically have catalases with optimum temperatures in the range of 15-25°C, while mammalian or avian catalases might have optimum temperatures above 35°C, and catalases from plants vary depending on their growth habit. In contrast, catalase isolated from the hyperthermophile archaeon Pyrobaculum calidifontis has a temperature optimum of 90°C.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase is used in the food industry for removing hydrogen peroxide from milk prior to cheese production. Another use is in food wrappers, where it prevents food from oxidizing. Catalase is also used in the textile industry, removing hydrogen peroxide from fabrics to make sure the material is peroxide-free.",
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"plaintext": "A minor use is in contact lens hygiene – a few lens-cleaning products disinfect the lens using a hydrogen peroxide solution; a solution containing catalase is then used to decompose the hydrogen peroxide before the lens is used again.",
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"plaintext": "The catalase test is one of the three main tests used by microbiologists to identify species of bacteria. If the bacteria possess catalase (i.e., are catalase-positive), when a small amount of bacterial isolate is added to hydrogen peroxide, bubbles of oxygen are observed. The catalase test is done by placing a drop of hydrogen peroxide on a microscope slide. An applicator stick is touched to the colony, and the tip is then smeared onto the hydrogen peroxide drop.",
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"plaintext": " If the mixture produces bubbles or froth, the organism is said to be 'catalase-positive'. Staphylococci and Micrococci are catalase-positive. Other catalase-positive organisms include Listeria, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Burkholderia cepacia, Nocardia, the family Enterobacteriaceae (Citrobacter, E. coli, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Shigella, Yersinia, Proteus, Salmonella, Serratia), Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, and Rhodococcus equi.",
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"plaintext": "While the catalase test alone cannot identify a particular organism, it can aid identification when combined with other tests such as antibiotic resistance. The presence of catalase in bacterial cells depends on both the growth condition and the medium used to grow the cells.",
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"plaintext": "Capillary tubes may also be used. A small sample of bacteria is collected on the end of the capillary tube, without blocking the tube, to avoid false negative results. The opposite end is then dipped into hydrogen peroxide, which is drawn into the tube through capillary action, and turned upside down, so that the bacterial sample points downwards. The hand holding the tube is then tapped on the bench, moving the hydrogen peroxide down until it touches the bacteria. If bubbles form on contact, this indicates a positive catalase result. This test can detect catalase-positive bacteria at concentrations above about 105 cells/mL, and is simple to use.",
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"plaintext": "Low levels of catalase may play a role in the graying process of human hair. Hydrogen peroxide is naturally produced by the body and broken down by catalase. Hydrogen peroxide can accumulate in hair follicles and if catalase levels decline, this buildup can cause oxidative stress and graying. Hydrogen peroxide interferes with the production of melanin, the pigment that gives hair its color.",
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"plaintext": "Catalase has been shown to interact with the ABL2 and Abl genes. Infection with the murine leukemia virus causes catalase activity to decline in the lungs, heart and kidneys of mice. Conversely, dietary fish oil increased catalase activity in the heart, and kidneys of mice.",
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"plaintext": "In 1870, Schoenn discovered a formation of yellow color from the interaction of hydrogen peroxide with molybdate; then, from the middle of the 20th century, this reaction began to be used for colorimetric determination of unreacted hydrogen peroxide in the catalase activity assay. The reaction became widely used after publications by Korolyuk et al. (1988) and Goth (1991).",
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"plaintext": "Direct UV measurement of the decrease in the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is also widely used after the publications by Beers & Sizer and Aebi.",
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37,815 | 1,011,141,631 | Bulgakov | [
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"plaintext": "In mathematics, a Möbius strip, Möbius band, or Möbius loop is a surface that can be formed by attaching the ends of a strip of paper together with a half-twist. As a mathematical object, it was discovered by Johann Benedict Listing and August Ferdinand Möbius in 1858, but it had already appeared in Roman mosaics from the third century CE. The Möbius strip is a non-orientable surface, meaning that within it one cannot consistently distinguish clockwise from counterclockwise turns. Every non-orientable surface contains a Möbius strip.",
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"plaintext": "Several geometric constructions of the Möbius strip provide it with additional structure. It can be swept as a ruled surface by a line segment rotating in a rotating plane, with or without self-crossings. A thin paper strip with its ends joined to form a Möbius strip can bend smoothly as a developable surface or be folded flat; the flattened Möbius strips include the trihexaflexagon. The Sudanese Möbius strip is a minimal surface in a hypersphere, and the Meeks Möbius strip is a self-intersecting minimal surface in ordinary Euclidean space. Both the Sudanese Möbius strip and another self-intersecting Mobius strip, the cross-cap, have a circular boundary. A Möbius strip without its boundary, called an open Möbius strip, can form surfaces of constant curvature. Certain highly-symmetric spaces whose points represent lines in the plane have the shape of a Möbius strip.",
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"plaintext": "The many applications of Möbius strips include mechanical belts that wear evenly on both sides, dual-track roller coasters whose carriages alternate between the two tracks, and world maps printed so that antipodes appear opposite each other. Möbius strips appear in molecules and devices with novel electrical and electromechanical properties, and have been used to prove impossibility results in social choice theory. In popular culture, Möbius strips appear in artworks by M. C. Escher, Max Bill, and others, and in the design of the recycling symbol. Many architectural concepts have been inspired by the Möbius strip, including the building design for the NASCAR Hall of Fame. Performers including Harry Blackstone Sr. and Thomas Nelson Downs have based stage magic tricks on the properties of the Möbius strip. The canons of J. S. Bach have been analyzed using Möbius strips. Many works of speculative fiction feature Möbius strips; more generally, a plot structure based on the Möbius strip, of events that repeat with a twist, is common in fiction.",
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"plaintext": "The Möbius strip can be continuously transformed into its centerline, by making it narrower while fixing the points on the centerline. This transformation is an example of a deformation retraction, and its existence means that the Möbius strip has many of the same properties as its centerline, which is topologically a circle. In particular, its fundamental group is the same as the fundamental group of a circle, an infinite cyclic group. Therefore, paths on the Möbius strip that start and end at the same point can be distinguished topologically (up to homotopy) only by the number of times they loop around the strip.",
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"plaintext": "Cutting a Möbius strip along the centerline with a pair of scissors yields one long strip with two half-twists in it, rather than two separate strips. The result is not a Möbius strip, but instead is topologically equivalent to a cylinder. Cutting this double-twisted strip again along its centerline produces two linked double-twisted strips. If, instead, a Möbius strip is cut lengthwise, a third of the way across its width, it produces two linked strips. One of the two is a central, thinner, Möbius strip, while the other has two These interlinked shapes, formed by lengthwise slices of Möbius strips with varying widths, are sometimes called paradromic ",
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"plaintext": "The Möbius strip can be cut into six mutually-adjacent regions, showing that maps on the surface of the Möbius strip can sometimes require six colors, in contrast to the four color theorem for the Six colors are always enough. This result is part of the Ringel–Youngs theorem, which states how many colors each topological surface The edges and vertices of these six regions form Tietze's graph, which is a dual graph on this surface for the six-vertex complete graph but cannot be drawn without crossings on a plane. Another family of graphs that can be embedded on the Möbius strip, but not n the plane, are the Möbius ladders, the boundaries of subdivisions of the Möbius strip into rectangles meeting These include the utility graph, a six-vertex complete bipartite graph whose embedding into the Möbius strip shows that, unlike in the plane, the three utilities problem can be solved on a transparent Möbius The Euler characteristic of the Möbius strip is zero, meaning that for any subdivision of the strip by vertices and edges into regions, the numbers , , and of vertices, edges, and regions satisfy . For instance, Tietze's graph has vertices, edges, and regions; ",
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"plaintext": "There are many different ways of defining geometric surfaces with the topology of the Möbius strip, yielding realizations with additional geometric properties.",
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"plaintext": "One way to embed the Möbius strip in three-dimensional Euclidean space is to sweep it out by a line segment rotating in a plane, which in turn rotates around one of its For the swept surface to meet up with itself after a half-twist, the line segment should rotate around its center at half the angular velocity of the plane's rotation. This can be described as a parametric surface defined by equations for the Cartesian coordinates of its points,",
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"plaintext": "for and ",
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"plaintext": "where one parameter describes the rotation angle of the plane around its central axis and the other parameter describes the position of a point along the rotating line segment. This produces a Möbius strip of width 1, whose center circle has radius 1, lies in the -plane and is centered at The same method can produce Möbius strips with any odd number of half-twists, by rotating the segment more quickly in its plane. The rotating segment sweeps out a circular disk in the plane that it rotates within, and the Möbius strip that it generates forms a slice through the solid torus swept out by this disk. Because of the one-sidedness of this slice, the sliced torus remains ",
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"plaintext": "A line or line segment swept in a different motion, rotating in a horizontal plane around the origin as it moves up and down, forms Plücker's conoid or cylindroid, an algebraic ruled surface in the form of a self-crossing Möbius It has applications in the design of ",
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"plaintext": "A strip of paper can form a flattened Möbius strip in the plane by folding it at angles so that its center line lies along an equilateral triangle, and attaching the ends. The shortest strip for which this is possible consists of three equilateral triangles, folded at the edges where two triangles meet. Its aspect ratiothe ratio of the strip's length to its widthis and the same folding method works for any larger aspect For a strip of nine equilateral triangles, the result is a trihexaflexagon, which can be flexed to reveal different parts of its For strips too short to apply this method directly, one can first \"accordion fold\" the strip in its wide direction back and forth using an even number of folds. With two folds, for example, a strip would become a folded strip whose cross section is in the shape of an 'N' and would remain an 'N' after a half-twist. The narrower accordion-folded strip can then be folded and joined in the same way that a longer strip ",
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"plaintext": "The Möbius strip can also be embedded as a polyhedral surface in space or flat-folded in the plane, with only five triangular faces sharing five vertices. In this sense, it is simpler than the cylinder, which requires six triangles and six vertices, even when represented more abstractly as a simplicial complex. A five-triangle Möbius strip can be represented most symmetrically by five of the ten equilateral triangles of a four-dimensional regular simplex. This four-dimensional polyhedral Möbius strip is the only tight Möbius strip, one that is fully four-dimensional and for which all cuts by hyperplanes separate it into two parts that are topologically equivalent to disks or ",
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"plaintext": "Other polyhedral embeddings of Möbius strips include one with four convex quadrilaterals as faces, another with three non-convex quadrilateral and one using the vertices and center point of a regular octahedron, with a triangular Every abstract triangulation of the projective plane can be embedded into 3D as a polyhedral Möbius strip with a triangular boundary after removing one of its an example is the six-vertex projective plane obtained by adding one vertex to the five-vertex Möbius strip, connected by triangles to each of its boundary However, not every abstract triangulation of the Möbius strip can be represented geometrically, as a polyhedral To be realizable, it is necessary and sufficient that there be no two disjoint non-contractible 3-cycles in the ",
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"plaintext": "A rectangular Möbius strip, made by attaching the ends of a paper rectangle, can be embedded smoothly into three-dimensional space whenever its aspect ratio is greater than the same ratio as for the flat-folded equilateral-triangle version of the Möbius This flat triangular embedding can lift to a smooth embedding in three dimensions, in which the strip lies flat in three parallel planes between three cylindrical rollers, each tangent to two of the Mathematically, a smoothly embedded sheet of paper can be modeled as a developable surface, that can bend but cannot As its aspect ratio decreases toward , all smooth embeddings seem to approach the same triangular ",
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"plaintext": "The lengthwise folds of an accordion-folded flat Möbius strip prevent it from forming a three-dimensional embedding in which the layers are separated from each other and bend smoothly without crumpling or stretching away from the Instead, unlike in the flat-folded case, there is a lower limit to the aspect ratio of smooth rectangular Möbius strips. Their aspect ratio cannot be less than even if self-intersections are allowed. Self-intersecting smooth Möbius strips exist for any aspect ratio above this Without self-intersections, the aspect ratio must be at ",
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"plaintext": "For aspect ratios between this bound it is unknown whether smooth embeddings, without self-intersection, If the requirement of smoothness is relaxed to allow continuously differentiable surfaces, the Nash–Kuiper theorem implies that any two opposite edges of any rectangle can be glued to form an embedded Möbius strip, no matter how small the aspect ratio The limiting case, a surface obtained from an infinite strip of the plane between two parallel lines, glued with the opposite orientation to each other, is called the unbounded Möbius strip or the real tautological line bundle. Although it has no smooth embedding into three-dimensional space, it can be embedded smoothly into four-dimensional Euclidean ",
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"plaintext": "The minimum-energy shape of a smooth Möbius strip glued from a rectangle does not have a known analytic description, but can be calculated numerically, and has been the subject of much study in plate theory since the initial work on this subject in 1930 by Michael Sadowsky. It is also possible to find algebraic surfaces that contain rectangular developable Möbius ",
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"plaintext": "The edge, or boundary, of a Möbius strip is topologically equivalent to a circle. In common forms of the Möbius strip, it has a different shape from a circle, but it is unknotted, and therefore the whole strip can be stretched without crossing itself to make the edge perfectly One such example is based on the topology of the Klein bottle, a one-sided surface with no boundary that cannot be embedded into three-dimensional space, but can be immersed (allowing the surface to cross itself in certain restricted ways). A Klein bottle is the surface that results when two Möbius strips are glued together edge-to-edge, andreversing that processa Klein bottle can be sliced along a carefully chosen cut to produce two Möbius For a form of the Klein bottle known as Lawson's Klein bottle, the curve along which it is sliced can be made circular, resulting in Möbius strips with circular ",
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"plaintext": "Lawson's Klein bottle is a self-crossing minimal surface in the unit hypersphere of 4-dimensional space, the set of points of the form for Half of this Klein bottle, the subset with , gives a Möbius strip embedded in the hypersphere as a minimal surface with a great circle as its This embedding is sometimes called the \"Sudanese Möbius strip\" after topologists Sue Goodman and Daniel Asimov, who discovered it in the Geometrically Lawson's Klein bottle can be constructed by sweeping a great circle through a great-circular motion in the 3-sphere, and the Sudanese Möbius strip is obtained by sweeping a semicircle instead of a circle, or equivalently by slicing the Klein bottle along a circle that is perpendicular to all of the swept Stereographic projection transforms this shape from a three-dimensional spherical space into three-dimensional Euclidean space, preserving the circularity of its The most symmetric projection is obtained by using a projection point that lies on that great circle that runs through the midpoint of each of the semicircles, but produces an unbounded embedding with the projection point removed from its Instead, leaving the Sudanese Möbius strip unprojected, in the 3-sphere, leaves it with an infinite group of symmetries isomorphic to the orthogonal group the group of symmetries of a ",
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"plaintext": "The Sudanese Möbius strip extends on all sides of its boundary circle, unavoidably if the surface is to avoid crossing itself. Another form of the Möbius strip, called the cross-cap or crosscap, also has a circular boundary, but otherwise stays on only one side of the plane of this making it more convenient for attaching onto circular holes in other surfaces. In order to do so, it crosses itself. It can be formed by removing a quadrilateral from the top of a hemisphere, orienting the edges of the quadrilateral in alternating directions, and then gluing opposite pairs of these edges consistently with this The two parts of the surface formed by the two glued pairs of edges cross each other with a pinch point like that of a Whitney umbrella at each end of the crossing the same topological structure seen in Plücker's ",
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"plaintext": "The open Möbius strip is the relative interior of a standard Möbius strip, formed by omitting the points on its boundary edge. It may be given a Riemannian geometry of constant positive, negative, or zero Gaussian curvature. The cases of negative and zero curvature form geodesically complete surfaces, which means that all geodesics (\"straight lines\" on the surface) may be extended indefinitely in either direction.",
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"plaintext": "Zero curvature",
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"plaintext": "An open strip with zero curvature may be constructed by gluing the opposite sides of a plane strip between two parallel lines, described above as the tautological line The resulting metric makes the open Möbius strip into a (geodesically) complete flat surface (i.e., having zero Gaussian curvature everywhere). This is the unique metric on the Möbius strip, up to uniform scaling, that is both flat and complete. It is the quotient space of a plane by a glide reflection, and (together with the plane, cylinder, torus, and Klein bottle) is one of only five two-dimensional complete ",
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"plaintext": "Negative curvature",
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"plaintext": "The open Möbius strip also admits complete metric of constant negative curvature. One way to see this is to begin with the upper half plane (Poincaré) model of the hyperbolic plane, a geometry of constant curvature whose lines are represented in the model by semicircles that meet the -axis at right angles. Take the subset of the upper half-plane between any two nested semicircles, and identify the outer semicircle with the left-right reversal of the inner semicircle. The result is topologically a complete and non-compact Möbius strip with constant negative curvature. It is a \"nonstandard\" complete hyperbolic surface in the sense that it contains a complete hyperbolic half-plane (actually two, on opposite sides of the axis of glide-reflection), and is one of only 13 nonstandard Again, this can be understood as the quotient of the hyperbolic plane by a glide ",
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"plaintext": "Positive curvature",
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"plaintext": "A Möbius strip of constant positive curvature cannot be complete, since it is known that the only complete surfaces of constant positive curvature are the sphere and the projective plane. However, in a sense it is only one point away from being a complete surface, as the open Möbius strip is homeomorphic to the once-punctured projective plane, the surface obtained by removing any one point from the projective ",
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"plaintext": "The minimal surfaces are described as having constant zero mean curvature instead of constant Gaussian curvature. The Sudanese Möbius strip was constructed as a minimal surface bounded by a great circle in a 3-sphere, but there is also a unique complete (boundaryless) minimal surface immersed in Euclidean space that has the topology of an open Möbius strip. It is called the Meeks Möbius after its 1982 description by William Hamilton Meeks, III. Although globally unstable as a minimal surface, small patches of it, bounded by non-contractible curves within the surface, can form stable embedded Möbius strips as minimal Both the Meeks Möbius strip, and every higher-dimensional minimal surface with the topology of the Möbius strip, can be constructed using solutions to the Björling problem, which defines a minimal surface uniquely from its boundary curve and tangent planes along this ",
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"plaintext": "The family of lines in the plane can be given the structure of a smooth space, with each line represented as a point in this space.",
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"plaintext": "The resulting space of lines is topologically equivalent to the open Möbius One way to see this is to extend the Euclidean plane to the real projective plane by adding one more line, the line at infinity. By projective duality the space of lines in the projective plane is equivalent to its space of points, the projective plane itself. Removing the line at infinity, to produce the space of Euclidean lines, punctures this space of projective Therefore, the space of Euclidean lines is a punctured projective plane, which is one of the forms of the open Möbius The space of lines in the hyperbolic plane can be parameterized by unordered pairs of distinct points on a circle, the pairs of points at infinity of each line. This space, again, has the topology of an open Möbius ",
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"plaintext": "These spaces of lines are highly symmetric. The symmetries of Euclidean lines include the affine transformations, and the symmetries of hyperbolic lines include the The affine transformations and Möbius transformations both form Lie groups, topological spaces having a compatible algebraic structure describing the composition of Because every line in the plane is symmetric to every other line, the open Möbius strip is a homogeneous space, a space with symmetries that take every point to every other point. Homogeneous spaces of Lie groups are called solvmanifolds, and the Möbius strip can be used as a counterexample, showing that not every solvmanifold is a nilmanifold, and that not every solvmanifold can be factored into a direct product of a compact solvmanifold These symmetries also provide another way to construct the Möbius strip itself, as a group model of these Lie groups. A group model consists of a Lie group and a stabilizer subgroup of its action; contracting the cosets of the subgroup to points produces a space with the same topology as the underlying homogenous space. In the case of the symmetries of Euclidean lines, the stabilizer of the consists of all symmetries that take the axis to itself. Each line corresponds to a coset, the set of symmetries that map to the Therefore, the quotient space, a space that has one point per coset and inherits its topology from the space of symmetries, is the same as the space of lines, and is again an open Möbius ",
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"plaintext": "Beyond the already-discussed applications of Möbius strips to the design of mechanical belts that wear evenly on their entire surface, and of the Plücker conoid to the design of gears, other applications of Möbius strips include:",
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"plaintext": "Graphene ribbons twisted to form Möbius strips with new electronic characteristics including helical magnetism",
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"plaintext": "Möbius aromaticity, a property of organic chemicals whose molecular structure forms a cycle, with molecular orbitals aligned along the cycle in the pattern of a Möbius strip",
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"plaintext": "The Möbius resistor, a strip of conductive material covering the single side of a dielectric Möbius strip, in a way that cancels its own self-inductance",
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"plaintext": "Resonators with a compact design and a resonant frequency that is half that of identically constructed linear coils",
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"plaintext": "Polarization patterns in light emerging from a q-plate",
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"plaintext": "A proof of the impossibility of continuous, anonymous, and unanimous two-party aggregation rules in social choice theory",
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"plaintext": "Möbius loop roller coasters, a form of dual-tracked roller coaster in which the two tracks spiral around each other an odd number of times, so that the carriages return to the other track than the one they started on",
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"plaintext": "World maps projected onto a Möbius strip with the convenient properties that there are no east–west boundaries, and that the antipode of any point on the map can be found on the other printed side of the surface at the same point of the Möbius strip",
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37,828 | 1,104,595,740 | DNF | [
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37,830 | 1,105,594,163 | Solid-propellant_rocket | [
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"plaintext": "A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants (fuel/oxidizer). The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder; they were used in warfare by the Arabs, Chinese, Persians, Mongols, and Indians as early as the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "All rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are still used today in military armaments worldwide, model rockets, solid rocket boosters and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability.",
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"plaintext": "Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for an extended period without much propellant degradation and because they almost always launch reliably, they have been frequently used in military applications such as missiles. The lower performance of solid propellants (as compared to liquids) does not favor their use as primary propulsion in modern medium-to-large launch vehicles customarily used to orbit commercial satellites and launch major space probes. Solids are, however, frequently used as strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as light launch vehicles for low Earth orbit (LEO) payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to .",
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"plaintext": "A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain (propellant charge), and igniter.",
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"plaintext": "The solid grain mass burns in a predictable fashion to produce exhaust gases, the flow of which is described by Taylor–Culick flow. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, while producing thrust from the exhaust gases.",
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"plaintext": "Once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can be throttled, and also be extinguished, and then re-ignited by control of the nozzle geometry, or through the use of vent ports. Further, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments, and that can be ignited upon command are available.",
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"plaintext": "Modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle for guidance, avionics, recovery hardware (parachutes), self-destruct mechanisms, APUs, controllable tactical motors, controllable divert and attitude control motors, and thermal management materials.",
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"plaintext": "The medieval Song dynasty Chinese invented a very primitive form of solid-propellant rocket. Illustrations and descriptions in the 14th century Chinese military treatise Huolongjing by the Ming dynasty military writer and philosopher Jiao Yu confirm that the Chinese in 1232 used proto solid propellant rockets then known as \"fire arrows\" to drive back the Mongols during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng. Each arrow took a primitive form of a simple, solid-propellant rocket tube that was filled with gunpowder. One open end allowed the gas to escape and was attached to a long stick that acted as a guidance system for flight direction control.",
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"plaintext": "The first rockets with tubes of cast iron were used by the Kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 1750s. These rockets had a reach of targets up to a mile and a half away. These were extremely effective in the Second Anglo-Mysore War that ended in a humiliating defeat for the British Empire. Word of the success of the Mysore rockets against the British Imperial power triggered research in England, France, Ireland and elsewhere. When the British finally conquered the fort of Srirangapatana in 1799, hundreds of rockets were shipped off to the Royal Arsenal near London to be reverse-engineered. This led to the first industrial manufacture of military rockets with the Congreve rocket in 1804.",
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"plaintext": "In 1921 the Soviet research and development laboratory Gas Dynamics Laboratory began developing solid-propellant rockets, which resulted in the first launch in 1928, that flew for approximately 1,300 metres. These rockets were used in 1931 for the world's first successful use of rockets to assist take-off of aircraft. The research continued from 1933 by the Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII) with the development of the RS-82 and RS-132 rockets, including designing several variations for ground-to-air, ground-to-ground, air-to-ground and air-to-air combat. The earliest known use by the Soviet Air Force of aircraft-launched unguided anti-aircraft rockets in combat against heavier-than-air aircraft took place in August 1939, during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. In June 1938, the RNII began developing a multiple rocket launcher based on the RS-132 rocket. In August 1939, the completed product was the BM-13 / Katyusha rocket launcher. Towards the end of 1938 the first significant large scale testing of the rocket launchers took place, 233 rockets of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of . By the end of World War II total production of rocket launchers reached about 10,000. with 12 million rockets of the RS type produced for the Soviet armed forces.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States modern castable composite solid rocket motors were invented by the American aerospace engineer Jack Parsons at Caltech in 1942 when he replaced double base propellant with roofing asphalt and potassium perchlorate. This made possible slow-burning rocket motors of adequate size and with sufficient shelf-life for jet-assisted take off applications. Charles Bartley, employed at JPL (Caltech), substituted curable synthetic rubber for the gooey asphalt, creating a flexible but geometrically stable load-bearing propellant grain that bonded securely to the motor casing. This made possible much larger solid rocket motors. Atlantic Research Corporation significantly boosted composite propellant Isp in 1954 by increasing the amount of powdered aluminium in the propellant to as much as 20%.",
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"plaintext": "Solid-propellant rocket technology got its largest boost in technical innovation, size and capability with the various mid-20th century government initiatives to develop increasingly capable military missiles. After initial designs of ballistic missile military technology designed with liquid-propellant rockets in the 1940s and 1950s, both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on major initiatives to develop solid-propellant local, regional, and intercontinental ballistic missiles, including solid-propellant missiles that could be launched from air or sea. Many other governments also developed these military technologies over the next 50 years.",
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"plaintext": "By the later 1980s and continuing to 2020, these government-developed highly-capable solid rocket technologies have been applied to orbital spaceflight by many government-directed programs, most often as booster rockets to add extra thrust during the early ascent of their primarily liquid rocket launch vehicles. Some designs have had solid rocket upper stages as well. Examples flying in the 2010s include the European Ariane 5, US Atlas V and Space Shuttle, and Japan's H-II.",
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"plaintext": "The largest solid rocket motors ever built were Aerojet's three monolithic solid motors cast in Florida. Motors 260 SL-1 and SL-2 were in diameter, long, weighed , and had a maximum thrust of . Burn duration was two minutes. The nozzle throat was large enough to walk through standing up. The motor was capable of serving as a 1-to-1 replacement for the 8-engine Saturn I liquid-propellant first stage but was never used as such. Motor 260 SL-3 was of similar length and weight but had a maximum thrust of and a shorter duration.",
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"plaintext": "Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel and oxidizer mass. Grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics.",
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"plaintext": "The following are chosen or solved simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries:",
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"plaintext": " The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure.",
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"plaintext": " The chamber pressure is determined by the nozzle throat diameter and grain burn rate.",
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"plaintext": " Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design.",
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"plaintext": " The length of burn time is determined by the grain \"web thickness\".",
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"plaintext": "The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing. Case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible.",
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"plaintext": "Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding, and air pockets in the grain. All of these produce an instantaneous increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure, which may rupture the casing.",
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"plaintext": "Another failure mode is casing seal failure. Seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and result in failure. This was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.",
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"plaintext": "Solid rocket fuel deflagrates from the surface of exposed propellant in the combustion chamber. In this fashion, the geometry of the propellant inside the rocket motor plays an important role in the overall motor performance. As the surface of the propellant burns, the shape evolves (a subject of study in internal ballistics), most often changing the propellant surface area exposed to the combustion gases. Since the propellant volume is equal to the cross sectional area times the fuel length, the volumetric propellant consumption rate is the cross section area times the linear burn rate , and the instantaneous mass flow rate of combustion gases generated is equal to the volumetric rate times the fuel density :",
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"plaintext": " Circular bore: if in BATES configuration, produces progressive-regressive thrust curve.",
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"plaintext": " End burner: propellant burns from one axial end to other producing steady long burn, though has thermal difficulties, center of gravity (CG) shift.",
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"plaintext": " C-slot: propellant with large wedge cut out of side (along axial direction), producing fairly long regressive thrust, though has thermal difficulties and asymmetric CG characteristics.",
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"plaintext": " Moon burner: off-center circular bore produces progressive-regressive long burn, though has slight asymmetric CG characteristics",
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"plaintext": " Finocyl: usually a 5- or 6-legged star-like shape that can produce very level thrust, with a bit quicker burn than circular bore due to increased surface area.",
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"plaintext": "The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for small black powder model motors, whereas aluminium is used for larger composite-fuel hobby motors. Steel was used for the space shuttle boosters. Filament-wound graphite epoxy casings are used for high-performance motors.",
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"plaintext": "To protect the casing from corrosive hot gases, a sacrificial thermal liner on the inside of the casing is often implemented, which ablates to prolong the life of the motor casing.",
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"plaintext": "A convergent-divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust. The nozzle must be constructed from a material that can withstand the heat of the combustion gas flow. Often, heat-resistant carbon-based materials are used, such as amorphous graphite or carbon-carbon.",
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"plaintext": "LITV consists of injecting a liquid into the exhaust stream after the nozzle throat. The liquid then vaporizes, and in most cases chemically reacts, adding mass flow to one side of the exhaust stream and thus providing a control moment. For example, the Titan IIIC solid boosters injected nitrogen tetroxide for LITV; the tanks can be seen on the sides of the rocket between the main center stage and the boosters.",
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"plaintext": "An early Minuteman first stage used a single motor with four gimballed nozzles to provide pitch, yaw, and roll control.",
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"plaintext": "A typical, well-designed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP) first-stage motor may have a vacuum specific impulse (I) as high as (Titan IVB SRMU). This compares to for RP1/LOX (RD-180) and for LH2/LOX (Block II RS-25) bipropellant engines. Upper stage specific impulses are somewhat greater: as much as for APCP (Orbus 6E), for RP1/LOX (RD-0124) and for LH2/LOX (RL10B-2). Propellant fractions are usually somewhat higher for (non-segmented) solid propellant first stages than for upper stages. The Castor 120 first stage has a propellant mass fraction of 92.23% while the Castor 30 upper stage developed for Orbital Science's Taurus II COTS(Commercial Off The Shelf) (International Space Station resupply) launch vehicle has a 91.3% propellant fraction with 2.9% graphite epoxy motor casing, 2.4% nozzle, igniter and thrust vector actuator, and 3.4% non-motor hardware including such things as payload mount, interstage adapter, cable raceway, instrumentation, etc. Castor 120 and Castor 30 are in diameter, respectively, and serve as stages on the Athena IC and IIC commercial launch vehicles. A four-stage Athena II using Castor 120s as both first and second stages became the first commercially developed launch vehicle to launch a lunar probe (Lunar Prospector) in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost. For this reason, solids have been used as initial stages in rockets (for example the Space Shuttle), while reserving high specific impulse engines, especially less massive hydrogen-fueled engines, for higher stages. In addition, solid rockets have a long history as the final boost stage for satellites due to their simplicity, reliability, compactness and reasonably high mass fraction. A spin-stabilized solid rocket motor is sometimes added when extra velocity is required, such as for a mission to a comet or the outer solar system, because a spinner does not require a guidance system (on the newly added stage). Thiokol's extensive family of mostly titanium-cased Star space motors has been widely used, especially on Delta launch vehicles and as spin-stabilized upper stages to launch satellites from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94.6% but add-on structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2% or more.",
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"plaintext": "Higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles (as opposed to commercial launch vehicles). HMX, C4H8N4(NO2)4, a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate, was used in the propellant of the Peacekeeper ICBM and is the main ingredient in NEPE-75 propellant used in the Trident II D-5 Fleet Ballistic Missile. It is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military solid propellants containing HMX are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the LV is an adapted ballistic missile already containing HMX propellant (Minotaur IV and V based on the retired Peacekeeper ICBMs). The Naval Air Weapons Station at China Lake, California, developed a new compound, C6H6N6(NO2)6, called simply CL-20 (China Lake compound #20). Compared to HMX, CL-20 has 14% more energy per mass, 20% more energy per volume, and a higher oxygen-to-fuel ratio. One of the motivations for development of these very high energy density military solid propellants is to achieve mid-course exo-atmospheric ABM capability from missiles small enough to fit in existing ship-based below-deck vertical launch tubes and air-mobile truck-mounted launch tubes. CL-20 propellant compliant with Congress' 2004 insensitive munitions (IM) law has been demonstrated and may, as its cost comes down, be suitable for use in commercial launch vehicles, with a very significant increase in performance compared with the currently favored APCP solid propellants. With a specific impulse of 309 s already demonstrated by Peacekeeper's second stage using HMX propellant, the higher energy of CL-20 propellant can be expected to increase specific impulse to around 320 s in similar ICBM or launch vehicle upper stage applications, without the explosive hazard of HMX.",
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124,
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959,
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"plaintext": "An attractive attribute for military use is the ability for solid rocket propellant to remain loaded in the rocket for long durations and then be reliably launched at a moment's notice.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Black powder (gunpowder) is composed of charcoal (fuel), potassium nitrate (oxidizer), and sulfur (fuel and catalyst). It is one of the oldest pyrotechnic compositions with application to rocketry. In modern times, black powder finds use in low-power model rockets (such as Estes and Quest rockets), as it is cheap and fairly easy to produce. The fuel grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder (into a solid, hard slug), with a burn rate that is highly dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions. The performance or specific impulse of black powder is low, around 80seconds. The grain is sensitive to fracture and, therefore, catastrophic failure. Black powder does not typically find use in motors above .",
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91,
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274,
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{
"plaintext": "Composed of powdered zinc metal and powdered sulfur (oxidizer), ZS or \"micrograin\" is another pressed propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its poor performance (as most ZS burns outside the combustion chamber) and fast linear burn rates on the order of 2m/s. ZS is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely quickly leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it.",
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21,
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"plaintext": "In general, rocket candy propellants are an oxidizer (typically potassium nitrate) and a sugar fuel (typically dextrose, sorbitol, or sucrose) that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents together and pouring or packing the amorphous colloid into a mold. Candy propellants generate a low-medium specific impulse of roughly 130s and, thus, are used primarily by amateur and experimental rocketeers.",
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121,
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134,
141
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250,
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],
[
260,
267
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]
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{
"plaintext": "DB propellants are composed of two monopropellant fuel components where one typically acts as a high-energy (yet unstable) monopropellant and the other acts as a lower-energy stabilizing (and gelling) monopropellant. In typical circumstances, nitroglycerin is dissolved in a nitrocellulose gel and solidified with additives. DB propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet medium-high performance (Isp of roughly 235s) is required. The addition of metal fuels (such as aluminium) can increase the performance (around 250s), though metal oxide nucleation in the exhaust can turn the smoke opaque.",
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578,
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{
"plaintext": "A powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder (that also acts as a fuel). Composite propellants are often either ammonium nitrate-based (ANCP) or ammonium perchlorate-based (APCP). Ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses magnesium and/or aluminium as fuel and delivers medium performance (Isp of about 210s) whereas ammonium perchlorate composite propellant often uses aluminium fuel and delivers high performance (vacuum Isp up to 296s with a single piece nozzle or 304s with a high area ratio telescoping nozzle). Aluminium is used as fuel because it has a reasonable specific energy density, a high volumetric energy density, and is difficult to ignite accidentally. Composite propellants are cast, and retain their shape after the rubber binder, such as Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), cross-links (solidifies) with the aid of a curative additive. Because of its high performance, moderate ease of manufacturing, and moderate cost, APCP finds widespread use in space rockets, military rockets, hobby and amateur rockets, whereas cheaper and less efficient ANCP finds use in amateur rocketry and gas generators. Ammonium dinitramide, NH4N(NO2)2, is being considered as a 1-to-1 chlorine-free substitute for ammonium perchlorate in composite propellants. Unlike ammonium nitrate, ADN can be substituted for AP without a loss in motor performance.",
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"section_name": "Propellant families",
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1191,
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{
"plaintext": "Polyurethane-bound aluminium-APCP solid fuel was used in the submarine launched Polaris missiles. APCP used in the space shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters consisted of ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer, 69.6% by weight), aluminium (fuel, 16%), iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4%), polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN) polymer (a non-urethane rubber binder that held the mixture together and acted as secondary fuel, 12.04%), and an epoxy curing agent (1.96%). It developed a specific impulse of 242 seconds (2.37km/s) at sea level or 268 seconds (2.63km/s) in a vacuum. The 2005-2009 Constellation Program was to use a similar PBAN-bound APCP.",
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"section_name": "Propellant families",
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80,
95
],
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115,
150
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423,
429
],
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569,
590
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 2009, a group succeeded in creating a propellant of water and nanoaluminium (ALICE).",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Propellant families",
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33306,
24077150
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55,
60
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80,
85
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{
"plaintext": "Typical HEC propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture (such as APCP) and add a high-energy explosive to the mix. This extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of RDX or HMX, both of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate. Despite a modest increase in specific impulse, implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high-explosive additives.",
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"section_name": "Propellant families",
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7499,
57076
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199,
202
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206,
209
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin double base propellant as a binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate (AP) and powdered aluminium) normally used in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose, improving the overall specific impulse. The aluminium improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability. High performing propellants such as NEPE-75 used to fuel the Trident II D-5, SLBM replace most of the AP with polyethylene glycol-bound HMX, further increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base propellants.",
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"section_name": "Propellant families",
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474,
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[
499,
509
],
[
515,
519
],
[
548,
567
],
[
574,
577
]
]
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{
"plaintext": "One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy, minimum-signature propellant using C6H6N6(NO2)6 CL-20 nitroamine (China Lake compound #20), which has 14% higher energy per mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new propellant has been successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant is non-polluting: acid-free, solid particulates-free, and lead-free. It is also smokeless and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent exhaust. Without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants, these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are fired. The new CL-20 propellant is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as opposed to current HMX smokeless propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is considered a major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use because costs remain high.",
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141,
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159,
169
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},
{
"plaintext": "Electric solid propellants (ESPs) are a family of high performance plastisol solid propellants that can be ignited and throttled by the application of electric current. Unlike conventional rocket motor propellants that are difficult to control and extinguish, ESPs can be ignited reliably at precise intervals and durations. It requires no moving parts and the propellant is insensitive to flames or electrical sparks.",
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17863569
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"anchor_spans": [
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67,
76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Solid propellant rocket motors can be bought for use in model rocketry; they are normally small cylinders of black powder fuel with an integral nozzle and optionally a small charge that is set off when the propellant is exhausted after a time delay. This charge can be used to trigger a camera, or deploy a parachute. Without this charge and delay, the motor may ignite a second stage (black powder only).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Hobby and amateur rocketry",
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48339,
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56,
68
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144,
150
],
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287,
293
],
[
307,
316
],
[
379,
384
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In mid- and high-power rocketry, commercially made APCP motors are widely used. They can be designed as either single-use or reloadables. These motors are available in impulse ranges from \"A\" (1.26Ns– 2.50Ns) to \"O\"(20.48KNs – 40.96KNs), from several manufacturers. They are manufactured in standardized diameters, and varying lengths depending on required impulse. Standard motor diameters are 13, 18, 24, 29, 38, 54, 75, 98, and 150 millimeters. Different propellant formulations are available to produce different thrust profiles, as well as \"special effects\" such as colored flames, smoke trails, or large quantities of sparks (produced by adding titanium sponge to the mix).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Hobby and amateur rocketry",
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1770333,
30040
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
31
],
[
651,
659
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Almost all sounding rockets use solid motors.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
256109
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Astrobee",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1440813
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Black Brant",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
524716
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " S-310, S-520",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1508300,
1508300
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Terrier-Orion, Terrier-Malemute",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
20842212,
34354197
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
16,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " VSB-30",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
11665302
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Due to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used on missiles and ICBMs.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Air-to-air missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
18933313
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ballistic missiles: Jericho, Sejjil",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
216096,
20187295
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
28
],
[
30,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " ICBMs: LGM-30 Minuteman, UGM-133 Trident II, LGM-118 Peacekeeper, RT-2PM Topol, DF-41, M51 SLBM",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
49365,
675834,
201975,
1069877,
17723980,
1240280
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"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
24
],
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26,
44
],
[
46,
65
],
[
67,
79
],
[
81,
86
],
[
88,
96
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially if three or more stages are used. Many of these are based on repurposed ICBMs.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Scout",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1407208
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Athena",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
5943897
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mu",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1473309
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
3
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pegasus",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
740095
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taurus",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1881922
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minotaur",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
2753754
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Start-1",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
6889624
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " PSLV - alternating solid and liquid stages",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
87327
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shavit",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
739814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vega",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
436518
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Long March 11",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
38710968
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " OmegA",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
51138225
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Larger liquid-fueled orbital rockets often use solid rocket boosters to gain enough initial thrust to launch the fully fueled rocket.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Delta II",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
421565
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Titan IV",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
842028
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Space Shuttle",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
28189
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Space Launch System",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
31368179
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ariane 5",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
3111
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Atlas II",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
848881
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Atlas V (optionally 1-5 boosters)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
1824778
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Delta IV (optionally 2 or 4 boosters)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
647503
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " H-IIA, H-IIB",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
903898,
2577852
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " PSLV - optional solid boosters to lift heavier payloads",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
87327
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " GSLV Mk III",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
5900708
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Solid fuel is also used for some upper stages, particularly the Star 37 (sometimes referred to as the \"Burner\" upper stage) and the Star 48 (sometimes referred to as the \"Payload Assist Module\", or PAM), both manufactured originally by Thiokol, and today by Northrop Grumman. They are used to lift large payloads to intended orbits (such as the Global Positioning System satellites), or smaller payloads to interplanetary—or even interstellar—trajectories. Another solid-fuel upper stage, used by the Space Shuttle and the Titan IV, was the Boeing-manufactured Inertial Upper Stage (IUS).",
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"section_name": "Use",
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36037037,
8985161,
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1598307,
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842028,
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64,
71
],
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132,
139
],
[
171,
192
],
[
236,
243
],
[
258,
274
],
[
345,
370
],
[
501,
514
],
[
523,
531
],
[
541,
547
],
[
561,
581
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 were both sent out of the solar system by Star 37E upper stages from Atlas-Centaur rockets.",
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"section_name": "Use",
"target_page_ids": [
38198,
24981,
1431069
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
16,
26
],
[
96,
109
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were both sent out of the solar system by Star 37E upper stages from Titan IIIE rockets.",
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"section_name": "Use",
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32781,
32782,
21250074
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
15,
24
],
[
94,
104
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Magellan was sent to Venus on an IUS after being deployed from Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-30.",
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"plaintext": " List of missiles",
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"plaintext": " List of military rockets",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fireworks",
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59493
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pyrotechnic composition",
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6121100
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},
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"plaintext": " Intercontinental ballistic missile",
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14939
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},
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"plaintext": " Jetex engine",
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},
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"plaintext": " Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster",
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},
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"plaintext": " Crawford burner",
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1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nano-thermite",
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"target_page_ids": [
3051710
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Skyrocket",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
224894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert A. Braeunig rocket propulsion page",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Astronautix Composite Solid Propellants",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ariane 5 SRB",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Amateur High Power Rocketry Association",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nakka-Rocketry (Design Calculations and Propellant Formulations)",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 5 cent sugar rocket",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Practical Rocketry ",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " NASA Practical Rocketry",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
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"Indian_inventions",
"Rocket_engines",
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"solid rocket",
"solid-fuel rocket"
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37,831 | 1,107,740,884 | Hybrid-propellant_rocket | [
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"plaintext": "A hybrid-propellant rocket is a rocket with a rocket motor that uses rocket propellants in two different phases: one solid and the other either gas or liquid. The hybrid rocket concept can be traced back to the early 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Hybrid rockets avoid some of the disadvantages of solid rockets like the dangers of propellant handling, while also avoiding some disadvantages of liquid rockets like their mechanical complexity. Because it is difficult for the fuel and oxidizer to be mixed intimately (being different states of matter), hybrid rockets tend to fail more benignly than liquids or solids. Like liquid rocket engines, hybrid rocket motors can be shut down easily and the thrust is throttleable. The theoretical specific impulse () performance of hybrids is generally higher than solid motors and lower than liquid engines. as high as 400s has been measured in a hybrid rocket using metalized fuels. Hybrid systems are more complex than solid ones, but they avoid significant hazards of manufacturing, shipping and handling solid rocket motors by storing the oxidizer and the fuel separately.",
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"plaintext": "The first work on hybrid rockets was performed in the early 1930s at the Soviet Group for the Study of Reactive Motion. Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov, who would later supervise the design of Sputnik I and the Luna programme, was responsible for the first hybrid propelled rocket launch, the GIRD-9, on 17 August 1933, which reached an altitude of . In the late 1930s at IG Farben in Germany and concurrently at the California Rocket Society in the United States. Leonid Andrussow, working in Germany, theorized hybrid propellant rockets. O. Lutz, W. Noeggerath, and Andrussow tested a hybrid rocket motor using coal and gaseous N2O as the propellants. Oberth also worked on a hybrid rocket motor using LOX as the oxidizer and graphite as the fuel. The high heat of sublimation of carbon prevented these rocket motors from operating efficiently, as it resulted in a negligible burning rate.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1940s, the California Pacific Rocket Society used LOX in combination with several different fuel types, including wood, wax, and rubber. The most successful of these tests was with the rubber fuel, which is still the dominant fuel in use today. In June1951, a LOX / rubber rocket was flown to an altitude of .",
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"plaintext": "Two major efforts occurred in the 1950s. One of these efforts was by G. Moore and K. Berman at General Electric. The duo used 90% high test peroxide (HTP, or H2O2) and polyethylene (PE) in a rod and tube grain design. They drew several significant conclusions from their work. The fuel grain had uniform burning. Grain cracks did not affect combustion, like it does with solid rocket motors. No hard starts were observed (a hard start is a pressure spike seen close to the time of ignition, typical of liquid rocket engines). The fuel surface acted as a flame holder, which encouraged stable combustion. The oxidizer could be throttled with one valve, and a high oxidizer to fuel ratio helped simplify combustion. The negative observations were low burning rates and that the thermal instability of peroxide was problematic for safety reasons. Another effort that occurred in the 1950s was the development of a reverse hybrid. In a standard hybrid rocket motor, the solid material is the fuel. In a reverse hybrid rocket motor, the oxidizer is solid. William Avery of the Applied Physics Laboratory used jet fuel and ammonium nitrate, selected for their low cost. His O/F ratio was 0.035, which was 200times smaller than the ratio used by Moore and Berman.",
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"plaintext": "In 1953 Pacific Rocket Society (est. 1943) was developing the XDF-23, a × hybrid rocket, designed by Jim Nuding, using LOX and rubber polymer called \"Thiokol\". They had already tried other fuels in prior iterations including cotton, paraffin wax and wood. The XDF name itself comes from \"experimental Douglas fir\" from one of the first units.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, European organizations also began work on hybrid rockets. ONERA, based in France, and Volvo Flygmotor, based in Sweden, developed sounding rockets using hybrid rocket motor technology. The ONERA group focused on a hypergolic rocket motor, using nitric acid and an amine fuel. The company flew eight rockets: Once in April1964, three times in June1965, and four times in 1967. The maximum altitude the flights achieved was over . The Volvo Flygmotor group also used a hypergolic propellant combination. They also used nitric acid for their oxidizer, but used Tagaform (polybutadiene with an aromatic amine) as their fuel. Their flight was in 1969, lofting a payload to .",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, in the United States, United Technologies Center (Chemical Systems Division) and Beech Aircraft were working on a supersonic target drone, known as Sandpiper. It used MON-25 (mixed 25% NO, 75% N2O4) as the oxidizer and polymethyl methacrylate (PMM) and Mg for the fuel. The drone flew six times in 1968, for more than 300seconds and to an altitude greater than . The second iteration of the rocket, known as the HAST, had IRFNA-PB/PMM for its propellants and was throttleable over a 10/1 range. HAST could carry a heavier payload than the Sandpiper. Another iteration, which used the same propellant combination as the HAST, was developed by Chemical Systems Division and Teledyne Aircraft. Development for this program ended in the mid-1980s. Chemical Systems Division also worked on a propellant combination of lithium and FLOx (mixed F2 and O2). This was an efficient hypergolic rocket that was throttleable. The vacuum specific impulse was 380seconds at 93% combustion efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "American Rocket Company (AMROC) developed the largest hybrid rockets ever created in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The first version of their engine, fired at the Air Force Phillips Laboratory, produced of thrust for 70seconds with a propellant combination of LOX and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) rubber. The second version of the motor, known as the H-250F, produced more than of thrust.",
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"plaintext": "Korey Kline of Environmental Aeroscience Corporation (eAc) first fired a gaseous oxygen and rubber hybrid in 1982 at Lucerne Dry Lake, CA, after discussions on the technology with Bill Wood, formerly with Westinghouse. The first SpaceShipOne hybrid tests were successfully conducted by Kline and eAc at Mojave, CA.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, the U.S. Air Force Academy flew a hybrid sounding rocket to an altitude of . The rocket used HTPB and LOX for its propellant, and reached a peak thrust of and had a thrust duration of 16seconds.",
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"plaintext": "In its simplest form, a hybrid rocket consists of a pressure vessel (tank) containing the liquid oxidiser, the combustion chamber containing the solid propellant, and a mechanical device separating the two. When thrust is desired, a suitable ignition source is introduced in the combustion chamber and the valve is opened. The liquid oxidiser (or gas) flows into the combustion chamber where it is vaporized and then reacted with the solid propellant. Combustion occurs in a boundary layer diffusion flame adjacent to the surface of the solid propellant.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, the liquid propellant is the oxidizer and the solid propellant is the fuel because solid oxidizers are extremely dangerous and lower performing than liquid oxidizers. Furthermore, using a solid fuel such as Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) or paraffin wax allows for the incorporation of high-energy fuel additives such as aluminium, lithium, or metal hydrides.",
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"plaintext": "The governing equation for hybrid rocket combustion shows that the regression rate is dependent on the oxidizer mass flux rate, which means the rate that the fuel will burn is proportional to the amount of oxidizer flowing through the port. This differs from a solid rocket motor, in which the regression rate is proportional to the chamber pressure of the motor.",
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"plaintext": "where is the regression rate, is the regression rate coefficient (incorporating the grain length), is the oxidizer mass flux rate, and is the regression rate exponent.",
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"plaintext": "As the motor burns, the increase in diameter of the fuel port results in an increased fuel mass flow rate. This phenomenon makes the oxidizer to fuel ratio (O/F) shift during the burn. The increased fuel mass flow rate can be compensated for by also increasing the oxidizer mass flow rate. In addition to the O/F varying as a function of time, it also varies based on the position down the fuel grain. The closer the position is to the top of the fuel grain, the higher the O/F ratio. Since the O/F varies down the port, a point called the stoichiometric point may exist at some point down the grain.",
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"plaintext": "Hybrid rocket motors exhibit some obvious as well as some subtle advantages over liquid-fuel rockets and solid-fuel rockets. A brief summary of some of these is given below:",
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"plaintext": " Mechanically simpler – requires only a single liquid propellant resulting in less plumbing, fewer valves, and simpler operations.",
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"plaintext": " Denser fuel – fuels in the solid phase generally have higher density than those in the liquid phase, reducing overall system volume.",
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"plaintext": " Metal additives – reactive metals such as aluminium, magnesium, lithium or beryllium can be easily included in the fuel grain increasing specific impulse (), density, or both.",
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"plaintext": " Combustion instabilities – Hybrid rockets do not typically exhibit high frequency combustion instabilities that plague liquid rockets due to the solid fuel grain breaking up acoustic waves that would otherwise reflect in an open liquid engine combustion chamber.",
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"plaintext": " Propellant pressurization – One of the most difficult to design portions of a liquid rocket system are the turbopumps. Turbopump design is complex as it has to precisely and efficiently pump and keep separated two fluids of different properties in precise ratios at very high volumetric flow rates, often cryogenic temperatures, and highly volatile chemicals while combusting those same fluids in order to power itself. Hybrids have far less fluid to move and can often be pressurized by a blow-down system (which would be prohibitively heavy in a liquid rocket) or self-pressurized oxidizers (such as N2O).",
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"plaintext": " Cooling – Liquid rockets often depend on one of the propellants, typically the fuel, to cool the combustion chamber and nozzle due to the very high heat fluxes and vulnerability of the metal walls to oxidation and stress cracking. Hybrid rockets have combustion chambers that are lined with the solid propellant which shields it from the product gases. Their nozzles are often graphite or coated in ablative materials similarly to solid rocket motors. The design, construction, and testing of liquid cooling flows is complex, making the system more prone to failure.",
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"plaintext": " Higher theoretical – Possible due to limits of known solid oxidizers compared to often used liquid oxidizers.",
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"plaintext": " Less explosion hazard – Propellant grain is more tolerant of processing errors such as cracks since the burn rate is dependent on oxidizer mass flux rate. Propellant grain cannot be ignited by stray electrical charge and is very insensitive to auto-igniting due to heat. Hybrid rocket motors can be transported to the launch site with the oxidizer and fuel stored separately, improving safety.",
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"plaintext": " Fewer handling and storage issues – Ingredients in solid rockets are often incompatible chemically and thermally. Repeated changes in temperature can cause distortion of the grain. Antioxidants and coatings are used to keep the grain from breaking down or decomposing.",
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"plaintext": " More controllable – Stop/restart and throttling are all easily incorporated into most designs. Solid rockets rarely can be shut down easily and almost never have throttling or restart capabilities.",
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"plaintext": "Hybrid rockets also exhibit some disadvantages when compared with liquid and solid rockets. These include:",
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"plaintext": " Oxidizer-to-fuel ratio shift (\"O/F shift\") – with a constant oxidizer flow-rate, the ratio of fuel production rate to oxidizer flow rate will change as a grain regresses. This leads to off-peak operation from a chemical performance point of view. However, for a well-designed hybrid, O/F shift has a very small impact on performance because is insensitive to O/F shift near the peak.",
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"plaintext": " Poor regression characteristics often drive multi-port fuel grains. Multi-port fuel grains have poor volumetric efficiency and, often, structural deficiencies. High regression rate liquefying fuels developed in the late 1990s offer a potential solution to this problem.",
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"plaintext": " Compared with liquid-based propulsion, re-fueling a partially or totally depleted hybrid rocket would present significant challenges, as the solid propellant cannot simply be pumped into a fuel tank. This may or may not be an issue, depending upon how the rocket is planned to be used.",
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"plaintext": "In general, much less development work has been completed with hybrids than liquids or solids and it is likely that some of these disadvantages could be rectified through further investment in research and development.",
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"plaintext": "One problem in designing large hybrid orbital rockets is that turbopumps become necessary to achieve high flow rates and pressurization of the oxidizer. This turbopump must be powered by something. In a traditional liquid-propellant rocket, the turbopump uses the same fuel and oxidizer as the rocket, since they are both liquid and can be fed to the pre-burner. But in a hybrid, the fuel is solid and cannot be fed to a turbopump's engine. Some hybrids use an oxidizer that can also be used as a monopropellant, such as nitromethane or hydrogen peroxide, and so a turbopump can run on it alone. But nitromethane and hydrogen peroxide are significantly less efficient than liquid oxygen, which cannot be used alone to run a turbopump. Another fuel would be needed, requiring its own tank and decreasing rocket performance.",
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"plaintext": "A reverse-hybrid rocket, which is not very common, is one where the engine uses a solid oxidizer and a liquid fuel. Some liquid fuel options are kerosene, hydrazine, and LH2. Common fuels for a typical hybrid rocket engine include polymers such as acrylics, polyethylene (PE), cross-linked rubber, such as HTPB, or liquefying fuels such as paraffin wax. Plexiglass was a common fuel, since the combustion could be visible through the transparent combustion chamber. Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) synthetic rubber is currently the most popular fuel for hybrid rocket engines, due to its energy, and due to how safe it is to handle. Tests have been performed in which HTPB was soaked in liquid oxygen, and it still did not become explosive. These fuels are generally not as dense as solid rocket motors, so they are often doped with aluminum to increase the density and therefore the rocket performance.",
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"plaintext": "Hybrid rocket fuel grains can be manufactured via casting techniques, since they are typically a plastic or a rubber. Complex geometries, which are driven by the need for higher fuel mass flow rates, makes casting fuel grains for hybrid rockets expensive and time-consuming due in part to equipment costs. On a larger scale, cast grains must be supported by internal webbing, so that large chunks of fuel do not impact or even potentially block the nozzle. Grain defects are also an issue in larger grains. Traditional fuels that are cast are hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) and paraffin waxes.",
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"plaintext": "Additive manufacturing is currently being used to create grain structures that were otherwise not possible to manufacture. Helical ports have been shown to increase fuel regression rates while also increasing volumetric efficiency. An example of material used for a hybrid rocket fuel is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The printed material is also typically enhanced with additives to improve rocket performance. Recent work at the University of Tennessee Knoxville has shown that, due to the increased surface area, the use of powdered fuels (i.e. graphite, coal, aluminum) encased in a 3D printed, ABS matrix can significantly increase the fuel burn rate and thrust level as compared to traditional polymer grains.",
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"plaintext": "Common oxidizers include gaseous or liquid oxygen, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen peroxide. For a reverse hybrid, oxidizers such as frozen oxygen and ammonium perchlorate are used.",
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"plaintext": "Proper oxidizer vaporization is important for the rocket to perform efficiently. Improper vaporization can lead to very large regression rate differences at the head end of the motor when compared to the aft end. One method is to use a hot gas generator to heat the oxidizer in a pre-combustion chamber. Another method is to use an oxidizer that can also be used as a monopropellant. A good example is hydrogen peroxide, which can be catalytically decomposed over a silver bed into hot oxygen and steam. A third method is to inject a propellant that is hypergolic with the oxidizer into the flow. Some of the oxidizer will decompose, heating up the rest of the oxidizer in the flow.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, well designed and carefully constructed hybrids are very safe. The primary hazards associated with hybrids are:",
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"plaintext": " Pressure vessel failures – Chamber insulation failure may allow hot combustion gases near the chamber walls leading to a \"burn-through\" in which the vessel ruptures.",
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"plaintext": " Blow back – For oxidizers that decompose exothermically such as nitrous oxide or hydrogen peroxide, flame or hot gasses from the combustion chamber can propagate back through the injector, vaporising the oxidizer and mixing it with hot fuel rich gasses leading to a tank explosion. Blow-back requires gases to flow back through the injector due to insufficient pressure drop which can occur during periods of unstable combustion. Blow back is inherent to specific oxidizers and is not possible with oxidizers such as oxygen, or nitrogen tetroxide, unless fuel is present in the oxidizer tank.",
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"plaintext": " Hard starts – An excess of oxidizer in the combustion chamber prior to ignition, particularly for monopropellants such as nitrous oxide, can result in a temporary over-pressure or \"spike\" at ignition.",
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"plaintext": "Because the fuel in a hybrid does not contain an oxidizer, it will not combust explosively on its own. For this reason, hybrids are classified as having no TNT equivalent explosive power. In contrast, solid rockets often have TNT equivalencies similar in magnitude to the mass of the propellant grain. Liquid-fuel rockets typically have a TNT equivalence calculated based on the amount of fuel and oxidizer which could realistically intimately combine before igniting explosively; this is often taken to be 10–20% of the total propellant mass. For hybrids, even filling the combustion chamber with oxidizer prior to ignition will not generally create an explosion with the solid fuel, the explosive equivalence is often quoted as 0%.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998 SpaceDev acquired all of the intellectual property, designs, and test results generated by over 200hybrid rocket motor firings by the American Rocket Company over its eight-year life. SpaceShipOne, the first private manned spacecraft, was powered by SpaceDev's hybrid rocket motor burning HTPB with nitrous oxide. However, nitrous oxide was the prime substance responsible for the explosion that killed three in the development of the successor of SpaceShipOne at Scaled Composites in 2007. The Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo follow-on commercial suborbital spaceplane uses a scaled-up hybrid motor.",
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"plaintext": "SpaceDev was developing the SpaceDev Streaker, an expendable small launch vehicle, and SpaceDev Dream Chaser, capable of both suborbital and orbital human space flight. Both Streaker and Dream Chaser use hybrid rocket motors that burn nitrous oxide and the synthetic HTPB rubber. SpaceDev was acquired by Sierra Nevada Corporation in 2009, becoming its Space Systems division, which continues to develop Dream Chaser for NASA's Commercial Crew Development contract. Sierra Nevada also developed RocketMotorTwo, the hybrid engine for SpaceShipTwo. On October 31, 2014, when SpaceShipTwo was lost, initial speculation had suggested that its hybrid engine had in fact exploded and killed one test pilot and seriously injured the other. However, investigation data now indicates an early deployment of the SpaceShip-Two feather system was the cause for aerodynamic breakup of the vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Rockets manufactured and deployed hybrids using self-pressurizing nitrous oxide (N2O) and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) as well as mixed High-test peroxide (HTP) and HTPB. The High-test peroxide (H2O2) 86% and (HTPB) and aluminum hybrids developed by U.S. Rockets produced a sea level delivered specific impulse (Isp) of 240, well above the typical 180 of N2O-HTPB hybrids. In addition to that, they were self-starting, restartable, had considerably lower combustion instability making them suitable for fragile or manned missions such as Bloodhound SSC, SpaceShipTwo or SpaceShipThree. The company had successfully tested and deployed both pressure fed and pump fed versions of the latter HTP-HTPB style. Deliverables to date have ranged from 6inch to 18inch diameter, and developed units up to 54inch diameter. The vendor claimed scalability to over 5meters diameter with regression rates approaching solids, according to literature distributed at the November2013 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) meeting for XS-1. U.S.Rockets is no longer manufacturing large-scale rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Gilmour Space Technologies began testing Hybrid rocket engines in 2015 with both N2O and HP with HDPE and HDPE+wax blends. For 2016 testing includes a 5000Lb HP/PE engine. The company is planning to use hybrids for both sounding and orbital rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Orbital Technologies Corporation (Orbitec) has been involved in some U.S. government-funded research on hybrid rockets including the \"Vortex Hybrid\" concept.",
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"plaintext": "Environmental Aeroscience Corporation (eAc) was incorporated in 1994 to develop hybrid rocket propulsion systems. It was included in the design competition for the SpaceShipOne motor but lost the contract to SpaceDev. Environmental Aeroscience Corporation still supplied parts to SpaceDev for the oxidizer fill, vent, and dump system.",
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"plaintext": "Rocket Lab formerly sold hybrid sounding rockets and related technology.",
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"plaintext": "The Reaction Research Society (RRS), although known primarily for their work with liquid rocket propulsion, has a long history of research and development with hybrid rocket propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Copenhagen Suborbitals, a Danish rocket group, has designed and test-fired several hybrids using N2O at first and currently LOX. Their fuel is epoxy, paraffin wax, or polyurethane. The group eventually moved away from hybrids because of thrust instabilities, and now uses a motor similar to that of the V-2 rocket.",
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"plaintext": "TiSPACE is a Taiwanese company which is developing a family of hybrid-propellant rockets.",
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"plaintext": "bluShift Aerospace in Brunswick, Maine, won a NASA SBIR grant to develop a modular hybrid rocket engine for its proprietary bio-derived fuel in June 2019. Having completed the grant bluShift has launched its first sounding rocket using the technology.",
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"plaintext": "Vaya Space based out of Cocoa, Florida, is expected to launch its hybrid fuel rocket Dauntless in 2023.",
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"plaintext": "Space Propulsion Group was founded in 1999 by Arif Karabeyoglu, Brian Cantwell, and others from Stanford University to develop high regression-rate liquefying hybrid rocket fuels. They have successfully fired motors as large as 12.5in. diameter which produce 13,000lbf. using the technology and are currently developing a 24in. diameter, 25,000lbf. motor to be initially fired in 2010. Stanford University is the institution where liquid-layer combustion theory for hybrid rockets was developed. The SPaSE group at Stanford is currently working with NASA Ames Research Center developing the Peregrine sounding rocket which will be capable of 100km altitude. Engineering challenges include various types of combustion instabilities. Although the proposed motor was test fired in 2013, the Peregrine program eventually switched to a standard solid rocket for its 2016 debut.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Tennessee Knoxville has carried out hybrid rocket research since 1999, working in collaboration with NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and private industry. This work has included the integration of a water-cooled calorimeter nozzle, one of the first 3D-printed, hot section components successfully used in a rocket motor. Other work at the university has focused on the use of helical oxidizer injection, bio-derived fuels and powdered fuels encased in a 3D-printed, ABS matrix, including the successful launch of a coal-fired hybrid at the 2019 Spaceport America Cup.",
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"plaintext": "At the Delft University of Technology, the student team Delft Aerospace Rocket Engineering (DARE) is very active in the design and building of hybrid rockets. In October2015, DARE broke the European student altitude record with the StratosII+ sounding rocket. StratosII+ was propelled by the DHX-200 hybrid rocket engine, using a nitrous oxide oxidizer and fuel blend of paraffin, sorbitol and aluminium powder. On July 26, 2018 DARE attempted to launch the StratosIII hybrid rocket. This rocket used the same fuel/oxidizer combination as its predecessor, but with an increased impulse of around 360kNs. At the time of development, this was the most powerful hybrid rocket engine ever developed by a student team in terms of total impulse. Unfortunately, the Stratos III vehicle was lost 20seconds into the flight.",
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"plaintext": "Florida Institute of Technology has successfully tested and evaluated hybrid technologies with their Panther Project. The WARR student-team at the Technical University of Munich has been developing hybrid engines and rockets since the early 1970s. Using acids, oxygen, or nitrous oxide in combination with polyethylene, or HTPB. The development includes test stand engines as well as airborne versions, like the first German hybrid rocket Barbarella. They are currently working on a hybrid rocket with Liquid oxygen as its oxidizer, to break the European height record of amateur rockets. They are also working with Rocket Crafters and testing their hybrid rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Boston University's student-run \"Rocket Propulsion Group\", which in the past has launched only solid motor rockets, is attempting to design and build a single-stage hybrid sounding rocket to launch into sub-orbital space by July2015.",
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"plaintext": "Brigham Young University (BYU), the University of Utah, and Utah State University launched a student-designed rocket called UnityIV in 1995 which burned the solid fuel hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) with an oxidizer of gaseous oxygen, and in 2003 launched a larger version which burned HTPB with nitrous oxide.",
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"plaintext": "University of Brasilia's Hybrid Team has extensive research in paraffin wax / N2O hybrids having already made more than 50tests fires. Hybrid Team is currently working liquefied propellant, numeric optimization and rocket design. Nowadays the rocket design team, called Capital Rocket Team, is developing high power hybrid rockets and researching about some additives. The Chemical Propulsion Laboratory has already made some researches and is developing the motor for SARA platform.",
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"plaintext": "University of California, Los Angeles's student-run \"Rocket Project at UCLA\" launches hybrid propulsion rockets utilizing nitrous oxide as an oxidizer and HTPB as the fuel. They are currently in the development process of their fifth student-built hybrid rocket engine.",
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"plaintext": "University of Toronto's student-run \"University of Toronto Aerospace Team\", designs and builds hybrid engine powered rockets. They are currently constructing a new engine testing facility at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, and are working towards breaking the Canadian amateur rocketry altitude record with their new rocket, Defiance MKIII, currently under rigorous testing. Defiance MKIII's engine, QUASAR, is a Nitrous-Paraffin hybrid engine, capable of producing 7kN of thrust for a period of 9seconds.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, Pakistan's DHA Suffa University successfully developed Raheel-1, hybrid rocket engines in 1kN class, using paraffin wax and liquid oxygen, thereby becoming the first university run rocket research program in the country. In India, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra Space engineering and rocketry department has been working on Hybrid Projects with various fuels and oxidizers.",
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"plaintext": "Pars Rocketry Group from Istanbul Technical University has designed and built the first hybrid rocket engine of Turkey, the rocket engine extensively tested in May2015.",
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"plaintext": "A United Kingdom-based team (laffin-gas) is using four N2O hybrid rockets in a drag-racing style car. Each rocket has an outer diameter of 150mm and is 1.4m long. They use a fuel grain of high-density wound paper soaked in cooking oil. The N2O supply is provided by Nitrogen-pressurised piston accumulators which provide a higher rate of delivery than N2O gas alone and also provide damping of any reverse shock.",
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"plaintext": "In Italy one of the leading centers for research in hybrid propellants rockets is CISAS (Center of Studies and Activities for Space) \"G. Colombo\", University of Padua. The activities cover all stages of the development: from theoretical analysis of the combustion process to numerical simulation using CFD codes, and then by conducting ground tests of small scale and large-scale rockets (up to 20kN, N2O-Paraffin wax based motors). One of these engines flew successfully in 2009. Since 2014, the research group is focused on the use of high test peroxide as oxidizer, in partnership with \"Technology for Propulsion and Innovation\", a university of Padua spin-off company.",
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"plaintext": "In Taiwan, hybrid rocket system developments began in 2009 through R&D projects of NSPO with two university teams. Both teams employed nitrous oxide / HTPB propellant system with different improvement schemes. Several hybrid rockets have been successfully launched by NCKU and NCTU teams so far, reaching altitudes of 10–20km. Their plans include attempting 100–200km altitude launch to test nanosatellites, and developing orbital launch capabilities for nanosatellites in the long run. A sub-scale N2O/PE dual-vortical-flow (DVF) hybrid engine hot-fire test in 2014 has delivered an averaged Isp of 280 sec, which indicates that the system has reached around 97% combustion efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "In (Germany) the University of Stuttgart's Student team HyEnd is the current world record holder for the highest-flying student-built hybrid rocket with their HEROS rockets.",
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"plaintext": "The Aerospace Team of the TU Graz, Austria, is also developing a hybrid-propellant rocket.",
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"plaintext": "The Polish Student team PWr in Space at Wrocław University of Science and Technology has developed three hybrid rockets: R2 \"Setka\", R3 \"Dziewięćdziesiątka dziewiątka\" and the most powerful of all - R4 \"Lynx\" with a successful test at their test stand ",
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"plaintext": "Many other universities, such as Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, the University of Washington, Purdue University, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Hendrix College, the University of Illinois, Portland State University, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Texas A&M University, Aarhus University, Rice University, and AGH University of Science and Technology have hybrid motor test stands that allow for student research with hybrid rockets.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of hybrid rocket motor systems available for amateur/hobbyist use in high-powered model rocketry. These include the popular HyperTek systems and a number of 'Urbanski-Colburn Valved' (U/C) systems such as RATTWorks, Contrail Rockets, and Propulsion Polymers.",
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"plaintext": "All of these systems use nitrous oxide as the oxidizer and a plastic fuel (such as Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene), or a polymer-based fuel such as HTPB. This reduces the cost per flight compared to solid rocket motors, although there is generally more ground support equipment required with hybrids.",
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"plaintext": "An October 26, 2005 episode of the television show MythBusters entitled \"Confederate Rocket\" featured a hybrid rocket motor using liquid nitrous oxide and paraffin wax. The myth purported that during the American Civil War, the Confederate Army was able to construct a rocket of this type. The myth was revisited in a later episode entitled Salami Rocket, using hollowed out dry salami as the solid fuel.",
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"plaintext": "In the February 18, 2007, episode of Top Gear, a Reliant Robin was used by Richard Hammond and James May in an attempt to modify a normal K-reg Robin into a reusable Space Shuttle. Steve Holland, a professional radio-controlled aircraft pilot, helped Hammond to work out how to land a Robin safely. The craft was built by senior members of the United Kingdom Rocketry Association (UKRA) and achieved a successful launch, flew for several seconds into the air and managed to successfully jettison the solid-fuel rocket boosters on time. This was the largest rocket launched by a non-government organisation in Europe. It used motors by Contrail Rockets giving a maximum thrust of 8tonnes. However, the car failed to separate from the large external fuel tank due to faulty explosive bolts between the Robin and the external tank, and the Robin subsequently crashed into the ground and seemed to have exploded soon after. This explosion was added for dramatic effect as neither Reliant Robins nor hybrid rocket motors explode in the way depicted.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
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"Rocket_engines_by_propellant",
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"hybrid-fuel rocket"
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37,832 | 1,064,635,161 | Monopropellant_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A monopropellant rocket (or \"monochemical rocket\") is a rocket that uses a single chemical as its propellant.",
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"plaintext": "For monopropellant rockets that depend on a chemical reaction, the power for the propulsive reaction and resultant thrust is provided by the chemical itself. That is, the energy needed to propel the spacecraft is contained within the chemical bonds of the chemical molecules involved in the reaction.",
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"plaintext": "The most commonly used monopropellant is hydrazine (N2H4), a chemical which is a strong reducing agent. The most common catalyst is granular alumina (aluminum oxide) coated with iridium. These coated granules are usually under the commercial labels Aerojet S-405 (previously made by Shell) or W.C.Heraeus H-KC 12 GA (previously made by Kali Chemie). There is no igniter with hydrazine. Aerojet S-405 is a spontaneous catalyst, that is, hydrazine decomposes on contact with the catalyst. The decomposition is highly exothermic and produces a gas that is a mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia. The main limiting factor of the monopropellant rocket is its life, which mainly depends on the life of the catalyst. The catalyst may be subject to catalytic poison and catalytic attrition which results in catalyst failure. Another monopropellant is hydrogen peroxide, which, when purified to 90% or higher concentration, is self-decomposing at high temperatures or when a catalyst is present.",
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"plaintext": "Most chemical-reaction monopropellant rocket systems consist of a fuel tank, usually a titanium or aluminium sphere, with an ethylene-propylene rubber container or a surface tension propellant management device filled with the fuel. The tank is then pressurized with helium or nitrogen, which pushes the fuel out to the motors. A pipe leads from the tank to a poppet valve, and then to the decomposition chamber of the rocket motor. Typically, a satellite will have not just one motor, but two to twelve, each with its own valve.",
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"plaintext": "The attitude control rocket motors for satellites and space probes are often very small, or so in diameter, and mounted in groups that point in four directions (within a plane).",
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"plaintext": "The rocket is fired when the computer sends direct current through a small electromagnet that opens the poppet valve. The firing is often very brief, a few milliseconds, and — if operated in air — would sound like a pebble thrown against a metal trash can; if on for long, it would make a piercing hiss.",
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"plaintext": "Chemical-reaction monopropellants are not as efficient as some other propulsion technologies. Engineers choose monopropellant systems when the need for simplicity and reliability outweigh the need for high delivered impulse. If the propulsion system must produce large amounts of thrust, or have a high specific impulse, as on the main motor of an interplanetary spacecraft, other technologies are used.",
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"plaintext": "A concept to provide low Earth orbit (LEO) propellant depots that could be used as way-stations for other spacecraft to stop and refuel on the way to beyond-LEO missions has proposed that waste gaseous hydrogen—an inevitable byproduct of long-term liquid hydrogen storage in the radiative heat environment of space—would be usable as a monopropellant in a solar-thermal propulsion system. The waste hydrogen would be productively utilized for both orbital stationkeeping and attitude control, as well as providing limited propellant and thrust to use for orbital maneuvers to better rendezvous with other spacecraft that would be inbound to receive fuel from the depot.",
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"plaintext": "Solar-thermal monoprop thrusters are also integral to the design of a next-generation cryogenic upper stage rocket proposed by U.S. company United Launch Alliance (ULA). The Advanced Common Evolved Stage (ACES) is intended as a lower-cost, more-capable and more-flexible upper stage that would supplement, and perhaps replace, the existing ULA Centaur and ULA Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) upper stage vehicles. The ACES Integrated Vehicle Fluids option eliminates all hydrazine and helium from the space vehicle—normally used for attitude control and station keeping—and depends instead on solar-thermal monoprop thrusters using waste hydrogen.",
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"plaintext": "NASA is developing a new monopropellant propulsion system for small, cost-driven spacecraft with delta-v requirements in the range of 10–150m/s. This system is based on a hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN)/water/fuel monopropellant blend which is extremely dense, environmentally benign, and promises good performance and simplicity.",
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"plaintext": "The EURENCO Bofors company produced LMP-103S as a 1-to-1 substitute for hydrazine by dissolving 65% ammonium dinitramide, NH4N(NO2)2, in 35% water solution of methanol and ammonia. LMP-103S has 6% higher specific impulse and 30% higher impulse density than hydrazine monopropellant. Additionally, hydrazine is highly toxic and carcinogenic, while LMP-103S is only moderately toxic. LMP-103S is UN Class 1.4S allowing for transport on commercial aircraft, and was demonstrated on the Prisma satellite in 2010. Special handling is not required. LMP-103S could replace hydrazine as the most commonly used monopropellant.",
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"plaintext": " Liquid-propellant rocket",
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520402
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},
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"plaintext": " Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter",
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453326
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reaction wheel",
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89484
],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nitrous oxide fuel blend",
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27470904
],
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Technical Reports on Hydrogen Peroxide as a Monopropellant for Rockets",
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},
{
"plaintext": " USPAT 20090133788 Nitrous oxide fuel blend monopropellants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Foguete monopropulsor",
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}
] | [
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"Rocket_engines_by_propellant",
"Monopropellant_rocket_engines",
"Rocket_engines"
] | 15,818,248 | 1,135 | 49 | 66 | 0 | 0 | monopropellant rocket | type of chemical rocket | [] |
37,834 | 1,046,479,267 | Dual_mode_propulsion_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of bipropellant rockets with the reliability and simplicity of monopropellant rockets. It is based upon the use of two rocket fuels, liquid hydrogen and more dense hydrocarbon fuels, like RP, which are all burned with liquid oxygen.",
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{
"plaintext": "Dual mode systems are either hydrazine/nitrogen tetroxide, or monomethylhydrazine/hydrogen peroxide (the former is much more common). Typically, this system works as follows: During the initial high-impulse orbit-raising maneuvers, the system operates in a bipropellant fashion, providing high thrust at high efficiency; when it arrives on orbit, it closes off either the fuel or oxidizer, and conducts the remainder of its mission in a simple, predictable monopropellant fashion.",
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28506
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1,
22
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] | [
"Rocket_propulsion"
] | 5,310,218 | 71 | 2 | 18 | 0 | 0 | Dual mode propulsion rocket | [] |
|
37,835 | 1,066,541,304 | Resistojet_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A resistojet is a method of spacecraft propulsion (electric propulsion) that provides thrust by heating a, typically non-reactive, fluid. Heating is usually achieved by sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament, with the expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle.",
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{
"plaintext": "Resistojets have been flown in space since 1965 on board military Vela satellites. However, they only became used in commercial applications in 1980 with the launch of the first satellites in the INTELSAT-V program. Many GEO spacecraft, and all 95 Iridium, used Aerojet MR-501/MR-502 series resistojet engines. Nowadays resistojet propulsion is used for orbit insertion, attitude control, and deorbit of LEO satellites, and do well in situations where energy is much more plentiful than mass, and where propulsion efficiency needs to be reasonably high but low thrust is acceptable.",
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"plaintext": "Resistojets have also been proposed as means of using biowaste as reaction mass, particularly in conjunction with hydrazine. Studies focus on the characteristics of steam and carbon dioxide as major constituents of a biowaste stream, and typically use cubic zirconia as a heating element.",
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"plaintext": "Many satellite missions necessitate an ability for minor alterations in trajectory even after the craft has been inserted into orbit. Most satellites use monopropellant rocket motors or cold gas thrusters for such orbital adjustments. Both methods, however, suffer from some limiting drawbacks: Hydrazine, the most commonly used monopropellant, is highly expensive and due to its volatile nature unsuitable for smaller satellites that are sent to space as secondary cargo. Cold gas thrusters, while utilizing relatively cheap, inert and therefore \"safe\" gasses like nitrogen, suffer from low specific impulse in comparison to monopropellant motors. Resistojets are designed to bridge the gap between these two methods of propulsion, offering the safety of an inert propellant coupled with specific impulse nearing that of hydrazine.",
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"plaintext": "The main disadvantage of a resistojet design in comparison to simpler cold gas thrusters is the need for a power supply, which takes up space and is therefore sometimes a prohibitive factor for Microsat missions. In addition, the increased technical complexity of a resistojet relative to simpler solutions results in a greater risk of technical failure.",
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"plaintext": "Since they do not take advantage of chemical combustion, resistojets (and similar designs) have a lower thrust that is orders of magnitude lower than those of more conventional solid fuel and liquid-propellant rockets. As a result, they are unsuitable for orbital maneuvers that require high delta V over shorter periods.",
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"plaintext": "Resistojets can be considered an evolution of traditional cold gas thrusters, which are the simplest form of rocket engine available. Their fuel tank holds the propellant, which is then led into the nozzle where it decompresses, propelling the craft forward. In a resistojet, a resistor is used to heat the fluid before it enters the nozzle, making it expand more forcefully, resulting in higher specific impulse.",
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"plaintext": "A resistor is an electrical component which converts electrical energy into heat. Therefore, the thrust of a resistojet engine can be regulated by simply altering the wattage flowing through the resistor.",
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"plaintext": "Heating a fluid by 300°C in such a way results in a 41% increase in specific impulse. If heated by 900°C, specific impulse could be doubled in comparison to a cold gas thruster using the same propellant.",
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"plaintext": "Solar electric propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Xenon Resistojet Propulsion System for Microsatellites'' (Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey) (Purchasable document) ",
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"plaintext": " Two new ESA satellites successfully lofted into orbit (European Space Agency)",
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"plaintext": " Resistojet Propulsion System for Microsatellites (Alta, Italy)",
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37,836 | 1,091,165,775 | Arcjet_rocket | [
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"plaintext": "An arcjet rocket or arcjet thruster is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, in which an electrical discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine or ammonia). This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost. Also, the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very low compared with chemical engines.",
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"plaintext": "When the energy is available, arcjets are well suited to keeping stations in orbit and can replace monopropellant rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Aerojet MR-510 series arcjet engines are currently used on Lockheed Martin A2100 satellites using hydrazine as a propellant, providing over 585s average specific impulse at 2 kW.",
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"plaintext": "In Germany, researchers at the University of Stuttgart's Institute of Space Aviation Systems have been looking into these challenges for years and have developed various hydrogen-powered arcjet engines capable of power outputs from 1 to 100kW. The heated hydrogen reaches exit speeds of . An arcjet-propelled test satellite by the name of Baden-Württemberg 1 (BW1) was scheduled to go to the Moon by 2010. No such launch has yet occurred. Baden-Württemberg 1 would have used polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE propellant.",
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"plaintext": " Lichtbogenantriebe für Weltraumaufgaben (Arcjet propulsion systems for space applications), Prof. Monika Auweter-Kurtz, B.G. Teubner Stuttgart 1992 Institute of Space Systems at the University of Stuttgart",
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"plaintext": " Arcjet (Lichtbogentriebwerk)",
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"plaintext": " Aerojet Rocketdyne - Arcjet thruster vendor",
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37,838 | 1,101,278,627 | Hall-effect_thruster | [
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"plaintext": "In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by Edwin Hall) are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Hall thrusters operate on a variety of propellants, the most common being xenon and krypton. Other propellants of interest include argon, bismuth, iodine, magnesium, zinc and adamantane.",
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"plaintext": "Hall thrusters are able to accelerate their exhaust to speeds between 10 and 80km/s (1,000–8,000s specific impulse), with most models operating between 15 and 30km/s. The thrust produced depends on the power level. Devices operating at 1.35kW produce about 83mN of thrust. High-power models have demonstrated up to 5.4N in the laboratory. Power levels up to 100kW have been demonstrated for xenon Hall thrusters.",
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"plaintext": ", Hall-effect thrusters ranged in input power levels from 1.35 to 10 kilowatts and had exhaust velocities of 10–50 kilometers per second, with thrust of 40–600 millinewtons and efficiency in the range of 45–60 percent.",
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"plaintext": "The applications of Hall-effect thrusters include control of the orientation and position of orbiting satellites and use as a main propulsion engine for medium-size robotic space vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Hall thrusters were studied independently in the United States and the Soviet Union. They were first described publicly in the US in the early 1960s. However, the Hall thruster was first developed into an efficient propulsion device in the Soviet Union. In the US, scientists focused on developing gridded ion thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "thrusters with wide acceleration zone, SPT (; , Stationary Plasma Thruster) at Design Bureau Fakel",
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"plaintext": "thrusters with narrow acceleration zone, DAS (; , Thruster with Anode Layer), at the Central Research Institute for Machine Building (TsNIIMASH).",
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"plaintext": "The SPT design was largely the work of A. I. Morozov. The first SPT to operate in space, an SPT-50 aboard a Soviet Meteor spacecraft, was launched December 1971. They were mainly used for satellite stabilization in north–south and in east–west directions. Since then until the late 1990s 118 SPT engines completed their mission and some 50 continued to be operated. Thrust of the first generation of SPT engines, SPT-50 and SPT-60 was 20 and 30mN respectively. In 1982, SPT-70 and SPT-100 were introduced, their thrusts being 40 and 83mN, respectively. In the post-Soviet Russia high-power (a few kilowatts) SPT-140, SPT-160, SPT-200, T-160 and low-power (less than 500 W) SPT-35 were introduced.",
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"plaintext": "Soviet and Russian TAL-type thrusters include the D-38, D-55, D-80, and D-100.",
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"plaintext": "Soviet-built thrusters were introduced to the West in 1992 after a team of electric propulsion specialists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Glenn Research Center, and the Air Force Research Laboratory, under the support of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, visited Russian laboratories and experimentally evaluated the SPT-100 (i.e., a 100mm diameter SPT thruster). Over 200 Hall thrusters have been flown on Soviet/Russian satellites in the past thirty years. No failures have ever occurred on orbit. Hall thrusters continue to be used on Russian spacecraft and have also flown on European and American spacecraft. Space Systems/Loral, an American commercial satellite manufacturer, now flies Fakel SPT-100's on their GEO communications spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Since their introduction to the West in the early 1990s, Hall thrusters have been the subject of a large number of research efforts throughout the United States, France, Italy, Japan, and Russia (with many smaller efforts scattered in various countries across the globe). Hall thruster research in the US is conducted at several government laboratories, universities and private companies. Government and government funded centers include NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA's Glenn Research Center, the Air Force Research Laboratory (Edwards AFB, CA), and The Aerospace Corporation. Universities include the US Air Force Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Stanford University, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Michigan Technological University, and Georgia Tech. A considerable amount of development is being conducted in industry, such as IHI Corporation in Japan, Aerojet and Busek in the US, SNECMA in France, LAJP in Ukraine, SITAEL in Italy, and Satrec Initiative in South Korea.",
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"plaintext": "The first use of Hall thrusters on lunar orbit was the European Space Agency (ESA) lunar mission SMART-1 in 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Hall thrusters were first demonstrated on a western satellite on the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) STEX spacecraft, which flew the Russian D-55. The first American Hall thruster to fly in space was the Busek BHT-200 on TacSat-2 technology demonstration spacecraft. The first flight of an American Hall thruster on an operational mission, was the Aerojet BPT-4000, which launched August 2010 on the military Advanced Extremely High Frequency GEO communications satellite. At 4.5kW, the BPT-4000 is also the highest power Hall thruster ever flown in space. Besides the usual stationkeeping tasks, the BPT-4000 is also providing orbit raising capability to the spacecraft. The X-37B has been used as a testbed for the Hall thruster for the AEHF satellite series. Several countries worldwide continue efforts to qualify Hall thruster technology for commercial uses. The SpaceX Starlink constellation, the largest satellite constellation in the world, uses Hall thrusters. They are also included in the design of the Psyche spacecraft for asteroid exploration.",
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"plaintext": "The essential working principle of the Hall thruster is that it uses an electrostatic potential to accelerate ions up to high speeds. In a Hall thruster, the attractive negative charge is provided by an electron plasma at the open end of the thruster instead of a grid. A radial magnetic field of about 100–300G (0.01–0.03T) is used to confine the electrons, where the combination of the radial magnetic field and axial electric field cause the electrons to drift in azimuth thus forming the Hall current from which the device gets its name.",
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"plaintext": "A schematic of a Hall thruster is shown in the adjacent image. An electric potential of between 150 and 800 volts is applied between the anode and cathode.",
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"plaintext": "The central spike forms one pole of an electromagnet and is surrounded by an annular space, and around that is the other pole of the electromagnet, with a radial magnetic field in between.",
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"plaintext": "The propellant, such as xenon gas, is fed through the anode, which has numerous small holes in it to act as a gas distributor. As the neutral xenon atoms diffuse into the channel of the thruster, they are ionized by collisions with circulating high-energy electrons (typically 10–40eV, or about 10% of the discharge voltage). Most of the xenon atoms are ionized to a net charge of +1, but a noticeable fraction (~20%) have +2 net charge.",
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"plaintext": "The xenon ions are then accelerated by the electric field between the anode and the cathode. For discharge voltages of 300V, the ions reach speeds of around 15km/s (9.3 mps) for a specific impulse of 1,500 seconds (15kN·s/kg). Upon exiting, however, the ions pull an equal number of electrons with them, creating a plasma plume with no net charge.",
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"plaintext": "The radial magnetic field is designed to be strong enough to substantially deflect the low-mass electrons, but not the high-mass ions, which have a much larger gyroradius and are hardly impeded. The majority of electrons are thus stuck orbiting in the region of high radial magnetic field near the thruster exit plane, trapped in E×B (axial electric field and radial magnetic field). This orbital rotation of the electrons is a circulating Hall current, and it is from this that the Hall thruster gets its name. Collisions with other particles and walls, as well as plasma instabilities, allow some of the electrons to be freed from the magnetic field, and they drift towards the anode.",
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"plaintext": "About 20–30% of the discharge current is an electron current, which does not produce thrust, thus limiting the energetic efficiency of the thruster; the other 70–80% of the current is in the ions. Because the majority of electrons are trapped in the Hall current, they have a long residence time inside the thruster and are able to ionize almost all of the xenon propellant, allowing mass use of 90–99%. The mass use efficiency of the thruster is thus around 90%, while the discharge current efficiency is around 70%, for a combined thruster efficiency of around 63% (= 90% × 70%). Modern Hall thrusters have achieved efficiencies as high as 75% through advanced designs.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to chemical rockets, the thrust is very small, on the order of 83mN for a typical thruster operating at 300V and 1.5kW. For comparison, the weight of a coin like the U.S. quarter or a 20-cent Euro coin is approximately 60mN. As with all forms of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, thrust is limited by available power, efficiency, and specific impulse.",
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"plaintext": "However, Hall thrusters operate at the high specific impulses that are typical for electric propulsion. One particular advantage of Hall thrusters, as compared to a gridded ion thruster, is that the generation and acceleration of the ions takes place in a quasi-neutral plasma, so there is no Child-Langmuir charge (space charge) saturated current limitation on the thrust density. This allows much smaller thrusters compared to gridded ion thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "Another advantage is that these thrusters can use a wider variety of propellants supplied to the anode, even oxygen, although something easily ionized is needed at the cathode.",
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"plaintext": "Xenon has been the typical choice of propellant for many electric propulsion systems, including Hall thrusters. Xenon propellant is used because of its high atomic weight and low ionization potential. Xenon is relatively easy to store, and as a gas at spacecraft operating temperatures does not need to be vaporized before usage, unlike metallic propellants such as bismuth. Xenon's high atomic weight means that the ratio of energy expended for ionization per mass unit is low, leading to a more efficient thruster.",
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"plaintext": "Krypton is another choice of propellant for Hall thrusters. Xenon has an ionization potential of 12.1298 eV, while krypton has an ionization potential of 13.996 eV. This means that thrusters utilizing krypton need to expend a slightly higher energy per mole to ionize, which reduces efficiency. Additionally, krypton is a lighter ion, so the unit mass per ionization energy is further reduced compared to xenon. However, xenon can be more than ten times as expensive as krypton per kilogram, making krypton a more economical choice for building out satellite constellations like that of SpaceX's Starlink, whose Hall thrusters are fueled with krypton.",
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"plaintext": "Although conventional (annular) Hall thrusters are efficient in the kilowatt power regime, they become inefficient when scaled to small sizes. This is due to the difficulties associated with holding the performance scaling parameters constant while decreasing the channel size and increasing the applied magnetic field strength. This led to the design of the cylindrical Hall thruster. The cylindrical Hall thruster can be more readily scaled to smaller sizes due to its nonconventional discharge-chamber geometry and associated magnetic field profile. The cylindrical Hall thruster more readily lends itself to miniaturization and low-power operation than a conventional (annular) Hall thruster. The primary reason for cylindrical Hall thrusters is that it is difficult to achieve a regular Hall thruster that operates over a broad envelope from ~1kW down to ~100 W while maintaining an efficiency of 45-55%.",
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"plaintext": "Sputtering erosion of discharge channel walls and pole pieces that protect the magnetic circuit causes failure of thruster operation. Therefore, annular and cylindrical Hall thrusters have limited lifetime. Although magnetic shielding has been shown to dramatically reduce discharge channel wall erosion, pole piece erosion is still a concern. As an alternative, an unconventional Hallthruster design called external discharge Hall thruster or external discharge plasma thruster (XPT) has been introduced. The external discharge Hall thruster does not possess any discharge channel walls or pole pieces. Plasma discharge is produced and sustained completely in the open space outside the thruster structure, and thus erosion-free operation is achieved.",
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"plaintext": "Hall thrusters have been flying in space since December 1971, when the Soviet Union launched an SPT-50 on a Meteor satellite. Over 240 thrusters have flown in space since that time, with a 100% success rate. Hall thrusters are now routinely flown on commercial LEO and GEO communications satellites, where they are used for orbital insertion and stationkeeping.",
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"plaintext": "The first Hall thruster to fly on a western satellite was a Russian D-55 built by TsNIIMASH, on the NRO's STEX spacecraft, launched on October 3, 1998.",
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"plaintext": "The solar electric propulsion system of the European Space Agency's SMART-1 spacecraft used a Snecma PPS-1350-G Hall thruster. SMART-1 was a technology demonstration mission that orbited the Moon. This use of the PPS-1350-G, starting on September 28, 2003, was the first use of a Hall thruster outside geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO). Like most Hall thruster propulsion systems used in commercial applications, the Hall thruster on SMART-1 could be throttled over a range of power, specific impulse, and thrust. It has a discharge power range of 0.46–1.19kW, a specific impulse of 1,100–1,600s and thrust of 30–70mN.",
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"plaintext": "Many small satellites of the SpaceX Starlink cluster use krypton-fueled Hall thrusters for position-keeping and deorbiting.",
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"plaintext": "Tiangong space station is fitted with Hall-effect thrusters. Tianhe core module is propelled by both chemical thrusters and four ion thrusters, which are used to adjust and maintain the station's orbit. The development of the Hall-effect thrusters is considered a sensitive topic in China, with scientists \"working to improve the technology without attracting attention\". Hall-effect thrusters are created with crewed mission safety in mind with effort to prevent erosion and damage caused by the accelerated ion particles. A magnetic field and specially designed ceramic shield was created to repel damaging particles and maintain integrity of the thrusters. According to the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the ion drive used on Tiangong has burned continuously for 8,240 hours without a glitch, indicating their suitability for the Chinese space station’s designated 15-year lifespan. This is the world's first Hall thrusters on a human-rated mission.",
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"plaintext": "The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) granted exclusive commercial licensing to Apollo Fusion- led by Mike Cassidy, for its Magnetically Shielded Miniature, or MaSMi Hall thruster technology. In January 2021, Apollo Fusion announced they had secured a contract with York Space Systems for an order of its latest iteration named the \"Apollo Constellation Engine\".",
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"plaintext": "The NASA mission to the asteroid Psyche will utilize xenon gas Hall Thrusters. The electricity will come from the craft's 75 square meter solar panels.",
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"plaintext": "NASA's first Hall thrusters on a human-rated mission will be a combination of 6kW Hall thrusters provided by Busek and NASA Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) Hall thrusters. They will serve as the primary propulsion on Maxar's Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) for the Lunar Gateway under NASA's Artemis program. The high specific impulse of Hall thrusters will allow for efficient orbit raising and station keep for the Lunar Gateway's polar near-rectilinear halo orbit.",
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"plaintext": "The highest power Hall-effect thruster in development is the University of Michigan's 100 kW X3 Nested Channel Hall Thruster. The thruster is approximately 80 cm in diameter and weighs 230 kg, and has demonstrated a thrust of 5.4 N. ",
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"plaintext": " Edgar, Y. (2009). New Dawn for Electric Rockets",
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"plaintext": " SITAEL S.p.A. (Italy)—Page presenting Hall effect thruster products & data sheets",
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"plaintext": " Snecma SA (France) page on PPS-1350 Hall thruster",
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"plaintext": " Stationary plasma thrusters (PDF)",
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"plaintext": " ESA page on Hall thrusters",
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37,839 | 1,106,891,466 | Ion_thruster | [
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"plaintext": "An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity.",
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"plaintext": "An ion thruster ionizes a neutral gas by extracting some electrons out of atoms, creating a cloud of positive ions. These ion thrusters rely mainly on electrostatics as ions are accelerated by the Coulomb force along an electric field. Temporarily stored electrons are finally reinjected by a neutralizer in the cloud of ions after it has passed through the electrostatic grid, so the gas becomes neutral again and can freely disperse in space without any further electrical interaction with the thruster. By contrast, electromagnetic thrusters use the Lorentz force to accelerate all species (free electrons as well as positive and negative ions) in the same direction whatever their electric charge, and are specifically referred to as plasma propulsion engines, where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters in operation typically consume 1–7kW of power, have exhaust velocities around 20–50km/s (Isp 2000–5000s), and possess thrusts of 25–250mN and a propulsive efficiency 65–80% though experimental versions have achieved , .",
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"plaintext": "The Deep Space 1 spacecraft, powered by an ion thruster, changed velocity by while consuming less than of xenon. The Dawn spacecraft broke the record, with a velocity change of , though it was only half as efficient, requiring of xenon.",
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"plaintext": "Applications include control of the orientation and position of orbiting satellites (some satellites have dozens of low-power ion thrusters) and use as a main propulsion engine for low-mass robotic space vehicles (such as Deep Space 1 and Dawn).",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrust engines are practical only in the vacuum of space and cannot take vehicles through the atmosphere because ion engines do not work in the presence of ions outside the engine; additionally, the engine's minuscule thrust cannot overcome any significant air resistance. Moreover, notwithstanding the presence of an atmosphere (or lack thereof) an ion engine cannot generate sufficient thrust to achieve initial liftoff from any celestial body with significant surface gravity. For these reasons, spacecraft must rely on other methods such as conventional chemical rockets or non-rocket launch technologies to reach their initial orbit.",
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"plaintext": "The first person who wrote a paper introducing the idea publicly was Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1911. The technique was recommended for near-vacuum conditions at high altitude, but thrust was demonstrated with ionized air streams at atmospheric pressure. The idea appeared again in Hermann Oberth's \"Wege zur Raumschiffahrt\" (Ways to Spaceflight), published in 1929, where he explained his thoughts on the mass savings of electric propulsion, predicted its use in spacecraft propulsion and attitude control, and advocated electrostatic acceleration of charged gasses.",
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"plaintext": "A working ion thruster was built by Harold R. Kaufman in 1959 at the NASA Glenn Research Center facilities. It was similar to a gridded electrostatic ion thruster and used mercury for propellant. Suborbital tests were conducted during the 1960s and in 1964, the engine was sent into a suborbital flight aboard the Space Electric Rocket Test-1 (SERT-1). It successfully operated for the planned 31 minutes before falling to Earth. This test was followed by an orbital test, SERT-2, in 1970.",
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"plaintext": "An alternate form of electric propulsion, the Hall effect thruster, was studied independently in the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. Hall effect thrusters operated on Soviet satellites from 1972 until the late 1990s, mainly used for satellite stabilization in north–south and in east–west directions. Some 100–200 engines completed missions on Soviet and Russian satellites. Soviet thruster design was introduced to the West in 1992 after a team of electric propulsion specialists, under the support of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, visited Soviet laboratories.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters use beams of ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules) to create thrust in accordance with momentum conservation. The method of accelerating the ions varies, but all designs take advantage of the charge/mass ratio of the ions. This ratio means that relatively small potential differences can create high exhaust velocities. This reduces the amount of reaction mass or propellant required, but increases the amount of specific power required compared to chemical rockets. Ion thrusters are therefore able to achieve high specific impulses. The drawback of the low thrust is low acceleration because the mass of the electric power unit directly correlates with the amount of power. This low thrust makes ion thrusters unsuited for launching spacecraft into orbit, but effective for in-space propulsion over longer periods of time.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters are categorized as either electrostatic or electromagnetic. The main difference is the method for accelerating the ions.",
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"plaintext": " Electrostatic ion thrusters use the Coulomb force and accelerate the ions in the direction of the electric field.",
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"plaintext": " Electromagnetic ion thrusters use the Lorentz force to move the ions.",
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"plaintext": "Electric power for ion thrusters is usually provided by solar panels. However, for sufficiently large distances from the sun, nuclear power may be used. In each case, the power supply mass is proportional to the peak power that can be supplied, and both provide, for this application, almost no limit to the energy.",
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"plaintext": "Electric thrusters tend to produce low thrust, which results in low acceleration. Defining , the standard gravitational acceleration of Earth, and noting that , this can be analyzed. An NSTAR thruster producing a thrust force of 92mN will accelerate a satellite with a mass of 1ton by 0.092N / 1000kg = 9.2m/s (or 9.38g). However, this acceleration can be sustained for months or years at a time, in contrast to the very short burns of chemical rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Where:",
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"plaintext": " F is the thrust force in N,",
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"plaintext": " η is the efficiency",
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"plaintext": " P is the electrical power used by the thruster in W, and",
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"plaintext": " Isp is the specific impulse in seconds.",
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"plaintext": "The ion thruster is not the most promising type of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, but it is the most successful in practice to date. An ion drive would require two days to accelerate a car to highway speed in vacuum. The technical characteristics, especially thrust, are considerably inferior to the prototypes described in literature, technical capabilities are limited by the space charge created by ions. This limits the thrust density (force per cross-sectional area of the engine). Ion thrusters create small thrust levels (the thrust of Deep Space 1 is approximately equal to the weight of one sheet of paper) compared to conventional chemical rockets, but achieve high specific impulse, or propellant mass efficiency, by accelerating the exhaust to high speed. The power imparted to the exhaust increases with the square of exhaust velocity while thrust increase is linear. Conversely, chemical rockets provide high thrust, but are limited in total impulse by the small amount of energy that can be stored chemically in the propellants. Given the practical weight of suitable power sources, the acceleration from an ion thruster is frequently less than one-thousandth of standard gravity. However, since they operate as electric (or electrostatic) motors, they convert a greater fraction of input power into kinetic exhaust power. Chemical rockets operate as heat engines, and Carnot's theorem limits the exhaust velocity.",
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"plaintext": "The ionization process takes place in the discharge chamber, where by bombarding the propellant with energetic electrons, as the energy transferred ejects valence electrons from the propellant gas's atoms. These electrons can be provided by a hot cathode filament and accelerated through the potential difference towards an anode. Alternatively, the electrons can be accelerated by an oscillating induced electric field created by an alternating electromagnet, which results in a self-sustaining discharge without a cathode (radio frequency ion thruster).",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters emit a beam of positively charged ions. To keep the spacecraft from accumulating a charge, another cathode is placed near the engine to emit electrons into the ion beam, leaving the propellant electrically neutral. This prevents the beam of ions from being attracted (and returning) to the spacecraft, which would cancel the thrust.",
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"plaintext": " NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR), 2.3kW, used on two successful missions",
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"plaintext": " NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT), 6.9kW, flight qualification hardware built",
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"plaintext": " High Power Electric Propulsion (HiPEP), 25kW, test example built and run briefly on the ground",
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"plaintext": " Dual-Stage 4-Grid (DS4G)",
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"plaintext": "Hall effect thrusters accelerate ions by means of an electric potential between a cylindrical anode and a negatively charged plasma that forms the cathode. The bulk of the propellant (typically xenon) is introduced near the anode, where it ionizes and flows toward the cathode; ions accelerate towards and through it, picking up electrons as they leave to neutralize the beam and leave the thruster at high velocity.",
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"plaintext": "The anode is at one end of a cylindrical tube. In the center is a spike that is wound to produce a radial magnetic field between it and the surrounding tube. The ions are largely unaffected by the magnetic field, since they are too massive. However, the electrons produced near the end of the spike to create the cathode are trapped by the magnetic field and held in place by their attraction to the anode. Some of the electrons spiral down towards the anode, circulating around the spike in a Hall current. When they reach the anode they impact the uncharged propellant and cause it to be ionized, before finally reaching the anode and completing the circuit.",
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"plaintext": "Field-emission electric propulsion (FEEP) thrusters may use caesium or indium propellants. The design comprises a small propellant reservoir that stores the liquid metal, a narrow tube or a system of parallel plates that the liquid flows through and an accelerator (a ring or an elongated aperture in a metallic plate) about a millimeter past the tube end. Caesium and indium are used due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points. Once the liquid metal reaches the end of the tube, an electric field applied between the emitter and the accelerator causes the liquid surface to deform into a series of protruding cusps, or Taylor cones. At a sufficiently high applied voltage, positive ions are extracted from the tips of the cones. The electric field created by the emitter and the accelerator then accelerates the ions. An external source of electrons neutralizes the positively charged ion stream to prevent charging of the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Pulsed inductive thrusters (PIT) use pulses instead of continuous thrust and have the ability to run on power levels on the order of megawatts (MW). PITs consist of a large coil encircling a cone shaped tube that emits the propellant gas. Ammonia is the gas most commonly used. For each pulse, a large charge builds up in a group of capacitors behind the coil and is then released. This creates a current that moves circularly in the direction of jθ. The current then creates a magnetic field in the outward radial direction (Br), which then creates a current in the gas that has just been released in the opposite direction of the original current. This opposite current ionizes the ammonia. The positively charged ions are accelerated away from the engine due to the electric field jθ crossing the magnetic field Br, due to the Lorentz Force.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters and lithium Lorentz force accelerator (LiLFA) thrusters use roughly the same idea. The LiLFA thruster builds on the MPD thruster. Hydrogen, argon, ammonia and nitrogen can be used as propellant. In a certain configuration, the ambient gas in low Earth orbit (LEO) can be used as a propellant. The gas enters the main chamber where it is ionized into plasma by the electric field between the anode and the cathode. This plasma then conducts electricity between the anode and the cathode, closing the circuit. This new current creates a magnetic field around the cathode, which crosses with the electric field, thereby accelerating the plasma due to the Lorentz force.",
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"plaintext": "The LiLFA thruster uses the same general idea as the MPD thruster, with two main differences. First, the LiLFA uses lithium vapor, which can be stored as a solid. The other difference is that the single cathode is replaced by multiple, smaller cathode rods packed into a hollow cathode tube. MPD cathodes are easily corroded due to constant contact with the plasma. In the LiLFA thruster, the lithium vapor is injected into the hollow cathode and is not ionized to its plasma form/corrode the cathode rods until it exits the tube. The plasma is then accelerated using the same Lorentz force.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, Russian company the Chemical Automatics Design Bureau successfully conducted a bench test of their MPD engine for long-distance space travel.",
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"plaintext": "Electrodeless plasma thrusters have two unique features: the removal of the anode and cathode electrodes and the ability to throttle the engine. The removal of the electrodes eliminates erosion, which limits lifetime on other ion engines. Neutral gas is first ionized by electromagnetic waves and then transferred to another chamber where it is accelerated by an oscillating electric and magnetic field, also known as the ponderomotive force. This separation of the ionization and acceleration stages allows throttling of propellant flow, which then changes the thrust magnitude and specific impulse values.",
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"plaintext": "A helicon double layer thruster is a type of plasma thruster that ejects high velocity ionized gas to provide thrust. In this design, gas is injected into a tubular chamber (the source tube) with one open end. Radio frequency AC power (at 13.56 MHz in the prototype design) is coupled into a specially shaped antenna wrapped around the chamber. The electromagnetic wave emitted by the antenna causes the gas to break down and form a plasma. The antenna then excites a helicon wave in the plasma, which further heats it. The device has a roughly constant magnetic field in the source tube (supplied by solenoids in the prototype), but the magnetic field diverges and rapidly decreases in magnitude away from the source region and might be thought of as a kind of magnetic nozzle. In operation, a sharp boundary separates the high density plasma inside the source region and the low density plasma in the exhaust, which is associated with a sharp change in electrical potential. Plasma properties change rapidly across this boundary, which is known as a current-free electric double layer. The electrical potential is much higher inside the source region than in the exhaust and this serves both to confine most of the electrons and to accelerate the ions away from the source region. Enough electrons escape the source region to ensure that the plasma in the exhaust is neutral overall.",
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"plaintext": "The proposed Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) functions by using radio waves to ionize a propellant into a plasma, and then using a magnetic field to accelerate the plasma out of the back of the rocket engine to generate thrust. The VASIMR is currently being developed by Ad Astra Rocket Company, headquartered in Houston, Texas, with help from Canada-based Nautel, producing the 200kW RF generators for ionizing propellant. Some of the components and \"plasma shoots\" experiments are tested in a laboratory settled in Liberia, Costa Rica. This project is led by former NASA astronaut Dr. Franklin Chang-Díaz (CRC-USA). A 200kW VASIMR test engine was in discussion to be fitted in the exterior of the International Space Station, as part of the plan to test the VASIMR in space – however plans for this test onboard ISS were canceled in 2015 by NASA, with a free flying VASIMR test being discussed by Ad Astra instead. An envisioned 200 megawatt engine could reduce the duration of flight from Earth to Jupiter or Saturn from six years to fourteen months, and Mars from 7 months to 39 days.",
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"plaintext": "Under a research grant from the NASA Lewis Research Center during the 1980s and 1990s, Martin C. Hawley and Jes Asmussen led a team of engineers in developing a Microwave Electrothermal Thruster (MET).",
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"plaintext": "In the discharge chamber, microwave (MW) energy flows into the center containing a high level of ions (I), causing neutral species in the gaseous propellant to ionize. Excited species flow out (FES) through the low ion region (II) to a neutral region (III) where the ions complete their recombination, replaced with the flow of neutral species (FNS) towards the center. Meanwhile, energy is lost to the chamber walls through heat conduction and convection (HCC), along with radiation (Rad). The remaining energy absorbed into the gaseous propellant is converted into thrust.",
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"plaintext": "A theoretical propulsion system has been proposed, based on alpha particles ( or indicating a helium ion with a +2 charge) emitted from a radioisotope uni-directionally through a hole in its chamber. A neutralising electron gun would produce a tiny amount of thrust with high specific impulse in the order of millions of seconds due to the high relativistic speed of alpha particles.",
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"plaintext": "A variant of this uses a graphite-based grid with a static DC high voltage to increase thrust as graphite has high transparency to alpha particles if it is also irradiated with short wave UV light at the correct wavelength from a solid state emitter. It also permits lower energy and longer half life sources which would be advantageous for a space application. Helium backfill has also been suggested as a way to increase electron mean free path.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters' low thrust requires continuous operation for a long time to achieve the necessary change in velocity (delta-v) for a particular mission. Ion thrusters are designed to provide continuous operation for intervals of weeks to years.",
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"plaintext": "The lifetime of electrostatic ion thrusters is limited by several processes.",
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"plaintext": "In electrostatic gridded designs, charge-exchange ions produced by the beam ions with the neutral gas flow can be accelerated towards the negatively biased accelerator grid and cause grid erosion. End-of-life is reached when either the grid structure fails or the holes in the grid become large enough that ion extraction is substantially affected; e.g., by the occurrence of electron backstreaming. Grid erosion cannot be avoided and is the major lifetime-limiting factor. Thorough grid design and material selection enable lifetimes of 20,000 hours or more.",
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"plaintext": "A test of the NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster resulted in 30,472 hours (roughly 3.5 years) of continuous thrust at maximum power. Post-test examination indicated the engine was not approaching failure. NSTAR operated for years on Dawn.",
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"plaintext": "The NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT) project operated continuously for more than 48,000 hours. The test was conducted in a high vacuum test chamber. Over the course of the 5.5+ year test, the engine consumed approximately 870 kilograms of xenon propellant. The total impulse generated would require over 10,000 kilograms of conventional rocket propellant for a similar application.",
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"plaintext": "Hall-effect thrusters suffer from strong erosion of the ceramic discharge chamber by impact of energetic ions: a test reported in 2010 showed erosion of around 1mm per hundred hours of operation, though this is inconsistent with observed on-orbit lifetimes of a few thousand hours.",
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"plaintext": "The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) is expected to accumulate about 5,000 hours and the design aims to achieve a flight model that offers a half-life of at least 23,000 hours and a full life of about 50,000 hours.",
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"plaintext": "Ionization energy represents a large percentage of the energy needed to run ion drives. The ideal propellant is thus easy to ionize and has a high mass/ionization energy ratio. In addition, the propellant should not erode the thruster to any great degree to permit long life; and should not contaminate the vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "Many current designs use xenon gas, as it is easy to ionize, has a reasonably high atomic number, is inert and causes low erosion. However, xenon is globally in short supply and expensive. (~$3,000/kg in 2021)",
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"plaintext": "Some older ion thruster designs used mercury propellant. However, mercury is toxic, tended to contaminate spacecraft, and was difficult to feed accurately. A modern commercial prototype may be using mercury successfully. Mercury was formally banned as a propellant in 2022 by the Minamata Convention on Mercury.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2018, krypton is used to fuel the Hall effect thrusters aboard Starlink internet satellites, in part due to its lower cost than conventional xenon propellant.",
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"plaintext": "Other propellants, such as bismuth and iodine, show promise both for gridless designs such as Hall effect thrusters, and gridded ion thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "Iodine For the first time in space, Iodine was used as a propellant for electric propulsion on the NPT30-I2 gridded ion thruster by ThrustMe, on board the Beihangkongshi-1 mission launched in November 2020, with an extensive report published a year later in the journal Nature. The CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster (CAT) used on the Mars Array of Ionospheric Research Satellites Using the CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster (MARS-CAT) mission also proposes to use solid iodine as the propellant to minimize storage volume.",
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"plaintext": "VASIMR design (and other plasma-based engines) are theoretically able to use practically any material for propellant. However, in current tests the most practical propellant is argon, which is relatively abundant and inexpensive.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thruster efficiency is the kinetic energy of the exhaust jet emitted per second divided by the electrical power into the device.",
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"plaintext": "Overall system energy efficiency is determined by the propulsive efficiency, which depends on vehicle speed and exhaust speed. Some thrusters can vary exhaust speed in operation, but all can be designed with different exhaust speeds. At the lower end of specific impulse, Isp, the overall efficiency drops, because ionization takes up a larger percentage energy and at the high end propulsive efficiency is reduced.",
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"plaintext": "Optimal efficiencies and exhaust velocities for any given mission can be calculated to give minimum overall cost.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters have many in-space propulsion applications. The best applications make use of the long mission interval when significant thrust is not needed. Examples of this include orbit transfers, attitude adjustments, drag compensation for low Earth orbits, fine adjustments for scientific missions and cargo transport between propellant depots, e.g., for chemical fuels. Ion thrusters can also be used for interplanetary and deep-space missions where acceleration rates are not crucial. Ion thrusters are seen as the best solution for these missions, as they require high change in velocity but do not require rapid acceleration. Continuous thrust over long durations can reach high velocities while consuming far less propellant than traditional chemical rockets.",
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"plaintext": "Ion propulsion systems were first demonstrated in space by the NASA Lewis (now Glenn Research Center) missions Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT)-1 and SERT-2A. A SERT-1 suborbital flight was launched on 20 July 1964, and successfully proved that the technology operated as predicted in space. These were electrostatic ion thrusters using mercury and caesium as the reaction mass. SERT-2A, launched on 4 February 1970, verified the operation of two mercury ion engines for thousands of running hours.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thrusters are routinely used for station-keeping on commercial and military communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The Soviet Union pioneered this field, using Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPTs) on satellites starting in the early 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Two geostationary satellites (ESA's Artemis in 2001–2003 and the United States military's AEHF-1 in 2010–2012) used the ion thruster to change orbit after the chemical-propellant engine failed. Boeing began using ion thrusters for station-keeping in 1997 and planned in 2013–2014 to offer a variant on their 702 platform, with no chemical engine and ion thrusters for orbit raising; this permits a significantly lower launch mass for a given satellite capability. AEHF-2 used a chemical engine to raise perigee to and proceeded to geosynchronous orbit using electric propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "China's Tiangong space station is fitted with ion thrusters. Tianhe core module is propelled by both chemical thrusters and four Hall-effect thrusters, which are used to adjust and maintain the station's orbit. The development of the Hall-effect thrusters is considered a sensitive topic in China, with scientists \"working to improve the technology without attracting attention\". Hall-effect thrusters are created with crewed mission safety in mind with effort to prevent erosion and damage caused by the accelerated ion particles. A magnetic field and specially designed ceramic shield was created to repel damaging particles and maintain integrity of the thrusters. According to the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the ion drive used on Tiangong has burned continuously for 8,240 hours without a glitch, indicating their suitability for Chinese space station's designated 15-year lifespan.",
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"plaintext": "SpaceX's Starlink satellite constellation uses Hall-effect thrusters powered by krypton to raise orbit, perform maneuvers, and de-orbit at the end of their use.",
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"plaintext": "ESA's Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) was launched on 16 March 2009. It used ion propulsion throughout its twenty-month mission to combat the air-drag it experienced in its low orbit (altitude of 255 kilometres) before intentionally deorbiting on 11 November 2013.",
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"plaintext": "NASA developed the NSTAR ion engine for use in interplanetary science missions beginning in the late-1990s. It was space-tested in the highly successful space probe Deep Space 1, launched in 1998. This was the first use of electric propulsion as the interplanetary propulsion system on a science mission. Based on the NASA design criteria, Hughes Research Labs, developed the Xenon Ion Propulsion System (XIPS) for performing station keeping on geosynchronous satellites. Hughes (EDD) manufactured the NSTAR thruster used on the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency's Hayabusa space probe was launched in 2003 and successfully rendezvoused with the asteroid 25143 Itokawa. It was powered by four xenon ion engines, which used microwave electron cyclotron resonance to ionize the propellant and an erosion-resistant carbon/carbon-composite material for its acceleration grid. Although the ion engines on Hayabusa experienced technical difficulties, in-flight reconfiguration allowed one of the four engines to be repaired and allowed the mission to successfully return to Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Hayabusa2, launched in 2014, was based on Hayabusa. It also used ion thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "The European Space Agency's satellite SMART-1 launched in 2003 using a Snecma PPS-1350-G Hall thruster to get from GTO to lunar orbit. This satellite completed its mission on 3 September 2006, in a controlled collision on the Moon's surface, after a trajectory deviation so scientists could see the 3 meter crater the impact created on the visible side of the Moon.",
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"plaintext": "Dawn launched on 27 September 2007, to explore the asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres. It used three Deep Space 1 heritage xenon ion thrusters (firing one at a time). Dawn ion drive is capable of accelerating from 0 to in 4 days of continuous firing. The mission ended on 1 November 2018, when the spacecraft ran out of hydrazine chemical propellant for its attitude thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "LISA Pathfinder is an ESA spacecraft launched in 2015 to orbit the sun-Earth L1 point. It does not use ion thrusters as its primary propulsion system, but uses both colloid thrusters and FEEP for precise attitude control – the low thrusts of these propulsion devices make it possible to move the spacecraft incremental distances accurately. It is a test for the LISA mission. The mission ended on 30 December 2017.",
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"plaintext": "ESA's BepiColombo mission was launched to Mercury on 20 October 2018. It uses ion thrusters in combination with swing-bys to get to Mercury, where a chemical rocket will complete orbit insertion.",
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"plaintext": "NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) launched in 2021 and will operate its NEXT-C xenon ion thruster for about 1,000 hours to reach the target asteroid in 2022.",
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"plaintext": ", a future launch of an Ad Astra VF-200 VASIMR electromagnetic thruster was under consideration for testing on the International Space Station (ISS). However, in 2015, NASA ended plans for flying the VF-200 to the ISS. A NASA spokesperson stated that the ISS \"was not an ideal demonstration platform for the desired performance level of the engines\". Ad Astra stated that tests of a VASIMR thruster on the ISS would remain an option after a future in-space demonstration.",
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"plaintext": "The VF-200 would have been a flight version of the VX-200. Since the available power from the ISS is less than 200kW, the ISS VASIMR would have included a trickle-charged battery system allowing for 15 minutes pulses of thrust. The ISS orbits at a relatively low altitude and experiences fairly high levels of atmospheric drag, requiring periodic altitude boosts – a high efficiency engine (high specific impulse) for station-keeping would be valuable, theoretically VASIMR reboosting could cut fuel cost from the current US$210 million annually to one-twentieth. VASIMR could in theory use as little as 300kg of argon gas for ISS station-keeping instead of 7500kg of chemical fuel – the high exhaust velocity (high specific impulse) would achieve the same acceleration with a smaller amount of propellant, compared to chemical propulsion with its lower exhaust velocity needing more fuel. Hydrogen is generated by the ISS as a by-product and is vented into space.",
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"plaintext": "NASA previously worked on a 50kW Hall-effect thruster for the ISS, but work was stopped in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) is a module on the Lunar Gateway that provides power generation and propulsion capabilities. It is targeting launch on a commercial vehicle in January 2024. It would probably use the 50kW Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) under development at NASA Glenn Research Center and Aerojet Rocketdyne.",
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"plaintext": "The MARS-CAT (Mars Array of ionospheric Research Satellites using the CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster) mission is a two 6U CubeSat concept mission to study Mars' ionosphere. The mission would investigate its plasma and magnetic structure, including transient plasma structures, magnetic field structure, magnetic activity and correlation with solar wind drivers. The CAT thruster is now called the RF thruster and manufactured by Phase Four.",
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"plaintext": "Geoffrey A. Landis proposed using an ion thruster powered by a space-based laser, in conjunction with a lightsail, to propel an interstellar probe.",
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"plaintext": " The idea of an ion engine first appeared in Donald W Horner's By Aeroplane to the Sun: Being the Adventures of a Daring Aviator and his Friends (1910).",
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"plaintext": " Ion propulsion is the main thrust source of the spaceship Kosmokrator in the Eastern German/Polish science fiction movie Der Schweigende Stern (1960). Minute 28:10.",
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"plaintext": " In the 1968 episode of Star Trek, \"Spock's Brain\", Scotty is repeatedly impressed by a civilization's use of ion power.",
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"plaintext": " Ion thrusters repeatedly appear in the Star Wars franchise, most notably in the Twin Ion Engine (TIE) fighter.",
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"plaintext": " Ion thrusters appear as the primary form of propulsion in vacuum for the spacecraft in the game Space Engineers.",
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"plaintext": " Ion thrusters are referenced as a method of space propulsion in The Martian, where they are used to propel the Hermes crewed spacecraft between Earth and Mars.",
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"plaintext": " Ion drive is a primary means of propulsion for spacecraft and aircraft in the sci-fi series Worlds Spinning Round by T. E. Greene (2005, 2012, 2017)",
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"plaintext": " A pseudo-realistic form of ion thrusters appear in the game Kerbal Space Program, notable for their low thrust and high efficiency much like their real life counterpart.",
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"plaintext": " Advanced Electric Propulsion System",
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"plaintext": " Colloid thruster",
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"plaintext": " Comparison of orbital rocket engines",
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"plaintext": " Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion",
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"plaintext": " List of spacecraft with electric propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Nano-particle field extraction thruster",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear electric rocket",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear pulse propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Plasma actuator",
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"plaintext": " Plasma propulsion engine",
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"plaintext": " ElectroHydroDynamic Thrusters (EHDT) RMCybernetics",
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"plaintext": " Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA",
"section_idx": 14,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Colorado State University Electric Propulsion & Plasma Engineering (CEPPE) Laboratory",
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},
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"plaintext": " Geoffrey A. Landis: Laser-powered Interstellar Probe",
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"plaintext": " Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009) New dawn of electric rocket The Ion Drive",
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},
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"plaintext": " The revolutionary ion engine that took spacecraft to Ceres",
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},
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"plaintext": " Electric Propulsion Sub-Systems",
"section_idx": 14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stationary plasma thrusters",
"section_idx": 14,
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},
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"plaintext": " \"NASA Trumps Star Trek: Ion Drive Live!\" The Daily Galaxy 13 April 2009.",
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},
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"plaintext": " \"The Ultimate Space Gadget: NASA's Ion Drive Live!\" The Daily Galaxy, 7 July 2009.",
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},
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"plaintext": " An early experimental ion engine is on display at the Aerospace Discovery at the Florida Air Museum.",
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32666420
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] | [
"Magnetic_propulsion_devices",
"Ion_engines",
"Emerging_technologies",
"Spacecraft_propulsion",
"Russian_inventions"
] | 205,702 | 14,396 | 314 | 267 | 0 | 0 | ion thruster | propulsion method for spacecraft | [] |
37,840 | 1,106,847,283 | Magnetoplasmadynamic_thruster | [
{
"plaintext": "A magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster (MPDT) is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion which uses the Lorentz force (the force on a charged particle by an electromagnetic field) to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred to as Lorentz Force Accelerator (LFA) or (mostly in Japan) MPD arcjet.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, a gaseous material is ionized and fed into an acceleration chamber, where the magnetic and electric fields are created using a power source. The particles are then propelled by the Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between the current flowing through the plasma and the magnetic field (which is either externally applied, or induced by the current) out through the exhaust chamber. Unlike chemical propulsion, there is no combustion of fuel. As with other electric propulsion variations, both specific impulse and thrust increase with power input, while thrust per watt drops.",
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"plaintext": "There are two main types of MPD thrusters, applied-field and self-field. Applied-field thrusters have magnetic rings surrounding the exhaust chamber to produce the magnetic field, while self-field thrusters have a cathode extending through the middle of the chamber. Applied fields are necessary at lower power levels, where self-field configurations are too weak. Various propellants such as xenon, neon, argon, hydrogen, hydrazine, and lithium have been used, with lithium generally being the best performer.",
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"plaintext": "According to Edgar Choueiri magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters have input power 100–500 kilowatts, exhaust velocity 15–60 kilometers per second, thrust 2.5–25 newtons and efficiency 40–60 percent. However, additional research has shown that exhaust velocities can exceed 100 kilometers per second.",
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"plaintext": "One potential application of magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters is the main propulsion engine for heavy cargo and piloted space vehicles (example engine for human mission to Mars).",
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"plaintext": "In theory, MPD thrusters could produce extremely high specific impulses (Isp) with an exhaust velocity of up to and beyond , triple the value of current xenon-based ion thrusters, and about 25 times better than liquid rockets. MPD technology also has the potential for thrust levels of up to 200 newtons (N) (), by far the highest for any form of electric propulsion, and nearly as high as many interplanetary chemical rockets. This would allow use of electric propulsion on missions which require quick delta-v maneuvers (such as capturing into orbit around another planet), but with many times greater fuel efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "MPD thruster technology has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been low due to several remaining problems. One small problem is that power requirements on the order of hundreds of kilowatts are required for optimum performance. Current interplanetary spacecraft power systems (such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators and solar arrays) are incapable of producing that much power. NASA's Project Prometheus reactor was expected to generate power in the hundreds of kilowatts range but was discontinued in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "A project to produce a space-going nuclear reactor designed to generate 600 kilowatts of electrical power began in 1963 and ran for most of the 1960s in the USSR. It was to power a communication satellite which was in the end not approved. Nuclear reactors supplying kilowatts of electrical power (of the order of ten times more than current RTG power supplies) have been orbited by the USSR: RORSAT; and TOPAZ.",
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"plaintext": "Plans to develop a megawatt-scale nuclear reactor for the use aboard a crewed spaceship were announced in 2009 by Russian nuclear Kurchatov Institute, national space agency Roskosmos, and confirmed by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in his November 2009 address to the Federal Assembly.",
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"plaintext": "Another plan, proposed by Bradley C. Edwards, is to beam power from the ground. This plan utilizes 5 200kW free electron lasers at 0.84 micrometres with adaptive optics on the ground to beam power to the MPD-powered spacecraft, where it is converted to electricity by GaAs photovoltaic panels. The tuning of the laser wavelength of 0.840 micrometres ( per photon) and the PV panel bandgap of to each other produces an estimated conversion efficiency of 59% and a predicted power density of up to . This would be sufficient to power a MPD upper stage, perhaps to lift satellites from LEO to GEO.",
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"plaintext": "Another problem with MPD technology has been the degradation of cathodes due to evaporation driven by high current densities (in excess of ). The use of lithium and barium propellant mixtures and multi-channel hollow cathodes has been shown in the laboratory to be a promising solution for the cathode erosion problem.",
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"plaintext": "Research on MPD thrusters has been carried out in the US, the former Soviet Union, Japan, Germany, and Italy. Experimental prototypes were first flown on Soviet spacecraft and, most recently, in 1996, on the Japanese Space Flyer Unit, which demonstrated the successful operation of a quasi-steady pulsed MPD thruster in space. Research at Moscow Aviation Institute, RKK Energiya, National Aerospace University, Kharkiv Aviation Institute, Institute of Space Systems of the University of Stuttgart, ISAS, Centrospazio, Alta S.p.A., Osaka University, University of Southern California, Princeton University's Electric Propulsion and Plasma Dynamics Lab (EPPDyL) (where MPD thruster research has continued uninterrupted since 1967), and NASA centers (Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Glenn Research Center), has resolved many problems related to the performance, stability and lifetime of MPD thrusters.",
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"plaintext": "An MPD thruster was tested on board the Japanese Space Flyer Unit as part of EPEX (Electric Propulsion EXperiment) that was launched March 18, 1995 and retrieved by space shuttle mission STS-72 January 20, 1996. To date, it is the only operational MPD thruster to have flown in space as a propulsion system. Experimental prototypes were first flown on Soviet spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "The applied-field MPD thruster in development at the Institute of Space Systems of the University of Stuttgart reached a thruster efficiency of 61.99% in 2019, corresponding to a specific impulse of Isp = 4665 s and 2.75 N of thrust.",
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"plaintext": " Hall effect thruster",
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37838
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"plaintext": " Ion thruster",
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37839
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"plaintext": " Magnetohydrodynamics",
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40310
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},
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"plaintext": " Magnetic sail",
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37845
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Pulsed plasma thruster",
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37841
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Solar panels on spacecraft",
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4526198
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1,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
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28506
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},
{
"plaintext": " VASIMR",
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"target_page_ids": [
40248
],
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1,
7
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},
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"plaintext": " List of plasma (physics) articles",
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33820413
],
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[
1,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009). New dawn of electric rocket. Next-Generation Thruster",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Search engine for a large archive of technical papers on MPD thruster research",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MPD - MagnetoPlasmaDynamic Propulsion",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Spacecraft_propulsion",
"Magnetic_propulsion_devices"
] | 17,190,065 | 2,002 | 26 | 57 | 0 | 0 | magnetoplasmadynamic thruster | MPD thruster usually used to propel spacecraft | [
"MPD thruster"
] |
37,841 | 1,031,126,760 | Pulsed_plasma_thruster | [
{
"plaintext": "A pulsed plasma thruster (PPT), also known as a plasma jet engine, is a form of electric spacecraft propulsion. PPTs are generally considered the simplest form of electric spacecraft propulsion and were the first form of electric propulsion to be flown in space, having flown on two Soviet probes (Zond 2 and Zond 3) starting in 1964. PPTs are generally flown on spacecraft with a surplus of electricity from abundantly available solar energy.",
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"plaintext": "Most PPTs use a solid material (normally PTFE, more commonly known as Teflon) for propellant, although very few use liquid or gaseous propellants. The first stage in PPT operation involves an arc of electricity passing through the fuel, causing ablation and sublimation of the fuel. The heat generated by this arc causes the resultant gas to turn into plasma, thereby creating a charged gas cloud. Due to the force of the ablation, the plasma is propelled at low speed between two charged plates (an anode and cathode). Since the plasma is charged, the fuel effectively completes the circuit between the two plates, allowing a current to flow through the plasma. This flow of electrons generates a strong electromagnetic field which then exerts a Lorentz force on the plasma, accelerating the plasma out of the PPT exhaust at high velocity. Its mode of operation is similar to a railgun. The pulsing occurs due to the time needed to recharge the plates following each burst of fuel, and the time between each arc. The frequency of pulsing is normally very high and so it generates an almost continuous and smooth thrust. While the thrust is very low, a PPT can operate continuously for extended periods of time, yielding a large final speed.",
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"plaintext": "The energy used in each pulse is stored in a capacitor. By varying the time between each capacitor discharge, the thrust and power draw of the PPT can be varied allowing versatile use of the system.",
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"plaintext": "The equation for the change in velocity of a spacecraft is given by the rocket equation as follows:",
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"plaintext": " is delta-v - the maximum change of speed of the vehicle (with no external forces acting),",
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"plaintext": " is the effective exhaust velocity ( where is the specific impulse expressed as a time period and is standard gravity),",
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"plaintext": " refers to the natural logarithm function,",
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"plaintext": " is the final total mass.",
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"plaintext": "PPTs have much higher exhaust velocities than chemical propulsion engines, but have a much smaller fuel flow rate. From the Tsiolkovsky equation stated above, this results in a proportionally higher final velocity of the propelled craft. The exhaust velocity of a PPT is of the order of tens of km/s while conventional chemical propulsion generates thermal velocities in the range of 2–4.5km/s. Due to this lower thermal velocity, chemical propulsion units become exponentially less effective at higher vehicle velocities, necessitating the use of electric spacecraft propulsion such as PPTs. It is therefore advantageous to use an electric propulsion system such as a PPT to generate high interplanetary speeds in the range 20–70km/s.",
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"plaintext": "NASA's research PPT (flown in 2000) achieved an exhaust velocity of 13,700m/s, generated a thrust of 860µN, and consumed 70W of electrical power.",
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"plaintext": "PPTs are very robust due to their inherently simple design (relative to other electric spacecraft propulsion techniques). As an electric propulsion system, PPTs benefit from reduced fuel consumption compared to traditional chemical rockets, reducing launch mass and therefore launch costs, as well as high specific impulse improving performance.",
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"plaintext": "However, due to energy losses caused by late time ablation and rapid conductive heat transfer from the propellant to the rest of the spacecraft, propulsive efficiency (kinetic energy of exhaust / total energy used) is very low compared to other forms of electric propulsion, at around just 10%.",
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"plaintext": "PPTs are well-suited to uses on relatively small spacecraft with a mass of less than 100kg (particularly CubeSats) for roles such as attitude control, station keeping, de-orbiting manoeuvres and deep space exploration. Using PPTs could double the life-span of these small satellite missions without significantly increasing complexity or cost due to the inherent simplicity and relatively low cost nature of PPTs.",
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"plaintext": "The first use of PPTs was on the Soviet Zond 2 space probe on 30 November 1964.",
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"plaintext": "A PPT was flown by NASA in November, 2000, as a flight experiment on the Earth Observing-1 spacecraft. The thrusters successfully demonstrated the ability to perform roll control on the spacecraft and demonstrated that the electromagnetic interference from the pulsed plasma did not affect other spacecraft systems. Pulsed plasma thrusters are also an avenue of research used by universities for starting experiments with electric propulsion due to the relative simplicity and lower costs involved with PPTs as opposed to other forms of electric propulsion such as Hall-effect ion thrusters.",
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"plaintext": " Vacuum arc thruster",
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65634459
],
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1,
20
]
]
}
] | [
"Ion_engines",
"Soviet_inventions"
] | 1,509,676 | 857 | 33 | 33 | 0 | 0 | pulsed plasma thruster | method of spacecraft propulsion | [] |
37,842 | 1,103,646,723 | Nuclear_thermal_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) is a type of thermal rocket where the heat from a nuclear reaction, often nuclear fission, replaces the chemical energy of the propellants in a chemical rocket. In an NTR, a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature in a nuclear reactor and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. The external nuclear heat source theoretically allows a higher effective exhaust velocity and is expected to double or triple payload capacity compared to chemical propellants that store energy internally.",
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"plaintext": "NTRs have been proposed as a spacecraft propulsion technology, with the earliest ground tests occurring in 1955. The United States maintained an NTR development program through 1973 when it was shut down to focus on Space Shuttle development. Although more than ten reactors of varying power output have been built and tested, , no nuclear thermal rocket has flown.",
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"plaintext": "Whereas all early applications for nuclear thermal rocket propulsion used fission processes, research in the 2010s has moved to fusion approaches. The Direct Fusion Drive project at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory is one such example, although \"energy-positive fusion has remained elusive\". In 2019, the U.S. Congress approved US$125 million in development funding for nuclear thermal propulsion rockets.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2022 DARPA issued an RFP for the next phase of their Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) nuclear thermal engine program. This follows on their selection, in 2021, of an early engine design by General Atomics and two spacecraft concepts from Blue Origin and Lockheed Martin. The next phases of the program will focus on the design, development, fabrication, and assembly of a nuclear thermal rocket engine. ",
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"plaintext": "Nuclear-powered thermal rockets are more effective than chemical thermal rockets, primarily because they can use low-molecular-mass propellants such as hydrogen.",
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"plaintext": "As thermal rockets, nuclear thermal rockets work almost exactly like chemical rockets: a heat source releases thermal energy into a gaseous propellant inside the body of the engine, and a nozzle at one end acts as a very simple heat engine: it allows the propellant to expand away from the vehicle, carrying momentum with it and converting thermal energy to coherent kinetic energy. The specific impulse (Isp) of the engine is set by the speed of the exhaust stream. That, in turn, varies as the square root of the kinetic energy loaded on each unit mass of propellant. The kinetic energy per molecule of propellant is determined by the temperature of the heat source (whether it be a nuclear reactor or a chemical reaction). At any particular temperature, lightweight propellant molecules carry just as much kinetic energy as heavier propellant molecules and therefore have more kinetic energy per unit mass. This makes low-molecular-mass propellants more effective than high-molecular-mass propellants.",
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"plaintext": "Because chemical rockets and nuclear rockets are made from refractory solid materials, they are both limited to operate below ~, by the strength characteristics of high-temperature metals. Chemical rockets use the most readily available propellant, which is waste products from the chemical reactions producing their heat energy. Most liquid-fueled chemical rockets use either hydrogen or hydrocarbon combustion, and the propellant is therefore mainly water (molecular mass 18) and/or carbon dioxide (molecular mass 44). Nuclear thermal rockets using gaseous hydrogen propellant (molecular mass 2) therefore have a theoretical maximum Isp that is 3x-4.5x greater than those of chemical rockets.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1944, Stanisław Ulam and Frederic de Hoffmann contemplated the idea of controlling the power of nuclear explosions to launch space vehicles. After World War II, the U.S. military started the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) based on the German V-2 rocket designs. Some large rockets were designed to carry nuclear warheads with nuclear-powered propulsion engines. As early as 1946, secret reports were prepared for the U.S. Air Force, as part of the NEPA project, by North American Aviation and Douglas Aircraft Company's Project Rand. These groundbreaking reports identified a reactor engine in which a working fluid of low molecular weight is heated using a nuclear reactor as the most promising form of nuclear propulsion but identified many technical issues that needed to be resolved.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1947, not aware of this classified research, engineers of the Applied Physics Laboratory published their research on nuclear power propulsion and their report was eventually classified. In May 1947, American-educated Chinese scientist Qian Xuesen presented his research on \"thermal jets\" powered by a porous graphite-moderated nuclear reactor at the Nuclear Science and Engineering Seminars LIV organized by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.",
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"plaintext": "In 1948 and 1949, physicist Leslie Shepherd and rocket scientist Val Cleaver produced a series of groundbreaking scientific papers that considered how nuclear technology might be applied to interplanetary travel. The papers examined both nuclear-thermal and nuclear-electric propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "A nuclear thermal rocket can be categorized by the type of reactor, ranging from a relatively simple solid reactor up to the much more difficult to construct but theoretically more efficient gas core reactor. As with all thermal rocket designs, the specific impulse produced is proportional to the square root of the temperature to which the working fluid (reaction mass) is heated. To extract maximum efficiency, the temperature must be as high as possible. For a given design, the temperature that can be attained is typically determined by the materials chosen for reactor structures, the nuclear fuel, and the fuel cladding. Erosion is also a concern, especially the loss of fuel and associated releases of radioactivity. ",
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"plaintext": "Solid core nuclear reactors have been fueled by compounds of uranium that exist in solid phase under the conditions encountered and undergo nuclear fission to release energy. Flight reactors must be lightweight and capable of tolerating extremely high temperatures, as the only coolant available is the working fluid/propellant. A nuclear solid core engine is the simplest design to construct and is the concept used on all tested NTRs.",
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"plaintext": "A solid core reactor's performance is ultimately limited by the material properties, including melting point, of the materials used in the nuclear fuel and reactor pressure vessel. Nuclear reactions can create much higher temperatures than most materials can typically withstand, meaning that much of the potential of the reactor cannot be realized. Additionally, with cooling being provided by the propellant only, all the decay heat remaining after reactor shutdown must be radiated to space, a slow process that will expose the fuel rods to extreme temperature stress. During operation, temperatures at the fuel rod surfaces range from the 22 K of admitted propellant up to 3000 K at the exhaust end. Taking place over the 1.3m length of a fuel rod, this is certain to cause cracking of the cladding if the coefficients of expansion are not precisely matched in all the components of the reactor.",
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"plaintext": "Using hydrogen as a propellant, a solid core design would typically deliver specific impulses (Isp) on the order of 850 to 1000 seconds, which is about twice that of liquid hydrogen-oxygen designs such as the Space Shuttle main engine. Other propellants have also been proposed, such as ammonia, water, or LOX, but these propellants would provide reduced exhaust velocity and performance at a marginally reduced fuel cost. Yet another mark in favor of hydrogen is that at low pressures it begins to dissociate at about 1500 K, and at high pressures around 3000 K., This lowers the mass of the exhaust species, increasing Isp.",
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"plaintext": "Early publications were doubtful of space applications for nuclear engines. In 1947, a complete nuclear reactor was so heavy that solid core nuclear thermal engines would be entirely unable to achieve a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1:1, which is needed to overcome the gravity of the Earth at launch. Over the next twenty-five years, U.S. nuclear thermal rocket designs eventually reached thrust-to-weight ratios of approximately 7:1. This is still a much lower thrust-to-weight ratio than what is achievable with chemical rockets, which have thrust-to-weight ratios on the order of 70:1. Combined with the large tanks necessary for liquid hydrogen storage, this means that solid core nuclear thermal engines are best suited for use in orbit outside Earth's gravity well, not to mention avoiding the radioactive contamination that would result from atmospheric use (if an \"open-cycle\" design was used, as opposed to a lower-performance \"closed cycle\" design where no radioactive material was allowed to escape with the rocket propellant.)",
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"plaintext": "One way to increase the working temperature of the reactor is to change the nuclear fuel elements. This is the basis of the particle-bed reactor, which is fueled by several (typically spherical) elements that \"float\" inside the hydrogen working fluid. Spinning the entire engine could prevent the fuel element from being ejected out the nozzle. This design is thought to be capable of increasing the specific impulse to about 1000 seconds (9.8kN·s/kg) at the cost of increased complexity. Such a design could share design elements with a pebble-bed reactor, several of which are currently generating electricity. From 1987 through 1991, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) Office funded Project Timberwind, a non-rotating nuclear thermal rocket based on particle bed technology. The project was canceled before testing.",
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"plaintext": "In a conventional solid core design, the maximum exhaust temperature of the working mass is that of the reactor, and in practice, lower than that. That temperature represents an energy far below that of the individual neutrons released by the fission reactions. Their energy is spread out through the reactor mass, causing it to thermalize. In power plant designs, the core is then cooled, typically using water. In the case of a nuclear engine, the water is replaced by hydrogen, but the concept is otherwise similar.",
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"plaintext": "Pulsed reactors attempt to transfer the energy directly from the neutrons to the working mass, allowing the exhaust to reach temperatures far beyond the melting point of the reactor core. As specific impulse varies directly with temperature, capturing the energy of the relativistic neutrons allows for a dramatic increase in performance.",
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"plaintext": "To do this, pulsed reactors operate in a series of brief pulses rather than the continual chain reaction of a conventional reactor. The reactor is normally off, allowing it to cool. It is then turned on, along with the cooling system or fuel flow, operating at a very high power level. At this level the core rapidly begins to heat up, so once a set temperature is reached, the reactor is quickly turned off again. During these pulses, the power being produced is far greater than the same sized reactor could produce continually. The key to this approach is that while the total amount of fuel that can be pumped through the reactor during these brief pulses is small, the resulting efficiency of these pulses is much higher.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, the designs would not be operated solely in the pulsed mode but could vary their duty cycle depending on the need. For instance, during a high-thrust phase of flight, like exiting a low earth orbit, the engine could operate continually and provide an Isp similar to that of traditional solid-core design. But during a long-duration cruise, the engine would switch to pulsed mode to make better use of its fuel.",
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"plaintext": "Liquid core nuclear engines are fueled by compounds of fissionable elements in liquid phase. A liquid-core engine is proposed to operate at temperatures above the melting point of solid nuclear fuel and cladding, with the maximum operating temperature of the engine instead of being determined by the reactor pressure vessel and neutron reflector material. The higher operating temperatures would be expected to deliver specific impulse performance on the order of 1300 to 1500 seconds (12.8-14.8kN·s/kg).",
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"plaintext": "A liquid-core reactor would be extremely difficult to build with current technology. One major issue is that the reaction time of the nuclear fuel is much longer than the heating time of the working fluid. If the nuclear fuel and working fluid are not physically separated, this means that the fuel must be trapped inside the engine while the working fluid is allowed to easily exit through the nozzle. One possible solution is to rotate the fuel/fluid mixture at very high speeds to force the higher density fuel to the outside, but this would expose the reactor pressure vessel to the maximum operating temperature while adding mass, complexity, and moving parts.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative liquid-core design is the nuclear salt-water rocket. In this design, water is the working fluid and also serves as the neutron moderator. Nuclear fuel is not retained, which drastically simplifies the design. However, the rocket would discharge massive quantities of extremely radioactive waste and could only be safely operated well outside the atmosphere of Earth and perhaps even entirely outside the magnetosphere of Earth.",
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"plaintext": "The final fission classification is the gas-core engine. This is a modification to the liquid-core design which uses rapid circulation of the fluid to create a toroidal pocket of gaseous uranium fuel in the middle of the reactor, surrounded by hydrogen. In this case, the fuel does not touch the reactor wall at all, so temperatures could reach several tens of thousands of degrees, which would allow specific impulses of 3000 to 5000 seconds (30 to 50kN·s/kg). In this basic design, the \"open cycle\", the losses of nuclear fuel would be difficult to control, which has led to studies of the \"closed cycle\" or nuclear lightbulb engine, where the gaseous nuclear fuel is contained in a super-high-temperature quartz container, over which the hydrogen flows. The closed-cycle engine has much more in common with the solid-core design, but this time is limited by the critical temperature of quartz instead of the fuel and cladding. Although less efficient than the open-cycle design, the closed-cycle design is expected to deliver a specific impulse of about 1500–2000 seconds (15-20kN·s/kg).",
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"plaintext": "The Soviet RD-0410 went through a series of tests at the nuclear test site near Semipalatinsk Test Site.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, Russia's Keldysh Research Center confirmed a successful ground test of waste heat radiators for a nuclear space engine, as well as previous tests of fuel rods and ion engines.",
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"plaintext": "Development of solid core NTRs started in 1955 under the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as Project Rover and ran to 1973. Work on a suitable reactor was conducted at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Area 25 (Nevada National Security Site) in the Nevada Test Site. Four basic designs came from this project: KIWI, Phoebus, Pewee, and the Nuclear Furnace. Twenty individual engines were tested, with a total of over 17 hours of engine run time.",
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"plaintext": "When NASA was formed in 1958, it was given authority over all non-nuclear aspects of the Rover program. To enable cooperation with the AEC and keep classified information compartmentalized, the Space Nuclear Propulsion Office (SNPO) was formed at the same time. The 1961 NERVA program was intended to lead to the entry of nuclear thermal rocket engines into space exploration. Unlike the AEC work, which was intended to study the reactor design itself, NERVA's goal was to produce a real engine that could be deployed on space missions. The thrust baseline NERVA design was based on the KIWI B4 series.",
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"plaintext": "Tested engines included Kiwi, Phoebus, NRX/EST, NRX/XE, Pewee, Pewee 2, and the Nuclear Furnace. Progressively higher power densities culminated in the Pewee. Tests of the improved Pewee 2 design were canceled in 1970 in favor of the lower-cost Nuclear Furnace (NF-1), and the U.S. nuclear rocket program officially ended in the spring of 1973. During this program, the NERVA accumulated over 2 hours of run time, including 28 minutes at full power. The SNPO considered NERVA to be the last technology development reactor required to proceed to flight prototypes.",
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"plaintext": "Several other solid-core engines have also been studied to some degree. The Small Nuclear Rocket Engine, or SNRE, was designed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) for upper stage use, both on uncrewed launchers and the Space Shuttle. It featured a split-nozzle that could be rotated to the side, allowing it to take up less room in the Shuttle cargo bay. The design provided 73kN of thrust and operated at a specific impulse of 875 seconds (8.58kN·s/kg), and it was planned to increase this to 975 seconds, achieving a mass fraction of about 0.74, compared with 0.86 for the Space Shuttle main engine (SSME), one of the best conventional engines.",
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"plaintext": "A related design that saw some work, but never made it to the prototype stage, was Dumbo. Dumbo was similar to KIWI/NERVA in concept, but used more advanced construction techniques to lower the weight of the reactor. The Dumbo reactor consisted of several large barrel-like tubes, which were in turn constructed of stacked plates of corrugated material. The corrugations were lined up so that the resulting stack had channels running from the inside to the outside. Some of these channels were filled with uranium fuel, others with a moderator, and some were left open as a gas channel. Hydrogen was pumped into the middle of the tube and would be heated by the fuel as it traveled through the channels as it worked its way to the outside. The resulting system was lighter than a conventional design for any particular amount of fuel.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1987 and 1991, an advanced engine design was studied under Project Timberwind, under the Strategic Defense Initiative, which was later expanded into a larger design in the Space Thermal Nuclear Propulsion (STNP) program. Advances in high-temperature metals, computer modeling, and nuclear engineering, in general, resulted in dramatically improved performance. While the NERVA engine was projected to weigh about , the final STNP offered just over 1/3 the thrust from an engine of only by improving the Isp to between 930 and 1000 seconds.",
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"plaintext": "KIWI was the first to be fired, starting in July 1959 with KIWI 1. The reactor was not intended for flight and was named after the flightless bird, Kiwi. The core was simply a stack of uncoated uranium oxide plates onto which the hydrogen was dumped. The thermal output of 70 MW at an exhaust temperature of 2683 K was generated. Two additional tests of the basic concept, A1 and A3, added coatings to the plates to test fuel rod concepts.",
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"plaintext": "The KIWI B series was fueled by tiny uranium dioxide (UO2) spheres embedded in a low-boron graphite matrix and coated with niobium carbide. Nineteen holes ran the length of the bundles, through which the liquid hydrogen flowed. On the initial firings, immense heat and vibration cracked the fuel bundles. The graphite materials used in the reactor's construction were resistant to high temperatures but eroded under the stream of superheated hydrogen, a reducing agent. The fuel species was later switched to uranium carbide, with the last engine run in 1964. The fuel bundle erosion and cracking problems were improved but never completely solved, despite promising materials work at the Argonne National Laboratory.",
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"plaintext": "NERVA NRX (Nuclear Rocket Experimental), started testing in September 1964. The final engine in this series was the XE, designed with flight representative hardware and fired into a low-pressure chamber to simulate a vacuum. SNPO fired NERVA NRX/XE twenty-eight times in March 1968. The series all generated 1100 MW, and many of the tests concluded only when the test-stand ran out of hydrogen propellant. NERVA NRX/XE produced the baseline thrust that Marshall Space Flight Center required in Mars mission plans. The last NRX firing lost of nuclear fuel in 2 hours of testing, which was judged sufficient for space missions by SNPO.",
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"plaintext": "Building on the KIWI series, the Phoebus series were much larger reactors. The first 1A test in June 1965 ran for over 10 minutes at 1090 MW and an exhaust temperature of 2370 K. The B run in February 1967 improved this to 1500 MW for 30 minutes. The final 2A test in June 1968 ran for over 12 minutes at 4000 MW, at the time the most powerful nuclear reactor ever built.",
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"plaintext": "A smaller version of KIWI, the Pewee was also built. It was fired several times at 500 MW to test coatings made of zirconium carbide (instead of niobium carbide) but Pewee also increased the power density of the system. A water-cooled system is known as NF-1 (for Nuclear Furnace) used Pewee 2's fuel elements for future materials testing, showing a factor of 3 reductions in fuel corrosion still further. Pewee 2 was never tested on the stand and became the basis for current NTR designs being researched at NASA's Glenn Research Center and Marshall Space flight Center.",
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"plaintext": "The NERVA/Rover project was eventually canceled in 1972 with the general wind-down of NASA in the post-Apollo era. Without a human mission to Mars, the need for a nuclear thermal rocket is unclear. Another problem would be public concerns about safety and radioactive contamination.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1965, the U.S. Rover program intentionally modified a Kiwi reactor (KIWI-TNT) to go prompt critical, resulting in immediate destruction of the reactor pressure vessel, nozzle, and fuel assemblies. Intended to simulate a worst-case scenario of a fall from altitude into the ocean, such as might occur in a booster failure after launch, the resulting release of radiation would have caused fatalities out to and injuries out to . The reactor was positioned on a railroad car in the Jackass Flats area of the Nevada Test Site.",
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"plaintext": "As of January 2012, the propulsion group for Project Icarus was studying an NTR propulsion system.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, Ronen & Leibson published a study on applications of 242mAm (one of the isotopes of americium) as nuclear fuel to space nuclear reactors, noting its extremely high thermal cross section and energy density. Nuclear systems powered by 242mAm require less fuel by a factor of 2 to 100 compared to conventional nuclear fuels.",
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"plaintext": "Fission-fragment rocket using 242mAm was proposed by George Chapline at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 1988, who suggested propulsion based on the direct heating of a propellant gas by fission fragments generated by a fissile material. Ronen et al. demonstrate that 242mAm can maintain sustained nuclear fission as an extremely thin metallic film, less than 1/1000 of a millimeter thick. 242mAm requires only 1% of the mass of 235U or 239Pu to reach its critical state. Ronen's group at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev further showed that nuclear fuel based on 242mAm could speed space vehicles from Earth to Mars in as little as two weeks.",
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"plaintext": "The 242mAm as a nuclear fuel is derived from the fact that it has the highest thermal fission cross section (thousands of barns), about 10x the next highest cross section across all known isotopes. The 242mAm is fissile (because it has an odd number of neutrons) and has a low critical mass, comparable to that of 239Pu.",
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"plaintext": "It has a very high cross section for fission, and if in a nuclear reactor is destroyed relatively quickly. Another report claims that 242mAm can sustain a chain reaction even as a thin film, and could be used for a novel type of nuclear rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Since the thermal absorption cross section of 242mAm is very high, the best way to obtain 242mAm is by the capture of fast or epithermal neutrons in Americium-241 irradiated in a fast reactor. However, fast spectrum reactors are not readily available. Detailed analysis of 242mAm breeding in existing pressurized water reactors (PWRs) was provided. Proliferation resistance of 242mAm was reported by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 2008 study.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Carlo Rubbia at CERN further extended the work by Ronen and Chapline on a Fission-fragment rocket using 242mAm as a fuel. Project 242 based on Rubbia design studied a concept of 242mAm based Thin-Film Fission Fragment Heated NTR by using a direct conversion of the kinetic energy of fission fragments into increasing of enthalpy of a propellant gas. Project 242 studied the application of this propulsion system to a crewed mission to Mars. Preliminary results were very satisfactory, and it has been observed that a propulsion system with these characteristics could make the mission feasible. Another study focused on the production of 242mAm in conventional thermal nuclear reactors.",
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"plaintext": "Current solid-core nuclear thermal rocket designs are intended to greatly limit the dispersion and break-up of radioactive fuel elements in the event of a catastrophic failure.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2013, an NTR for interplanetary travel from Earth orbit to Mars orbit is being studied at Marshall Space Flight Center. In historical ground testing, NTRs proved to be at least twice as efficient as the most advanced chemical engines, which would allow for quicker transfer time and increased cargo capacity. The shorter flight duration, estimated at 3–4 months with NTR engines, compared to 6–9 months using chemical engines, would reduce crew exposure to potentially harmful and difficult to shield cosmic rays. NTR engines, such as the Pewee of Project Rover, were selected in the Mars Design Reference Architecture (DRA).",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, NASA continued research and development on NTRs, designing for space applications with civilian approved materials, with a three-year, US$18.8 million contract.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, an appropriation bill passed by the U.S. Congress included US$125 million in funding for nuclear thermal propulsion research, including planning for a flight demonstration mission by 2024.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2021, there has been much interest in nuclear thermal rockets by the United States Space Force and DARPA for orbital and cis-lunar uses. In addition to the U.S. military, NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine has also expressed interest in the project and its potential applications for a future mission to Mars. DARPA has awarded 2 contracts for their Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) program, which aims to demonstrate a nuclear thermal propulsion system in orbit: one award in September 2020 to Gryphon Technologies for US$14 million, and another award in April 2021 to General Atomics for US$22 million, both for preliminary designs for the reactor. Currently, DARPA is in the next phase of soliciting proposals for the design, development, fabrication, and assembly of the engine. Two conceptual spacecraft designs by Blue Origin and Lockheed Martin were selected. Proposals for a flight demonstration of nuclear thermal propulsion in the fiscal year 2026 are due August 5, 2022.",
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"plaintext": "An atmospheric or orbital rocket failure could result in the dispersal of radioactive material into the environment. A collision with orbital debris, material failure due to uncontrolled fission, material imperfections or fatigue, or human design flaws could cause a containment breach of the fissile material. Such a catastrophic failure while in flight could release radioactive material over the Earth in a wide and unpredictable area. The amount of contamination would depend on the size of the nuclear thermal rocket engine, while the zone of contamination and its concentration would be dependent on prevailing weather and orbital parameters at the time of re-entry.",
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"plaintext": "It is considered unlikely that a reactor's fuel elements would be spread over a wide area, as they are composed of materials such as carbon composites or carbides and are normally coated with zirconium hydride. Before criticality occurs, solid core NTR fuel is not particularly hazardous. Once the reactor has been started for the first time, extremely radioactive short-life fission products are produced, as well as less radioactive but extremely long-lived fission products. Additionally, all engine structures are exposed to direct neutron bombardment, resulting in their radioactive activation.",
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"plaintext": " Thermal rocket",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear pulse propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Rover Nuclear Rocket Engine Program: Final Report - NASA 1991",
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{
"plaintext": " Project Prometheus: Beyond the Moon and Mars",
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},
{
"plaintext": " RD-0410 USSR's nuclear rocket engine",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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] | [
"Nuclear_spacecraft_propulsion",
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37,843 | 1,086,497,086 | Nuclear_electric_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A nuclear electric rocket (more properly nuclear electric propulsion) is a type of spacecraft propulsion system where thermal energy from a nuclear reactor is converted to electrical energy, which is used to drive an ion thruster or other electrical spacecraft propulsion technology. The nuclear electric rocket terminology is slightly inconsistent, as technically the \"rocket\" part of the propulsion system is non-nuclear and could also be driven by solar panels. This is in contrast with a nuclear thermal rocket, which directly uses reactor heat to add energy to a working fluid, which is then expelled out of a rocket nozzle.",
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"plaintext": "The key elements to NEP are:",
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{
"plaintext": " A compact reactor core",
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"plaintext": " An electric generator",
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"plaintext": " A compact waste heat rejection system such as heat pipes",
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{
"plaintext": " An electric power conditioning and distribution system",
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"plaintext": " Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, the Safe affordable fission engine was under development, with a tested 30kW nuclear heat source intended to lead to the development of a 400kW thermal reactor with Brayton cycle gas turbines to produce electric power. Waste heat rejection was intended to be accomplished using low-mass heat pipe technology. Safety was intended to be assured by a rugged design.",
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"plaintext": "Project Prometheus was an early 2000s NASA study on nuclear electric spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Kilopower is the latest NASA reactor development program, but is intended for surface use only.",
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"plaintext": "The TEM project started in 2009 with the goal of powering a Mars engine.",
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"plaintext": "March 2016 - First batch of nuclear fuel received",
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"plaintext": "A pebble bed reactor using high mass-flow gaseous nitrogen coolant near normal atmospheric pressures is a possible heat source. Power generation could be accomplished with gas turbine technology, which is well developed. Nuclear fuel would be highly enriched uranium encapsulated in low-boron graphite balls probably 5–10cm in diameter. The graphite would also moderate the neutrons of the nuclear reaction.",
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"plaintext": "This style of reactor can be designed to be inherently safe. As it heats, the graphite expands, separating the fuel and reducing the reactor's criticality. This property can simplify the operating controls to a single valve throttling the turbine. When closed, the reactor heats, but produces less power. When open, the reactor cools, but becomes more critical and produces more power.",
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"plaintext": "The graphite encapsulation simplifies refueling and waste handling. Graphite is mechanically strong, and resists high temperatures. This reduces the risk of an unplanned release of radioactive elements, including fission products. Since this style of reactor produces high power without heavy castings to contain high pressures, it is well suited to power spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "A variety of electric propulsion technologies have been proposed for use with high power nuclear electrical generation systems, including VASIMR, DS4G, and pulsed inductive thruster (PIT). PIT and VASIMR are unique in their ability to trade between power usage, specific impulse (a measure of efficiency, see specific impulse) and thrust in-flight. PIT has the additional advantage of not needing conditioned power.",
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"plaintext": "A number of heat-to-electricity schemes have been proposed. In the near term, Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, and Stirling cycle generators go through an intermediate mechanical phase, with attendant energy losses. More exotic technologies have also been proposed: thermoelectric (including graphene-based thermal power conversion), pyroelectric, thermophotovoltaic, thermionic and magnetohydrodynamic type thermoelectric materials.",
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"plaintext": "Radioisotope thermoelectric generators, radioisotope heater units, radioisotope piezoelectric generators, and the radioisotope rocket all use the heat from a static radioactive source (usually Plutonium-238) for a low level of electric or direct propulsion power. Other concepts include the nuclear thermal rocket, the fission fragment rocket, nuclear pulse propulsion, and the possibility of a fusion rocket, assuming that nuclear fusion technology is developed at some point in the near future.",
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"plaintext": "Ion thruster",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic sail",
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"plaintext": "Polywell",
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37,844 | 1,084,825,919 | Mass_driver | [
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"plaintext": "A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. Existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets, though a rotary mass driver has also been proposed. Sequential firing of a row of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After leaving the path, the payload continues to move due to momentum.",
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"plaintext": "Although any device used to propel a ballistic payload is technically a mass driver, in this context a mass driver is essentially a coilgun that magnetically accelerates a package consisting of a magnetizable holder containing a payload. Once the payload has been accelerated, the two separate, and the holder is slowed and recycled for another payload.",
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"plaintext": "Mass drivers can be used to propel spacecraft in three different ways: A large, ground-based mass driver could be used to launch spacecraft away from Earth, the Moon, or another body. A small mass driver could be on board a spacecraft, flinging pieces of material into space to propel itself. Another variation would have a massive facility on a moon or asteroid send projectiles to assist a distant craft.",
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"plaintext": "Miniaturized mass drivers can also be used as weapons in a similar manner as classic firearms or cannon using chemical combustion. Hybrids between coilguns and railguns such as helical railguns are also possible.",
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"plaintext": "Mass drivers need no physical contact between moving parts because they guide their projectiles by dynamic magnetic levitation, allowing extreme reusability in the case of solid-state power switching, and a functional life of– theoretically– up to millions of launches. While marginal costs tend to be accordingly low, initial development and construction costs are highly dependent on performance, especially the intended mass, acceleration, and velocity of projectiles. For instance, while Gerard O'Neill built his first mass driver in 1976–1977 with a $2000 budget, a short test model firing a projectile at 40m/s and 33 g,",
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"plaintext": "his next model had an order-of-magnitude greater acceleration",
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"plaintext": "after a comparable increase in funding, and, a few years later, researchers at the University of Texas estimated that a mass driver firing a 10 kilogram projectile at 6000m/s would cost $47 million.",
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"plaintext": "For a given amount of energy involved, heavier objects go proportionally slower. Light objects may be projected at 20km/s or more. The limits are generally the expense of energy storage able to be discharged quickly enough and the cost of power switching, which may be by semiconductors or by gas-phase switches (which still often have a niche in extreme pulse power applications). However, energy can be stored inductively in superconducting coils. A 1km long mass driver made of superconducting coils can accelerate a 20kg vehicle to 10.5km/s at a conversion efficiency of 80%, and average acceleration of 5,600 g.",
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"plaintext": "Earth-based mass drivers for propelling vehicles to orbit, such as the StarTram concept, would require considerable capital investment. The Earth's relatively strong gravity and relatively thick atmosphere make the implementation of a practical solution difficult. Also, most if not all plausible launch sites would propel spacecraft through heavily-traversed air routes. Due to the massive turbulence such launches would cause, significant air traffic control measures would be needed to ensure the safety of other aircraft operating in the area.",
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"plaintext": "With the proliferation of reusable rockets to launch from Earth (especially first stages) whatever potential might have once existed for any economic advantage in using mass drivers as an alternative to chemical rockets to launch from Earth is becoming increasingly doubtful. For these reasons many proposals feature installing mass drivers on the Moon where the lower gravity and lack of atmosphere greatly reduce the required velocity to reach lunar orbit, also, lunar launches from a fixed position are much less likely to generate issues with respect to matters such as traffic control.",
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"plaintext": "Most serious mass-driver designs use superconducting coils to achieve reasonable energetic efficiency (often 50% to 90+%, depending on design). Equipment may include a superconducting bucket or aluminum coil as the payload. The coils of a mass driver can induce eddy currents in a payload's aluminum coil, and then act on the resulting magnetic field. There are two sections of a mass driver. The maximum acceleration part spaces the coils at constant distances, and synchronizes the coil currents to the bucket. In this section, the acceleration increases as the velocity increases, up to the maximum that the bucket can take. After that, the constant acceleration region begins. This region spaces the coils at increasing distances to give a fixed amount of velocity increase per unit of time.",
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"plaintext": "Based on this mode, a major proposal for the use of mass drivers involved transporting lunar-surface material to space habitats for processing using solar energy. The Space Studies Institute showed that this application was reasonably practical.",
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"plaintext": "In some designs, the payload would be held in a bucket and then released, so that the bucket can be decelerated and reused. A disposable bucket, on the other hand, would avail acceleration along the whole track. Alternatively, if a track were constructed along the entire circumference of the Moon (or any other celestial body without a significant atmosphere) then a reusable bucket's acceleration would not be limited by the length of the track however, such a system would need to be engineered to withstand substantial centrifugal forces if it were intended to accelerate passengers and/or cargo to very high velocities. ",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to cargo-only chemical space-gun concepts, a mass driver could be any length, affordable, and with relatively smooth acceleration throughout, optionally even lengthy enough to reach target velocity without excessive g forces for passengers. It can be constructed as a very long and mainly horizontally aligned launch track for spacelaunch, targeted upwards at the end, partly by bending of the track upwards and partly by Earth's curvature in the other direction.",
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"plaintext": "Natural elevations, such as mountains, may facilitate the construction of the distant, upwardly targeted part. The higher up the track terminates, the less resistance from the atmosphere the launched object will encounter.",
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"plaintext": "The 40 megajoules per kilogram or less kinetic energy of projectiles launched at up to 9000m/s velocity (if including extra for drag losses) towards low Earth orbit is a few kilowatt-hours per kilogram if efficiencies are relatively high, which accordingly has been hypothesized to be under $1 of electrical energy cost per kilogram shipped to LEO, though total costs would be far more than electricity alone. By being mainly located slightly above, on or beneath the ground, a mass driver may be easier to maintain compared with many other structures of non-rocket spacelaunch. Whether or not underground, it needs to be housed in a pipe that is vacuum pumped in order to prevent internal air drag, such as with a mechanical shutter kept closed most of the time but a plasma window used during the moments of firing to prevent loss of vacuum.",
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"plaintext": "A mass driver on Earth would usually be a compromise system. A mass driver would accelerate a payload up to some high speed which would not be enough for orbit. It would then release the payload, which would complete the launch with rockets. This would drastically reduce the amount of velocity needed to be provided by rockets to reach orbit. Well under a tenth of orbital velocity from a small rocket thruster is enough to raise perigee if a design prioritizes minimizing such, but hybrid proposals optionally reduce requirements for the mass driver itself by having a greater portion of delta-v by a rocket burn (or orbital momentum exchange tether). On Earth, a mass-driver design could possibly use well-tested maglev components.",
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"plaintext": "To launch a space vehicle with humans on board, a mass driver's track would need to be almost 1000 kilometres long if providing almost all the velocity to Low Earth Orbit, though a lesser length could provide major launch assist. Required length, if accelerating mainly at near a constant maximum acceptable g-force for passengers, is proportional to velocity squared. For instance, half of the velocity goal could correspond to a tunnel a quarter as long needing to be constructed, for the same acceleration. For rugged objects, much higher accelerations may suffice, allowing a far shorter track, potentially circular or helical (spiral). Another concept involves a large ring design whereby a space vehicle would circle the ring numerous times, gradually gaining speed, before being released into a launch corridor leading skyward.",
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"plaintext": "Mass drivers have been proposed for the disposal of nuclear waste in space: a projectile launched at much above Earth's escape velocity would escape the Solar System, with atmospheric passage at such speed calculated as survivable through an elongated projectile and a very substantial heatshield.",
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"plaintext": "A spacecraft could carry a mass driver as its primary engine. With a suitable source of electrical power (probably a nuclear reactor) the spaceship could then use the mass driver to accelerate pieces of matter of almost any sort, boosting itself in the opposite direction. At the smallest scale of reaction mass, this type of drive is called an ion drive.",
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"plaintext": "No absolute theoretical limit is known for the size, acceleration or muzzle energy of linear motors. However, practical engineering constraints apply for such as the power-to-mass ratio, waste heat dissipation, and the energy intake able to be supplied and handled. Exhaust velocity is best neither too low nor too high.",
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"plaintext": "There is a mission-dependent limited optimal exhaust velocity and specific impulse for any thruster constrained by a limited amount of onboard spacecraft power. Thrust and momentum from exhaust, per unit mass expelled, scales up linearly with its velocity (momentum = mv), yet kinetic energy and energy input requirements scale up faster with velocity squared (kinetic energy = mv2). Too low an exhaust velocity would excessively increase propellant mass needed under the rocket equation, with too high a fraction of energy going into accelerating propellant not used yet. Higher exhaust velocity has both benefit and tradeoff, increasing propellant usage efficiency (more momentum per unit mass of propellant expelled) but decreasing thrust and the current rate of spacecraft acceleration if available input power is constant (less momentum per unit of energy given to propellant).",
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"plaintext": "Electric propulsion methods like mass drivers are systems where energy does not come from the propellant itself. (Such contrasts to chemical rockets where propulsive efficiency varies with the ratio of exhaust velocity to vehicle velocity at the time, but near maximum obtainable specific impulse tends to be a design goal when corresponding to the most energy released from reacting propellants). Although the specific impulse of an electric thruster itself optionally could range up to where mass drivers merge into particle accelerators with fractional-lightspeed exhaust velocity for tiny particles, trying to use extreme exhaust velocity to accelerate a far slower spacecraft could be suboptimally low thrust when the energy available from a spacecraft's reactor or power source is limited (a lesser analogue of feeding onboard power to a row of spotlights, photons being an example of an extremely low momentum to energy ratio).",
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"plaintext": "For instance, if limited onboard power fed to its engine was the dominant limitation on how much payload a hypothetical spacecraft could shuttle (such as if intrinsic propellant economic cost was minor from usage of extraterrestrial soil or ice), ideal exhaust velocity would rather be around 62.75% of total mission delta v if operating at constant specific impulse, except greater optimization could come from varying exhaust velocity during the mission profile (as possible with some thruster types, including mass drivers and variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rockets).",
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"plaintext": "Since a mass driver could use any type of mass for reaction mass to move the spacecraft, a mass driver or some variation seems ideal for deep-space vehicles that scavenge reaction mass from found resources.",
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"plaintext": "One possible drawback of the mass driver is that it has the potential to send solid reaction mass travelling at dangerously high relative speeds into useful orbits and traffic lanes. To overcome this problem, most schemes plan to throw finely-divided dust. Alternatively, liquid oxygen could be used as reaction mass, which upon release would boil down to its molecular state. Propelling the reaction mass to solar escape velocity is another way to ensure that it will not remain a hazard.",
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"plaintext": "A mass driver on a spacecraft could be used to \"reflect\" masses from a stationary mass driver. Each deceleration and acceleration of the mass contributes to the momentum of the spacecraft. The lightweight, fast spacecraft need not carry reaction mass, and does not need much electricity beyond the amount needed to replace losses in the electronics, while the immobile support facility can run off power plants able to be much larger than the spacecraft if needed. This could be considered a form of beam-powered propulsion (a macroscopic-scale analogue of a particle beam propelled magsail). A similar system could also deliver pellets of fuel to a spacecraft to power another propulsion system.",
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"plaintext": "Another theoretical use for this concept of propulsion can be found in space fountains, a system in which a continuous stream of pellets in a circular track holds up a tall structure.",
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"plaintext": "Small to moderate size high-acceleration electromagnetic projectile launchers are currently undergoing active research by the US Navy for use as ground-based or ship-based weapons (most often railguns but coilguns in some cases). On larger scale than weapons currently near deployment but sometimes suggested in long-range future projections, a sufficiently high velocity linear motor, a mass driver, could in theory be used as intercontinental artillery (or, if built on the Moon or in orbit, used to attack a location on Earth's surface). As the mass driver would be located further up the gravity well than the theoretical targets, it would enjoy a significant energy imbalance in terms of counter-attack.",
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"plaintext": "One of the first engineering descriptions of an \"Electric Gun\" appears in the technical supplement of the 1937 science fiction novel \"Zero to Eighty\" by \"Akkad Pseudoman\", a pen name for the Princeton physicist and electrical entrepreneur Edwin Fitch Northrup. Dr. Northrup built prototype coil guns powered by kHz-frequency three-phase electrical generators, and the book contains photographs of some of these prototypes. The book describes a fictional circumnavigation of the moon by a two-person vehicle launched by a Northrup electric gun.",
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"plaintext": "Later prototype mass drivers have been built since 1976 (Mass Driver 1), some constructed by the U.S. Space Studies Institute in order to prove their properties and practicality. Military R&D on coilguns is related, as are maglev trains.",
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"plaintext": "SpinLaunch, a company founded in 2014, conducted the initial test of their test accelerator in October 2021.",
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"plaintext": " Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System",
"section_idx": 6,
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3283469
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"plaintext": " Railgun",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Plasma railgun",
"section_idx": 6,
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36976974
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"plaintext": " Helical railgun",
"section_idx": 6,
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4950221
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"plaintext": " Coilgun",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Ram accelerator",
"section_idx": 6,
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30876938
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"plaintext": " Light-gas gun",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
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1228184
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Linear motor",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [
44495
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " StarTram",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
23102251
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Launch loop",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1945730
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Space fountain",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
524582
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eric Laithwaite and the Maglifter project",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
464801
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gerard K. O'Neill",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Henry Kolm",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Electromagnetic Guns —a page describing research into linear motors at MIT",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Electromagnetic Launch of Lunar Material",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Magnetic_devices",
"Magnetic_propulsion_devices",
"Space_colonization",
"Spacecraft_propulsion",
"Non-rocket_spacelaunch",
"Emerging_technologies"
] | 868,705 | 6,196 | 91 | 96 | 0 | 0 | mass driver | proposed spacelaunch method | [
"electromagnetic catapult"
] |
37,845 | 1,107,906,495 | Magnetic_sail | [
{
"plaintext": "A magnetic sail is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion that uses a static magnetic field to deflect a plasma wind of charged particles radiated by the Sun or a Star thereby transferring momentum to accelerate or decelerate a spacecraft. Most approaches require little to no propellant and thus are a form of Field propulsion. A magnetic sail could also thrust against a planetary ionosphere or magnetosphere. Important use cases are: a modest force from the solar wind sustainable for a long period of time; deceleration in the interstellar medium and the plasma wind of a destination Star following interstellar travel at relativistic speeds achieved by some other means; and efficient deceleration in a planetary ionosphere. Plasma characteristics for the Solar wind, a planetary ionosphere and the interstellar medium and the specifics of the magnetic sail design determine achievable performance; such as, thrust, required power and mass. ",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic sail was first proposed by Dana Andrews and Robert Zubrin working in collaboration in 1988. At that time, Andrews was working on a concept to use a magnetic scoop to gather interstellar material to provide propellant for a nuclear electric ion drive spacecraft, allowing the craft to operate in the same manner of a Bussard ramjet, but without the need for a proton-proton fusion propulsion drive. Andrews asked Zubrin to help compute the magnetic scoop drag against the interplanetary medium, which they found was much greater than the ion drive thrust. The ion drive component of the system was dropped, and use of the concept of using the magnetic scoop as a magnetic sail or Magsail (MS) was born. The two then proceeded to elaborate their analysis of the magsail for interplanetary, interstellar, and planetary orbital propulsion in a series of papers published from 1988 through 2000. Freeland did further analysis in 2015 for Project Icarus that used a more accurate model of the magnetic field and showed that the Andrews and Zubrin results for drag (thrust) were optimistic by a factor of 3.1 In 2017, Crowl documented an analysis using a kinematic model by Gros for a mission starting near the Sun and destined for Planet nine. ",
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"plaintext": "A drawback of the magsail design was that a large (50–100km radius) superconducting loop weighing on the order of was required. In 2000, Winglee proposed a Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) design that injected low energy plasma into a much smaller coil of radius 0.1 m (and hence negligible weight) that required low power and created a magnetic bubble that expanded until the magnetic pressure matched the plasma wind pressure. A simulation created impressive performance predictions relative to mass and required power, with a major factor being a claimed magnetic field falloff rate as compared with the classical falloff rate of a magnetic dipole in a vacuum. A number of critiques were published that raised issues indicating that the assumed magnetic field falloff rate was optimistic and that thrust was overestimated as well, an analysis indicating that predicted thrust was over ten orders of magnitude optimistic since the majority of the solar wind momentum was delivered to the magnetotail and current leakages through the magnetopause and not to the spacecraft, and that conservation of magnetic flux in the region outside the magnetosphere was not considered.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in 2003 Funaki and others published a series of theoretical, simulation and experimental investigations at JAXA in collaboration with Japanese universities addressing some of the issues from criticisms of M2P2 and named their approach the Magneto plasma sail (MPS). In 2011 Funaki and Yamakawa authored a chapter in a book that is a good reference for those wishing to learn more about magnetic sail theory and concepts. MPS research resulted in many published papers that advanced the understanding of physical principles for magnetic sails, such as a detailed Magnetohydrodynamic model and determination of critical factors such as the conditions for MHD applicability test, effect of Coil attack angle effect on thrust and steering angle, and the expected Magnetic field model. Results published starting in 2012 by Funaki and others found that best performance occurred when the injected plasma had a lower density and velocity than considered in M2P2 where ion drift created an equatorial ring current that augmented the magnetic moment of the coil, which simulations indicated achieved a thrust gain on the order of 10 for smaller magnetospheres as compared with an MHD modeled magnetic sail. Investigations continued to increase thrust experimentally and numerically considering use of an Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster (aka MPD Arc jet in Japan), multiple antenna coils, and a multi-pole MPD thruster.",
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"plaintext": "John Slough of the University of Washington documented in 2004 and 2006 results of NASA Institute of Advanced Concepts (NIAC) funded research, development and experimentation on a potentially more efficient method to generate the static magnetic dipole for a magnetic sail using a design called the Plasma magnet (PM). Funding for NIAC in 2007 was cancelled and a Phase III project was never funded. The plasma magnet design used a pair of relatively small perpendicularly oriented coils powered by an alternating current to generate a Rotating magnetic field (RMF) operating a frequency too fast for positively charged ions to react, but slow enough to force electrons into co-rotation with the RMF without creating excessive collisions. This system created a large current disc composed of electrons captured from the plasma wind within a static disk of captured positive ions. The reports predicted substantial improvements in terms of reduced coil size (and hence mass) and markedly lower power requirements for significant thrust. An important factor in these predictions was a hypothesized 1/r magnetic field falloff rate as assumed for M2P2. In 2022 a spaceflight trial dubbed Jupiter Observing Velocity Experiment (JOVE) proposed using a Plasma magnet based sail for a spacecraft named Wind Rider using the solar wind to accelerate away from a point near Earth and decelerate against the magnetosphere of Jupiter.",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 study by Kirtley and Slough investigated using the plasma magnet technology to use the plasma in the ionospheref of a planetary as a braking mechanism and was called the Plasma Magnetoshell. This paper restated the magnetic field falloff rate as 1/r2. NIAC funded studies in 2014 and 2016 and in 2018 Kelly further documented this approach with details for ionospheric braking for Earth, Mars and Neptune.",
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"plaintext": "In 2021 Zhenyu Yang and others published an analysis, numerical calculations and experimental verification for a propulsion system that was a combination of the magnetic sail and the Electric sail called an electromagnetic sail. The concept involves a superconducting ring like magsail to generate a magnetic field but adds an electron gun at the center of the coil to generate an electric field as done in an electric sail that deflects positive ions in the plasma wind thereby providing additional thrust. With the additional thrust of the electron gun powered electric sail, the size of the superconducting ring could be reduced decreasing overall system mass.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic sail modes of operation cover the mission profile, or use case, and the environment in which it occurs, often involving plasma such as the solar wind, a planetary ionosphere or the interstellar medium. A plasma environment has fundamental parameters of the number of ions of type (with atomic number ) in a unit volume , the average mass of each ion type accounting for isotopes , and the number of electrons per unit volume each with electron mass . A plasma is quasi-neutral meaning that on average there is no electrical charge, that is . An average mass density per unit volume of a plasma environment ( for stellar wind, for planetary ionosphere, for interstellar medium) is (kg/m3). The velocity distribution of ions and electrons is another important parameter but often analyses use only the average velocity for a plasma wind (m/s).",
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"plaintext": "A commonly encountered magnetic sail use case is creating drag against a plasma wind from that accelerates a spacecraft away from the Sun or a Star. Multiple designs, analyses, simulations and experiments focus on this use case. The solar wind is a time varying stream of plasma that flows outwards from the Sun. Near the Earth's orbit at 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) the plasma flows at velocity ranging from 250 to 750km/s (155-404mi/s) with a density ranging between 3 to 10 electrons, protons, alpha particles per cm3 and a few heavier ions per cubic centimeter. Assuming that 8% of the solar wind is Helium and the remainder Hydrogen, the average solar wind plasma mass density at 1 AU is (kg/m3). At 1 AU most magnetic sail research assumes 6 protons per cm3 corresponding to a density of = 10−20 and a mean wind velocity =500km/s.",
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"plaintext": "On average, the plasma density decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun while the velocity is nearly constant, see Figure 4.2. The average mass density as a function of distance Astronomical Units (AU) from the Sun is:",
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"plaintext": "The effective solar wind seen by a spacecraft traveling at velocity (positive meaning acceleration away from the star and negative meaning deceleration toward a star) is .",
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"plaintext": "Thrust generated by a magnetic sail falls off with distance from the solar wind source since the plasma density of charged particles falls off as the square of the distance while the plasma velocity falls off very slowly.",
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"plaintext": "A spacecraft accelerated to very high velocities by other means, such as a fusion rocket or laser pushed lightsail, can decelerate even from relativistic velocitieswithout requiring the use of onboard propellant by using a magnetic sail to create drag against the interstellar medium plasma environment. Interstellar spaceflight outside the heliopause of a star, a magnetic sail could act as a parachute to decelerate a spacecraft. This removes propellant requirements for the deceleration part of an interstellar journey, benefiting interstellar travel enormously.",
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"plaintext": "The Sun is the center of the heliosphere region that extends radially outwards to a termination shock at 75-90 AU, a heliosheath at 80 to 100 AU and then a theoretical heliopause at 120 AU. Beyond this is a relatively low density region called the Local Bubble which contains local interstellar cloud (which contains the Solar System) and a neighboring G-Cloud complex which contains Alpha Centauri. The interstellar medium (ISM) has a number of Interstellar Matter components that have a range of different properties, such as Temperature, density and the state of hydrogen. Less is known about the ISM than within the heliosphere, but measurements by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have provided important data. Indirect observations have also provided some information.",
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"plaintext": "Of the gas in the ISM, by number 91% of atoms are hydrogen and 8.9% are helium, with 0.1% being atoms of heavier elements amounts by mass to 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. Assuming values from interstellar medium and Gros that the number of particles per cm3 is between 0.005 and 0.5 in the local bubble and local cloud respectively, the ISM plasma mass density is then ",
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"plaintext": "The spacecraft velocity is much greater than the ISM velocity in a deceleration maneuver so the effective plasma velocity is approximately .",
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"plaintext": "Long duration missions, such as missions aimed to offer terrestrial life alternative evolutionary pathways, e.g. as envisioned by the Genesis project, could brake passively using magnetic sails on approach to a distant star.",
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"plaintext": "It can thus reduce the delta-V propulsion required for an interstellar mission by a factor of two. ",
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"plaintext": "Radio emissions of cyclotron radiation due to interaction of charged particles in the interstellar medium as they spiral around the magnetic field lines of a magnetic sail and would have a frequency of approximately () kHz, where is the spacecraft velocity and the speed of light. The Earth's ionosphere would prevent detection on the surface, but a space-based antenna could detect such emissions up to several thousands of light years away. Detection of such radiation could indicate activity of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations.",
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"plaintext": "A spacecraft approaching a planet with a significant ionosphere could use a magnetic sail to decelerate. The upper atmosphere of some planets, such as the Earth, Mars, and Neptune have an ionosphere that behaves as a low beta plasma. The plasma density of a planetary ionosphere (pi) is approximately",
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"plaintext": "where (m) is the spacecraft altitude, (m) is the reference altitude (112km for Earth, 115km for Mars, and 700km for Neptune), and (kg/m3) is the reference density at altitude (X.x for Earth, 0.016 for Mars, and 0.45 for Neptune). The spacecraft altitude (m) where (m) is the radius of the spacecraft and (m) is the planet's radius.",
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"plaintext": "The spacecraft velocity is much greater than the planetary ionosphere velocity in a deceleration maneuver so the effective plasma velocity is approximately .",
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"plaintext": "Inside or near a planetary magnetosphere, a magnetic sail can thrust against or be attracted to a planet's magnetic field as created by a dynamo, especially in an orbit that passes over the planet's magnetic poles. When the magnetic sail's field is oriented in the opposite direction to the planet's magnetic field it experiences an attractive force toward the nearest pole, and when it is oriented in the same direction as the planet's magnetic field it experiences a repulsive force, which is not stable, and means to prevent the sail from being flipped over is necessary.",
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"plaintext": "The thrust that a magnetic sail delivers within a magnetosphere decreases with the fourth power of its distance from the planet's internal magnetic field. When close to a planet with a strong magnetosphere such as Earth or a gas giant, the magnetic sail could generate more thrust by interacting with the magnetosphere instead of the solar wind. When operating near a planetary or stellar magnetosphere the effect of that magnetic field must be considered if it is on the same order as the gravitational field.",
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"plaintext": "By varying the magnetic sail's field strength and orientation over the course of its orbit, a magnetic sail can give itself a \"perigee kick\" raising the altitude of its orbit's apogee. Repeating this process with each orbit can drive the magnetic sail's apogee higher and higher, until the magnetic sail is able to leave the planetary magnetosphere and catch the solar wind. The same process in reverse can be used to lower or circularize the apogee of a magsail's orbit when it arrives at a destination planet with a magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "In theory, it is possible for a magnetic sail to launch directly from the surface of a planet near one of its magnetic poles, repelling itself from the planet's magnetic field. However, this requires the magnetic sail to be maintained in its \"unstable\" orientation. A launch from Earth requires superconductors with 80 times the current density of the best known high-temperature superconductors as of 1991.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022 a spaceflight trial dubbed Jupiter Observing Velocity Experiment (JOVE) proposed using a Plasma magnet to decelerate against the magnetosphere of Jupiter.",
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"plaintext": "Physical principles involved include: interaction of magnetic fields with moving charged particles; an artifical magnetosphere model analogous to thethe Earth's magnetosphere, MHD and kinematic mathematical models for interaction of an artificial magnetosphere with a plasma flow characterized by density and velocity, and performance measures; such as, force achieved, energy requirements and the mass of the magnetic sail system.",
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"plaintext": "An ion or electron with charge in a plasma moving at velocity in a magnetic field and electric field is treated as an idealized point charge in the Lorentz force . This means that the force on an ion or electron is proportional to the product of their charge and velocity component perpendicular to the magnetic field . A magnetic sail design introduces a magnetic field into a plasma flow which under certain conditions deflects the electrons and ions from their original trajectory with the particle's momentum transferred to the sail and hence the spacecraft thereby creating thrust. An electric sail uses an electric field that under certain conditions interact with charged particles to create thrust.",
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"plaintext": "The characteristics of the Earth's magnetosphere have been widely studied and provide a basis for magnetic sails. Under certain conditions a magnetic sail-based technology creates an artificial magnetosphere through generation of a magnetic field by some source with specifics unique to a particular magnetic sail design that in turn determines its performance. ",
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"plaintext": "The figure shows streamlines of charged particles from a plasma wind (e.g., from the Sun or a Star) flow from left to right at velocity w. A source attached to a spacecraft generates a magnetic field. At the boundary where magnetic pressure equals plasma wind kinetic pressure an artificial magnetopause forms at a characteristic Length (m) from the field source. The ionized wind particles create a current sheet, known as the Chapman-Ferraro current along the magnetopause which compresses the magnetic field lines facing the oncoming plasma wind by a factor of 2 at magnetopause as shown in Figure 2a. The magnetopause deflects charged particles, which affects their streamlines and increases the density at magnetopause. A magnetospheric bubble or cavity forms that has very low density downstream from the magnetopause. At the boundary where pressure of the plasma wind equals the magnetic pressure a magnetopause forms, upstream from which a bow shock develops. Simulation results often show the particle density through use of color with an example shown in the figure according to the legend in the lower left. This figure uses aspects of the general structure from Figure 3 Figure 1 and Figure 2a, and aspects of the plasma density from Figure 1, and Figure 2.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic sail designs operating in a plasma wind share a theoretical foundation based upon a Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model, sometimes called a fluid model, from plasma physics for an artificially generated magnetosphere. Under certain conditions, the plasma wind and the magnetic sail are separated by a magnetopause that blocks the charged particles, which creates a drag force that transfers (at least some) momentum to the magnetic sail, which then applies thrust to the attached spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "The figure depicts this model. Starting from the left a plasma wind in a plasma environment (e.g., stellar, ISM or an ionosphere) of effective velocity with density (kg/m3) encounters a spacecraft with time-varying velocity (m/s), which is positive if the ship is accelerating and negative if decelerating. The apparent plasma wind velocity from the spacecraft's viewpoint is . The ship has a source that generates a magnetic field that creates a magnetospheric bubble extending out to a magnetopause preceded by a bow shock that deflects electrons and ions from the plasma wind in a manner similar to that created by the Earth's magnetosphere. At the bow shock the spacecraft field source generated magnetic pressure equals the kinetic pressure of the plasma wind at what is called a standoff as shown at the bottom of the Figure. The characteristic length (m) is that of a circular sail of effective blocking area where is the magnetopause radius. Under certain conditions the plasma wind pushing on the artificial magnetosphere bow shock and magnetopause creates a force (N) on the magnetic field source that is physically attached to the spacecraft so that at least part of the force causes a force on the spacecraft, accelerating it when sailing downwind or decelerating when sailing into a headwind. Under certain conditions and in some designs, some of the plasma wind force may be lost as indicated by .",
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"plaintext": "All magnetic sail designs assume a standoff between plasma wind pressure and magnetic pressure of the same form with parameters specific to a plasma environment, differing only in a constant coefficient as follows:",
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"plaintext": "where (m/s) is the apparent wind velocity and (kg/m3) is the plasma wind density for a specific plasma environment, (T) the magnetic field strength at magnetopause, μ0 (H/m) is the vacuum permeability and is a constant that differs by reference as follows for , , and . One source of difference is the assumed form of , either ram pressure or half that for dynamic pressure. Another source of the difference are assumptions regarding the magnetic field; for example, whether it is doubled to account for compression by the magnetopause. Note that Equation can be solved to yield the required magnetic field that satisfies the pressure balance at magnetopause as:",
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"plaintext": "The solar wind plasma density decreases in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun and hence from the above, decreases in inverse proportion to . Since magnetic field strength at radius is this means that the magnetic sail magnetopause radius will increase with distance from the Sun, where the increased effective size of a sail compensates for the reduced dynamic pressure of the solar wind.The force derived by a magnetic sail for a plasma environment is determined from MHD equations is:",
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"plaintext": "where is a coefficient of drag determined by numerical analysis, (Pa) is the dynamic wind pressure, and (m2) is the effective blocking area of the magnetic sail with magnetopause radius (m). Note that this equation has exactly the same form as the drag equation in fluid dynamics. For a dipole magnetic field is a function of Coil attack angle effect on thrust and steering angle. The power (W) of the plasma wind is the product of velocity and a constant force",
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"plaintext": "where Equation was used to derive the right-side yielding the same result as Equation (9).",
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"plaintext": "For a large current loop following the Biot–Savart law is a different value than that of a dipole but also a function of tilt angle.",
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"plaintext": "Through analysis, numerical calculation, simulation and experimentation several conditions must be met before a magnetic sail can generate significant force. An important one is the MHD applicability test that defines a condition where significant thrust exists as determined by MHD equations the standoff distance must be significantly greater than the ion gyroradius, also called the Larmor radius or cyclotron radius as follows: where (kg) is the ion mass, (m/s) is the velocity of ions perpendicular to the magnetic field, (C) is the elementary charge of the ion, (T) is the magnetic field strength at the point of reference and is a constant that differs by source with and Wikipedia gyroradius and . In the solar plasma wind at 1 AU with (kg) the proton mass, = 500km/s, = 36 nT with =0.5 and =2 then 72km. ",
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"plaintext": "The MHD applicability test can be expressed as the ratio , which if much less than 1 then MHD predicted performance results and if much greater than 1 then MHD predicted performance will be overly optimistic and instead a kinematic model is necessary to accurately predict performance. In 2004, Fujita published numerical analysis (also cited in) using a hybrid PIC simulation that treated electrons as a fluid and a kinematic model for ions to estimate the coefficient of drag for a magnetic sail operating in the radial orientation. This quantifies the MHD applicability test ratio with Equation defining the ion gyroradius . The figure plots this ratio along with the percentage decrease from the maximum. When , is maximum, at , , a decrease of 25% from the maximum and at , a 45% decrease. As increases beyond one, rapidly decreases meaning less thrust from the plasma wind will be transferred to the spacecraft due to MHD effects and kinematic effects will increasingly dominate.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005 Nishida and others documented results from numerical analysis of an MHD model quantifying the interaction of the solar wind with a magnetic field generated by current flowing in a coil and confirming that momentum is indeed transferred to the magnetic field produced by a spacecraft's field source. The model was based upon momentum change of the solar wind and thus transferred to the spacecraft, pressure balance between the solar wind and the magnetopause from Equation and Lorentz force from currents induced in the magnetosphere interacting with the spacecraft's field source. The results also quantified the coefficient of drag, steering (i.e., thrust direction) angle with the solar wind, and torque generated as a function of attack angle (i.e., orientation) The figure illustrates how the attack (or coil tilt) angle orientation of the coil creates a steering angle for the thrust vector and also torque imparted to the coil. ",
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"plaintext": "For a coil with radial orientation, like a frisbee, = 0 degrees and with axial orientation, like a parachute, =90 degrees. The coefficient of drag increases non-linearly with attack angle from a minimum of 3.6 at =0 to a maximum of 5 at =90 degrees, demonstrating the improvement predicted by the MHD model as compared with the implicit assumption in the magsail analysis and simulation that =1. The steering angle of the thrust vector is substantially less than the attack angle deviation from 45 degrees due to the interaction of the magnetic field with the solar wind. Torque increases = 0 degrees from zero at to a maximum at =45 degrees and then decreases to zero at =90 degrees. In 2012 Kajimura reported simulation results consistent with these findings. A number of magnetic sail design and other papers cite these results. In 2014 Ashida reported a result similar in form.",
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"plaintext": "In a design, either the magnetic field source strength or the magnetopause radius the characteristic length must be chosen. A good approximation for a magnetic field falloff rate for a distance from the field source to magnetopause starts with the equation",
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"plaintext": "where is the magnetic field at a radius near the field source that falls off near the source as as follows:",
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"plaintext": "where is a constant multiplying the magnetic moment to make match a target value at . When far from the field source, a magnetic dipole is a good approximation and choosing the above value of with =2 near the field source was used by Andrews and Zubrin.",
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"plaintext": "The Amperian loop model for the magnetic moment is , where (A) is the current and is the surface area (m2) for a coil (loop) of radius (m). Assuming that and substituting the expression for the magnetic moment into Equation yields the following",
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"plaintext": "When the magnetic field source strength is specified, substituting from the pressure balance analysis from Equation into the above and solving for yields the following:",
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"plaintext": "This is the expression for when with for Equation (4), with for Equation (4), and the magnetopause distance of the Earth. This equation shows directly how the falloff rate dramatically increases the effective sail area for decreasing values of for a given field source magnetic moment and determined from the pressure balance equation . Substituting this into Equation yields the plasma wind force as a function of falloff rate as follows:",
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"plaintext": "where Equation defines and Equation defines . This is the same expression as Equation (10b) when and , Equation (108) and Equation (5) with other numerical coefficients grouped into the term. Note that force increases as falloff rate decreases.",
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"plaintext": "As noted by Slough when operating in the solar wind where density falls off inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the sun (see Equation ) when =1, then Equation predicts constant thrust force. When >1 then Equation predicts thrust force decreasing with distance from the Sun.",
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"plaintext": "When the magnetopause radius (i.e., distance to the magnetopause) is specified as a design target, the required field source strength is then determined directly from Equation as followswhich then determines the magnetic moment from Equation . Since is known Equation directly determines the plasma wind force. This equation shows directly how the falloff rate dramatically decreases the required field source magnetic field for decreasing values of .",
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"plaintext": "When the MHD model is not applicable according to Equation then a kinematic model must be employed. Kinematic effects such as particles directly interacting with the field source will determine any additional force transferred from the plasma wind to the spacecraft. If MHD is not applicable, this means that the effective sail blocking area can be much smaller than . In some cases can be determined analytically from a kinetic model specific to the plasma environment.Often a simulation is necessary, in some cases numerical analysis yields results and in a few instances analytical results are possible. The specifics of a particular magnetic sail design can significantly impact a kinematic model. ",
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"plaintext": "The figure shows MHD and kinematic models for force generated by a magnetic dipole versus characteristic length derived from the pressure balance analysis in Equation , the value of ion gyroradius 72km described below Equation shown by the green line, along with the force predicted by the MHD model from Equation as the solid black line. The kinematic models predict that less force from a plasma wind is transferred to the spacecraft, or in other words a significant amount of thrust force predicted by the MHD model is lost when . The coefficient of drag numerical model from the MHD applicability test section from Fujita04 predicts reduced force across all values of characteristic length as shown by the blue dashed line, with the solid blue line the percentage thrust loss as compared with the MHD model, . A curve fit to simulation results from Ashida14 shows another kinematic model in the red dashed line with the solid red line depicting . Additional simulation results from Hajiwara15 are shown for the MHD and kinematic model as single data points as indicated in the legend. These models are all in close agreement. The solid blue and red lines bound indicating that operation with less than 10% of will have significant loss. Other factors in a specific magnetic sail design may offset this loss for values of .",
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"plaintext": "The Ashida14 model actually computes the thrust from the magnetic moment and need not be subject to the pressure balance derived value of Equation for characteristic length , but was interpreted for comparative purposes in the preceding. When operating in a region where the MHD pressure balance is negligible and by increasing the magnetic moment the Kinetic Model (KM) predicts a greater force , with a curve fit to simulation results from Equation (7) and Figure 9 is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "where the term is a units conversion factor from (A m2) to (Wb m) and 106 < < 1013 bounds the above to the region where MHD is not applicable and the curve it for simulation results. The above equation means that even a small loop carrying a large current can generate a relatively large magnetic moment and hence significant force even when the MHD model is not applicable.",
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"plaintext": "Important measures that determine the relative performance of different magnetic sail systems include: mass of the field source generator; power and energy requirements for the source; thrust and acceleration achieved; thrust to weight ratio any limitations and constraints, and whether the system exhausts any propellant. Mass of the field source in the Magsail design was a significant factor and subsequent designs strive to reduce this measure. The total spacecraft mass is where is the payload mass. Power requirements can be significant in some designs and can add to overall spacecraft mass. Thrust is bounded by for a particular plasma environment with acceleration no better than , and due to other factors may be further reduced. The thrust to weight ratio is also an important performance measure. Other limitations and constraints may be specific to a particular design. The M2P2 and MPS designs, as well as potentially the plasma magnet design, exhaust some plasma as part of inflating the magnetospheric bubble and these cases also have a specific impulse performance measure.",
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"plaintext": "As show in the figure the magsail design consists of a loop of superconducting wire of radius (m) on the order of 100km that carries a direct current (A) that generates a magnetic field, which was modeled according to the Biot-Savart law inside the loop and as a magnetic dipole outside the loop. With respect to the plasma wind direction a magsail may have a radial (or normal) orientation like a frisbee or an axial orientation like a parachute that can be adjusted to provide torque for steering. In non axial configurations lift is generated that can change the spacecraft's momentum. The loop connects via shroud lines to the spacecraft in the center. Because a loop carrying current is forced outwards towards a circular shape by its magnetic field, the sail could be deployed by unspooling the conductor and applying a current through it through the peripheral platforms. The loop must be adequately attached to the spacecraft in order to transfer momentum from the plasma wind and would pull the spacecraft behind it as shown in the axial configuration in the right side of the figure.",
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"plaintext": "Analysis of magsail performance was done using a simulation and a fluid (i.e., MHD) model with similar results observed for one case. The magnetic moment of a current loop is for a current of (A) and a loop of radius . Close to the loop, the magnetic field at a distance along the center-line axis perpendicular to the loop is derived from the Biot-Savart law in Section 5-2, Equation (25) as follows.",
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"plaintext": "At a distance far from the loop center the magnetic field is approximately that produced by a magnetic dipole. Since the pressure at the magnetospheric boundary is doubled due to compression of the magnetic field and is the following at a point along the center-line axis at a distance for the target magnetopause standoff distance from Equation (5)",
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"plaintext": "Equating this to the dynamic pressure for a plasma environment , inserting from Equation and solving for yields Equation (6)",
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"plaintext": "Andrews and Zubrin derived Equation (8) for the drag force of the sail that determined the characteristic length for a tilt angle but according to Section 6.5 of Freeland an error was made in numerical integration in choosing the ellipse downstream from the magnetopause instead of the ellipse upstream that made those results optimistic by a factor of approximately 3.1, which should be used to correct any drag force results using Equation (8). Instead, this article uses the approximation from Equation (108) for a spherical bubble that corrects this error and is close to the analytical formula for the axial configuration as the force for the Magsail as follows",
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"plaintext": "Note that this equation does not contain a drag coefficient since an MHD model was not considered. The mass of the superconducting coil and other infrastructure is significant. The minimum required mass to carry the current in Equation is defined in Equation (9) and Equation (3) as follows:",
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"plaintext": "where (A/m2) is the superconductor critical current density and (kg/m3) is the coil material density, for example 6,500 for a superconductor. The physical mass of the coil is",
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"plaintext": "where (m) is the radius of the superconductor wire and the factor (e.g., 3) accounts for mass of the tether (or shroud) lines. Setting Equation with =0 equal to Equation and solving for yields the minimum required coil radius",
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"plaintext": "In 2004 Toivanen and Janhunen did further analysis on the Magsail that they called a Plasma Free MagnetoPause (PFMP) that produced similar results to that of Andrews and Zubrin.",
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"plaintext": "If operated within the solar system, high temperature superconducting wire (HTS) is necessary to make the magsail practical since the current required is large. However, protection from solar heating is necessary closer to the Sun, for example by highly reflective coatings. If operated in interstellar space low temperature superconductors (LTS) could be adequate since the temperature of a vacuum is 2.7 K, but radiation and other heat sources from the spacecraft may render LTS impractical. The critical current carrying capacity of the promising HTS YBCO coated superconductor wire increases at lower temperatures with a current density (A/m2) of 6x1010 at 77 K and 9x1011 at 5 K. The superconductor critical current is defined as (A) for a coil wire of radius (m).",
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"plaintext": "The MHD applicability test of Equation fails in some ISM deceleration cases and a kinematic model is necessary, such as the one documented in 2017 by Claudius Gros summarized here. A spacecraft with an overall mass and velocity follows Equation (1) of motion as:",
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"plaintext": "where (N) is force predicted by this model, is the proton number density (m−3), is the proton mass (kg), (kg/m3) the plasma density, and (m2) the effective reflection area. This equation assumes that the spacecraft encounters particles per second and that every particle of mass is completed reflected. Note that this equation is of the same form as with =4, interpreting the term as just a number. ",
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"plaintext": "Gros numerically determined the effective reflection area by integrating the degree of reflection of approaching protons interacting with the superconducting loop magnetic field according to the Biot-Savart law. The reported result was independent of the loop radius . An accurate curve fit to the numerical evaluation for the effective reflection area for a magnetic sail in the axial configuration from Equation (8) is",
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"plaintext": "where (m2) is the area enclosed by the current carrying loop, (m/s) the speed of light, (A) the current through the loop and the value (A) determined a good curve fit. In 2020 Perakis published an analysis that corroborated the above formula with parameters selected for the solar wind and reported a force 10% less than the Gros model. That analysis also reported on the effect of magsail tilt angle on lift and side forces. Note that if then this model is not applicable.",
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"plaintext": "For comparison purposes, the effective sail area determined for the magsail by Zubrin from Equation with the 3.1 correction factor from Freeland applied and using the same velocity value (resolving the discrepancy noted by Gros) as follows:",
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"plaintext": "The figure shows the normalized effective sail area normalized by the coil area for the MKM case from Gros of Equation and for Zubrin from Equation for and =100 km plotted versus the spacecraft velocity relative to the speed of light . Also plotted is the MHD applicability test of ion gyroradius divided by magnetopause radius <1 from Equation on the secondary axis. Note that MHD applicability occurs at < 1%. For comparison, the 2004 Fujita as a function of from the MHD applicability test section is also plotted. Note that the Gros model predicts a more rapid decrease in effective area than this model. The normalized values of and track closely until 10% after which point the Zubrin magsail model of Equation becomes increasingly optimistic and Equation is applicable instead. Since the models track closely up to 10%, with the kinematic model underestimating effective sail area only for small values of (hence underestimating force), Equation is a good approximation for both the MHD and kinematic region. The Gros model is increasingly pessimistic for < 0.1%. ",
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"plaintext": "Gros used the analytic expression for the effective reflection area from Equation for explicit solution for the required stopping distance to decelerate to velocity as in Equation (11) given an initial velocity (m/s) for a spacecraft mass (kg) as follows:",
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"plaintext": "This in turn enabled a closed form solution of the velocity at a distance in Equation (12) with numerical integration required to compute the time required to decelerate in Equation (14). Equation (16) used this result to compute and optimal current that minimized as where . In 2017 Crowl optimized coil current for the ratio of effective area over total mass and derived the result in Equation (15). The paper used results from Gros for the stopping distance and time to decelerate.",
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"plaintext": "The figure plots the distance traveled while decelerating (ly) and time required to decelerate (yr) given a starting relative velocity and a final velocity (m/s) for the same parameters used above with ISM density (kg/m3). Lower ISM density would increase stopping distance and time. Equation gives the magsail mass of 88 tonnes assuming the same values used by Freeland of = 1011 (A/m2) and =8,950 (kg/m3) for the superconducting coil. Equation gives Force for the magsail multiplied by =4 for the Andrews/Zubrin model to align with Equation definition of force from the Gros model. Acceleration is force divided by mass, velocity is the integral of acceleration over the deceleration time interval (yr) and deceleration distance traveled (ly) is the integral of the velocity over (yr). Numerical integration resulted in the lines plotted in the figure with deceleration distance traveled plotted on the primary vertical axis on the left and time required to decelerate on the secondary vertical axis on the right. Note that the MHD Zubrin model and the Gros kinematic model predict nearly identical values of deceleration distance up to ~ 5% of light speed, with the Zubrin model predicting less deceleration distance and shorter deceleration time at greater values of . This is consistent with the Gros model predicting a smaller effective area larger values of . Also plotted is the value of Gros's closed form solution for deceleration distance from for the same parameters, which closely tracks the numerical integration result because it predicts deceleration to a full stop instead of a final velocity . ",
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"plaintext": "In 1990 Andrews and Zubrin reported on an example for Solar wind one AU away from the Sun, with and only protons as ions, apparent wind velocity =500 (km/s) the field strength required to resist the dynamic pressure of the solar wind is 50 nT from Equation . With radius =100km and magnetospheric bubble of = reported a thrust of 1980 Newtons and a coil mass of 500 tonnes. For the above parameters with the correction factor of 3.1 applied to Equation yields the same thrust and Equation yields the same coil mass. The acceleration for just the coil mass is , and with the correction factor of 3.1 applied to Equation yields the same result for another 4 solar wind cases. The MHD applicability test of Equation fails in several of these cases.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015 Freeland documented in detail an interstellar deceleration use case for approach to Alpha Centaturi as part of a study to update Project Icarus with =260km, an initial of 1,320km and ISM density kg/m3, almost identical to the n(H I) measurement of 0.098 cm-3 by Gry in 2014. The Freeland study predicted deceleration from 5% of light speed in approximately 19 years. The coil parameters =1011 (A/m2), = 5mm, =6,500 (kg/m3), resulted in an estimated coil mass is =1,232 tonnes. For the interstellar medium plasma density =1.67x10−22 with an apparent wind velocity 5% of light speed, the ion gyroradius is 570km and thus the design value for meets the MHD applicability test of Equation . Equation gives the required coil current as ~7,800 kA and from Equation = 338 tonnes; however, but the corresponding superconducting wire minimum radius from Equation is =1mm, which would be insufficient to handle the decelerating thrust force of ~ 100,000 N predicted by Equation and hence the design specified = 5mm to meet structural requirements. In a complete design, the mass of shielding the coil to maintain critical temperature and survive abrasion in outer space and other infrastructure must also be included. Appendix A estimates these as 90 tonnes for wire shielding and 50 tonnes for the spools and other magsail infrastructure. Freeland compared this magsail deceleration design with one where both acceleration and deceleration were performed by a fusion engine and reported that the mass of such a \"dirty Icarus\" design was over twice that with the magsail used for deceleration. An Icarus design published in 2020 used a Z-pinch fusion drive in an approach called Firefly that dramatically reduced mass of the fusion drive and made fusion only drive performance comparable to the fusion and magsail design.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017 Gros reported on numerical examples for the Magsail kinematic model (MKM). For a high speed mission to Alpha Centauri, with initial velocity before deceleration of with section 4.2 reporting a coil mass of 1500 tons and Equation (23) a coil radius of =1600 km. There is an internal inconsistency in the coil radius calculation. Using the parameters from the paper Equation (22) for the coil radius yields a value over 10 times less than the value reported in Equation (23). Section 4.1 gave an estimated stopping distance of 0.37 (ly) and a total travel time of 58 years. ",
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"plaintext": "In 2017 Crowl documented a design for a mission starting near the Sun and destined for Planet nine that employed the Magsail kinematic model (MKM). The design accounted for the Sun's gravity as well as the impact of elevated temperature on the superconducting coil, composed of meta-stable metallic hydrogen, which has a mass density of 3,500 (kg/m3) about half that of other superconductors that would in turn improve performance. The magsail transferred momentum from the solar wind to the spacecraft in an acceleration phase, and then used the magsail to brake against the Local ISM approaching the destination. For launch from 0.5 AU Table 2 reported a coil radius of 66 km at a mass of 545 kg using Equation multiplied by a factor of 5 to account for additional mass needed for structure. Table 3 reported the total travel time to 1,000 AU to reach the vicinity of Planet nine for a 500 kg payload as 29 years. The mass values of Table 2 are optimistic by a factor of approximately 10 when compared with Equation . ",
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"plaintext": "In 2000 Winglee and others proposed a design order to reduce the size and weight of a magnetic sail and named it mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2). The Figure based upon illustrates the M2P2 design, which is the same as the Magneto plasma sail (MPS) design. Starting at the center with a solenoid coil of radius (m) of =1,000 turns carrying a radio frequency current that generates a helicon wave that injects plasma fed from a source into a coil of radius (m) that carries a current of (A), which generates a generates a magnetic field. The excited injected plasma enhances the magnetic field and generates a miniaturized magneto-sphere around the spacecraft, analogous to the heliopause where the Sun injected plasma encounters the interstellar medium, coronal mass ejections or the Earth's magnetotail. The injected plasma created an environment that analysis and simulations showed had a magnetic field with a falloff rate of as compared with the classical model of a falloff rate, making the much smaller coil significantly more effective. The pressure of the inflated plasma along with the stronger magnetic field pressure at a larger distance due to the lower falloff rate would stretch the magnetic field and inflate a magnetospheric bubble around the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "The 2000 Winglee paper described a design and reported results adapted from the Earth's magnetosphere. Parameters for the coil and solenoid were =2.5cm and for the coil = 0.1 m, 6 orders of magnitude less than the magsail coil with correspondingly much lower weight. An estimate for the weight of the coil was 10kg and 40kg for the plasma injection source and other infrastructure. Reported results from Figure 2 were 3x10-4 T at 10km and from Figure 3 an extrapolated result with a plasma injection jet force 10−3 N resulting in a thrust force of 1 N.",
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"plaintext": "Since M2P2 injects ionized gas at a rate of (kg/s) that can be viewed as a propellant it has a specific impulse where (m/s2) is the acceleration of Earth's gravity. Winglee stated =0.5 (kg/day) and therefore =17,621. The equivalent exhaust velocity is 173 km/s for 1 N of thrust force. Winglee assumed total propellant mass of 30kg and therefore propellant would run out in 60 days.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Khazanov published MagnetoHydroDynamic (MHD) and kinetic studies that confirmed some aspects of M2P2 but raised issues that the sail size was too small, and that very small thrust would result and also concluded that the hypothesized magnetic field falloff rate was closer to . The plasma density plots from Khazanov indicated a relatively high density inside the magnetospheric bubble as compared with the external solar wind region that differed significantly from those published by Winglee where the density inside the magnetospheric bubble was much less than outside in the external solar wind region.",
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"plaintext": "A detailed analysis by Toivanen and others in 2004 compared a theoretical model of Magsail, dubbed Plasma-free Magnetospheric Propulsion (PFMP) versus M2P2 and concluded that the thrust force predicted by Winglee and others was over ten orders of magnitude optimistic since the majority of the solar wind momentum was delivered to the magnetotail and current leakages through the magnetopause and not to the spacecraft. Their comments also indicated that the magnetic field lines may not close near enough to the coil to achieve significant transfer of force. Their analysis made an analogy to the Heliospheric current sheet as an example in astrophysics where the magnetic field could falloff at a rate of between and . They also analyzed current sheets reported by Winglee from the magnetopause to the spacecraft in the windward direction and a current sheet in the magnetotail. Their analysis indicated that the current sheets needed to pass extremely close to the spacecraft to impart significant force could generate significant heat and render this leverage impractical.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Cattell and others published comments regarding M2P2 that included a lack of magnetic flux conservation in the region outside the magnetosphere that was not considered in the Khazanov studies. Their analysis concluded in Table 1 that Winglee had significantly underestimated the required sail size, mass, required magnetic flux and asserted that the hypothesized magnetic field falloff rate was not possible.",
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"plaintext": "The expansion of the magnetic field using injected plasma was demonstrated in a large vacuum chamber on Earth, but quantification of thrust was not part of the experiment. The accompanying presentation has some good animations that illustrate physical principles described in the report. A 2004 Winglee paper primarily focused on usage of M2P2 for electromagnetic shielding. Beginning in 2003, the Magneto plasma sail design further investigated the plasma injection augmentation of the magnetic field, used larger coils and reported more modest gains.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003 Funaki and others proposed an approach similar to the Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) and called it the MagnetoPlasma Sail (MPS) that started with a coil =0.2 m and a magnetic field falloff rate of =1.52 with injected plasma creating an effective sail radius of =26km and assumed a conversion efficiency that transferred a fraction of the solar wind momentum to the spacecraft. Simulation results indicated a significant increase in magnetosphere size with plasma injection as compared to the Magsail design, which had no plasma injection. Analysis showed how adjustment of the MPS steering angle created force that could reach the outer planets. A satellite trial was proposed. Preliminary performance results were reported but later modified in subsequent papers.",
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"plaintext": "Many MPS papers have been published on the magnetic sail contributing to the understanding of general physical principles of an Artificial magnetospheric model, its Magnetohydrodynamic model, and the design approach for computing the magnetopause distance for a given magnetic field source are documented in the linked sections of this article.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004 Funaki and others analyzed MPS cases where =10 m and =100 m as summarized in Table 2 predicting a characteristic length of 50 and 450km producing significant thrust with mass substantially less than the Magsail and hence significant acceleration. This paper detailed the MHD applicability test of Equation that the characteristic length must be greater than the ion gyroradius (m) to effectively transfer solar wind momentum to the spacecraft. In 2005 Yamakawa and others further described a potential trial.",
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"plaintext": "An analogy with the Earth's magnetosphere and magnetopause in determining the penetration of plasma irregularities into the magnetopause defines the key parameter of a local kinetic plasma beta as the ratio of the dynamic pressure of the injected plasma over the magnetic pressure as followswhere (kg/m3) is the local plasma density, (m/s) is the local velocity of the plasma and (T) is the local magnetic field. Simulations have shown that the kinetic beta is smallest near the field source, at magnetopause and the bow shock.",
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"plaintext": "The kinetic differs from the thermal plasma beta whis the ratio of the plasma thermal pressure to the magnetic pressure, with terms: is the plasma pressure with (m−3) the number density, (J/K) the Boltzmann constant and (eV) the ion temperature; and the magnetic pressure for magnetic field (T) and (H/m) vacuum permeability. In the context of the MPS, determines the propensity of the injected plasma flow to stretch the magnetic field while specifies the relative energy of the injected plasma.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005 Funaki and others published numerical analysis showing =1.88 for =0.1. In 2009 Kajimura published simulation results with =5 and ranging from 6 to 20 that the magnetic field falloff rate with Argon and Xenon plasma injected into the polar region was =2.1 and with Argon plasma injected into the equatorial region was =1.8.",
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"plaintext": "If then the Injection of a high-velocity, high-density plasma into a magnetosphere as proposed in Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) freezes the motion of a magnetic field into the plasma flow and was believed to inflate the magnetosphere. However experiments and numerical analysis determined that the solar wind cannot compress the magnetosphere and momentum transfer to the spacecraft is limited since momentum is transferred to injected plasma flowing out of the magnetosphere, similar to another criticism of M2P2. ",
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"plaintext": "An alternative is to reduce the plasma injection velocity and density to result in to achieve a plasma in equilibrium with the inflated magnetic field and therefore induce an equatorial diamagnetic current in the same direction as the coil current as shown in the figure, thereby increasing the magnetic moment of the MPS field source and consequently increasing thrust. In 2013 Funaki and others published simulation and theoretical results regarding how characteristics of the injected plasma affected thrust gain through creation of an equatorial ring current. They defined thrust gain for MPS as : the ratio of the force generated by low beta plasma injection divided by that of a pure magnetic sail from Equation with and for or from Equation for . They reported of approximately 40 for magnetospheres less than the MHD applicability test and 3.77 for a larger magnetosphere where MHD applicability occurred, larger than values reported in 2012 of 20 and 3.3, respectively. Simulations revealed that optimum thrust gain occurred for and .",
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"plaintext": "In 2014 Arita, Nishida and Funaki published simulation results indicating that plasma injection created an equatorial ring current and that the plasma injection rate had a significant impact on thrust performance, with the lowest value simulated having the best performance of a thrust gain of 3.77 with . They also reported that MPS increased the height of the magnetosphere by a factor of 2.6, which is important since it increases the effective sail blocking area.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014 Ashida and others documented Particle In Cell (PIC) simulation results for a kinematic model for cases where where MHD is not applicable. Equation (12) of their study included the additional force of the injected plasma jet consisting of momentum and static pressure of ions and electrons and defined thrust gain as , which differs from the definition of a term by the same name in other studies. It represents the gain of MPS over that of simply adding the magnetic sail force and the plasma injection jet force. For the values cited in the conclusion, is 7.5 in the radial orientation. ",
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"plaintext": "Since a number of results were published by different authors at different times, the figure summarizes the reported thrust gain versus magnetosphere size (or characteristic length ) with the source indicated in the legend as follows for simulation results Arita14, Ashida14, Funaki13, and Kajimura10. Simulation results require significant compute time, for example it took 1024 CPUs 4 days to simulate the simplest case and 4096 CPUs one week to simulate a more complex case. A thrust gain between 2 and 10 is common with the larger gains with a magnetic nozzle injecting plasma in one direction in opposition to the solar wind. The MHD applicability test of Equation for the solar wind is 72km. Therefore, the estimated force of the MPS when is that of Equation multiplied by the empirically determined thrust gain from the figure multiplied by the percentage thrust loss from the empirically determined General kinematic model section as follows:",
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"plaintext": "For the case Equation defines the force on a magnetic sail alone from the kinematic model in terms of the magnetic moment (A m2), plasma wind velocity (m/s) and number density (m−3) that would then be the divisor of and the force for an MPS with plasma injection is then",
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"plaintext": "Since MPS injects ionized gas at a rate of (kg/s) that can be viewed as a propellant it has a specific impulse where (m/s2) is the acceleration of Earth's gravity. Funaki and Arita stated =0.31 (kg/day). Therefore =28,325 (s) per Newton of thrust force. The equivalent exhaust velocity is 278 km/s per Newton of thrust force.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015 Kajimura and others published simulation results for thrust performance with plasma injected by a magnetic nozzle, a technology used in VASIMR. They reported a thrust gain of 24 when the ion gyroradius (see Equation ) was comparable to the characteristic length , at the boundary of the MHD applicability test. The optimal result occurred with a thermal with some decrease for higher values of thermal beta.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015 Hagiwara and Kajimura published experimental thrust performance test results with plasma injection using a magnetoplasmadynamic thruster (aka MPD thruster or MPD Arcjet) in a single direction opposite the solar wind direction and a coil with the axial orientation. This meant that provided additional propulsive force. Density plots explicitly show the increased plasma density upwind of the bow shock originating from the MPD thruster. They reported that showing how MPS inflated the magnetic field to create more thrust than the magnetic sail alone plus that of the . The conclusion of the experiment was that the thrust gain was approximately 12 for a scaled characteristic length of = 60km. In the above figure, note the significant improvement in thrust gain as compared with plasma injection. In 2017 Ueno published a design proposing use of multiple coils to generate a more complex magnetic field to increase thrust production. In 2020 Murayama and others published additional experimental results for a multi-pole MPD thruster.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020 Peng and others published MHD simulation results for a magnetic dipole with plasma injection operating in Low Earth orbit at 500 km within the Earth's Ionosphere where the ion number density is approximately 1011 (m-3). As reported in Figure 3, the magnetic field strength initially falls off as 1/r and then approaches 1/r2 at larger distances from the dipole. The radius of the artificial mini-magnetosphere could extend up to 200 m for this scenario. They reported that the injected plasma reduced magnetic field fall off rate and created of a drift current, similar to earlier reported MPS results for the solar wind.",
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"plaintext": "The plasma magnet (PM) sail design introduced a different approach to generate a static magnetic dipole as illustrated in the figure. As shown in the detailed view on the right the field source is two relatively small crossed perpendicularly oriented antenna coils each of radius (m), each carrying a sinusoidal Alternating Current(AC) with the total current of (A) generated by an onboard power supply. The AC current applied to each coil is out of phase by 90 degrees and consequently generates a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) with rotational speed (rad/s) chosen that is fast enough that positive ions do not rotate but the less massive electrons rotate at this speed. The figure illustrates rotation using color coded contours of constant magnetic strength and not magnetic field lines. In order to inflate the magnetospheric bubble the thermal plasma beta must be high and initially a plasma injection may be necessary, analogous to inflating a balloon when small and internal tension is high. After initial inflation, protons and rotating electrons are captured from the plasma wind through the leaky magnetopause and as shown in the left create a current disc shown as transparent red in the figure with darker shading indicating greatest density near the coil pair and extending out to the magnetopause radius Rmp, which is orders of magnitude larger than the coil radius Rc (figure not drawn to scale). See RMDCartoon.avi for an animation of this effect. The induced current disc carries a direct current (A) orders of magnitude larger than the input alternating current (A) and forms a static dipole magnetic field oriented perpendicular to the current disc reaching a standoff balance with the plasma wind pressure at distance at the magnetopause boundary according to the Magnetohydrodynamic model. This induced current creates a magnetic dipole perpendicular to the current disc. Thus the large mass of the magsail is avoided and the continuous injection of plasma in M2P2 or MPS is at least reduced in the steady state.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field falloff rate was assumed to be =1 is described in detail in, but as described by Khazanov, restated by Kirtley and Slough and several MPS studies concluded that is closer to 2. The falloff rate is a critical parameter in the determination of performance.",
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"plaintext": "The RMF-induced rotating disc of electrons has current density (A/m2) at distance r from the antenna as given by Equation (5) for and Equation (4) for , which states that flux conservation requires this falloff rate, consistent with a criticism of M2P2 by Cattell as follows: ",
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"plaintext": "where (T) is the magnetic field at radius (m) near the antenna coils. Note that the current density is highest at and falls off at a rate of . A critical condition for the plasma magnet design from Equation (1a) provides a lower bound on the RMF frequency (rad/s) as follows so that electrons in the plasma wind are magnetized and rotate but the ions are not magnetized and do not rotate:",
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"plaintext": "where (rad/s) is the ion gyrofrequency in the RMF near the antenna coils , is charge number of the ion, (C) is the elementary charge, and (kg) is the (average) mass of the ion(s). Specifying the magnetic field near the coils at radius is critical since this is where the current density is greatest. Choosing a magnetic field at magnetopause yields a lower value of but ions closer to the coils will rotate. Another condition is that be small enough such that collisions are extremely unlikely.",
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"plaintext": "The required power to generate the RMF by the antenna coil pair is derived by integrating the product of the square of the current density from Equation and the resistivity of the plasma (kg/m3) from to with the result as follows ",
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"plaintext": "where (W m) is the Spitzer resistivity of the plasma of ~1.2x10−3 where is the electron temperature assumed to be 15 eV. The above result is the same as Equation (7) for and Equation (5) for .",
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"plaintext": "Starting with the definition of plasma wind power from Equation , rearranging and recognizing that Equation can be substituted and then using Equation yields the following expression",
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"plaintext": "which is the same as Equation (10) for , with the text following that equation incorrectly giving an example where and are chosen independently resulting in a predicated gain of 70,000 of achieved thrust power over input power , when in fact a system of polynomial equations requires two equations for two variables. In other words, specification of and must also satisfy Equation , which the cited example does not.",
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"plaintext": "A number of the examples cited assume a magnetopause radius that do not meet the MHD applicability test of Equation . For = 30km, = 50 nT and power from the solar wind from Equation (14) is = 6.3 MW corresponding to a force of 15 N at = 450km/s, which contradicts the text following Equation (10) citing =700 MW. From the definition of power in physics a constant force is power divided by velocity, the force generated by the Plasma Magnet (PM) sail is as follows",
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"plaintext": "Note that as the falloff rate increases that the force derived from the plasma wind decreases, or to maintain the same force and/or must increase.",
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"plaintext": "Equation MS.6 gives the mass for each physical coil of radius (m). Since the RMF requires alternating current and semiconductors are not efficient at higher frequencies, aluminum was specified with mass density = 2,700 (kg/m3). Estimates of the coil mass are optimistic by a factor of since only one coil was sized and the coil circumference was specified as instead of .",
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"plaintext": "The coil resistance is the product of coil material resistivity (Ω m) (e.g., ~3x10−8 for aluminum) and the coil length (m) divided by the coil wire cross sectional area where (m) is the radius of the coil wire as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Some additional power must compensate for resistive loss but it is orders of magnitude less than . The peak current carried by a coil is specified by the RMF power and coil resistance from the definition of electrical power in physics as follows:",
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"plaintext": "The current induced in the disc by the RMF (A) is the integral of the current density from Equation on the surface of the disc with inner radius and outer radius with result:",
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"plaintext": "the same as Equation (11) from Slough for =1.",
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"plaintext": "Laboratory experiments validated that the RMF creates a magnetospheric bubble, electron temperature near the coils increases and that thrust was generated. Since the scale of a terrestrial experiment is limited simulations or a flight trial was recommended. Some of these concepts adapted to an ionospheric plasma environment were carried on in the Magnetoshell magnetic design.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022 Freeze, Greason and others published a detailed design for a Plasma magnet based sail for a spacecraft named Wind Rider that would use solar wind force to accelerate away from near Earth and decelerate against the magnetosphere of Jupiter in a spaceflight trial mission called Jupiter Observing Velocity Experiment (JOVE). This design employed a pair of superconducting coils each with radius of 9 (m), an alternating current of of 112 (A) and of 4 (Hz). In 2022 Greason and others proposed use of a plasma magnet sail for deceleration after interstellar travel when approaching Alpha Centauri.",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 study by Kirtley and Slough investigated using the plasma magnet technology to use the plasma in the ionospheref of a planetary as a braking mechanism and was called the Plasma Magnetoshell. This approach used a hypothesized 1/r2 magnetic field falloff rate for the generic plasma magnet. NIAC funded studies in 2014 and 2016 and in 2018 Kelly further detailed this approach with details for Mars and Neptune. Since the target plasma environment is a planetary atmosphere with characteristics different from that of the solar wind or the ISM, a different design is required.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016 a Perakis and Hein preprint described and analyzed a combination of magnetic sail and electric sail for interstellar deceleration that was further analyzed by Sharma and others in 2020. The magnetic sail is used for deceleration from higher velocities and the electric sail at lower velocities. The analysis shows a considerable mass saving for the combined system. However, Equation (1) had a significant difference for the magsail force as compared with the Magnetic field model force Equation . Citing a 2012 Freeland paper that was not available online the exponent of the term on the right side was 3/2. In a 2015 Freeland paper of the same title, Equation (108) stated an exponent value of 2/3, as stated by multiple other citations. Potentially impacted are statements that the magnetic sail is more effective at higher velocities since a smaller exponent means that magnetic force is proportional to versus as assumed in these papers. This difference means that magnetic sail component of their calculations could be optimistic and the optimization point between use of magnetic and electric sails could change ",
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"plaintext": "In 2021 Zhenyu Yang and others published an analysis, numerical calculations and experimental verification for a propulsion system that was a combination of the magnetic sail and the Electric sail called an electromagnetic sail. The concept involves a superconducting ring like magsail to generate a magnetic field but adds an electron gun at the center of the coil to generate an electric field as done in an electric sail that deflects positive ions in the plasma wind thereby providing additional thrust. With the additional thrust of the electron gun powered electric sail, the size of the superconducting ring can be markedly reduced decreasing the overall system mass significantly.",
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"plaintext": "A beam-powered of M2P2 variant, MagBeam was proposed in 2011. In this design a magnetic sail is used with beam-powered propulsion, by using a high-power particle accelerator to fire a beam of charged particles at the spacecraft. The magsail would deflect this beam, transferring momentum to the vehicle. This would provide much higher acceleration than a solar sail driven by a laser, but a charged particle beam would disperse in a shorter distance than a laser due to the electrostatic repulsion of its component particles. This dispersion problem could potentially be resolved by accelerating a stream of sails which then in turn transfer their momentum to a magsail vehicle, as proposed by Jordin Kare.",
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"plaintext": "The table compares Performance measures for the magnetic sail designs with the following parameters for the solar wind (sw) at 1 AU: velocity = 500km/s, number density = 5x106 (m−3), ion mass = 1.67x10−27 kg a proton mass, resulting in mass density = 8.4x10−21 (kg/m3), and coefficient of drag =5 where applicable. Equation gives the magnetic field at magnetopause as≈ 36 nT, Equation gives the ion gyroradius ≈ 72km for =2. Table entries in bold face are from a cited source as described in the following.",
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"plaintext": "Equation determines force for the Magsail (MS), the force for Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) is from Figure 3. Equation defines the force for the Plasma magnet (PM) with separate columns showing the assumed magnetic field falloff rate =1 and =2. The force for the magnetic sail alone is from Equation for with =3 when MHD applicability test occurs and Equation for where a General kinematic model is used. Thrust gain for the Magneto plasma sail (MPS) is the simulation and/or experimentally determined value with force from Equation when MHD is applicable and Equation when it is not. The last column headed MPS+MPD adds a Magnetoplasma dynamic thruster (MPD) that has a higher thrust gain as determined by experiment and simulation. The Magnetic field model falloff rate defines the magnetic field at a distance r from the source as and as described for each design. For designs other than MPS and MPS+MPD, the thrust gain is the achieved force from the first row divided by the force of a magnetic sail alone. The magnetopause distance (m) and the coil radius (m) are design parameters. Equation with defines the magnetic field near the coil(s) as (T).",
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"plaintext": "The plasma magnet uses AC power and cannot use a superconducting coil and assumed (as did M2P2) an aluminum coil with material density = 2,700kg/m3 and coil wire radius =5mm. All other designs assumed a superconducting coil with material density =6,500kg/m3, coil wire radius =5mm, and critical current 1.6 x106 A, above which the coil becomes a normal conductor. The magnetopause distance and coil radius for superconducting coil based designs were adjusted to meet this critical current constraint. The values for the plasma magnet for =1 used = 30km and =10 m that did not meet the MHD applicability test, while the value of for =2 was selected to minimize time to velocity and distance. The MPS values for and were chosen to match the thrust gain from simulation and scaled experimental results and meet the superconducting coil critical current constraint.",
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"plaintext": "Equation gives the coil mass (kg) with explanations specific to the design in the corresponding section. Equation gives the plasma magnet alternating current . Equation gives the direct current with =2 for all other designs. The plasma magnet RMF uses the input alternating current (kA) to rotate electrons in captured plasma to create an induced direct current disc carrying kA as defined in Equation , with the value much less for =2 as compared with =1 since Equation shows the current density falling off as .",
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"plaintext": "Designs with a superconducting coil do not require continuous power (but may require power for other functions, such as cooling); however, the plasma magnet design requires a continuous power source as specified in Equation . An estimate for the plasma magnet power supply mass assumes ~3kg/W for nuclear power in space. Other mass was assumed to be 10 tonnes for MS, for M2P2 50kg was assumed for the plasma source plus 100kg payload, and 1 tonne of other mass for plasma magnet and MPS. Acceleration is the thrust force (N) from the first row divided by the total mass (coil plus other). An optimistic approximation is constant acceleration (m/s2), for which the time to reach a target velocity V (km/s) of 10% of the solar wind velocity is (days) and time to cover a specified distance ≈ 7.8x108 km (approximate distance from Earth to Jupiter) is (days). For comparison purposes the time for a Hohmann transfer from Earth orbit to Jupiter orbit is 2.7 years (almost 1,000 days) but that would allow orbital insertion whereas a magnetic sail would do a flyby unless the magnetosphere and gravity of Jupiter could provided deceleration. Another comparison is the New Horizons interplanetary space probe with a 30kg payload that flew by Jupiter after 405 days on its way to Pluto.",
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"plaintext": "The best time to velocity and distance performance occurs for the M2P2 and PM =1 columns, but the thrust gain is orders of magnitude greater than the other designs. However, as described in the Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2), several criticisms asserted that the falloff rate =1 was questionable. Simulations and experiments as described in the Magneto plasma sail (MPS) showed that =2 is valid with injection of plasma to inflate the magnetic field in a manner similar to M2P2. The MPS columns are a prediction of performance with injected plasma and =2. As described in the Plasma magnet (PM), plasma is not injected but instead captured to achieve a better falloff rate, which was later changed to =2, so the column \"PM, =2\" is a better estimate of performance. The classic Magsail (MS) design generates the most thrust force but has considerable mass but still has relatively good time performance. Parameters for the other designs were chosen to yield comparable time performance subject to the constraints previously described. As described above and further detailed in the section for the respective design, this article contains the equations and parameters to compute performance estimates for different parameter choices.",
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"plaintext": "The table compares Performance measures for the magnetic sail designs with the following parameters for deceleration in the ISM on approach to Alpha Centauri: initial velocity = 1.5x107 km/s (5% of light speed), number density = 1x105 (m−3), ion mass = 1.67x10−27 kg a proton mass, resulting in mass density = 1.67x10−22 (kg/m3), and coefficient of drag as described below. Equation gives the magnetic field magnetopause at the beginning of deceleration as ≈ 15 μT, Equation gives the ion gyroradius ≈ 509km for =2. Table entries in bold face are from a cited source as described in the following.",
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"plaintext": "The usage of equations are the same as for Acceleration/deceleration with the solar wind case with the following exceptions. Whether the MHD based force or a kinematic model is relevant depends upon spacecraft velocity, density of the interstellar medium plasma, magnetic moment and magnetopause distance.",
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"plaintext": "Other mass for Magsail (MS) is from Freeland. ",
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"plaintext": "An optimistic approximation is constant acceleration (m/s2), for which the time to decelerate from a velocity of 5% of light speed is (days) and time to cover a specified distance of 0.5 light year (ly), ≈ 4.7x1012 km, is (days). ",
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"plaintext": "In 1994 Vulpetti published a critical review regarding viability of space propulsion based on solar wind momentum flux. The paper highlighted technology challenges in terms of the magnetic field source, energy required and interaction between the solar wind and the spacecraft's magnetic field, summarizing that these issues were not insurmountable. The major unresolved issue is spacecraft and mission design that account for the potentially highly variable solar wind velocity and plasma density that could complicate maneuvers by a spacecraft employing magnetic sail technology. Some means of modulating thrust is necessary. If the mission objective is to rapidly escape the solar system then the paper states that this is less of an issue.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006 Bolonkin published a paper that questioned the theoretical viability of a Magsail and described common mistakes. Equation (2) states that the magnetic field of electrons rotating in the large coil was greater than and opposed the magnetic field generated by the current in the coil and hence no thrust would result. In 2014 Vulpetti published a rebuttal that summarized plasma properties, in particular the fact that plasma is quasi-neutral and noted in Equation (B1) that the Bolonkin paper Equation (2) assumed that the plasma had a large net negative electrical charge. The plasma charge varies statistically over short intervals and the maximum value has negligible impact on Magsail performance. Furthermore, he argued that observations by many spacecraft have observed compression of a magnetic field by dynamic (or ram) pressure that did not depend on particle charges.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Gros published results that differed from prior magsail work. A major result was the Magsail kinematic model (MKM) of Equation that is a curve fit to numerical analysis of proton trajectories impacted by a large current carrying superconducting coil. The curve fit scaling relation for the effective sail area was logarithmic cubed with argument with the loop current, the curve fit parameter, the ship velocity and the speed of light. This differed from the power law scaling of prior work. The Gros paper could not trace back this difference to underlying physical arguments and noted that the results are inconsistent, stating that the source for these discrepancies was unclear. Appendix B questioned whether a bow shock will form if the initial spacecraft velocity is large, for example for deceleration after interstellar travel, since the predicted effective sail area is small in this case. One difference is that this analysis used the coil radius for computation of the ion gyroradius as compared with prior work use of the magnetopause radius ",
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"plaintext": "One advantage of magnetic or solar sails over (chemical or ion) reaction thrusters is that no reaction mass is depleted or carried in the craft.",
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"plaintext": "A major disadvantage is that acceleration is only in the direction of a plasma wind or against a planetary magnetosphere.",
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"plaintext": "The operation of magnetic sails using plasma wind is analogous to the operation of solar sails using the radiation pressure of photons emitted by the Sun. Although solar wind particles have rest mass and photons do not, sunlight has thousands of times more momentum than the solar wind. Therefore, a magnetic sail must deflect a proportionally larger area of the solar wind than a comparable solar sail to generate the same amount of thrust. However, it need not be as massive as a solar sail because the solar wind is deflected by a magnetic field instead of a large physical sail. Conventional materials for solar sails weigh around 7 g/m2 (0.0014lb/sq ft), giving a thrust of 0.01 mPa (1.5×10−9 psi) at 1 AU (150,000,000km; 93,000,000mi). This gives a mass/thrust ratio of at least 700kg/N, similar to a magnetic sail, neglecting other structural components.",
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"plaintext": "The solar and magnetic sails have a thrust that falls off as the square of the distance from the Sun.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic sails have become a popular trope in many works of science fiction although the solar sail is more popular: ",
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"plaintext": " The ancestor of the magsail, the Bussard magnetic scoop, first appeared in science-fiction in Poul Anderson's 1967 short story To Outlive Eternity, which was followed by the novel Tau Zero in 1970. ",
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"plaintext": " The magsail appears as a crucial plot device in The Children's Hour, a Man-Kzin Wars novel by Jerry Pournelle and S.M. Stirling (1991). ",
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"plaintext": " It also features prominently in the science-fiction novels of Michael Flynn, particularly in The Wreck of the River of Stars (2003); this book is the tale of the last flight of a magnetic sail ship when fusion rockets based on the Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor have become the preferred technology.",
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"plaintext": "GURPS Spaceships features both Solar sails and magnetic sails as possible methods of spacecraft propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Although not referred to as a \"magnetic sail,\" the concept was used in the novel Encounter with Tiber by Buzz Aldrin and John Barnes as a braking mechanism to decelerate starships from relativistic speed.",
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"plaintext": " interacts with magnetosphere in similar manner to magsail",
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"plaintext": " (Magnetized beamed plasma propulsion)a beam-powered variant of Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) (M2P2).",
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{
"plaintext": " Other methods of spacecraft propulsion used to change the velocity of spacecraft and artificial satellites.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " プラズマ・核融合学会誌 - 磁気プラズマセイルの研究と深宇宙探査への挑戦(PDF)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 九州大学大学院 - MPSにおける磁気インフレーションに関する研究(PDF)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " JAXA - プラズマセイル(PDF)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " 神戸大学大学院 - 惑星間航行システム開発に向けたマルチスケール粒子シミュレーション(PDF)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
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"plaintext": " JAXA - 磁気プラズマセイルの推力発生メカニズムの解明(PDF)",
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}
] | [
"Spacecraft_propulsion",
"Spacecraft_components",
"Electrodynamics",
"Magnetic_propulsion_devices"
] | 2,721,907 | 1,597 | 53 | 200 | 0 | 0 | magnetic sail | proposed spacecraft propulsion method that takes advantage of solar wind | [
"magsail"
] |
37,846 | 916,869,820 | Gaseous_fission_reactor | [
{
"plaintext": "A gas nuclear reactor (or gas fueled reactor or vapor core reactor) is a proposed kind of nuclear reactor in which the nuclear fuel would be in a gaseous state rather than liquid or solid. In this type of reactor, the only temperature-limiting materials would be the reactor walls. Conventional reactors have stricter limitations because the core would melt if the fuel temperature were to rise too high. It may also be possible to confine gaseous fission fuel magnetically, electrostatically or electrodynamically so that it would not touch (and melt) the reactor walls. A potential benefit of the gaseous reactor core concept is that instead of relying on the traditional Rankine or Brayton conversion cycles, it may be possible to extract electricity magnetohydrodynamically, or with simple direct electrostatic conversion of the charged particles.",
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"plaintext": "The vapor core reactor (VCR), also called a gas core reactor (GCR), has been studied for some time. It would have a gas or vapor core composed of uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) with some helium (4He) added to increase the electrical conductivity, the vapor core may also have tiny UF4 droplets in it. It has both terrestrial and space based applications. Since the space concept doesn't necessarily have to be economical in the traditional sense, it allows the enrichment to exceed what would be acceptable for a terrestrial system. It also allows for a higher ratio of UF4 to helium, which in the terrestrial version would be kept just high enough to ensure criticality in order to increase the efficiency of direct conversion. The terrestrial version is designed for a vapor core inlet temperature of about 1,500 K and exit temperature of 2,500 K and a UF4 to helium ratio of around 20% to 60%. It is thought that the outlet temperature could be raised to that of the 8,000 K to 15,000 K range where the exhaust would be a fission-generated non-equilibrium electron gas, which would be of much more importance for a rocket design. A terrestrial version of the VCR's flow schematic can be found in reference 2 and in the summary of non-classical nuclear systems in the second external link. The space based concept would be cut off at the end of the MHD channel.",
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"plaintext": "4He may be used in increase the ability of the design to extract energy and be controlled. A few sentences from Anghaie et al. sheds light on the reasoning:",
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"section_name": "Reasoning for He-4 addition",
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},
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"plaintext": "\"The power density in the MHD duct is proportional to the product of electrical conductivity, velocity squared and magnetic field squared σv²B². Therefore, the enthalpy extraction is very sensitive to the MHD input-output fluid conditions. The vapor core reactor provides a hotter-than-most fluid with potential for adequate thermal equilibrium conductivity and duct velocities. Considering the product v² × B², it is apparent that a light working fluid should dominate the thermal properties and the UF4 fraction should be small. Additional electrical conductivity enhancement might be needed from thermal ionization of suitable seed materials, and from non-equilibrium ionization by fission fragments and other ionizing radiation produced by the fissioning process.\"",
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"plaintext": "The spacecraft variant of the gaseous fission reactor is called the gas core reactor rocket. There are two approaches: the open and closed cycle. In the open cycle, the propellant, most likely hydrogen, is fed to the reactor, heated up by the nuclear reaction in the reactor, and exits out the other end. Unfortunately, the propellant will be contaminated by fuel and fission products, and although the problem can be mitigated by engineering the hydrodynamics within the reactor, it renders the rocket design completely unsuitable for use in atmosphere.",
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"plaintext": "One might attempt to circumvent the problem by confining the fission fuel magnetically, in a manner similar to the fusion fuel in a tokamak. Unfortunately it is not likely that this arrangement will actually work to contain the fuel, since the ratio of ionization to particle momentum is not favourable. Whereas a tokamak would generally work to contain singly ionized deuterium or tritium with a mass of two or three daltons, the uranium vapour would be at most triply ionized with a mass of 235 dalton (unit). Since the force imparted by a magnetic field is proportional to the charge on the particle, and the acceleration is proportional to the force divided by the mass of the particle, the magnets required to contain uranium gas would be impractically large; most such designs have focused on fuel cycles that do not depend upon retaining the fuel in the reactor.",
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"plaintext": "In the closed cycle, the reaction is entirely shielded from the propellant. The reaction is contained in a quartz vessel and the propellant merely flows outside of it, being heated in an indirect fashion. The closed cycle avoids contamination because the propellant can't enter the reactor itself, but the solution carries a significant penalty to the rocket's Isp.",
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40250
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"plaintext": "For energy production purposes, one might use a container located inside a solenoid. The container is filled with gaseous uranium hexafluoride, where the uranium is enriched, to a level just short of criticality. Afterward, the uranium hexafluoride is compressed by external means, thus initiating a nuclear chain reaction and a great amount of heat, which in turn causes an expansion of the uranium hexafluoride. Since the UF6 is contained within the vessel, it can't escape and thus compresses elsewhere. The result is a plasma wave moving in the container, and the solenoid converts some of its energy into electricity at an efficiency level of about 20%. In addition, the container must be cooled, and one can extract energy from the coolant by passing it through a heat exchanger and turbine system as in an ordinary thermal power plant.",
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"plaintext": "However, there are enormous problems with corrosion during this arrangement, as the uranium hexafluoride is chemically very reactive.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gas core reactor rocket",
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30856603
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1,
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
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28506
],
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1,
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{
"plaintext": "Brown, L.C. (2001). Direct Energy Conversion Fission Reactor: Annual Report For The Period August 15, 2000 Through September 30, 2001",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Knight, T. (unknown date) Shield Design for a Space Based Vapor Core Reactor [online] available at archive.org",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Nuclear_power_reactor_types",
"Nuclear_reactors",
"Nuclear_technology"
] | 1,495,168 | 379 | 9 | 21 | 0 | 0 | Gaseous fission reactor | nuclear reactor | [] |
37,849 | 1,087,044,102 | Nuclear_salt-water_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A nuclear salt-water rocket (NSWR) is a theoretical type of nuclear thermal rocket which was designed by Robert Zubrin. In place of traditional chemical propellant, such as that in a chemical rocket, the rocket would be fueled by salts of plutonium or 20 percent enriched uranium. The solution would be contained in a bundle of pipes coated in boron carbide (for its properties of neutron absorption). Through a combination of the coating and space between the pipes, the contents would not reach critical mass until the solution is pumped into a reaction chamber, thus reaching a critical mass, and being expelled through a nozzle to generate thrust.",
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"plaintext": "Chemical rockets use heat energy produced by a chemical reaction to heat the gas products. The hot products exit through a propulsion nozzle at a very high speed, creating thrust. In a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR), thrust is created by heating a fluid by using a nuclear fission reactor. The lower the molecular weight of the exhaust, hydrogen having the lowest possible, the more efficient the motor can be. However, in this engine the propellant can be any of many fluids having suitable properties as it does not participate in generating heat. In a NSWR the nuclear salt-water would be made to flow through a reaction chamber and out of an exhaust nozzle in such a way and at such speeds that critical mass will begin once the chamber is filled to a certain point; however, the peak neutron flux of the fission reaction would occur outside the vehicle.",
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"section_name": "Proposed design",
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{
"plaintext": "There are several advantages relative to conventional NTR designs. As the peak neutron flux and fission reaction rates would occur outside the vehicle, these activities could be much more vigorous than they could be if it was necessary to house them in a vessel (which would have temperature limits due to materials constraints). Additionally, a contained reactor can only allow a small percentage of its fuel to undergo fission at any given time, otherwise it would overheat and melt down (or explode in a runaway fission chain reaction). The fission reaction in an NSWR is dynamic and because the reaction products are exhausted into space it doesn't have a limit on the proportion of fission fuel that reacts. In many ways NSWRs combine the advantages of fission reactors and fission bombs.",
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"plaintext": "Because they can harness the power of what is essentially a continuous nuclear fission explosion, NSWRs would have both very high thrust and very high exhaust velocity, meaning that the rocket would be able to accelerate quickly as well as be extremely efficient in terms of propellant usage. The combination of high thrust and high specific impulse is a very rare trait in the rocket world. One design would generate 13meganewtons of thrust at 66km/s exhaust velocity (or 6,730seconds ISP compared to ~4.5km/s (450s ISP) exhaust velocity for the best chemical rockets of today).",
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"plaintext": "The design and calculations discussed above are using 20percent enriched uranium salts. However, it would be plausible to use another design which would be capable of achieving much higher exhaust velocities (4,725km/s) and use a 30,000tonne ice comet along with 7,500tonnes of highly enriched uranium salts to propel a 300tonne spacecraft up to 7.62% of the speed of light and potentially arrive at Alpha Centauri after a 60year journey.",
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"plaintext": "\"NSWRs share many of the features of Orion propulsion systems, except that NSWRs would generate continuous rather than pulsed thrust and may be workable on much smaller scales than the smallest feasible Orion designs (which are generally large, due to the requirements of the shock-absorber system and the minimum size of efficient nuclear explosives).\"",
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"plaintext": "The propellant used in the initial design would contain a rather large amount of the relatively expensive isotope U, which would not be very cost effective. However, if the use of NSWR began to rise, it would be possible to replace this with the cheaper isotopes U or Pu in either fission breeder reactors or (much better) nuclear fusion–fission hybrid reactors. These other fissiles would have the right characteristics to serve nearly as well, at a relatively low cost.",
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"plaintext": "Another major limitation of the nuclear salt water rocket design by Robert Zubrin included the lack of a material to be used in the reaction chamber that could actually sustain such a reaction within a spacecraft. Zubrin claimed in his design that the apparatus was created so that the liquid flow rate or velocity was what mattered most in the process, not the material. Therefore, he argued that if the proper velocity was chosen for the liquid traveling through the reaction chamber, the site of maximum fission release could then be located at the end of the chamber, thus allowing the system to remain intact and safe to operate. These claims have still not been proven due to no test of such a device having ever been conducted.",
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"plaintext": "For example, Zubrin argues that if diluted nuclear fuel flows into the chamber at speed similar to diffusion speed of thermal neutrons, then nuclear reaction is confined in the chamber and does not damage the rest of the system (the nuclear analog of a gas burner). A possible problem in that line of thinking is that neutrons do not all diffuse at the same velocity, but have a broad distribution over several orders of magnitude. It is possible that tails of this velocity distribution would be sufficient to generate enough heat in fuel feeding system (by scattering and fission) to destroy the system. This question can be perhaps answered by detailed Monte-Carlo simulations of neutron transport.",
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"plaintext": "The vessel's exhaust would contain radioactive isotopes, but in space these would be rapidly dispersed after travelling only a short distance; the exhaust would also be travelling at high speed (in Zubrin's scenario, faster than Solar escape velocity, allowing it to eventually leave the Solar System). This is however of little use on the surface of a planet, where a NSWR would eject massive quantities of superheated steam, still containing fissioning nuclear salts. Terrestrial testing might be subject to reasonable objections; as one physicist wrote:",
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"plaintext": " \"Writing the environmental impact statement for such tests [...] might present an interesting problem ...\".",
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},
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"plaintext": "It is also not certain that fission in a NSWR could be controlled:",
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},
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"plaintext": " \"Whether fast criticality can be controlled in a rocket engine remains an open question\".",
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{
"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Fission-fragment rocket",
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"plaintext": " Project Orion",
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322533
],
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Technology readiness level",
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"section_name": "See also",
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58306941
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1,
27
]
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] | [
"Nuclear_spacecraft_propulsion"
] | 4,536,303 | 1,405 | 8 | 40 | 0 | 0 | Nuclear salt-water rocket | proposed rocket propulsion mechanism | [
"NSWR"
] |
37,850 | 1,106,326,116 | Beam-powered_propulsion | [
{
"plaintext": "Beam-powered propulsion, also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines.",
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"plaintext": "The rule of thumb that is usually quoted is that it takes a megawatt of power beamed to a vehicle per kg of payload while it is being accelerated to permit it to reach low earth orbit.",
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"plaintext": "Other than launching to orbit, applications for moving around the world quickly have also been proposed.",
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"plaintext": "Rockets are momentum machines; they use mass ejected from the rocket to provide momentum to the rocket. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity, so rockets generally attempt to put as much velocity into their working mass as possible, thereby minimizing the amount of working mass that is needed. In order to accelerate the working mass, energy is required. In a conventional rocket, the fuel is chemically combined to provide the energy, and the resulting fuel products, the ash or exhaust, are used as the working mass.",
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"plaintext": "There is no particular reason why the same fuel has to be used for both energy and momentum. In the jet engine, for instance, the fuel is used only to produce energy, the working mass is provided from the air that the jet aircraft flies through. In modern jet engines, the amount of air propelled is much greater than the amount of air used for energy. This is not a solution for the rocket, however, as they quickly climb to altitudes where the air is too thin to be useful as a source of working mass.",
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"plaintext": "Rockets can, however, carry their working mass and use some other source of energy. The problem is finding an energy source with a power-to-weight ratio that competes with chemical fuels. Small nuclear reactors can compete in this regard, and considerable work on nuclear thermal propulsion was carried out in the 1960s, but environmental concerns and rising costs led to the ending of most of these programs.",
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"plaintext": "A further improvement can be made by removing the energy creation from the spacecraft. If the nuclear reactor is left on the ground and its energy transmitted to the spacecraft, the weight of the reactor is removed as well. The issue then is to get the energy into the spacecraft. This is the idea behind beamed power.",
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"plaintext": "With beamed propulsion one can leave the power-source stationary on the ground, and directly (or via a heat exchanger) heat propellant on the spacecraft with a maser or a laser beam from a fixed installation. This permits the spacecraft to leave its power-source at home, saving significant amounts of mass, greatly improving performance.",
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"plaintext": "Since a laser can heat propellant to extremely high temperatures, this potentially greatly improves the efficiency of a rocket, as exhaust velocity is proportional to the square root of the temperature. Normal chemical rockets have an exhaust speed limited by the fixed amount of energy in the propellants, but beamed propulsion systems have no particular theoretical limit (although in practice there are temperature limits).",
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"plaintext": "In microwave thermal propulsion, an external microwave beam is used to heat a refractory heat exchanger to >1,500 K, in turn heating a propellant such as hydrogen, methane or ammonia. This improves the specific impulse and thrust/weight ratio of the propulsion system relative to conventional rocket propulsion. For example, hydrogen can provide a specific impulse of 700–900 seconds and a thrust/weight ratio of 50-150.",
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"plaintext": "A variation, developed by brothers James Benford and Gregory Benford, is to use thermal desorption of propellant trapped in the material of a very large microwave sail. This produces a very high acceleration compared to microwave pushed sails alone.",
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"section_name": "Microwave propulsion",
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"plaintext": "Some proposed spacecraft propulsion mechanisms use electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, in which electrical energy is used by an electrically powered rocket engine, such as an ion thruster or plasma propulsion engine. Usually these schemes assume either solar panels, or an on-board reactor. However, both power sources are heavy.",
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"plaintext": "Beamed propulsion in the form of laser can be used to send power to a photovoltaic panel, for Laser electric propulsion. In this system, if high intensity is incident on the solar array, careful design of the panels is necessary to avoid a fall-off of the conversion efficiency due to heating effects. John Brophy has analyzed transmission of laser power to a photovoltaic array powering a high-efficiency electric propulsion system as a means of accomplishing high delta-V missions such as an interstellar precursor mission in a NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts project.",
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"plaintext": "A microwave beam could be used to send power to a rectenna, for microwave electric propulsion. Microwave broadcast power has been practically demonstrated several times (e.g. Goldstone, California in 1974), rectennas are potentially lightweight and can handle high power at high conversion efficiency. However, rectennas tend to need to be very large for a significant amount of power to be captured.",
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"plaintext": "A beam could also be used to provide impulse by directly \"pushing\" on the sail.",
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"plaintext": "One example of this would be using a solar sail to reflect a laser beam. This concept, called a laser-pushed lightsail, was initially proposed by G. Marx but first analyzed in detail, and elaborated on, by physicist Robert L. Forward in 1989 as a method of interstellar travel that would avoid extremely high mass ratios by not carrying fuel. Further analysis of the concept was done by Landis, Mallove and Matloff, Andrews Lubin, and others.",
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"plaintext": "In a later paper, Forward proposed pushing a sail with a microwave beam. This has the advantage that the sail need not be a continuous surface. Forward tagged his proposal for an ultralight sail \"Starwisp\". A later analysis by Landis suggested that the Starwisp concept as originally proposed by Forward would not work, but variations on the proposal might be implemented.",
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"plaintext": "The beam has to have a large diameter so that only a small portion of the beam misses the sail due to diffraction and the laser or microwave antenna has to have a good pointing stability so that the craft can tilt its sails fast enough to follow the center of the beam. This gets more important when going from interplanetary travel to interstellar travel, and when going from a fly-by mission, to a landing mission, to a return mission. The laser or the microwave sender would probably be a large phased array of small devices, which get their energy directly from solar radiation. The size of the array negates the need for a lens or mirror.",
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"plaintext": "Another beam-pushed concept would be to use a magnetic sail or MMPP sail to divert a beam of charged particles from a particle accelerator or plasma jet. Landis proposed a particle beam pushed sail in 1989, and analyzed in more detail in a 2004 paper. Jordin Kare has proposed a variant to this whereby a \"beam\" of small laser accelerated light sails would transfer momentum to a magsail vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "Another beam-pushed concept uses pellets or projectiles of ordinary matter. A stream of pellets from a stationary mass-driver is \"reflected\" by the spacecraft, cf. mass driver. The spacecraft neither needs energy nor reaction mass for propulsion of its own.",
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"plaintext": "A lightcraft is a vehicle currently under development that uses an external pulsed source of laser or maser energy to provide power for producing thrust.",
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"plaintext": "The laser shines on a parabolic reflector on the underside of the vehicle that concentrates the light to produce a region of extremely high temperature. The air in this region is heated and expands violently, producing thrust with each pulse of laser light. In space, a lightcraft would need to provide this gas itself from onboard tanks or from an ablative solid. By leaving the vehicle's power source on the ground and by using ambient atmosphere as reaction mass for much of its ascent, a lightcraft would be capable of delivering a very large percentage of its launch mass to orbit. It could also potentially be very cheap to manufacture.",
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"plaintext": "Early in the morning of 2 October 2000 at the High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility (HELSTF), Lightcraft Technologies, Inc. (LTI) with the help of Franklin B. Mead of the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory and Leik Myrabo set a new world's altitude record of 233 feet (71 m) for its 4.8inch (12.2cm) diameter, , laser-boosted rocket in a flight lasting 12.7 seconds. Although much of the 8:35 am flight was spent hovering at 230+ feet, the Lightcraft earned a world record for the longest ever laser-powered free flight and the greatest \"air time\" (i.e., launch-to-landing/recovery) from a light-propelled object. This is comparable to Robert Goddard's first test flight of his rocket design. Increasing the laser power to 100 kilowatts will enable flights up to a 30-kilometer altitude. Their goal is to accelerate a one-kilogram microsatellite into low Earth orbit using a custom-built, one megawatt ground-based laser. Such a system would use just about 20 dollars' worth of electricity, placing launch costs per kilogram to many times less than current launch costs (which are measured in thousands of dollars).",
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"plaintext": "Myrabo's \"lightcraft\" design is a reflective funnel-shaped craft that channels heat from the laser, towards the center, using a reflective parabolic surface causing the laser to literally explode the air underneath it, generating lift. Reflective surfaces in the craft focus the beam into a ring, where it heats air to a temperature nearly five times hotter than the surface of the sun, causing the air to expand explosively for thrust.",
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"plaintext": "A laser thermal rocket is a thermal rocket in which the propellant is heated by energy provided by an external laser beam. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, the late Jordin Kare proposed a simpler, nearer term concept which has a rocket containing liquid hydrogen. The propellant is heated in a heat exchanger that the laser beam shines on before leaving the vehicle via a conventional nozzle. This concept can use continuous beam lasers, and the semiconductor lasers are now cost effective for this application.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Kevin L.G. Parkin proposed a similar system using microwaves. In May 2012, the DARPA/NASA Millimeter-wave Thermal Launch System (MTLS) Project began the first steps toward implementing this idea. The MTLS Project was the first to demonstrate a millimeter-wave absorbent refractory heat exchanger, subsequently integrating it into the propulsion system of a small rocket to produce the first millimeter-wave thermal rocket. Simultaneously, it developed the first high power cooperative target millimeter-wave beam director and used it to attempt the first millimeter-wave thermal rocket launch. Several launches were attempted but problems with the beam director could not be resolved before funding ran out in March 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Motivation to develop beam-powered propulsion systems comes from the economic advantages that would be gained as a result of improved propulsion performance. In the case of beam-powered launch vehicles, better propulsion performance enables some combination of increased payload fraction, increased structural margins and fewer stages. JASON's 1977 study of laser propulsion, authored by Freeman Dyson, succinctly articulates the promise of beam-powered launch: \"Laser propulsion as an idea that may produce a revolution in space technology. A single laser facility on the ground can in theory launch single-stage vehicles into low or high earth orbit. The payload can be 20% or 30% of the vehicle take-off weight. It is far more economical in the use of mass and energy than chemical propulsion, and it is far more flexible in putting identical vehicles into a variety of orbits.\"This promise was quantified in a 1978 Lockheed Study conducted for NASA:\"The results of the study showed that, with advanced technology, laser rocket system with either a space- or ground-based laser transmitter could reduce the national budget allocated to space transportation by 10 to 345 billion dollars over a 10-year life cycle when compared to advanced chemical propulsion systems (LO2-LH2) of equal capability.\"",
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"plaintext": "The 1970s-era studies and others since have cited beam director cost as a possible impediment to beam-powered launch systems. A recent cost-benefit analysis estimates that microwave (or laser) thermal rockets would be economical once beam director cost falls below 20 $/Watt. The current cost of suitable lasers is <100 $/Watt and the current cost of suitable microwave sources is <$5/Watt. Mass production has lowered the production cost of microwave oven magnetrons to <0.01 $/Watt and some medical lasers to <10 $/Watt, though these are thought to be unsuitable for use in beam directors.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964 William C. Brown demonstrated a miniature helicopter equipped with a combination antenna and rectifier device called a rectenna. The rectenna converted microwave power into electricity, allowing the helicopter to fly.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002 a Japanese group propelled a tiny aluminium airplane by using a laser to vaporize a water droplet clinging to it, and in 2003 NASA researchers flew an 11-ounce (312 g) model airplane with a propeller powered with solar panels illuminated by a laser. It is possible that such beam-powered propulsion could be useful for long-duration high altitude unmanned aircraft or balloons, perhaps designed to serve – like satellites do today – as communication relays, science platforms, or surveillance platforms.",
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"plaintext": "A \"laser broom\" has been proposed to sweep space debris from Earth orbit. This is another proposed use of beam-powered propulsion, used on objects that were not designed to be propelled by it, for example small pieces of scrap knocked off (\"spalled\") satellites. The technique works since the laser power ablates one side of the object, giving an impulse that changes the eccentricity of the object's orbit. The orbit would then intersect the atmosphere and burn up.",
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"plaintext": " Beam Power Challenge – one of the NASA Centennial Challenges",
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"plaintext": " Thinned-array curse",
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11363542
],
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"plaintext": " List of laser articles",
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34620288
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"plaintext": " DEEP-IN",
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49553622
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"plaintext": "Fine-Tuning the Interstellar Lightsail",
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},
{
"plaintext": "How Stuff Works: light-propulsion",
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] | [
"Spacecraft_propulsion",
"Space_access",
"Force_lasers",
"Emerging_technologies"
] | 4,355,073 | 1,718 | 50 | 73 | 0 | 0 | beam-powered propulsion | aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses beamed energy | [
"directed energy propulsion"
] |
37,851 | 1,073,988,112 | Nuclear_photonic_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "In a traditional nuclear photonic rocket, an onboard nuclear reactor would generate such high temperatures that the blackbody radiation from the reactor would provide significant thrust. The disadvantage is that it takes much power to generate a small amount of thrust this way, so acceleration is very low. The photon radiators would most likely be constructed using graphite or tungsten. Photonic rockets are technologically feasible, but rather impractical with current technology based on an onboard nuclear power source.",
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"plaintext": "The power per thrust required for a perfectly collimated output beam is 300 MW/N (half this if it can be reflected off the craft); very high energy density power sources would be required to provide reasonable thrust without unreasonable weight. The specific impulse of a photonic rocket is harder to define, since the output has no (rest) mass and is not expended fuel; if we take the momentum per inertia of the photons, the specific impulse is just c, which is impressive. However, considering the mass of the source of the photons, e.g., atoms undergoing nuclear fission, brings the specific impulse down to 300km/s (c/1000) or less; considering the infrastructure for a reactor (some of which also scales with the amount of fuel) reduces the value further. Finally, any energy loss not through radiation that is redirected precisely to aft but is instead conducted away by engine supports, radiated in some other direction, or lost via neutrinos or so will further degrade the efficiency. If we were to set 80% of the mass of the photon rocket = fissionable fuel, and recognizing that nuclear fission converts about 0.10% of the mass into energy: then if the photon rocket masses 300,000kg then 240,000kg of that is atomic fuel. Therefore, the fissioning of all of the fuel will result in the loss of just 240kg of mass. Then 300,000/299,760kg = an mi/mf of 1.0008. Using the rocket equation, we find vf = ln 1.0008 × c where c = 299,792,458m/s.",
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"plaintext": "vf then may be 239,930m/s which is about 240km/s. The nuclear fission powered photon rocket may accelerate at a maximum of perhaps 1/10,000m/s² (0.1mm/s²) which is 10−5g. The velocity change would be at the rate of 3,000m/s per year of thrusting by the photon rocket.",
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"plaintext": "If a photon rocket begins its journey in low earth orbit, then one year of thrusting may be required to achieve an earth escape velocity of 11.2km/s if the vehicle is already in orbit at a velocity of 9,100m/s. Upon escaping the Earth's gravitational field the rocket will have a heliocentric velocity of 30km/s in interplanetary space. Eighty years of steady photonic thrusting would be then required to obtain a final velocity of 240km/s in this hypothetical case.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible to obtain even higher specific impulse; that of some other photonic propulsion devices (e.g., solar sails) is effectively infinite because no carried fuel is required. Alternatively, such devices as ion thrusters, while having a notably lower specific impulse, give a much better thrust-to-power ratio; for photons, that ratio is , whereas for slow particles (that is, nonrelativistic; even the output from typical ion thrusters counts) the ratio is , which is much larger (since ). (This is in a sense an unfair comparison, since the photons must be created and other particles are merely accelerated, but nonetheless the impulses per carried mass and per applied energythe practical quantitiesare as given.) The photonic rocket is thus wasteful when power and not mass is at a premium, or when enough mass can be saved through the use of a weaker power source that reaction mass can be included without penalty.",
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"plaintext": "A laser could be used as a photon rocket engine, and would solve the reflection/collimation problem, but lasers are absolutely less efficient at converting energy into light than blackbody radiation isthough one should also note the benefits of lasers vs blackbody source, including unidirectional controllable beam and the mass and durability of the radiation source. The limitations posed by the rocket equation can be overcome, as long as the reaction mass is not carried by the spacecraft. In the Beamed Laser Propulsion (BLP) concept, the photons are beamed from the photon source to the spacecraft as coherent light. Robert L. Forward pioneered interstellar propulsion concepts including photon propulsion and antimatter rocket propulsion. However, BLP is limited because of the extremely low thrust generation efficiency of photon reflection. One of the best ways to overcome the inherent inefficiency in producing thrust of the photon thruster by amplifying the momentum transfer of photons by recycling photons between two high reflectance mirrors.",
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"plaintext": "Feasible current, or near-term fission reactor designs can generate up to 2.2kW per kilogram of reactor mass. Without any payload, such a reactor could drive a photon rocket at nearly 10−5 m/s² (10−6g; see g-force). This could perhaps provide interplanetary spaceflight capability from Earth orbit. Nuclear fusion reactors could also be used, perhaps providing somewhat higher power.",
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{
"plaintext": "A design proposed in the 1950s by Eugen Sänger used positron-electron annihilation to produce gamma rays. Sänger was unable to solve the problem of how to reflect, and collimate the gamma rays created by positron-electron annihilation; however, by shielding the reactions (or other annihilations) and absorbing their energy, a similar blackbody propulsion system could be created. An antimatter-matter powered photon rocket would (disregarding the shielding) obtain the maximum c specific impulse; for this reason, an antimatter-matter annihilation powered photon rocket could potentially be used for interstellar spaceflight.",
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385,
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{
"plaintext": "Theoretically, other designs such as spacecraft using a Kugelblitz micro black hole could also be used for interstellar travel given the efficiency of black holes in converting matter into energy.",
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"plaintext": " Photon rocket",
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33801977
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft propulsion",
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28506
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1,
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"plaintext": " Radioisotope rocket",
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751580
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1,
20
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"plaintext": "Application of nuclear photon engines for deep-space exploration by Andrey V. Gulevich, Eugeny A. Ivanov, Oleg F. Kukharchuk, Victor Ya. Poupko, and Anatoly V. Zrodnikov. AIP Conference Proceedings",
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},
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"plaintext": "\"Interstellar rendezvous missions employing fission propulsion systems,\" Lenard, R.X., and Lipiniski, R.J., in Proceedings of the Space Technology Applications Int'l Forum, 2000",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "On the conversion of infrared radiation from fission reactor-based photon engine into parallel beam, Gulevich, A. V.; Levchenko, V. E.; Loginov, N. I.; Kukharchuk, O. F.; Evtodiev, D. A.; Zrodnikov, A. V., in Proceedings of the Space Technology Applications Int'l Forum, 2002",
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},
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"plaintext": "Long-life space reactor for photon propulsion, Sawada, T.; Endo, H.; Netchaev, A., in Proceedings of the Space Technology Applications Int'l Forum, 2002",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Nuclear_spacecraft_propulsion"
] | 4,492,226 | 661 | 5 | 36 | 0 | 0 | Nuclear photonic rocket | A type of rocket engine that propels a spacecraft using photons. | [] |
37,852 | 1,106,156,844 | Fusion_rocket | [
{
"plaintext": "A fusion rocket is a theoretical design for a rocket driven by fusion propulsion that could provide efficient and sustained acceleration in space without the need to carry a large fuel supply. The design requires fusion power technology beyond current capabilities, and much larger and more complex rockets. ",
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"plaintext": "Fusion nuclear pulse propulsion is one approach to using nuclear fusion energy to provide propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Fusion's main advantage is its very high specific impulse, while its main disadvantage is the (likely) large mass of the reactor. A fusion rocket may produce less radiation than a fission rocket, reducing the shielding mass needed. The surest way of building a fusion rocket is to use hydrogen bombs as proposed in Project Orion, but such a spacecraft would be massive and the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty prohibits the use of such bombs. For that reason bomb-based rockets would likely be limited to operating only in space. An alternate approach uses electrical (e.g. ion) propulsion with electric power generated by fusion instead of direct thrust.",
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"plaintext": "Spacecraft propulsion methods such as ion thrusters require electric power to run, but are highly efficient. In some cases their thrust is limited by the amount of power that can be generated (for example, a mass driver). An electric generator running on fusion power could drive such a ship. One disadvantage is that conventional electricity production requires a low-temperature energy sink, which is difficult (i.e. heavy) in a spacecraft. Direct conversion of the kinetic energy of fusion products into electricity mitigates this problem.",
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"plaintext": "One attractive possibility is to direct the fusion exhaust out the back of the rocket to provide thrust without the intermediate production of electricity. This would be easier with some confinement schemes (e.g. magnetic mirrors) than with others (e.g. tokamaks). It is also more attractive for \"advanced fuels\" (see aneutronic fusion). Helium-3 propulsion would use the fusion of helium-3 atoms as a power source. Helium-3, an isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron, could be fused with deuterium in a reactor. The resulting energy release could expel propellant out the back of the spacecraft. Helium-3 is proposed as a power source for spacecraft mainly because of its lunar abundance. Scientists estimate that 1 million tons of accessible helium-3 are present on the moon. Only 20% of the power produced by the D-T reaction could be used this way; while the other 80% is released as neutrons which, because they cannot be directed by magnetic fields or solid walls, would be difficult to direct towards thrust. Helium-3 is produced via beta decay of tritium, which can be produced from deuterium, lithium, or boron.",
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"plaintext": "Even if a self-sustaining fusion reaction cannot be produced, it might be possible to use fusion to boost the efficiency of another propulsion system, such as a VASIMR engine.",
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"plaintext": "To sustain a fusion reaction, the plasma must be confined. The most widely studied configuration for terrestrial fusion is the tokamak, a form of magnetic confinement fusion. Currently tokamaks weigh a great deal, so the thrust to weight ratio would seem unacceptable. NASA's Glenn Research Center proposed a small aspect ratio spherical torus reactor for its \"Discovery II\" conceptual vehicle design. \"Discovery II\" could deliver a crewed 172 metric tons payload to Jupiter in 118 days (or 212 days to Saturn) using 861 metric tons of hydrogen propellant, plus 11 metric tons of Helium-3-Deuterium (D-He3) fusion fuel. The hydrogen is heated by the fusion plasma debris to increase thrust, at a cost of reduced exhaust velocity (348–463km/s) and hence increased propellant mass.",
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"plaintext": "The main alternative to magnetic confinement is inertial confinement fusion (ICF), such as that proposed by Project Daedalus. A small pellet of fusion fuel (with a diameter of a couple of millimeters) would be ignited by an electron beam or a laser. To produce direct thrust, a magnetic field forms the pusher plate. In principle, the Helium-3-Deuterium reaction or an aneutronic fusion reaction could be used to maximize the energy in charged particles and to minimize radiation, but it is highly questionable whether using these reactions is technically feasible. Both the detailed design studies in the 1970s, the Orion drive and Project Daedalus, used inertial confinement. In the 1980s, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and NASA studied an ICF-powered \"Vehicle for Interplanetary Transport Applications\" (VISTA). The conical VISTA spacecraft could deliver a 100-tonne payload to Mars orbit and return to Earth in 130 days, or to Jupiter orbit and back in 403 days. 41 tonnes of deuterium/tritium (D-T) fusion fuel would be required, plus 4,124 tonnes of hydrogen expellant. The exhaust velocity would be 157km/s.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetized target fusion (MTF) is a relatively new approach that combines the best features of the more widely studied magnetic confinement fusion (i.e. good energy confinement) and inertial confinement fusion (i.e. efficient compression heating and wall free containment of the fusing plasma) approaches. Like the magnetic approach, the fusion fuel is confined at low density by magnetic fields while it is heated into a plasma, but like the inertial confinement approach, fusion is initiated by rapidly squeezing the target to dramatically increase fuel density, and thus temperature. MTF uses \"plasma guns\" (i.e. electromagnetic acceleration techniques) instead of powerful lasers, leading to low cost and low weight compact reactors. The NASA/MSFC Human Outer Planets Exploration (HOPE) group has investigated a crewed MTF propulsion spacecraft capable of delivering a 163933-kilogram payload to Jupiter's moon Callisto using 106-165 metric tons of propellant (hydrogen plus either D-T or D-He3 fusion fuel) in 249–330 days. This design would thus be considerably smaller and more fuel efficient due to its higher exhaust velocity (700km/s) than the previously mentioned \"Discovery II\", \"VISTA\" concepts.",
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"plaintext": "Another popular confinement concept for fusion rockets is inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC), such as in the Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor or the Polywell variation under development by Energy-Matter Conversion Corporation (EMC2). The University of Illinois has defined a 500-tonne \"Fusion Ship II\" concept capable of delivering a 100,000kg crewed payload to Jupiter's moon Europa in 210 days. Fusion Ship II utilizes ion rocket thrusters (343km/s exhaust velocity) powered by ten D-He3 IEC fusion reactors. The concept would need 300 tonnes of argon propellant for a 1-year round trip to the Jupiter system. Robert Bussard published a series of technical articles discussing its application to spaceflight throughout the 1990s. His work was popularised by an article in the Analog Science Fiction and Fact publication, where Tom Ligon described how the fusor would make for a highly effective fusion rocket.",
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"plaintext": "A still more speculative concept is antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion, which would use antimatter to catalyze a fission and fusion reaction, allowing much smaller fusion explosions to be created. During the 1990s an abortive design effort was conducted at Penn State University under the name AIMStar. The project would require more antimatter than we are capable of producing. In addition, some technical hurdles need to be surpassed before it would be feasible.",
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"plaintext": " Twenty-One Castle Mike by Kir Komrik under commission of (name withheld) Marine, LLC",
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37,853 | 1,107,161,719 | Bussard_ramjet | [
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"plaintext": "The Bussard ramjet is a theoretical method of spacecraft propulsion proposed in 1960 by the physicist Robert W. Bussard, popularized by Poul Anderson's novel Tau Zero, Larry Niven in his Known Space series of books, Vernor Vinge in his Zones of Thought series, and referred to by Carl Sagan in the television series and book Cosmos.",
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"plaintext": "Bussard proposed a ramjet variant of a fusion rocket capable of reasonable interstellar travel, using enormous electromagnetic fields (ranging from kilometers to many thousands of kilometers in diameter) as a ram scoop to collect and compress hydrogen from the interstellar medium. High speeds force the reactive mass into a progressively constricted magnetic field, compressing it until thermonuclear fusion occurs. The magnetic field then directs the energy into rocket exhaust, providing thrust.",
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"plaintext": "Since the time of Bussard's original proposal, it has been discovered that the region surrounding the Solar System has a much lower density of hydrogen than was believed at that time (see Local Interstellar Cloud). John Ford Fishback made an important contribution to the details for the Bussard ramjet in 1969. T. A. Heppenheimer analyzed Bussard's original suggestion of fusing protons, but found the Bremsstrahlung losses from compressing protons to fusion densities was greater than the power that could be produced by a factor of about 1 billion, thus indicating that the proposed version of the Bussard ramjet was infeasible. However, Daniel P. Whitmire's 1975 analysis indicates that a ramjet may achieve net power via the CNO cycle, which produces fusion at a much higher rate (~1016 times higher) than the proton–proton chain.",
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"plaintext": "Robert Zubrin and Dana Andrews analyzed one hypothetical version of the Bussard ramscoop and ramjet design in 1985. They determined that their version of the ramjet would be unable to accelerate into the solar wind. However, in their calculations they assumed that:",
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"plaintext": " The exhaust velocity of their interplanetary ion propulsion ramjet could not exceed 100,000m/s (100km/s);",
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"plaintext": " The largest available energy source could be a 500 kilowatt nuclear fusion reactor.",
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"plaintext": "In the Zubrin/Andrews interplanetary ramjet design, they calculated that the drag force d/dt(mv1) equals the mass of the scooped ions collected per second multiplied by the velocity of the scooped ions within the solar system relative to the ramscoop. The velocity of the (scooped) collected ions from the solar wind was assumed to be 500,000m/s.",
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"plaintext": "The exhaust velocity of the ions when expelled by the ramjet was assumed not to exceed 100,000m/s. The thrust of the ramjet d/dt(mv2) was equal to the mass of ions expelled per second multiplied by 100,000 meters per second. In the Zubrin/Andrews design of 1985, this resulted in the condition that d/dt(mv1) > d/dt(mv2). This condition resulted in the drag force exceeding the thrust of the hypothetical ramjet in the Zubrin/Andrews version of the design.",
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"plaintext": "The problem of using the interstellar medium as the sole fuel source led to study of the Ram Augmented Interstellar Rocket (RAIR). The RAIR carries its nuclear fuel supply and exhausts the reaction products to produce some of its thrust. However it greatly enhances its performance by scooping the interstellar medium and using this as extra reaction mass to augment the rocket. The propulsion system of the RAIR consists of three subsystems: a fusion reactor, a scoop field, and a plasma accelerator. The scoop field funnels interstellar gas into an \"accelerator\" (this could for example be a heat exchange system transferring thermal energy from the reactor directly to the interstellar gas) which is supplied power from a reactor. One of the best ways to understand this concept is to consider that the hydrogen nuclear fuel carried on board acts as a fuel (energy source) whereas the interstellar gas collected by the scoop and then exhausted at great speed from the back acts as a propellant (the reaction mass), the vehicle therefore has a limited fuel supply but an unlimited propellant supply. A normal Bussard ramjet would have an infinite supply of both. However, theory suggests that where a Bussard ramjet would suffer drag from having to pre-accelerate interstellar gas to its own speed before intake, a RAIR system would be able to transfer energy via the \"accelerator\" mechanism to the interstellar medium despite velocity differences, and so would suffer far less drag.",
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"plaintext": "Beamed energy coupled with a vehicle scooping hydrogen from the interstellar medium is another variant. A laser array in the solar system beams to a collector on a vehicle which uses something like a linear accelerator to produce thrust. This solves the fusion reactor problem for the ramjet. There are limitations because of the attenuation of beamed energy with distance.",
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"plaintext": "The calculations (by Robert Zubrin and an associate) inspired the idea of a magnetic parachute or sail. This could be important for interstellar travel because it means that deceleration at the destination can be performed with a magnetic parachute rather than a rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Astrophysicist Matthew E. Caplan of Illinois State University has proposed a type of stellar engine that uses a Dyson swarm of mirrors to concentrate stellar energy onto certain regions of a Sun-like star, producing beams of solar wind to be collected by a multi-ramjet assembly which in turn produces directed jets of plasma to stabilize its orbit and oxygen-14 to push the star. Using rudimentary calculations that assume maximum efficiency, Caplan estimates the Bussard engine would use 1015 grams per second of solar material to produce a maximum acceleration of 10−9 m/s2, yielding a velocity of 200km/s after 5 million years, and a distance of 10 parsecs over 1 million years. The Bussard engine would theoretically work for 100 million years given the mass loss rate of the Sun, but Caplan deems 10 million years to be sufficient for a stellar collision avoidance. His proposal was commissioned by the educational YouTube channel Kurzgesagt.",
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"plaintext": "Several of the obvious technical difficulties with the Bussard ramjet can be overcome by prelaunching fuel along the spacecraft's trajectory using something like a magnetic rail-gun.",
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"plaintext": "The advantages of this system include",
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"plaintext": " Launching only ionized fusion fuel so that either magnetic or electrostatic scoops can more easily funnel the fuel into the engine. The drawback is this will cause the fuel to disperse due to electrostatic repulsion.",
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"plaintext": " Launching the fuel on a trajectory so that the fuel velocity vector will closely match the expected velocity vector of the spacecraft at that point in its trajectory. This will minimize the \"drag\" forces generated by the collection of fuel.",
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"plaintext": " Launching optimized isotope ratios for the fusion engines on the spacecraft. A conventional Bussard ramjet will mostly collect hydrogen with an atomic weight of 1. This isotope is harder to fuse than either the deuterium or tritium isotopes of hydrogen. By launching the ideal ratio of hydrogen isotopes for the fusion engine in the spacecraft one can optimize the performance of the fusion engine.",
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"plaintext": " Although the prelaunched fuel for the ramjet negates one advantage of the Bussard design (collection of fuel as it moves through the interstellar medium, saving the cost to launch the fuel mass), it at least retains the advantage of not having to accelerate the mass of the fuel and the mass of the rocket at the same time.",
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"plaintext": " The prelaunched fuel would provide some visibility into the interstellar medium thus alerting the trailing spacecraft of unseen hazards (e.g. brown dwarfs).",
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"plaintext": "The major disadvantages of this system include",
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"plaintext": " The spacecraft could not deviate from the precalculated trajectory unless it was critical to do so. Any such deviation would separate the spacecraft from its fuel supply and leave it with only a minimal ability to return to its original trajectory.",
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"plaintext": " Prelaunched fuel for deceleration at the destination star would not be available unless launched many decades in advance of the spacecraft launch. However, other systems (such as the magnetic sails) could be used for this purpose.",
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"plaintext": " For more on ramjet math calculations see ",
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37,854 | 1,102,854,773 | Antimatter_rocket | [
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"plaintext": "An antimatter rocket is a proposed class of rockets that use antimatter as their power source. There are several designs that attempt to accomplish this goal. The advantage to this class of rocket is that a large fraction of the rest mass of a matter/antimatter mixture may be converted to energy, allowing antimatter rockets to have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Antimatter rockets can be divided into three types of application: those that directly use the products of antimatter annihilation for propulsion, those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate material which is then used for propulsion, and those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate material to generate electricity for some form of electric spacecraft propulsion system.",
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"plaintext": "The propulsion concepts that employ these mechanisms generally fall into four categories: solid core, gaseous core, plasma core, and beamed core configurations. The alternatives to direct antimatter annihilation propulsion offer the possibility of feasible vehicles with, in some cases, vastly smaller amounts of antimatter but require a lot more matter propellant.",
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"plaintext": "Then there are hybrid solutions using antimatter to catalyze fission/fusion reactions for propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Antiproton annihilation reactions produce charged and uncharged pions, in addition to neutrinos and gamma rays. The charged pions can be channelled by a magnetic nozzle, producing thrust. This type of antimatter rocket is a pion rocket or beamed core configuration. It is not perfectly efficient; energy is lost as the rest mass of the charged (22.3%) and uncharged pions (14.38%), lost as the kinetic energy of the uncharged pions (which can't be deflected for thrust), and lost as neutrinos and gamma rays (see antimatter as fuel).",
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"plaintext": "Positron annihilation has also been proposed for rocketry. Annihilation of positrons produces only gamma rays. Early proposals for this type of rocket, such as those developed by Eugen Sänger, assumed the use of some material that could reflect gamma rays, used as a light sail or parabolic shield to derive thrust from the annihilation reaction, but no known form of matter (consisting of atoms or ions) interacts with gamma rays in a manner that would enable specular reflection. The momentum of gamma rays can, however, be partially transferred to matter by Compton scattering.",
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"plaintext": "One method to reach relativistic velocities uses a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket made possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted by the Mössbauer effect to the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Hydrogen/Deuterium annihilation: A new annihilation process has been developed by researchers from Gothenborg University. Several annihilation reactors have been constructed in the past years where Hydrogen or Deuterium is converted into relativistic particles by laser annihilation.",
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"plaintext": "The technology has been demonstrated by research groups led by Prof. Leif Holmlid and Sindre Zeiner-Gundersen at research facilities in both Sweden and Oslo. A third relativistic particle reactor is currently being built at the University of Iceland.",
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"plaintext": "The emitted particles from Hydrogen annihilation processes reach 0.94c and can be used in space propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Their research on annihilation and annihilation drives is currently one of the most downloaded articles in the Journal of Acta Astronautical and has been cited in several technology reviews. Their research and work on relativistic propulsion can pave the way for deep space exploration and space colonization.",
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"plaintext": "This type of antimatter rocket is termed a thermal antimatter rocket as the energy or heat from the annihilation is harnessed to create an exhaust from non-exotic material or propellant.",
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"plaintext": "The solid core concept uses antiprotons to heat a solid, high-atomic weight (Z), refractory metal core. Propellant is pumped into the hot core and expanded through a nozzle to generate thrust. The performance of this concept is roughly equivalent to that of the nuclear thermal rocket ( ~ 103 sec) due to temperature limitations of the solid. However, the antimatter energy conversion and heating efficiencies are typically high due to the short mean path between collisions with core atoms (efficiency ~ 85%).",
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"plaintext": "Several methods for the liquid-propellant thermal antimatter engine using the gamma rays produced by antiproton or positron annihilation have been proposed. These methods resemble those proposed for nuclear thermal rockets. One proposed method is to use positron annihilation gamma rays to heat a solid engine core. Hydrogen gas is ducted through this core, heated, and expelled from a rocket nozzle. A second proposed engine type uses positron annihilation within a solid lead pellet or within compressed xenon gas to produce a cloud of hot gas, which heats a surrounding layer of gaseous hydrogen. Direct heating of the hydrogen by gamma rays was considered impractical, due to the difficulty of compressing enough of it within an engine of reasonable size to absorb the gamma rays. A third proposed engine type uses annihilation gamma rays to heat an ablative sail, with the ablated material providing thrust. As with nuclear thermal rockets, the specific impulse achievable by these methods is limited by materials considerations, typically being in the range of 1000–2000 seconds.",
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"plaintext": "The gaseous core system substitutes the low-melting point solid with a high temperature gas (i.e. tungsten gas/plasma), thus permitting higher operational temperatures and performance ( ~ 2 × 103 sec). However, the longer mean free path for thermalization and absorption results in much lower energy conversion efficiencies ( ~ 35%).",
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"plaintext": "The plasma core allows the gas to ionize and operate at even higher effective temperatures. Heat loss is suppressed by magnetic confinement in the reaction chamber and nozzle. Although performance is extremely high ( ~ 104-105 sec), the long mean free path results in very low energy utilization ( ~ 10%)",
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"plaintext": "The idea of using antimatter to power an electric space drive has also been proposed. These proposed designs are typically similar to those suggested for nuclear electric rockets. Antimatter annihilations are used to directly or indirectly heat a working fluid, as in a nuclear thermal rocket, but the fluid is used to generate electricity, which is then used to power some form of electric space propulsion system. The resulting system shares many of the characteristics of other charged particle/electric propulsion proposals (typically high specific impulse and low thrust)(hers where you can read up more on antimatter power gen).",
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"plaintext": "This is a hybrid approach in which antiprotons are used to catalyze a fission/fusion reaction or to \"spike\" the propulsion of a fusion rocket or any similar applications.",
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"plaintext": "The antiproton-driven Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) Rocket concept uses pellets for the D-T reaction. The pellet consists of a hemisphere of fissionable material such as U235 with a hole through which a pulse of antiprotons and positrons is injected. It is surrounded by a hemisphere of fusion fuel, for example deuterium-tritium, or lithium deuteride. Antiproton annihilation occurs at the surface of the hemisphere, which ionizes the fuel. These ions heat the core of the pellet to fusion temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "The antiproton-driven Magnetically Insulated Inertial Confinement Fusion Propulsion (MICF) concept relies on self-generated magnetic field which insulates the plasma from the metallic shell that contains it during the burn. The lifetime of the plasma was estimated to be two orders of magnitude greater than implosion inertial fusion, which corresponds to a longer burn time, and hence, greater gain.",
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"plaintext": "The antimatter-driven P-B11 concept uses antiprotons to ignite the P-B11 reactions in an MICF scheme. Excessive radiation losses are a major obstacle to ignition and require modifying the particle density, and plasma temperature to increase the gain. It was concluded that it is entirely feasible that this system could achieve Isp~105s.",
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"plaintext": "A different approach was envisioned for AIMStar in which small fusion fuel droplets would be injected into a cloud of antiprotons confined in a very small volume within a reaction Penning trap. Annihilation takes place on the surface of the antiproton cloud, peeling back 0.5% of the cloud. The power density released is roughly comparable to a 1 kJ, 1 ns laser depositing its energy over a 200μm ICF target.",
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"plaintext": "The ICAN-II project employs the antiproton catalyzed microfission (ACMF) concept which uses pellets with a molar ratio of 9:1 of D-T:U235 for Nuclear pulse propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "The chief practical difficulties with antimatter rockets are the problems of creating antimatter and storing it. Creating antimatter requires input of vast amounts of energy, at least equivalent to the rest energy of the created particle/antiparticle pairs, and typically (for antiproton production) tens of thousands to millions of times more. Most storage schemes proposed for interstellar craft require the production of frozen pellets of antihydrogen. This requires cooling of antiprotons, binding to positrons, and capture of the resulting antihydrogen atoms - tasks which have, , been performed only for small numbers of individual atoms. Storage of antimatter is typically done by trapping electrically charged frozen antihydrogen pellets in Penning or Paul traps. There is no theoretical barrier to these tasks being performed on the scale required to fuel an antimatter rocket. However, they are expected to be extremely (and perhaps prohibitively) expensive due to current production abilities being only able to produce small numbers of atoms, a scale approximately 1023 times smaller than needed for a 10-gram trip to Mars.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, the energy from antiproton annihilation is deposited over such a large region that it cannot efficiently drive nuclear capsules. Antiproton-induced fission and self-generated magnetic fields may greatly enhance energy localization and efficient use of annihilation energy.",
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"plaintext": "A secondary problem is the extraction of useful energy or momentum from the products of antimatter annihilation, which are primarily in the form of extremely energetic ionizing radiation. The antimatter mechanisms proposed to date have for the most part provided plausible mechanisms for harnessing energy from these annihilation products. The classic rocket equation with its \"wet\" mass ()(with propellant mass fraction) to \"dry\" mass ()(with payload) fraction (), the velocity change () and specific impulse () no longer holds due to the mass losses occurring in antimatter annihilation.",
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"plaintext": "Another general problem with high powered propulsion is excess heat or waste heat, and as with antimatter-matter annihilation also includes extreme radiation. A proton-antiproton annihilation propulsion system transforms 39% of the propellant mass into an intense high-energy flux of gamma radiation. The gamma rays and the high-energy charged pions will cause heating and radiation damage if they are not shielded against. Unlike neutrons, they will not cause the exposed material to become radioactive by transmutation of the nuclei. The components needing shielding are the crew, the electronics, the cryogenic tankage, and the magnetic coils for magnetically assisted rockets. Two types of shielding are needed: radiation protection and thermal protection (different from Heat shield or thermal insulation).",
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"plaintext": "Finally, relativistic considerations have to be taken into account. As the by products of annihilation move at relativistic velocities the rest mass changes according to relativistic mass-energy. For example, the total mass-energy content of the neutral pion is converted into gammas, not just its rest mass. It is necessary to use a relativistic rocket equation that takes into account the relativistic effects of both the vehicle and propellant exhaust (charged pions) moving near the speed of light. These two modifications to the two rocket equations result in a mass ratio () for a given () and () that is much higher for a relativistic antimatter rocket than for either a classical or relativistic \"conventional\" rocket.",
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"plaintext": "The loss of mass specific to antimatter annihilation requires a modification of the relativistic rocket equation given as",
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"plaintext": "where is the speed of light, and is the specific impulse (i.e. =0.69).",
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"plaintext": "The derivative form of the equation is",
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"plaintext": "where is the non-relativistic (rest) mass of the rocket ship, and is the fraction of the original (on board) propellant mass (non-relativistic) remaining after annihilation (i.e., =0.22 for the charged pions).",
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"plaintext": " is difficult to integrate analytically. If it is assumed that , such that then the resulting equation is",
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"plaintext": " can be integrated and the integral evaluated for and , and initial and final velocities ( and ).",
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"plaintext": "The cosmic background hard radiation will ionize the rocket's hull over time and poses a health threat. Also, gas plasma interactions may cause space charge. The major interaction of concern is differential charging of various parts of a spacecraft, leading to high electric fields and arcing between spacecraft components. This can be resolved with well placed plasma contactor. However, there is no solution yet for when plasma contactors are turned off to allow maintenance work on the hull. Long term space flight at interstellar velocities causes erosion of the rocket's hull due to collision with particles, gas, dust and micrometeorites. At 0.2 for a 6 light year distance, erosion is estimated to be in the order of about 30kg/m2 or about 1cm of aluminum shielding.",
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"plaintext": "The Alcubierre drive is a speculative warp drive idea according to which a spacecraft could achieve apparent faster-than-light travel by contracting space in front of it and expanding space behind it, under the assumption that a configurable energy-density field lower than that of vacuum (that is, negative mass) could be created. Proposed by theoretical physicist Miguel Alcubierre in 1994, the Alcubierre drive is based on a solution of Einstein's field equations. Since those solutions are metric tensors, the Alcubierre drive is also referred to as Alcubierre metric.",
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"plaintext": "Objects cannot accelerate to the speed of light within normal spacetime; instead, the Alcubierre drive shifts space around an object so that the object would arrive at its destination more quickly than light would in normal space without breaking any physical laws.",
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"plaintext": "Although the metric proposed by Alcubierre is consistent with the Einstein field equations, construction of such a drive is not necessarily possible. The proposed mechanism of the Alcubierre drive implies a negative energy density and therefore requires exotic matter or manipulation of dark energy. If exotic matter with the correct properties cannot exist, then the drive cannot be constructed. At the close of his original article, however, Alcubierre argued (following an argument developed by physicists analyzing traversable wormholes) that the Casimir vacuum between parallel plates could fulfill the negative-energy requirement for the Alcubierre drive.",
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"plaintext": "Another possible issue is that, although the Alcubierre metric is consistent with Einstein's equations, general relativity does not incorporate quantum mechanics. Some physicists have presented arguments to suggest that a theory of quantum gravity (which would incorporate both theories) would eliminate those solutions in general relativity that allow for backward time travel (see the chronology protection conjecture) and thus make the Alcubierre drive invalid.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, Miguel Alcubierre proposed a method for changing the geometry of space by creating a wave that would cause the fabric of space ahead of a spacecraft to contract and the space behind it to expand. The ship would then ride this wave inside a region of flat space, known as a warp bubble, and would not move within this bubble but instead be carried along as the region itself moves due to the actions of the drive.",
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"plaintext": "The Alcubierre metric defines the warp-drive spacetime. It is a Lorentzian manifold that, if interpreted in the context of general relativity, allows a warp bubble to appear in previously flat spacetime and move away at effectively faster-than-light speed. The interior of the bubble is an inertial reference frame and inhabitants experience no proper acceleration. This method of transport does not involve objects in motion at faster-than-light speeds with respect to the contents of the warp bubble; that is, a light beam within the warp bubble would still always move more quickly than the ship. Because objects within the bubble are not moving (locally) more quickly than light, the mathematical formulation of the Alcubierre metric is consistent with the conventional claims of the laws of relativity (namely, that an object with mass cannot attain or exceed the speed of light) and conventional relativistic effects such as time dilation would not apply as they would with conventional motion at near-light speeds.",
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"plaintext": "Using the ADM formalism of general relativity, the spacetime is described by a foliation of space-like hypersurfaces of constant coordinate time , with the metric taking the following general form:",
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"plaintext": "With this particular form of the metric, it can be shown that the energy density measured by observers whose 4-velocity is normal to the hypersurfaces is given by:",
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"plaintext": "Thus, because the energy density is negative, one needs exotic matter to travel more quickly than the speed of light. The existence of exotic matter is not theoretically ruled out; however, generating and sustaining enough exotic matter to perform feats such as faster-than-light travel (and to keep open the \"throat\" of a wormhole) is thought to be impractical. According to writer Robert Low, within the context of general relativity it is impossible to construct a warp drive in the absence of exotic matter.",
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"plaintext": "Astrophysicist Jamie Farnes from the University of Oxford has proposed a theory, published in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Astronomy & Astrophysics, that unifies dark energy and dark matter into a single dark fluid, and which is expected to be testable by new scientific instruments capable of being constructed by circa 2030. Farnes found that Albert Einstein had explored the idea of gravitationally repulsive negative masses while developing the equations of general relativity, an idea which leads to a \"beautiful\" hypothesis where the cosmos has equal amounts of positive and negative qualities. Farnes' theory relies on negative masses that behave identically to the physics of the Alcubierre drive, providing a natural solution for the current \"crisis in cosmology\" due to a time-variable Hubble parameter.",
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"plaintext": "As Farnes' theory allows a positive mass (i.e. a ship) to reach a speed equal to the speed of light, it has been dubbed \"controversial\". If the theory is correct, which has been highly debated in the scientific literature, it would explain dark energy, dark matter, allow closed timelike curves (see time travel), and suggest that an Alcubierre drive is physically possible with exotic matter.",
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"plaintext": "With regard to certain specific effects of special relativity, such as Lorentz contraction and time dilation, the Alcubierre metric has some apparently peculiar aspects. In particular, Alcubierre has shown that a ship using an Alcubierre drive travels on a free-fall geodesic even while the warp bubble is accelerating: its crew would be in free fall while accelerating without experiencing accelerational g-forces. Enormous tidal forces, however, would be present near the edges of the flat-space volume because of the large space curvature there, but a suitable specification of the metric would keep the tidal forces very small within the volume occupied by the ship.",
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"plaintext": "The original warp-drive metric and simple variants of it happen to have the ADM form, which is often used in discussing the initial-value formulation of general relativity. This might explain the widespread misconception that this spacetime is a solution of the field equation of general relativity. Metrics in ADM form are adapted to a certain family of inertial observers, but these observers are not really physically distinguished from other such families. Alcubierre interpreted his \"warp bubble\" in terms of a contraction of space ahead of the bubble and an expansion behind, but this interpretation could be misleading, since the contraction and expansion actually refer to the relative motion of nearby members of the family of ADM observers.",
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"plaintext": "In general relativity, one often first specifies a plausible distribution of matter and energy, and then finds the geometry of the spacetime associated with it; but it is also possible to run the Einstein field equations in the other direction, first specifying a metric and then finding the energy–momentum tensor associated with it, and this is what Alcubierre did in building his metric. This practice means that the solution can violate various energy conditions and require exotic matter. The need for exotic matter raises questions about whether one can distribute the matter in an initial spacetime that lacks a warp bubble in such a way that the bubble is created at a later time, although some physicists have proposed models of dynamical warp-drive spacetimes in which a warp bubble is formed in a previously flat space. Moreover, according to Serguei Krasnikov, generating a bubble in a previously flat space for a one-way FTL trip requires forcing the exotic matter to move at local faster-than-light speeds, something that would require the existence of tachyons, although Krasnikov also notes that when the spacetime is not flat from the outset, a similar result could be achieved without tachyons by placing in advance some devices along the travel path and programming them to come into operation at preassigned moments and to operate in a preassigned manner. Some suggested methods avoid the problem of tachyonic motion, but would probably generate a naked singularity at the front of the bubble. Allen Everett and Thomas Roman comment on Krasnikov's finding (Krasnikov tube):",
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"plaintext": "[The finding] does not mean that Alcubierre bubbles, if it were possible to create them, could not be used as a means of superluminal travel. It only means that the actions required to change the metric and create the bubble must be taken beforehand by some observer whose forward light cone contains the entire trajectory of the bubble.",
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"plaintext": "For example, if one wanted to travel to Deneb (2,600 light-years away) and arrive less than 2,600 years in the future according to external clocks, it would be required that someone had already begun work on warping the space from Earth to Deneb at least 2,600 years ago:",
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"plaintext": "A spaceship appropriately located with respect to the bubble trajectory could then choose to enter the bubble, rather like a passenger catching a passing trolley car, and thus make the superluminal journey... as Krasnikov points out, causality considerations do not prevent the crew of a spaceship from arranging, by their own actions, to complete a round trip from Earth to a distant star and back in an arbitrarily short time, as measured by clocks on Earth, by altering the metric along the path of their outbound trip.",
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"plaintext": "The metric of this form has significant difficulties because all known warp-drive spacetime theories violate various energy conditions. Nevertheless, an Alcubierre-type warp drive might be realized by exploiting certain experimentally verified quantum phenomena, such as the Casimir effect, that lead to stress–energy tensors that also violate the energy conditions, such as negative mass–energy, when described in the context of the quantum field theories.",
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"plaintext": "If certain quantum inequalities conjectured by Ford and Roman hold, the energy requirements for some warp drives may be unfeasibly large as well as negative. For example, the energy equivalent of −1064 kg might be required to transport a small spaceship across the Milky Way—an amount orders of magnitude greater than the estimated mass of the observable universe. Counterarguments to these apparent problems have also been offered.",
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"plaintext": "Chris Van Den Broeck of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium, in 1999, tried to address the potential issues. By contracting the 3+1-dimensional surface area of the bubble being transported by the drive, while at the same time expanding the three-dimensional volume contained inside, Van Den Broeck was able to reduce the total energy needed to transport small atoms to less than three solar masses. Later in 2003, by slightly modifying the Van den Broeck metric, Serguei Krasnikov reduced the necessary total amount of negative mass to a few milligrams. Van Den Broeck detailed this by saying that the total energy can be reduced dramatically by keeping the surface area of the warp bubble itself microscopically small, while at the same time expanding the spatial volume inside the bubble. However, Van Den Broeck concludes that the energy densities required are still unachievable, as are the small size (a few orders of magnitude above the Planck scale) of the spacetime structures needed.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, physicist Harold White and collaborators announced that modifying the geometry of exotic matter could reduce the mass–energy requirements for a macroscopic space ship from the equivalent of the planet Jupiter to that of the Voyager 1 spacecraft (c. 700kg) or less, and stated their intent to perform small-scale experiments in constructing warp fields. White proposed to thicken the extremely thin wall of the warp bubble, so the energy is focused in a larger volume, but the overall peak energy density is actually smaller. In a flat 2D representation, the ring of positive and negative energy, initially very thin, becomes a larger, fuzzy torus (donut shape). However, as this less energetic warp bubble also thickens toward the interior region, it leaves less flat space to house the spacecraft, which has to be smaller. Furthermore, if the intensity of the space warp can be oscillated over time, the energy required is reduced even more. According to White, a modified Michelson–Morley interferometer could test the idea: one of the legs of the interferometer would appear to have a slightly different length when the test devices were energised. Alcubierre has expressed skepticism about the experiment, saying: \"from my understanding there is no way it can be done, probably not for centuries if at all\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2021, physicist Erik Lentz described a way warp drives sourced from known and familiar purely positive energy could exist – warp bubbles based on superluminal self-reinforcing \"soliton\" waves. He also claimed that he will work on reducing the (positive) energy requirement.",
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"plaintext": "Krasnikov proposed that if tachyonic matter cannot be found or used, then a solution might be to arrange for masses along the path of the vessel to be set in motion in such a way that the required field was produced. But in this case, the Alcubierre drive vessel can only travel routes that, like a railroad, have first been equipped with the necessary infrastructure. The pilot inside the bubble is causally disconnected from its walls and cannot carry out any action outside the bubble: the bubble cannot be used for the first trip to a distant star because the pilot cannot place infrastructure ahead of the bubble while \"in transit\". For example, traveling to Vega (which is 25 light-years from Earth) requires arranging everything so that the bubble moving toward Vega with a superluminal velocity would appear; such arrangements will always take more than 25 years.",
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"plaintext": "Coule has argued that schemes, such as the one proposed by Alcubierre, are infeasible because matter placed en route of the intended path of a craft must be placed at superluminal speed—that constructing an Alcubierre drive requires an Alcubierre drive even if the metric that allows it is physically meaningful. Coule further argues that an analogous objection will apply to any proposed method of constructing an Alcubierre drive.",
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"plaintext": "An article by José Natário (2002) argues that crew members could not control, steer or stop the ship in its warp bubble because the ship could not send signals to the front of the bubble.",
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"plaintext": "A 2009 article by Carlos Barceló, Stefano Finazzi, and Stefano Liberati uses quantum theory to argue that the Alcubierre drive at faster-than-light velocities is impossible mostly because extremely high temperatures caused by Hawking radiation would destroy anything inside the bubble at superluminal velocities and destabilize the bubble itself; the article also argues that these problems are absent if the bubble velocity is subluminal, although the drive still requires exotic matter.",
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"plaintext": "Brendan McMonigal, Geraint F. Lewis, and Philip O'Byrne have argued that were an Alcubierre-driven ship to decelerate from superluminal speed, the particles that its bubble had gathered in transit would be released in energetic outbursts akin to the infinitely-blueshifted radiation hypothesized to occur at the inner event horizon of a Kerr black hole; forward-facing particles would thereby be energetic enough to destroy anything at the destination directly in front of the ship.",
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"plaintext": "The amount of negative energy required for such a propulsion is not yet known. Pfenning and Allen Everett of Tufts hold that a warp bubble traveling at 10-times the speed of light must have a wall thickness of no more than 10−32 meters—close to the limiting Planck length, meters. In Alcubierre's original calculations, a bubble macroscopically large enough to enclose a ship of 200 meters would require a total amount of exotic matter greater than the mass of the observable universe, and straining the exotic matter to an extremely thin band of 10−32 meters is considered impractical. Similar constraints apply to Krasnikov's superluminal subway. Chris Van den Broeck constructed a modification of Alcubierre's model that requires much less exotic matter but places the ship in a curved space-time \"bottle\" whose neck is about 10−32 meters.",
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"plaintext": "Calculations by physicist Allen Everett show that warp bubbles could be used to create closed timelike curves in general relativity, meaning that the theory predicts that they could be used for backwards time travel. While it is possible that the fundamental laws of physics might allow closed timelike curves, the chronology protection conjecture hypothesizes that in all cases where the classical theory of general relativity allows them, quantum effects would intervene to eliminate the possibility, making these spacetimes impossible to realize. A possible type of effect that would accomplish this is a buildup of vacuum fluctuations on the border of the region of spacetime where time travel would first become possible, causing the energy density to become high enough to destroy the system that would otherwise become a time machine. Some results in semiclassical gravity appear to support the conjecture, including a calculation dealing specifically with quantum effects in warp-drive spacetimes that suggested that warp bubbles would be semiclassically unstable, but ultimately the conjecture can only be decided by a full theory of quantum gravity.",
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"plaintext": "Alcubierre briefly discusses some of these issues in a series of lecture slides posted online, where he writes: \"beware: in relativity, any method to travel faster than light can in principle be used to travel back in time (a time machine)\". In the next slide, he brings up the chronology protection conjecture and writes: \"The conjecture has not been proven (it wouldn't be a conjecture if it had), but there are good arguments in its favor based on quantum field theory. The conjecture does not prohibit faster-than-light travel. It just states that if a method to travel faster than light exists, and one tries to use it to build a time machine, something will go wrong: the energy accumulated will explode, or it will create a black hole.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Star Trek television series and films use the term \"warp drive\" to describe their method of faster-than-light travel. Neither the Alcubierre theory, nor anything similar, existed when the series was conceived—the term \"warp drive\" and general concept originated with John W. Campbell's 1931 science fiction novel Islands of Space. Alcubierre stated in an email to William Shatner that his theory was directly inspired by the term used in the show and cites the \"'warp drive' of science fiction\" in his 1994 article. A USS Alcubierre appears in the Star Trek tabletop RPG Star Trek Adventures.",
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"plaintext": " Exact solutions in general relativity (for more on the sense in which the Alcubierre spacetime is a solution)",
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"plaintext": " Quantum vacuum thruster",
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"plaintext": " Reactionless drive",
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"plaintext": " Unruh effect",
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"plaintext": " It describes the concept in laymans terms",
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"plaintext": "Marcelo B. Ribeiro's Page on Warp Drive Theory",
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"plaintext": "Movements had been made towards a Reformation prior to Martin Luther, so some Protestants, such as Landmark Baptists, and the tradition of the Radical Reformation prefer to credit the start of the Reformation to reformers such as Arnold of Brescia, Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický, and Girolamo Savonarola. Due to the reform efforts of Hus and other Bohemian reformers, Utraquist Hussitism was acknowledged by the Council of Basel and was officially tolerated in the Crown of Bohemia, although other movements were still subject to persecution, including the Lollards in England and the Waldensians in France and Italian regions.",
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"plaintext": "Luther began by criticising the sale of indulgences, insisting that the Pope had no authority over purgatory and that the Treasury of Merit had no foundation in the Bible. The Reformation developed further to include a distinction between Law and Gospel, a complete reliance on Scripture as the only source of proper doctrine (sola scriptura) and the belief that faith in Jesus is the only way to receive God's pardon for sin (sola fide) rather than good works. Although this is generally considered a Protestant belief, a similar formulation was taught by Molinist and Jansenist Catholics. The priesthood of all believers downplayed the need for saints or priests to serve as mediators, and mandatory clerical celibacy was ended. Simul justus et peccator implied that although people could improve, no one could become good enough to earn forgiveness from God. Sacramental theology was simplified and attempts at imposing Aristotelian epistemology were resisted.",
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"plaintext": "Luther and his followers did not see these theological developments as changes. The 1530 Augsburg Confession concluded that \"in doctrine and ceremonies nothing has been received on our part against Scripture or the Church Catholic\", and even after the Council of Trent, Martin Chemnitz published the 1565–73 Examination of the Council of Trent as an attempt to prove that Trent innovated on doctrine while the Lutherans were following in the footsteps of the Church Fathers and Apostles.",
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"plaintext": "The initial movement in Germany diversified, and other reformers arose independently of Luther such as Zwingli in Zürich and John Calvin in Geneva. Depending on the country, the Reformation had varying causes and different backgrounds and also unfolded differently than in Germany. The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular.",
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"plaintext": "During Reformation-era confessionalization, Western Christianity adopted different confessions (Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Anabaptist, Unitarian, etc.). Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, sometimes employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of the tenets of the councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon with the Unitarians of Transylvania. Anabaptist movements were especially persecuted following the German Peasants' War.",
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"plaintext": "Leaders within the Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Confutatio Augustana in 1530, the Council of Trent in 1545, the formation of the Jesuits in 1540, the Defensio Tridentinæ fidei in 1578, and also a series of wars and expulsions of Protestants that continued until the 19th century. Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained predominantly Catholic apart from the much-persecuted Waldensians. Central Europe was the site of much of the Thirty Years' War and there were continued expulsions of Protestants in Central Europe up to the 19th century. Following World War II, the removal of ethnic Germans to either East Germany or Siberia reduced Protestantism in the Warsaw Pact countries, although some remain today.",
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"plaintext": "The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation. Although Protestants were excommunicated and ended up worshipping in communions separate from Catholics (contrary to the original intention of the Reformers), they were also suppressed and persecuted in most of Europe at one point. As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. Some crypto-Protestants have been identified as late as the 19th century after immigrating to Latin America.",
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"plaintext": "John Wycliffe questioned the privileged status of the clergy which had bolstered their powerful role in England and the luxury and pomp of local parishes and their ceremonies. He was accordingly characterised as the \"evening star\" of scholasticism and as the morning star or of the English Reformation. In 1374, Catherine of Siena began travelling with her followers throughout northern and central Italy advocating reform of the clergy and advising people that repentance and renewal could be done through \"the total love for God.\" She carried on a long correspondence with Pope Gregory XI, asking him to reform the clergy and the administration of the Papal States. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Moravian Church, date their origins to Jan Hus (John Huss) in the early 15th century. As it was led by a Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for some time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite Reformation was Europe's first \"Magisterial Reformation\" because the ruling magistrates supported it, unlike the \"Radical Reformation\", which the state did not support.",
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"plaintext": "Common factors that played a role during the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation included the rise of the printing press, nationalism, simony, the appointment of Cardinal-nephews, and other corruption of the Roman Curia and other ecclesiastical hierarchy, the impact of humanism, the new learning of the Renaissance versus scholasticism, and the Western Schism that eroded loyalty to the Papacy. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity (1378–1416) excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, especially from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague.",
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"plaintext": "Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the language of the people (i.e. Czech), having lay people receive communion in both kinds (bread and wine—that is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie), married priests, and eliminating indulgences and the concept of purgatory. Some of these, like the use of local language as the liturgical language, were approved by the pope as early as in the 9th century.",
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"plaintext": "The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church condemned him at the Council of Constance (1414–1417) and he was burnt at the stake, despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428. The Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the previous century and could not prevent schism and the Hussite Wars in Bohemia.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe. Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503) was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia. In response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses.",
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"plaintext": "A number of theologians in the Holy Roman Empire preached reformation ideas in the 1510s, shortly before or simultaneously with Luther, including Christoph Schappeler in Memmingen (as early as 1513).",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation is usually dated to 31 October 1517 in Wittenberg, Saxony, when Luther sent his Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences to the Archbishop of Mainz. The theses debated and criticised the Church and the papacy, but concentrated upon the selling of indulgences and doctrinal policies about purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. He would later in the period 1517–1521 write works on devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, and later on the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and monasticism. Some nuns, such as Katharina von Bora and Ursula of Munsterberg, left the monastic life when they accepted the Reformation, but other orders adopted the Reformation, as Lutherans continue to have monasteries today. In contrast, Reformed areas typically secularised monastic property.",
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"plaintext": "Reformers and their opponents made heavy use of inexpensive pamphlets as well as vernacular Bibles using the relatively new printing press, so there was swift movement of both ideas and documents. Magdalena Heymair printed pedagogical writings for teaching children Bible stories.",
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"plaintext": "Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists.",
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"plaintext": "After this first stage of the Reformation, following the excommunication of Luther in Decet Romanum Pontificem and the condemnation of his followers by the edicts of the 1521 Diet of Worms, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "Although the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525 began as a tax and anti-corruption protest as reflected in the Twelve Articles, its leader Thomas Müntzer gave it a radical Reformation character. It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants; Zwingli and Luther's ally Philipp Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.",
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"plaintext": "The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Magisterial Reformation. Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe. The term includes Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt, the Zwickau prophets, and Anabaptists like the Hutterites and Mennonites.",
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"plaintext": "In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, Lutheran and Zwinglian churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some \"repeating patterns\" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the Schleitheim Confession (1527) and include believers' (or adult) baptism, memorial view of the Lord's Supper, belief that Scripture is the final authority on matters of faith and practice, emphasis on the New Testament and the Sermon on the Mount, interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a two-kingdom theology, pacifism and nonresistance, communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, \"yieldedness\" (Gelassenheit) to one's community and to God, the ban (i.e., shunning), salvation through divinization (Vergöttung) and ethical living, and discipleship (Nachfolge Christi).",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press. Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe.",
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"plaintext": "By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a \"good\" against \"bad\" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagating the Faith) from the Counter-Reformation. Reform writers used existing styles, cliches and stereotypes which they adapted as needed. Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his Smaller Catechism for parents teaching their children, and his Larger Catechism, for pastors.",
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"plaintext": "Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.",
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"plaintext": "The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:",
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"plaintext": " The presence of a printing press in a city by 1500 made Protestant adoption by 1600 far more likely.",
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"plaintext": " Protestant literature was produced at greater levels in cities where media markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to adopt Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": " Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, helping the Reformation take root.",
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"plaintext": " Greater political autonomy increased the likelihood that Protestantism would be adopted.",
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"plaintext": " Where Protestant reformers enjoyed princely patronage, they were much more likely to succeed.",
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"plaintext": " Proximity to neighbours who adopted Protestantism increased the likelihood of adopting Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": " Cities that had higher numbers of students enrolled in heterodox universities and lower numbers enrolled in orthodox universities were more likely to adopt Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": "The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:",
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"plaintext": " Cities with strong cults of saints were less likely to adopt Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": " Cities where primogeniture was practised were less likely to adopt Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": " Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": " The presence of bishoprics made the adoption of Protestantism less likely.",
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"plaintext": " The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely.",
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"plaintext": "A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. letter correspondents, visits, former students) and trade routes.",
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"plaintext": "In 1517, Luther nailed the Ninety-five theses to the Castle Church door, and without his knowledge or prior approval, they were copied and printed across Germany and internationally. Different reformers arose more or less independently of Luther in 1518 (for example Andreas Karlstadt, Philip Melanchthon, Erhard Schnepf, Johannes Brenz and Martin Bucer) and in 1519 (for example Huldrych Zwingli, Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Ulrich von Hutten), and so on.",
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"plaintext": "After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. Each year drew new theologians to embrace the Reformation and participate in the ongoing, European-wide discussion about faith. The pace of the Reformation proved unstoppable by 1520.",
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"plaintext": "The early Reformation in Germany mostly concerns the life of Martin Luther until he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. The exact moment Martin Luther realised the key doctrine of Justification by Faith is described in German as the Turmerlebnis. In Table Talk, Luther describes it as a sudden realization. Experts often speak of a gradual process of realization between 1514 and 1518.",
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"plaintext": "Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. The Reformation did not receive overt state support until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise (who had a strange dream the night prior to 31 October 1517) that Luther survived after being declared an outlaw, in hiding at Wartburg Castle and then returning to Wittenberg. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525. Reformer Adolf Clarenbach was burned at the stake near Cologne in 1529.",
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"plaintext": "The first state to formally adopt a Protestant confession was the Duchy of Prussia (1525). Albert, Duke of Prussia formally declared the \"Evangelical\" faith to be the state religion. Catholics labeled self-identified Evangelicals \"Lutherans\" to discredit them after the practice of naming a heresy after its founder. However, the Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the \"main trunk of the historical Christian Tree\" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away. Ducal Prussia was followed by many imperial free cities and other minor imperial entities. The next sizable territories were the Landgraviate of Hesse (1526; at the Synod of Homberg) and the Electorate of Saxony (1527; Luther's homeland), Electoral Palatinate (1530s), and the Duchy of Württemberg (1534). For a more complete list, see the list of states by the date of adoption of the Reformation and the table of the adoption years for the Augsburg Confession. The reformation wave swept first the Holy Roman Empire, and then extended beyond it to the rest of the European continent.",
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"plaintext": "Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. Each state which turned Protestant had their own reformers who contributed towards the Evangelical faith. In Electoral Saxony the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony was organised and served as an example for other states, although Luther was not dogmatic on questions of polity.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries.",
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"plaintext": "Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. Lutheranism gained a significant following in the eastern half of present-day Austria, while Calvinism was less successful. Eventually the expulsions of the Counter-Reformation reversed the trend.",
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"plaintext": "The Hussites were a Christian movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus.",
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"plaintext": "Czech reformer and university professor Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415) became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "Jan Hus was declared a heretic and executed—burned at stake—at the Council of Constance in 1415 where he arrived voluntarily to defend his teachings.",
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"plaintext": "This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. In 1417, two years after the execution of Jan Hus, the Czech reformation quickly became the chief force in the country.",
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"plaintext": "Hussites made up the vast majority of the population, forcing the Council of Basel to recognize in 1437 a system of two \"religions\" for the first time, signing the Compacts of Basel for the kingdom (Catholic and Czech Ultraquism a Hussite movement). Bohemia later also elected two Protestant kings (George of Poděbrady, Frederick of Palatine).",
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"plaintext": "After Habsburgs took control of the region, the Hussite churches were prohibited and the kingdom partially recatholicised. Even later, Lutheranism gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans.",
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"plaintext": "Two churches with Hussite roots are now the second and third biggest churches among the largely agnostic peoples: Czech Brethren (which gave origin to the international church known as the Moravian Church) and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church.",
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"plaintext": "In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in the Swiss Confederation under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher who moved to Zürich—the then-leading city state—in 1518, a year after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Germany with his Ninety-five Theses. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate. Long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism (it even had its own equivalent of the Ninety-five Theses, called the 67 Conclusions), historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications before 1520, and Zwingli himself maintained that he had prevented himself from reading them.",
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"plaintext": "The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther, seeing strength in a united Protestant front. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only representative and memorial—Christ was not present. Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk Hoc Est Corpus Meum—a Biblical quotation from the Last Supper meaning \"This is my body\". Zwingli countered this saying that est in that context was the equivalent of the word significat (signifies).",
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"plaintext": "Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists. One famous incident illustrating this was when radical Zwinglians fried and ate sausages during Lent in Zurich city square by way of protest against the Church teaching of good works. Other Protestant movements grew up along the lines of mysticism or humanism (cf. Erasmus and Louis de Berquin who was martyred in 1529), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.",
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"plaintext": "Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Berne reformer Guillaume (William) Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the \"fallen city\" of Geneva. His \"Ordinances\" of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. These missionaries dispersed Calvinism widely, and formed the French Huguenots in Calvin's own lifetime and spread to Scotland under the leadership of John Knox in 1560. Anne Locke translated some of Calvin's writings to English around this time. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. Ultimately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict.",
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"plaintext": "All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith.",
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"plaintext": "In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded by Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, with major contributions by Olaus Petri, a Swedish clergyman. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy since 1523. Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the \"pure Word of God\" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools—effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas. The apostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of the Dacke War, a peasants uprising in Småland.",
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"plaintext": "Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, yet he quickly adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was Hans Tausen. During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. In 1526, Frederick forbade papal investiture of bishops in Denmark and in 1527 ordered fees from new bishops be paid to the crown, making Frederick the head of the church of Denmark. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. In 1536, following his victory in the Count's War, he became king as Christian III and continued the Reformation of the state church with assistance from Johannes Bugenhagen. By the Copenhagen recess of October 1536, the authority of the Catholic bishops was terminated.",
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"plaintext": "Luther's influence had already reached Iceland before King Christian's decree. The Germans fished near Iceland's coast, and the Hanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church in Hafnarfjörður as early as 1533. Through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop Ögmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German \"heresy\". In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. Von Mervitz seized a monastery in Viðey with the help of his sheriff, Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by Ögmundur.",
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"plaintext": "The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. Although Robert Barnes attempted to get Henry VIII to adopt Lutheran theology, he refused to do so in 1538 and burned him at the stake in 1540. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies between Catholic tradition and Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions.",
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"plaintext": "The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism. England had already given rise to the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe, which played an important part in inspiring the Hussites in Bohemia. Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement, so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII.",
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"plaintext": "Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, bore him only a single child who survived infancy, Mary. Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses.",
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"plaintext": "Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognised Henry as \"the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England\". Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. The veneration of some saints, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the Crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolution.",
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"plaintext": "There were some notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher, who were executed for their opposition. There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Calvinistic, Lutheran and Zwinglian doctrines then current on the Continent. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son Edward VI, who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and fifteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the chantries. Under Edward VI the Church of England moved closer to continental Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": "Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary (1553–1558), a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I, though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. This \"Elizabethan Religious Settlement\" largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on one hand and Catholicism on the other. But compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful, in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the seventeenth century.",
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"plaintext": "The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age, although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to what its neighbours had suffered some generations before.",
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"plaintext": "The early Puritan movement (late 16th–17th centuries) was Reformed (or Calvinist) and was a movement for reform in the Church of England. Its origins lay in the discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), calling the vestments \"popish pomp and rags\" (see Vestments controversy). They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. Their refusal to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the Book of Common Prayer, and the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection, sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.",
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"plaintext": "The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States. These Puritan separatists were also known as \"the Pilgrims\". After establishing a colony at Plymouth (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. The Puritans persecuted those of other religious faiths, for example, Anne Hutchinson was banished to Rhode Island during the Antinomian Controversy and Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. Executions ceased in 1661 when King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offence carried a death penalty.",
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"plaintext": "The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.",
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"plaintext": "Bishop Richard Davies and dissident Protestant cleric John Penry introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the Welsh language. The translation had a significant impact upon the Welsh population and helped to firmly establish Protestantism among the Welsh people. The Welsh Protestants used the model of the Synod of Dort of 1618–1619. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Calvinistic Methodist movement. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before mid-19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter Mary, Queen of Scots (then also Queen of France).",
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"plaintext": "Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism (particularly the Covenanters) and Episcopalianism. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the Church of Scotland, which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large Episcopalian minority.",
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"plaintext": "Besides the Waldensians already present in France, Protestantism also spread in from German lands, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots; this eventually led to decades of civil warfare.",
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"plaintext": "Though not personally interested in religious reform, Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the humanist movement. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. During this time as the issue of religious faith entered into the arena of politics, Francis came to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased. One of those who fled France at that time was John Calvin, who emigrated to Basel in 1535 before eventually settling in Geneva in 1536. Beyond the reach of the French kings in Geneva, Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land including the training of ministers for congregations in France.",
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"plaintext": "As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. As an experimental approach to reduce the caseload in Normandy, a special court just for the trial of heretics was established in 1545 in the Parlement de Rouen. When Henry II took the throne in 1547, the persecution of Protestants grew and special courts for the trial of heretics were also established in the Parlement de Paris. These courts came to known as \"La Chambre Ardente\" (\"the fiery chamber\") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows.",
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"plaintext": "Despite heavy persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment.",
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"plaintext": "French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II in 1559, which began a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic party killed between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV, himself a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France, leading some Huguenots to live as Nicodemites. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam (October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees and tax-free status to them for ten years.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 17th century, 150,000–200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region. A separate Protestant community, of the Lutheran faith, existed in the newly conquered province of Alsace, its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478. The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly persecuting any new movement that the leaders of the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy. Charles V did not wish to see Spain or the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in light of continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Roman Catholic Church reform itself from within. This led to a Counter-Reformation in Spain in the 1530s. During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. As early as 1521, the Pope had written a letter to the Spanish monarchy warning against allowing the unrest in Northern Europe to be replicated in Spain. Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as Seville and Valladolid adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible. Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of Erasmus. Notable reformers included Dr. Juan Gil and Juan Pérez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as Francisco de Enzinas to translate the Greek New Testament into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julián Hernández, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Under Philip II, conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. In May 1559, sixteen Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake: fourteen were strangled before being burnt, while two were burnt alive. In October another thirty were executed. Spanish Protestants who were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe, such as Geneva, where some of them embraced Calvinist teachings. Those who fled to England were given support by the Church of England.",
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"plaintext": "The Kingdom of Navarre, although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French Huguenot monarchs, including Henry IV of France and his mother, Jeanne III of Navarre, a devout Calvinist.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some Basques through the translation of the Bible into the Basque language by Joanes Leizarraga. As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque and Béarnese for the benefit of her subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Molinism presented a soteriology similar to Protestants within the Roman Catholic Church.",
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"plaintext": "During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces, but instead by multiple popular movements which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. In the early 17th century internal theological conflict within the Calvinist church between two tendencies of Calvinism, the Gomarists and the liberal Arminians (or Remonstrants), resulted in Gomarist Calvinism becoming the de facto state religion.",
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"plaintext": "The first two Lutheran martyrs were monks from Antwerp, Johann Esch and Heinrich Hoes, who were burned at the stake when they would not recant.",
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"plaintext": "Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands (present-day Belgium).",
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"plaintext": "In 1566, at the peak of Belgian Reformation, there were an estimated 300,000 Protestants, or 20% of the Belgian population.",
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"plaintext": "Luxembourg, a part of the Spanish Netherlands, remained Catholic during the Reformation era because Protestantism was illegal until 1768.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary adopted Protestantism during the 16th century. After the 1526 Battle of Mohács, the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the inability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith they felt would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the invader. They found this in the teaching of Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther. The spread of Protestantism in the country was assisted by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of Martin Luther. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians.",
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"plaintext": "In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. They dragged the Protestants to prison and the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. Leaders of the Protestants included Mátyás Dévai Bíró, Mihály Sztárai, István Szegedi Kis, and Ferenc Dávid.",
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"plaintext": "Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the 16th century, but Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith.",
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"plaintext": "In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda decreed the free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that \"It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expulsion for his religion\". Four religions were declared to be \"accepted\" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zápolya, r. 1540–1571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was \"tolerated\" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). During the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Habsburg uprisings calling for equal rights and freedom for all Christian denominations, with varying success; the uprisings were usually organised from Transylvania. The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism.",
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"plaintext": "The center of Protestant learning in Hungary has for some centuries been the University of Debrecen. Founded in 1538, the university was situated in an area of Eastern Hungary under Ottoman Turkish rule during the 1600s and 1700s, being allowed Islamic toleration and thus avoiding Counter-Reformation persecution.",
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"plaintext": "Transylvania in what is today's Romania was a \"dumping ground for undesirables\" by the Habsburg monarchy. People who did not conform to the will of the Habsburgs and the leaders of the Catholic Church were forcibly sent there. Centuries of this practice allowed diverse Protestant traditions to emerge in Romania, including Lutheranism, Calvinism and Unitarianism.",
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"plaintext": "Calvinism was popular among Hungarians who inhabited the southwestern parts of the present-day Ukraine. Their descendants are still there, such as the Sub-Carpathian Reformed Church.",
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"plaintext": "The first Protestant congregation was founded in Brest-Litovsk in the Reformed tradition, and the Belarusian Evangelical Reformed Church exists today.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter. Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Catholic Church. However, in the city of Dublin the Reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin.",
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"plaintext": "Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out and suppressing heresy, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in \"Lutheranism\", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. Giorgio Biandrata, Bernardino Ochino, Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, Fausto Sozzini, Francesco Stancaro and Giovanni Valentino Gentile), who propagated Nontrinitarianism there and were chief instigators of the movement of Polish Brethren. Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including Peter Vermigli.",
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"plaintext": "In 1532, the Waldensians, who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology. The Waldensian Church survived in the Western Alps through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. The various groups had their own juridical systems. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominate position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation first entered Poland through the mostly German-speaking areas in the country's north. In the 1520s Luther's reforms spread among the mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Danzig (now Gdańsk), Thorn (now Toruń) and Elbing (now Elbląg). In Königsberg (now Kaliningrad), in 1530, a Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism was published. The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. In 1525 the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights secularised the territory, became Lutheran, and established Lutheranism as the state church.",
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"plaintext": "Lutheranism found few adherents among the other peoples of the two countries. Calvinism became the most numerous Protestant group because Calvin's teachings on the role of the state within religion appealed to the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Several publishing houses were opened in Lesser Poland in the mid-16th century in such locations as Słomniki and Raków. At that time, Mennonites and Czech Brothers came to Poland. The former settled in the Vistula Delta where they used their agricultural abilities to turn parts of the delta into plodders. The latter settled mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. Later on, Socinus and his followers emigrated to Poland. Originally the Reformed Church in Poland included both the Calvinists and the Anti-trinitarians (also known as the Socinians and the Polish Brethren); however, they eventually split due to an inability to reconcile their divergent views on the Trinity. Both Catholics and Orthodox Christians converts became Calvinists and the Anti-Trinitarians.",
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"plaintext": "The Commonwealth was unique in Europe in the 16th century for its widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. This agreement granted religious toleration to all nobles: peasants living on nobile estates did not receive the same protections. In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (see also Bible translations into Polish). The period of tolerance came under strain during the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt Wasa). Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During his reign, he selected Catholics for the highest offices in the country. This created resentment amongst the Protestant nobility; however, the country did not experience a religiously motivated civil war. Despite concerted efforts, the nobility rejected efforts to revise or rescind the Confederation of Warsaw, and protected this agreement.",
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"plaintext": "The Deluge, a 20-year period of almost continual warfare, marked the turning point in attitudes. During the war with Sweden, when King John Casimir (Jan Kazimierz) fled to Silesia, the Icon of Mary of Częstochowa became the rallying point for military opposition to the Swedish forces. Upon his return to the country Kihn John Casimir crowned Mary a Queen of Poland. Despite these wars against Protestant, Orthodox, and Muslim neighbours, the Confederation of Warsaw held with one notable exception. In the aftermath of the Swedish withdrawal and truce, attitudes throughout the nobility (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant) turned against the Polish Brethren. In 1658 the Polish Brethren were forced to leave the country. They were permitted to sell their immovable property and take their movable property; however, it is still unknown whether they received fair-market value for their lands. In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. Finally, in 1717, the Silent Sejm banned non-Catholics from becoming deputies of the Parliament.",
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"plaintext": "The strategy the Catholic Church took towards reconverting the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth differed from its strategy elsewhere. The unique government (Poland was a republic where the citizen nobility owned the state) meant the king could not enforce a religious settlement even he if so desired. Instead the Catholic Church undertook a long and steady campaign of persuasion. In the Ruthenian lands (predominately modern day Belarus & Ukraine) the Orthodox Church also undertook a similar strategy. Additionally, the Orthodox also sought to join the Catholic Church (accomplished in the Union of Brześć [Brest]); however, this union failed to achieve a lasting, permanent, and complete union of the Catholics and Orthodox in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. An important component of the Catholic Reformation in Poland was education. Numerous colleges and universities were set up throughout the country: the Jesuits and Piarists were important in this regard but there were contributions of other religious orders such as the Dominicans. While in the middle of the 16th century the nobility mostly sent their sons abroad for education (the new German Protestant universities were important in this regard), by the mid-1600s the nobility mostly stayed home for education. The quality of the new Catholic schools was so great that Protestants willingly sent their children to these schools. Through their education, many nobles became appreciative of Catholicism or out-right converted. Even though the majority of the nobility were Catholic circa 1700, Protestants remained in these lands and pockets of Protestantism could be found outside the German-speaking lands of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "Among the most important Protestants of the Commonwealth were Mikołaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny.",
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"plaintext": "For more information see the following:",
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"plaintext": " Kot, Stanislas. Socinianism in Poland: The Social and Political Ideas of the Polish Antitrinitarians in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Translated by Earl Morse Wilbur. Bacon Hill Boston: Starr King Press, 1957.",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
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"plaintext": " Tazbir, Janusz. A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Translated by A. T. Jordan. Panstwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1973.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Kłoczowski, Jerzy. A History of Polish Christianity. [Dzieje Chrześcijaństwa Polskiego].English. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.",
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"plaintext": " Gudziak, Borys A. Crisis and Reform: The Kyivan Metropolitanate, the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the Genesis of the Union of Brest. Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Teter, Magda. Jews and Heretics in Catholic Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.",
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"plaintext": " Nowakowska, Natalia. King Sigismund of Poland and Martin Luther: The Reformation before Confessionalization. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2018.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation was very insignificant in what is now Moldova and saw single congregations of Hussitism and Calvinism being founded across Besserabia. During the Reformation era, Moldova was repeatedly invaded.",
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"plaintext": "Primož Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality. He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, Catechismus and Abecedarium, were written by Trubar.",
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"plaintext": "At one point in history, the majority of Slovaks (~60%) were Lutherans. Calvinism was popular among the Hungarians who inhabited the southernmost parts of what is now Slovakia. Back then, Slovakia used to be a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Counter-Reformation implemented by the Habsburgs severely damaged Slovakian Protestantism, although in the 2010s Protestants are still a substantial minority (~10%) in the country.",
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"plaintext": "Lutheranism reached northern parts of the country.",
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"plaintext": "Vojvodina turned partially Lutheran.",
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"plaintext": "The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Greek Patriarch Cyril Lucaris in 1629 with the publishing of the Confessio (Calvinistic doctrine) in Geneva. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the historical rivalry and mistrust between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches along with their concerns of Jesuit priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the Counter-Reformation to the Greek populace. He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli's translation of the New Testament into the Modern Greek language and it was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and Synod of Iași (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by Dositheos, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zoë movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. The greatest geographical extent of Protestantism occurred at some point between 1545 and 1620. In 1620, the Battle of White Mountain defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 Letter of Majesty upheld.",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": "The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 and brought a drastic territorial and demographic decline when the House of Habsburg introduced counter-reformational measures throughout their vast possessions in Central Europe. Although the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia, the French Wars of the Counter-Reformation continued, as well as the expulsion of Protestants in Austria.",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2020 study in the American Sociological Review, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press.",
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"plaintext": "There is no universal agreement on the exact or approximate date the Reformation ended. Various interpretations emphasise different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended. However, there are a few popular interpretations. Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. It could be considered to end with the enactment of the confessions of faith. Other suggested ending years relate to the Counter-Reformation or the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. From a Catholic perspective, the Second Vatican Council called for an end to the Counter-Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Period, also termed the Scholastic Period, succeeded the Reformation with the 1545–1563 Council of Trent, the 1562 Anglican Thirty-nine Articles, the 1580 Book of Concord, and other confessions of faith. The Orthodox Era ended with the development of both Pietism and the Enlightenment.",
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"plaintext": " The Peace of Westphalia might be considered to be the event that ended the Reformation.",
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"plaintext": " Some historians argue that the Reformation never ended as new churches have splintered from the Catholic Church (e.g., Old Catholics, Polish National Catholic Church, etc.), as well as all the various Protestant churches that exist today. No church splintering from the Catholic Church since the 17th century has done so on the basis of the same issues animating the Reformation, however.",
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"plaintext": "The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the European wars of religion. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. The Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:",
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"plaintext": " All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of ).",
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"plaintext": " Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.",
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"plaintext": "The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty \"null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times\" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.",
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"plaintext": "Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants. The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. The term protestant, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800million to 1billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields. The following outcomes of the Reformation regarding human capital formation, the Protestant ethic, economic development, governance, and \"dark\" outcomes have been identified by scholars:",
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"plaintext": " Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates.",
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"plaintext": " Higher primary school enrollment.",
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"plaintext": " Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts.",
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"plaintext": " Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history.",
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"plaintext": " More hours worked.",
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"plaintext": " Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics.",
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"plaintext": " Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants.",
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"plaintext": " Lower life satisfaction when unemployed.",
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"plaintext": " Pro-market attitudes.",
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"plaintext": " Income differences between Protestants and Catholics.",
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"plaintext": " Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers.",
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"plaintext": " Growth of Protestant cities.",
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"plaintext": " Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states.",
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"plaintext": " Different social ethics.",
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"plaintext": "Industrialization.",
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"plaintext": " The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system.",
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"plaintext": " The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements.",
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"plaintext": " The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition.",
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"plaintext": " Establishment of state churches.",
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"plaintext": " Poor relief and social welfare regimes.",
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"plaintext": " James Madison noted that Martin Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms marked the beginning of the modern conception of separation of church and state.",
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"plaintext": " The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the lesser magistrate contributed to resistance theory in the Early Modern period and was employed in the United States Declaration of Independence.",
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"plaintext": " Reformers such as Calvin promoted mixed government and the separation of powers, which governments such as the United States subsequently adopted.",
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"plaintext": " Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market.",
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"plaintext": " Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and Judaism to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.",
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"plaintext": " In its decree on ecumenism, the Second Vatican Council of Catholic Bishops declared that by contemporary dialogue that, while still holding views as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, between the churches \"all are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ's will for the Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of renewal and reform\" (Unitatis Redintegratio, 4).",
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"plaintext": "Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s led to looking at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, \"in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity.\"",
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"plaintext": "Elizabethan",
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"plaintext": "16th century Renaissance humanism",
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"plaintext": " Appold, Kenneth G. The Reformation: A Brief History (2011) online",
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"plaintext": " Collinson, Patrick. The Reformation: A History (2006)",
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"plaintext": " Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. Reformation Europe: 1517–1559 (1999) excerpt and text search",
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"plaintext": " Elton, G.R., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559 (1st ed. 1958) online free",
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"plaintext": " Gassmann, Günther, and Mark W. Oldenburg. Historical dictionary of Lutheranism (Scarecrow Press, 2011).",
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"plaintext": " Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Protestant Reformation (2nd ed. 2009)",
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"plaintext": " Hsia, R. Po-chia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006)",
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"plaintext": " Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations (2nd ed. 2009)",
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"plaintext": " Mourret, Fernand. History of the Catholic Church (vol 5 1931) online free; pp.325–516; by French Catholic scholar",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sascha O. Becker, Steven Pfaff and Jared Rubin. Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation (2015) online",
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"plaintext": " Reeves, Michael. The Unquenchable Flame: Discovering the Heart of the Reformation (2nd ed. 2016)",
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"plaintext": " Spitz, Lewis William (2003). The Protestant Reformation: 1517–1559.",
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{
"plaintext": " Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology (2004)",
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"plaintext": " Barrett, Matthew, and Michael Horton. Reformation Theology: A Systematic Summary (2017).",
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"plaintext": " Braaten, Carl E. and Robert W. Jenson. The Catholicity of the Reformation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. .",
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"plaintext": " Payton, James R., Jr. Getting the Reformation Wrong: Correcting Some Misunderstandings (IVP Academic, 2010)",
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"plaintext": " Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed. Great Voices of the Reformation [and of other putative reformers before and after it]: an Anthology, ed., with an introd. and commentaries, by Harry Emerson Fosdick. (Modern Library, 1952). xxx, 546 pp.",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Janz, Denis, ed. A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions (2008) excerpt and text search",
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{
"plaintext": " Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. Reformation Theology: A Reader of Primary Sources with Introductions (2018).",
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"plaintext": " Luther, Martin Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. vol.2 (1521–1530) from Google Books. Reprint of Vol. 1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). .",
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"plaintext": " 443pp. excerpt",
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"plaintext": " Howard, Thomas A. and Mark A. Noll, eds. Protestantism after 500 Years (Oxford UP, 2016) pp.384. ",
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{
"plaintext": " Kooi, Christine. \"The Reformation in the Netherlands: Some Historiographic Contributions in English.\" Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 100.1 (2009): 293–307.",
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"plaintext": " Walsham, Alexandra. \"Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation.\" Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte-Archive for Reformation History 108.1 (2017): 181–190. Online",
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"plaintext": " 16th Century Reformation Reading Room: Extensive online resources, Tyndale Seminary",
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"plaintext": " The Reformation Collection From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress",
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37,858 | 1,096,944,593 | Butler_Act | [
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"plaintext": "The Butler Act was a 1925 Tennessee law prohibiting public school teachers from denying the Biblical account of mankind's origin. The law also prevented the teaching of the evolution of man from what it referred to as lower orders of animals in place of the Biblical account. The law was introduced by Tennessee House of Representatives member John Washington Butler, from whom the law got its name. It was enacted as Tennessee Code Annotated Title 49 (Education) Section 1922, having been signed into law by Tennessee governor Austin Peay.",
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"plaintext": "The law was challenged later that year in a famous trial in Dayton, Tennessee called the Scopes Trial which included a raucous confrontation between prosecution attorney and fundamentalist religious leader, William Jennings Bryan, and noted defense attorney and religious agnostic, Clarence Darrow.",
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"plaintext": "The law, \"An act prohibiting the teaching of the Evolution Theory in all the Universities, and all other public schools of Tennessee, which are supported in whole or in part by the public school funds of the State, and to provide penalties for the violations thereof\" (Tenn. HB 185, 1925) specifically provided:",
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"plaintext": "That it shall be unlawful for any teacher in any of the Universities, Normals and all other public schools of the State which are supported in whole or in part by the public school funds of the State, to teach any theory that denies the Story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals.",
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"plaintext": "It additionally outlined that an offending teacher would be guilty of a misdemeanor and fined between $100 and $500 for each offense.",
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"plaintext": "By the terms of the statute, it could be argued, it was not illegal to teach evolution in respect to non-human creatures, such as that apes descended from protozoa or to teach the mechanisms of variation and natural selection. The bill also did not touch on, or restrict the teaching of prevailing scientific theories of geology or the age of the Earth. It did not even require that the Genesis story be taught, but prohibited solely the teaching that man evolved, or any other theory denying that man was created by God as recorded in Genesis. However the author of the law, a Tennessee farmer and member of the Tennessee House of Representatives John Washington Butler, specifically intended that it would prohibit the teaching of evolution. He later was reported to have said \"No, I didn't know anything about evolution when I introduced it. I'd read in the papers that boys and girls were coming home from school and telling their fathers and mothers that the Bible was all nonsense.\" After reading copies of William Jennings Bryan's lecture \"Is the Bible True?\" as well as Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species and The Descent of Man, Butler decided the teaching of evolution was dangerous.",
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"plaintext": "The law was challenged by the ACLU in the famed Scopes Trial, in which John Scopes, a high school science teacher who agreed to be paid on a charge of having taught evolution, and was nominally served a warrant on May 5, 1925. Scopes was indicted on May 25 and ultimately convicted; on appeal the Tennessee Supreme Court found the law to be constitutional under the Tennessee State Constitution, because:",
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"plaintext": "We are not able to see how the prohibition of teaching the theory that man has descended from a lower order of animals gives preference to any religious establishment or mode of worship. So far as we know, there is no religious establishment or organized body that has in its creed or confession of faith any article denying or affirming such a theory. — Scopes v. State 289 S.W. 363, 367 (Tenn. 1927)",
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"plaintext": "Despite this decision, the Tennessee Supreme Court reversed the conviction on a technicality (that the jury should have fixed the amount of the fine), and the case was not retried. During the trial, Butler told reporters: \"I never had any idea my bill would make a fuss. I just thought it would become a law, and that everybody would abide by it and that we wouldn't hear any more of evolution in Tennessee.\"",
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"plaintext": "The law remained on the books until 1967, when teacher Gary L. Scott of Jacksboro, Tennessee, who had been dismissed for violation of the act, sued for reinstatement, citing his First Amendment right to free speech. Although his termination was rescinded, Scott continued his fight with a class action lawsuit in the Nashville Federal District Court, seeking a permanent injunction against enforcement of that law. Within three days of his filing suit, a bill for repeal of the Butler Act had passed both houses of the Tennessee legislature and was signed into law May 18 by Governor Buford Ellington.",
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"plaintext": "\"Author of the Law Surprised by Fuss\", The New York Times (18 July 1925), p. 1.",
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37,861 | 1,082,025,306 | Ante-Nicene_Fathers_(book) | [
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"plaintext": "The Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled \"The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325\", is a collection of books in 10 volumes (one volume is indexes) containing English translations of the majority of Early Christian writings. The period covers the beginning of Christianity until the promulgation of the Nicene Creed at the First Council of Nicaea.",
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"plaintext": "The series was originally published between 1867 and 1873 by the Presbyterian publishing house T. & T. Clark in Edinburgh under the title Ante-Nicene Christian Library (ANCL), as a response to the Oxford movement's Library of the Fathers which was perceived as too strongly identified with the Anglo-Catholic movement. The volumes were edited by Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. This series was available by subscription, but the editors were unable to interest enough subscribers to commission a translation of the homilies of Origen.",
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"plaintext": "In 1885 the Christian Literature Company, first of Buffalo, then New York, began to issue the volumes in a reorganized form. This was done without permission, and was indeed a pirate edition. The new series was edited by the Episcopal bishop of New York, A. Cleveland Coxe. Coxe gave his series the title The Ante-Nicene Fathers. By 1896, this American edition/revision was complete. Unable to close down the pirate, T. & T. Clark were obliged to make what terms they could.",
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37,864 | 1,091,151,231 | Nyquist–Shannon_sampling_theorem | [
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"plaintext": "The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem is a theorem in the field of signal processing which serves as a fundamental bridge between continuous-time signals and discrete-time signals. It establishes a sufficient condition for a sample rate that permits a discrete sequence of samples to capture all the information from a continuous-time signal of finite bandwidth.",
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"plaintext": "Strictly speaking, the theorem only applies to a class of mathematical functions having a Fourier transform that is zero outside of a finite region of frequencies. Intuitively we expect that when one reduces a continuous function to a discrete sequence and interpolates back to a continuous function, the fidelity of the result depends on the density (or sample rate) of the original samples. The sampling theorem introduces the concept of a sample rate that is sufficient for perfect fidelity for the class of functions that are band-limited to a given bandwidth, such that no actual information is lost in the sampling process. It expresses the sufficient sample rate in terms of the bandwidth for the class of functions. The theorem also leads to a formula for perfectly reconstructing the original continuous-time function from the samples.",
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"plaintext": "Perfect reconstruction may still be possible when the sample-rate criterion is not satisfied, provided other constraints on the signal are known (see below and compressed sensing). In some cases (when the sample-rate criterion is not satisfied), utilizing additional constraints allows for approximate reconstructions. The fidelity of these reconstructions can be verified and quantified utilizing Bochner's theorem.",
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"plaintext": "The name Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem honours Harry Nyquist and Claude Shannon, but the theorem was also previously discovered by E. T. Whittaker (published in 1915) and Shannon cited Whittaker's paper in his work. The theorem is thus also known by the names Whittaker–Shannon sampling theorem, Whittaker–Shannon, and Whittaker–Nyquist–Shannon, and may also be referred to as the cardinal theorem of interpolation.",
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"plaintext": "Sampling is a process of converting a signal (for example, a function of continuous time or space) into a sequence of values (a function of discrete time or space). Shannon's version of the theorem states:",
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"plaintext": "If a function contains no frequencies higher than hertz, it is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced seconds apart.",
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"plaintext": "A sufficient sample-rate is therefore anything larger than samples per second. Equivalently, for a given sample rate , perfect reconstruction is guaranteed possible for a bandlimit .",
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"plaintext": "When the bandlimit is too high (or there is no bandlimit), the reconstruction exhibits imperfections known as aliasing. Modern statements of the theorem are sometimes careful to explicitly state that must contain no sinusoidal component at exactly frequency or that must be strictly less than ½ the sample rate. The threshold is called the Nyquist rate and is an attribute of the continuous-time input to be sampled. The sample rate must exceed the Nyquist rate for the samples to suffice to represent The threshold is called the Nyquist frequency and is an attribute of the sampling equipment. All meaningful frequency components of the properly sampled exist below the Nyquist frequency. The condition described by these inequalities is called the Nyquist criterion, or sometimes the Raabe condition. The theorem is also applicable to functions of other domains, such as space, in the case of a digitized image. The only change, in the case of other domains, is the units of measure attributed to and ",
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"plaintext": "The symbol is customarily used to represent the interval between samples and is called the sample period or sampling interval. The samples of function are commonly denoted by (alternatively in older signal processing literature), for all integer values of Another convenient definition is which preserves the energy of the signal as varies.",
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"plaintext": "A mathematically ideal way to interpolate the sequence involves the use of sinc functions. Each sample in the sequence is replaced by a sinc function, centered on the time axis at the original location of the sample with the amplitude of the sinc function scaled to the sample value, Subsequently, the sinc functions are summed into a continuous function. A mathematically equivalent method is to convolve one sinc function with a series of Dirac delta pulses, weighted by the sample values. Neither method is numerically practical. Instead, some type of approximation of the sinc functions, finite in length, is used. The imperfections attributable to the approximation are known as interpolation error.",
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"plaintext": "Practical digital-to-analog converters produce neither scaled and delayed sinc functions, nor ideal Dirac pulses. Instead they produce a piecewise-constant sequence of scaled and delayed rectangular pulses (the zero-order hold), usually followed by a lowpass filter (called an \"anti-imaging filter\") to remove spurious high-frequency replicas (images) of the original baseband signal.",
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"plaintext": "When is a function with a Fourier transform :",
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"plaintext": "the Poisson summation formula indicates that the samples, , of are sufficient to create a periodic summation of . The result is:",
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"plaintext": "which is a periodic function and its equivalent representation as a Fourier series, whose coefficients are This function is also known as the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) of the sample sequence.",
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"plaintext": "As depicted, copies of are shifted by multiples of the sampling rate and combined by addition. For a band-limited function and sufficiently large it is possible for the copies to remain distinct from each other. But if the Nyquist criterion is not satisfied, adjacent copies overlap, and it is not possible in general to discern an unambiguous Any frequency component above is indistinguishable from a lower-frequency component, called an alias, associated with one of the copies. In such cases, the customary interpolation techniques produce the alias, rather than the original component. When the sample-rate is pre-determined by other considerations (such as an industry standard), is usually filtered to reduce its high frequencies to acceptable levels before it is sampled. The type of filter required is a lowpass filter, and in this application it is called an anti-aliasing filter.",
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"plaintext": "When there is no overlap of the copies (also known as \"images\") of , the term of can be recovered by the product:",
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"plaintext": " where:",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem is proved since uniquely determines ",
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"plaintext": "All that remains is to derive the formula for reconstruction. need not be precisely defined in the region because is zero in that region. However, the worst case is when the Nyquist frequency. A function that is sufficient for that and all less severe cases is:",
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"plaintext": "where rect(•) is the rectangular function. Therefore:",
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"plaintext": " (from , above).",
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"plaintext": "The inverse transform of both sides produces the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula:",
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"plaintext": "which shows how the samples, can be combined to reconstruct ",
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"plaintext": " Larger-than-necessary values of fs (smaller values of T), called oversampling, have no effect on the outcome of the reconstruction and have the benefit of leaving room for a transition band in which H(f) is free to take intermediate values. Undersampling, which causes aliasing, is not in general a reversible operation.",
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"plaintext": " Theoretically, the interpolation formula can be implemented as a low-pass filter, whose impulse response is sinc(t/T) and whose input is which is a Dirac comb function modulated by the signal samples. Practical digital-to-analog converters (DAC) implement an approximation like the zero-order hold. In that case, oversampling can reduce the approximation error.",
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"plaintext": "Poisson shows that the Fourier series in produces the periodic summation of , regardless of and . Shannon, however, only derives the series coefficients for the case . Virtually quoting Shannon's original paper:",
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"plaintext": "Let be the spectrum of Then",
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"plaintext": "because is assumed to be zero outside the band If we let where is any positive or negative integer, we obtain:",
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"plaintext": "On the left are values of at the sampling points. The integral on the right will be recognized as essentially the nth coefficient in a Fourier-series expansion of the function taking the interval to as a fundamental period. This means that the values of the samples determine the Fourier coefficients in the series expansion of Thus they determine since is zero for frequencies greater than B, and for lower frequencies is determined if its Fourier coefficients are determined. But determines the original function completely, since a function is determined if its spectrum is known. Therefore the original samples determine the function completely.",
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"plaintext": "Shannon's proof of the theorem is complete at that point, but he goes on to discuss reconstruction via sinc functions, what we now call the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula as discussed above. He does not derive or prove the properties of the sinc function, but these would have been familiar to engineers reading his works at the time, since the Fourier pair relationship between rect (the rectangular function) and sinc was well known.",
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"plaintext": "Let be the nth sample. Then the function is represented by:",
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"plaintext": "As in the other proof, the existence of the Fourier transform of the original signal is assumed, so the proof does not say whether the sampling theorem extends to bandlimited stationary random processes.",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem is usually formulated for functions of a single variable. Consequently, the theorem is directly applicable to time-dependent signals and is normally formulated in that context. However, the sampling theorem can be extended in a straightforward way to functions of arbitrarily many variables. Grayscale images, for example, are often represented as two-dimensional arrays (or matrices) of real numbers representing the relative intensities of pixels (picture elements) located at the intersections of row and column sample locations. As a result, images require two independent variables, or indices, to specify each pixel uniquely—one for the row, and one for the column.",
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"plaintext": "Color images typically consist of a composite of three separate grayscale images, one to represent each of the three primary colors—red, green, and blue, or RGB for short. Other colorspaces using 3-vectors for colors include HSV, CIELAB, XYZ, etc. Some colorspaces such as cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK) may represent color by four dimensions. All of these are treated as vector-valued functions over a two-dimensional sampled domain.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to one-dimensional discrete-time signals, images can also suffer from aliasing if the sampling resolution, or pixel density, is inadequate. For example, a digital photograph of a striped shirt with high frequencies (in other words, the distance between the stripes is small), can cause aliasing of the shirt when it is sampled by the camera's image sensor. The aliasing appears as a moiré pattern. The \"solution\" to higher sampling in the spatial domain for this case would be to move closer to the shirt, use a higher resolution sensor, or to optically blur the image before acquiring it with the sensor using an optical low-pass filter.",
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"plaintext": "Another example is shown to the right in the brick patterns. The top image shows the effects when the sampling theorem's condition is not satisfied. When software rescales an image (the same process that creates the thumbnail shown in the lower image) it, in effect, runs the image through a low-pass filter first and then downsamples the image to result in a smaller image that does not exhibit the moiré pattern. The top image is what happens when the image is downsampled without low-pass filtering: aliasing results.",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem applies to camera systems, where the scene and lens constitute an analog spatial signal source, and the image sensor is a spatial sampling device. Each of these components is characterized by a modulation transfer function (MTF), representing the precise resolution (spatial bandwidth) available in that component. Effects of aliasing or blurring can occur when the lens MTF and sensor MTF are mismatched. When the optical image which is sampled by the sensor device contains higher spatial frequencies than the sensor, the under sampling acts as a low-pass filter to reduce or eliminate aliasing. When the area of the sampling spot (the size of the pixel sensor) is not large enough to provide sufficient spatial anti-aliasing, a separate anti-aliasing filter (optical low-pass filter) may be included in a camera system to reduce the MTF of the optical image. Instead of requiring an optical filter, the graphics processing unit of smartphone cameras performs digital signal processing to remove aliasing with a digital filter. Digital filters also apply sharpening to amplify the contrast from the lens at high spatial frequencies, which otherwise falls off rapidly at diffraction limits.",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem also applies to post-processing digital images, such as to up or down sampling. Effects of aliasing, blurring, and sharpening may be adjusted with digital filtering implemented in software, which necessarily follows the theoretical principles.",
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"plaintext": "To illustrate the necessity of , consider the family of sinusoids generated by different values of in this formula:",
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"plaintext": "With or equivalently , the samples are given by:",
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"plaintext": ". That sort of ambiguity is the reason for the strict inequality of the sampling theorem's condition.",
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"plaintext": "As discussed by Shannon:",
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"plaintext": "A similar result is true if the band does not start at zero frequency but at some higher value, and can be proved by a linear translation (corresponding physically to single-sideband modulation) of the zero-frequency case. In this case the elementary pulse is obtained from sin(x)/x by single-side-band modulation.",
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"plaintext": "That is, a sufficient no-loss condition for sampling signals that do not have baseband components exists that involves the width of the non-zero frequency interval as opposed to its highest frequency component. See Sampling (signal processing) for more details and examples.",
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"plaintext": "For example, in order to sample the FM radio signals in the frequency range of 100–102MHz, it is not necessary to sample at 204MHz (twice the upper frequency), but rather it is sufficient to sample at 4MHz (twice the width of the frequency interval).",
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"plaintext": "A bandpass condition is that X(f) = 0, for all nonnegative f outside the open band of frequencies:",
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"plaintext": "for some nonnegative integer N. This formulation includes the normal baseband condition as the case N=0.",
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"plaintext": "The corresponding interpolation function is the impulse response of an ideal brick-wall bandpass filter (as opposed to the ideal brick-wall lowpass filter used above) with cutoffs at the upper and lower edges of the specified band, which is the difference between a pair of lowpass impulse responses:",
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"plaintext": "Other generalizations, for example to signals occupying multiple non-contiguous bands, are possible as well. Even the most generalized form of the sampling theorem does not have a provably true converse. That is, one cannot conclude that information is necessarily lost just because the conditions of the sampling theorem are not satisfied; from an engineering perspective, however, it is generally safe to assume that if the sampling theorem is not satisfied then information will most likely be lost.",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theory of Shannon can be generalized for the case of nonuniform sampling, that is, samples not taken equally spaced in time. The Shannon sampling theory for non-uniform sampling states that a band-limited signal can be perfectly reconstructed from its samples if the average sampling rate satisfies the Nyquist condition. Therefore, although uniformly spaced samples may result in easier reconstruction algorithms, it is not a necessary condition for perfect reconstruction.",
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"plaintext": "(see the section Sampling below the Nyquist rate under additional restrictions below) using compressed sensing. In particular, the theory, using signal processing language, is described in this 2009 paper. They show, among other things, that if the frequency locations are unknown, then it is necessary to sample at least at twice the Nyquist criteria; in other words, you must pay at least a factor of 2 for not knowing the location of the spectrum. Note that minimum sampling requirements do not necessarily guarantee stability.",
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"plaintext": "The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem provides a sufficient condition for the sampling and reconstruction of a band-limited signal. When reconstruction is done via the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula, the Nyquist criterion is also a necessary condition to avoid aliasing, in the sense that if samples are taken at a slower rate than twice the band limit, then there are some signals that will not be correctly reconstructed. However, if further restrictions are imposed on the signal, then the Nyquist criterion may no longer be a necessary condition.",
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"plaintext": "A non-trivial example of exploiting extra assumptions about the signal is given by the recent field of compressed sensing, which allows for full reconstruction with a sub-Nyquist sampling rate. Specifically, this applies to signals that are sparse (or compressible) in some domain. As an example, compressed sensing deals with signals that may have a low over-all bandwidth (say, the effective bandwidth EB), but the frequency locations are unknown, rather than all together in a single band, so that the passband technique does not apply. In other words, the frequency spectrum is sparse. Traditionally, the necessary sampling rate is thus 2B. Using compressed sensing techniques, the signal could be perfectly reconstructed if it is sampled at a rate slightly lower than 2EB. With this approach, reconstruction is no longer given by a formula, but instead by the solution to a linear optimization program.",
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"plaintext": "Another example where sub-Nyquist sampling is optimal arises under the additional constraint that the samples are quantized in an optimal manner, as in a combined system of sampling and optimal lossy compression. This setting is relevant in cases where the joint effect of sampling and quantization is to be considered, and can provide a lower bound for the minimal reconstruction error that can be attained in sampling and quantizing a random signal. For stationary Gaussian random signals, this lower bound is usually attained at a sub-Nyquist sampling rate, indicating that sub-Nyquist sampling is optimal for this signal model under optimal quantization.",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem was implied by the work of Harry Nyquist in 1928, in which he showed that up to 2B independent pulse samples could be sent through a system of bandwidth B; but he did not explicitly consider the problem of sampling and reconstruction of continuous signals. About the same time, Karl Küpfmüller showed a similar result and discussed the sinc-function impulse response of a band-limiting filter, via its integral, the step-response sine integral; this bandlimiting and reconstruction filter that is so central to the sampling theorem is sometimes referred to as a Küpfmüller filter (but seldom so in English).",
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"plaintext": "The sampling theorem, essentially a dual of Nyquist's result, was proved by Claude E. Shannon. V. A. Kotelnikov published similar results in 1933, as did the mathematician",
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"plaintext": "E. T. Whittaker in 1915, J. M. Whittaker in 1935, and Gabor in 1946 (\"Theory of communication\"). In 1999, the Eduard Rhein Foundation awarded Kotelnikov their Basic Research Award \"for the first theoretically exact formulation of the sampling theorem\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1948 and 1949, Claude E. Shannon published – 16 years after Vladimir Kotelnikov – the two revolutionary articles in which he founded the information theory. In refShannon48oct the sampling theorem is formulated as “Theorem 13”: Let f(t) contain no frequencies over W. Then",
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"plaintext": " where . ",
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"plaintext": "It was not until these articles were published that the theorem known as “Shannon’s sampling theorem” became common property among communication engineers, although Shannon himself writes that this is a fact which is common knowledge in the communication art. A few lines further on, however, he adds: \"but in spite of its evident importance, [it] seems not to have appeared explicitly in the literature of communication theory\".",
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"plaintext": "Others who have independently discovered or played roles in the development of the sampling theorem have been discussed in several historical articles, for example, by Jerri and by Lüke. For example, Lüke points out that H. Raabe, an assistant to Küpfmüller, proved the theorem in his 1939 Ph.D. dissertation; the term Raabe condition came to be associated with the criterion for unambiguous representation (sampling rate greater than twice the bandwidth). Meijering mentions several other discoverers and names in a paragraph and pair of footnotes:",
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"plaintext": "As pointed out by Higgins [135], the sampling theorem should really be considered in two parts, as done above: the first stating the fact that a bandlimited function is completely determined by its samples, the second describing how to reconstruct the function using its samples. Both parts of the sampling theorem were given in a somewhat different form by J. M. Whittaker [350, 351, 353] and before him also by Ogura [241, 242]. They were probably not aware of the fact that the first part of the theorem had been stated as early as 1897 by Borel [25].27 As we have seen, Borel also used around that time what became known as the cardinal series. However, he appears not to have made the link [135]. In later years it became known that the sampling theorem had been presented before Shannon to the Russian communication community by Kotel'nikov [173]. In more implicit, verbal form, it had also been described in the German literature by Raabe [257]. Several authors [33, 205] have mentioned that Someya [296] introduced the theorem in the Japanese literature parallel to Shannon. In the English literature, Weston [347] introduced it independently of Shannon around the same time.28",
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"plaintext": "27 Several authors, following Black [16], have claimed that this first part of the sampling theorem was stated even earlier by Cauchy, in a paper [41] published in 1841. However, the paper of Cauchy does not contain such a statement, as has been pointed out by Higgins [135].",
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"plaintext": "28 As a consequence of the discovery of the several independent introductions of the sampling theorem, people started to refer to the theorem by including the names of the aforementioned authors, resulting in such catchphrases as “the Whittaker–Kotel’nikov–Shannon (WKS) sampling theorem\" [155] or even \"the Whittaker–Kotel'nikov–Raabe–Shannon–Someya sampling theorem\" [33]. To avoid confusion, perhaps the best thing to do is to refer to it as the sampling theorem, \"rather than trying to find a title that does justice to all claimants\" [136].",
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"plaintext": "Exactly how, when, or why Harry Nyquist had his name attached to the sampling theorem remains obscure. The term Nyquist Sampling Theorem (capitalized thus) appeared as early as 1959 in a book from his former employer, Bell Labs, and appeared again in 1963, and not capitalized in 1965. It had been called the Shannon Sampling Theorem as early as 1954, but also just the sampling theorem by several other books in the early 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "In 1958, Blackman and Tukey cited Nyquist's 1928 article as a reference for the sampling theorem of information theory, even though that article does not treat sampling and reconstruction of continuous signals as others did. Their glossary of terms includes these entries:",
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"plaintext": " Sampling theorem (of information theory) Nyquist's result that equi-spaced data, with two or more points per cycle of highest frequency, allows reconstruction of band-limited functions. (See Cardinal theorem.)",
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"plaintext": " Cardinal theorem (of interpolation theory) A precise statement of the conditions under which values given at a doubly infinite set of equally spaced points can be interpolated to yield a continuous band-limited function with the aid of the function ",
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"plaintext": "Exactly what \"Nyquist's result\" they are referring to remains mysterious.",
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"plaintext": "When Shannon stated and proved the sampling theorem in his 1949 article, according to Meijering, \"he referred to the critical sampling interval as the Nyquist interval corresponding to the band W, in recognition of Nyquist’s discovery of the fundamental importance of this interval in connection with telegraphy\". This explains Nyquist's name on the critical interval, but not on the theorem.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, Nyquist's name was attached to Nyquist rate in 1953 by Harold S. Black:",
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"plaintext": "According to the OED, this may be the origin of the term Nyquist rate. In Black's usage, it is not a sampling rate, but a signaling rate.",
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"plaintext": " 44,100 Hz, a customary rate used to sample audible frequencies is based on the limits of human hearing and the sampling theorem",
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"plaintext": " Balian–Low theorem, a similar theoretical lower bound on sampling rates, but which applies to time–frequency transforms",
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"plaintext": " Cheung–Marks theorem, which specifies conditions where restoration of a signal by the sampling theorem can become ill-posed",
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"plaintext": " Shannon–Hartley theorem",
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"plaintext": " Nyquist ISI criterion",
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"plaintext": " Reconstruction from zero crossings",
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"plaintext": " Zero-order hold",
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"plaintext": " Higgins, J.R.: Five short stories about the cardinal series, Bulletin of the AMS 12(1985)",
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"plaintext": " Küpfmüller, Karl, \"Utjämningsförlopp inom Telegraf- och Telefontekniken\", (\"Transients in telegraph and telephone engineering\"), Teknisk Tidskrift, no. 9 pp.153–160 and 10 pp.178–182, 1931. ",
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"plaintext": " Marks, R.J.(II): Introduction to Shannon Sampling and Interpolation Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1991.",
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"plaintext": " Marks, R.J.(II), Editor: Advanced Topics in Shannon Sampling and Interpolation Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Marks, R.J.(II), Handbook of Fourier Analysis and Its Applications, Oxford University Press, (2009), Chapters 5–8. Google books",
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"plaintext": " Unser, Michael: Sampling-50 Years after Shannon, Proc. IEEE, vol. 88, no. 4, pp.569–587, April 2000",
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"plaintext": " Learning by Simulations Interactive simulation of the effects of inadequate sampling",
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"plaintext": " Interactive presentation of the sampling and reconstruction in a web-demo Institute of Telecommunications, University of Stuttgart",
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37,868 | 1,098,488,777 | Porphyry | [
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37,869 | 1,092,845,211 | Pope_Leo_XI | [
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] | 132,716 | 4,715 | 101 | 43 | 0 | 0 | Leo XI | pope of the Catholic Church in April 1605 (1535-1605) | [
"Pope Leo XI",
"Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici",
"Leo XI. Papst",
"papa Leone XI",
"Léon XI pape",
"Leo PP. XI",
"Leon XI pape"
] |
37,870 | 1,105,965,884 | Pope_Leo_X | [
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo X (; born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, 11 December 14751 December 1521) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 March 1513 to his death in 1521.",
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"plaintext": "In Protestant circles, Leo is associated with granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica, a practice that was soon challenged by Martin Luther's 95 Theses. Leo rejected the Protestant Reformation, and his Papal bull of 1520, Exsurge Domine, condemned Martin Luther's condemnatory stance, rendering ongoing communication difficult.",
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"plaintext": "He borrowed and spent money without circumspection and was a significant patron of the arts. Under his reign, progress was made on the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica and artists such as Raphael decorated the Vatican rooms. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted the study of literature, poetry and antiquities. He died in 1521 and is buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome. He was the last pope not to have been in priestly orders at the time of his election to the papacy.",
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"plaintext": "Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici was born on 11 December 1475 in the Republic of Florence, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, head of the Florentine Republic, and Clarice Orsini. From an early age Giovanni was destined for an ecclesiastical career. He received the tonsure at the age of seven and was soon granted rich benefices and preferments.",
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"plaintext": "His father, Lorenzo de' Medici, was worried about his character early on and wrote a letter to Giovanni to warn him to avoid vice and luxury upon the beginning of his ecclesiastical career. Here is a notable excerpt: \"There is one rule which I would recommend to your attention in preference to all others. Rise early in the morning. This will not only contribute to your health, but will enable you to arrange and expedite the business of the day; and as there are various duties incident to\".",
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"plaintext": "His father prevailed on his relative Pope Innocent VIII to name him cardinal of Santa Maria in Domnica on 8 March 1488 when he was age 13, although he was not allowed to wear the insignia or share in the deliberations of the college until three years later. Meanwhile, he received an education at Lorenzo's humanistic court under such men as Angelo Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino and Bernardo Dovizio Bibbiena. From 1489 to 1491 he studied theology and canon law at Pisa.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 March 1492, he was formally admitted into the Sacred College of Cardinals and took up his residence at Rome, receiving a letter of advice from his father. The death of Lorenzo on the following 8 April temporarily recalled the 16-year-old Giovanni to Florence. He returned to Rome to participate in the conclave of 1492 which followed the death of Innocent VIII, and unsuccessfully opposed the election of Cardinal Borgia (elected as Pope Alexander VI).",
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"plaintext": "He subsequently made his home with his elder brother Piero in Florence throughout the agitation of Savonarola and the invasion of Charles VIII of France, until the uprising of the Florentines and the expulsion of the Medici in November 1494. While Piero found refuge at Venice and Urbino, Giovanni traveled in Germany, in the Netherlands, and in France.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1500, he returned to Rome, where he was received with outward cordiality by Pope Alexander VI, and where he lived for several years immersed in art and literature. In 1503 he welcomed the accession of Pope Julius II to the pontificate; the death of Piero de' Medici in the same year made Giovanni head of his family. On 1 October 1511 he was appointed papal legate of Bologna and the Romagna, and when the Florentine republic declared in favour of the schismatic Pisans, Julius II sent Giovanni (as legate) with the papal army venturing against the French. The French won a major battle and captured Giovanni. This and other attempts to regain political control of Florence were frustrated until a bloodless revolution permitted the return of the Medici. Giovanni's younger brother Giuliano was placed at the head of the republic, but Giovanni managed the government.",
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"plaintext": "Giovanni was elected pope on 9 March 1513, and this was proclaimed two days later. The absence of the French cardinals effectively reduced the election to a contest between Giovanni (who had the support of the younger and noble members of the college) and Raffaele Riario (who had the support of the older group). On 15 March 1513, he was ordained priest, and consecrated as bishop on 17 March. He was crowned Pope on 19 March 1513 at the age of 37. He was the last non-priest to be elected pope.",
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"plaintext": "Leo had intended his younger brother Giuliano and his nephew Lorenzo for brilliant secular careers. He had named them Roman patricians; the latter he had placed in charge of Florence; the former, for whom he planned to carve out a kingdom in central Italy of Parma, Piacenza, Ferrara and Urbino, he had taken with himself to Rome and married to Filiberta of Savoy.",
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"plaintext": "The death of Giuliano in March 1516, however, caused the pope to transfer his ambitions to Lorenzo. At the very time (December 1516) that peace between France, Spain, Venice and the Empire seemed to give some promise of a Christendom united against the Turks, Leo obtained 150,000 ducats towards the expenses of the expedition from Henry VIII of England, in return for which he entered the imperial league of Spain and England against France.",
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"plaintext": "The war lasted from February to September 1517 and ended with the expulsion of the duke and the triumph of Lorenzo; but it revived the policy of Alexander VI, increased brigandage and anarchy in the Papal States, hindered the preparations for a crusade and wrecked the papal finances. Francesco Guicciardini reckoned the cost of the war to Leo at the sum of 800,000 ducats. Ultimately, however, Lorenzo was confirmed as the new duke of Urbino.",
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"plaintext": "The war of Urbino was further marked by a crisis in the relations between pope and cardinals. The sacred college had allegedly grown very worldly and troublesome since the time of Sixtus IV, and Leo took advantage of a plot by several of its members to poison him, not only to inflict exemplary punishments by executing one (Alfonso Petrucci) and imprisoning several others, but also to make radical changes in the college.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 July 1517 he published the names of thirty-one new cardinals, a number almost unprecedented in the history of the papacy. Among the nominations were such notable men such as Lorenzo Campeggio, Giambattista Pallavicini, Adrian of Utrecht, Thomas Cajetan, Cristoforo Numai and Egidio Canisio. The naming of seven members of prominent Roman families, however, reversed the policy of his predecessor which had kept the political factions of the city out of the Curia. Other promotions were for political or family considerations or to secure money for the war against Urbino. The pope was accused of having exaggerated the conspiracy of the cardinals for purposes of financial gain, but most of such accusations appear unsubstantiated.",
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"plaintext": "Leo, meanwhile, felt the need of staying the advance of the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, who was threatening eastern Europe, and made elaborate plans for a crusade. A truce was to be proclaimed throughout Christendom; the pope was to be the arbiter of disputes; the emperor and the king of France were to lead the army; England, Spain and Portugal were to furnish the fleet; and the combined forces were to be directed against Constantinople. Papal diplomacy in the interests of peace failed, however; Cardinal Wolsey made England, not the pope, the arbiter between France and the Empire; and much of the money collected for the crusade from tithes and indulgences was spent in other ways.",
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"plaintext": "In 1519 Hungary concluded a three years' truce with Selim I, but the succeeding sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, renewed the war in June 1521 and on 28 August captured the citadel of Belgrade. The pope was greatly alarmed, and although he was then involved in war with France he sent about 30,000 ducats to the Hungarians. Leo treated the Eastern Catholic Greeks with great loyalty, and by bull of 18 May 1521 forbade Latin clergy to celebrate mass in Greek churches and Latin bishops to ordain Greek clergy. These provisions were later strengthened by Clement VII and Paul III and went far to settle the constant disputes between the Latins and Uniate Greeks.",
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"plaintext": "Leo was disturbed throughout his pontificate by schism, especially the Reformation sparked by Martin Luther.",
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"plaintext": "In response to concerns about misconduct from some indulgence preachers, in 1517 Martin Luther wrote his Ninety-five Theses on the topic of indulgences. The resulting pamphlet spread Luther's ideas throughout Germany and Europe. Leo failed to fully comprehend the importance of the movement, and in February 1518 he directed the vicar-general of the Augustinians to impose silence on his monks.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 May, Luther sent an explanation of his theses to the pope; on 7 August he was summoned to appear at Rome. An arrangement was effected, however, whereby that summons was cancelled, and Luther went instead to Augsburg in October 1518 to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan; but neither the arguments of the cardinal, nor Leo's dogmatic papal bull of 9 November requiring all Christians to believe in the pope's power to grant indulgences, moved Luther to retract. A year of fruitless negotiations followed, during which the controversy took popular root across the German states.",
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"plaintext": "A further papal bull of 15 June 1520, Exsurge Domine or Arise, O Lord, condemned forty-one propositions extracted from Luther's teachings, and was taken to Germany by Eck in his capacity as apostolic nuncio. Leo followed by formally excommunicating Luther by the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem or It Pleases the Roman Pontiff, on 3 January 1521. In a brief the Pope also directed Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to take energetic measures against heresy.",
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"plaintext": "It was also under Leo that Lutheranism spread into Scandinavia. The pope had repeatedly used the rich northern benefices to reward members of the Roman curia, and towards the close of the year 1516 he sent the impolitic Arcimboldi as papal nuncio to Denmark to collect money for St Peter's. This led to the Reformation in Denmark. King Christian II took advantage of the growing dissatisfaction of the native clergy toward the papal government, and of Arcimboldi's interference in the Swedish revolt, to expel the nuncio and summon Lutheran theologians to Copenhagen in 1520. Christian approved a plan by which a formal state church should be established in Denmark, all appeals to Rome should be abolished, and the king and diet should have final jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes. Leo sent a new nuncio to Copenhagen (1521) in the person of the Minorite Francesco de Potentia, who readily absolved the king and received the bishopric of Skara. The pope or his legate, however, took no steps to correct abuses or otherwise discipline the Scandinavian churches.",
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"plaintext": "The pope created 42 new cardinals in eight consistories including two cousins (one who would become his successor Pope Clement VII) and a nephew. He also elevated Adriaan Florensz Boeyens into the cardinalate who would become his immediate successor Pope Adrian VI. Leo X's consistory of 1 July 1517 saw 31 cardinals created, and this remained the largest allocation of cardinals in one consistory until Pope John Paul II named 42 cardinals in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo X canonized eleven individuals during his reign with seven of those being a group cause of martyrs. The most notable canonization from his papacy was that of Francis of Paola on 1 May 1519.",
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"plaintext": "That Leo did not do more to check the anti-papal rebellion in Germany and Scandinavia is to be partially explained by the political complications of the time, and by his own preoccupation with papal and Medicean politics in Italy. The death of the emperor Maximilian in 1519 had seriously affected the situation. Leo vacillated between the powerful candidates for the succession, allowing it to appear at first that he favoured Francis or a minor German prince. He finally accepted Charles of Spain as inevitable.",
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"plaintext": "Leo was now eager to unite Ferrara, Parma and Piacenza to the States of the Church (The Papal States). An attempt late in 1519 to seize Ferrara failed, and the pope recognized the need for foreign aid. In May 1521 a treaty of alliance was signed at Rome between him and the emperor. Milan and Genoa were to be taken from France and restored to the Empire, and Parma and Piacenza were to be given to the Church on the expulsion of the French. The expense of enlisting 10,000 Swiss was to be borne equally by Pope and emperor. Charles V took Florence and the Medici family under his protection and promised to punish all enemies of the Catholic faith. Leo agreed to invest Charles V with the Kingdom of Naples, to crown him Holy Roman Emperor, and to aid in a war against Venice. It was provided that England and the Swiss might also join the league. Henry VIII announced his adherence in August 1521. Francis I had already begun war with Charles V in Navarre, and in Italy, too, the French made the first hostile movement on 23 June 1521. Leo at once announced that he would excommunicate the king of France and release his subjects from their allegiance unless Francis I laid down his arms and surrendered Parma and Piacenza to the Church. The pope lived to hear the joyful news of the capture of Milan from the French and of the occupation by papal troops of the long-coveted provinces (November 1521).",
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"plaintext": "Having fallen ill with bronchopneumonia, Pope Leo X died on 1 December 1521, so suddenly that the last sacraments could not be administered; but the contemporary suspicions of poison were unfounded. He was buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva.",
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"plaintext": "Leo has been criticized for his handling of the events of the papacy. He had a musical and pleasant voice and a cheerful temper. He was eloquent in speech and elegant in his manners and epistolary style. He enjoyed music and the theatre, art and poetry, the masterpieces of the ancients and the creations of his contemporaries, especially those seasoned with wit and learning. He especially delighted in ex tempore Latin verse-making (at which he excelled) and cultivated improvisatori. He is said to have stated, \"Let us enjoy the papacy since God has given it to us\", Ludwig von Pastor says that it is by no means certain that he made the remark; and historian Klemens Löffler says that \"the Venetian ambassador who related this of him was not unbiased, nor was he in Rome at the time.\" However, there is no doubt that he was by nature pleasure-loving and that the anecdote reflects his casual attitude to the high and solemn office to which he had been called. On the other hand, in spite of his worldliness, Leo prayed, fasted, went to confession before celebrating Mass in public, and conscientiously participated in the religious services of the Church. To the virtues of liberality, charity, and clemency he added the Machiavellian qualities of deception and shrewdness, so highly esteemed by the princes of his time.",
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"plaintext": "The character of Leo X was formerly assailed by lurid aspersions of debauchery, murder, impiety, and atheism. In the 17th century it was estimated that 300 or 400 writers, more or less, reported (on the authority of a single polemical anti-Catholic source) a story that when someone had quoted to Leo a passage from one of the Four Evangelists, he had replied that it was common knowledge \"how profitable that fable of Christe hath ben to us and our companie.\" These aspersions and more were examined by William Roscoe in the 19th century (and again by Ludwig von Pastor in the 20th) and rejected. Nevertheless, even the eminent philosopher David Hume, while claiming that Leo was too intelligent to believe in Catholic doctrine, conceded that he was \"one of the most illustrious princes that ever sat on the papal throne. Humane, beneficent, generous, affable; the patron of every art, and friend of every virtue\". Martin Luther, in a conciliatory letter to Leo, himself testified to Leo's universal reputation for morality:",
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"plaintext": "Pastor says that \"From his youth, Leo, who had a fine ear and a melodious voice, loved music to the pitch of fanaticism\". As pope he procured the services of professional singers, instrumentalists and composers from as far away as France, Germany and Spain. Next to goldsmiths, the highest salaries recorded in the papal accounts are those paid to musicians, who also received largesse from Leo's private purse. Their services were retained not so much for the delectation of Leo and his guests at private social functions as for the enhancement of religious services on which the pope placed great store. The standard of singing of the papal choir was a particular object of Leo's concern, with French, Dutch, Spanish and Italian singers being retained. Large sums of money were also spent on the acquisition of highly ornamented musical instruments, and he was especially assiduous in securing musical scores from Florence. He also fostered technical improvements developed for the diffusion of such scores. Ottaviano Petrucci, who had overcome practical difficulties in the way of using movable type to print musical notation, obtained from Leo X the exclusive privilege of printing organ scores (which, according to the papal brief, \"adds greatly to the dignity of divine worship\") for a period for 15 years from 22 October 1513. In addition to fostering the performance of sung Masses, he promoted the singing of the Gospel in Greek in his private chapel.",
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"plaintext": "Leo indulged buffoons at his Court, but also tolerated behavior which made them the object of ridicule. One case concerned the conceited improvisatore Giacomo Baraballo, Abbot of Gaeta, who was the butt of a burlesque procession organised in the style of an ancient Roman triumph. Baraballo was dressed in festal robes of velvet and silk trimmed with ermine and presented to the pope. He was then taken to the piazza of St Peter's and was mounted on the back of Hanno, a white elephant, the gift of King Manuel I of Portugal. The magnificently ornamented animal was then led off in the direction of the Capitol to the sound of drums and trumpets. But while crossing the bridge of Sant'Angelo over the Tiber, the elephant, already distressed by the noise and confusion around him, shied violently, throwing his passenger onto the muddy riverbank below.",
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"plaintext": "Leo's most recent biographer, Carlo Falconi, claims Leo hid a private life of moral irregularity behind a mask of urbanity. Scabrous verse libels of the type known as pasquinades were particularly abundant during the conclave which followed Leo's death in 1521 and made imputations about Leo's unchastity, implying or asserting homosexuality. Suggestions of homosexual attraction appear in works by two contemporary historians, Francesco Guicciardini and Paolo Giovio. Zimmerman notes Giovio's \"disapproval of the pope's familiar banter with his chamberlains – handsome young men from noble families – and the advantage he was said to take of them.\"",
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"plaintext": "Luther spent a month in Rome in 1510, three years before Leo became pontiff, and was disillusioned at the corruption he found there. In 1520, the year before his excommunication from the Catholic Church, Luther claimed that Leo lived a \"blameless life.\" However, Luther later distanced himself from this claim and alleged in 1531 that Leo had vetoed a measure that cardinals should restrict the number of boys they kept for their pleasure, \"otherwise it would have been spread throughout the world how openly and shamelessly the pope and the cardinals in Rome practice sodomy.\" Against this allegation is the papal bull Supernae dispositionis arbitrio from 1514 which, inter alia, required cardinals to live \"... soberly, chastely, and piously, abstaining not only from evil but also from every appearance of evil\" and a contemporary and eye-witness at Leo's Court (Matteo Herculaneo), emphasized his belief that Leo was chaste all his life.",
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"plaintext": "Historians have dealt with the issue of Leo's sexuality at least since the late 18th century, and few have given credence to the imputations made against him in his later years and decades following his death, or else have at least regarded them as unworthy of notice; without necessarily reaching conclusions on whether he was homosexual. Those who stand outside this consensus generally fall short of concluding with certainty that Leo was unchaste during his pontificate. Joseph McCabe accused Pastor of untruthfulness and Vaughan of lying in course of their treatment of the evidence, pointing out that Giovio and Guicciardini seemed to share the belief that Leo engaged in \"unnatural vice\" (homosexuality) while pope.",
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"plaintext": "Leo X made charitable donations of more than 6,000 ducats annually to retirement homes, hospitals, convents, discharged soldiers, pilgrims, poor students, exiles, cripples, and the sick and unfortunate.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo X died fairly suddenly of pneumonia at the age of 45 on 1 December 1521 and was buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. His death came just 10 months after he had excommunicated Martin Luther, the seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation, who was accused of 41 errors in his teachings.",
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"plaintext": "Possibly the most lasting legacy of the reign of Pope Leo X was his perceived failure to not just stem the Reformation but to fuel it. A key issue was that his pontificate failed to bring about the reforms decreed by the Fifth Lateran Council (held between 1512 and 1517) which aimed to deal with many of their political problems as well as to reform Christendom, specifically relating to the papacy, cardinals, and curia. Some believe enforcing these decrees may have been enough to dampen support for radical challenge to church authority. But instead under his leadership the fiscal and political problems in Rome were deepened. A major contributor was his lavish spending (especially on the arts and himself) which led the papal treasury into mounting debt and his decision to authorize the sale of indulgences. The exploitation of people and corruption of religious principles that was linked to the practice of selling indulgences quickly became the key stimulus for the onset of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther's 95 Theses, otherwise entitled \"Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences\", was posted on a Church door in Wittenberg, Germany in October 1517 just seven months after the Lateran V was completed. But Pope Leo X's attempt to prosecute Luther's teaching on indulgences, and to eventually excommunicate him in January 1521, did not get rid of Lutheran doctrine but had the opposite effect of further splintering the Western church.",
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"plaintext": "Leo was renowned for spending money lavishly on the arts; on charities; on benefices for his friends, relatives, and even people he barely knew; on dynastic wars, such as the War of Urbino; and on his own personal luxury. Within two years of becoming Pope, Leo X spent all of the treasure amassed by the previous Pope, the frugal Julius II, and drove the Papacy into deep debt. By the end of his pontificate in 1521 the papal treasury was 400,000 ducats in debt. This debt contributed not only to the calamities of Leo's own pontificate (particularly the sale of indulgences that precipitated Protestantism) but severely constrained later pontificates (Pope Adrian VI; and Leo's beloved cousin, Clement VII) and forced austerity measures.",
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"plaintext": "Leo X's personal spending was likewise vast. For example, during the year 1517, his personal income is recorded as 580,000 ducats, of which 420,000 came from the states of the Church, 100,000 from annates, and 60,000 from the composition tax instituted by Sixtus IV. These sums, together with the considerable amounts accruing from indulgences, jubilees, and special fees, vanished as quickly as they were received. To remain financially solvent, the Pope resorted to desperate measures: instructing his cousin, Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, to pawn the Papal jewels; palace furniture; tableware; and even statues of the apostles. Additionally, Leo sold cardinals' hats; memberships to a fraternal order he invented in 1520, the Papal Knights of St. Peter and St. Paul; and borrowed such immense sums from bankers that upon his death, many were ruined.",
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"plaintext": "At Leo's death, the Venetian ambassador Gradenigo estimated the number of the Church's paying offices at 2,150, with a capital value of approximately 3,000,000 ducats and a yearly income of 328,000 ducats.",
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"plaintext": "Leo X raised the Church to a high rank as the friend of whatever seemed to extend knowledge or to refine and embellish life. He made the capital of Christendom, Rome, a center of European culture. While yet a cardinal, he had restored the church of Santa Maria in Domnica after Raphael's designs; and as pope he had San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, on the Via Giulia, built, after designs by Jacopo Sansovino and pressed forward the work on St Peter's Basilica and the Vatican under Raphael and Agostino Chigi. Leo's constitution of 5 November 1513 reformed the Roman university, which had been neglected by Julius II. He restored all its faculties, gave larger salaries to the professors, and summoned distinguished teachers from afar; and, although it never attained to the importance of Padua or Bologna, it nevertheless possessed in 1514 a faculty (with a good reputation) of eighty-eight professors.",
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"plaintext": "Leo called Janus Lascaris to Rome to give instruction in Greek, and established a Greek printing-press from which the first Greek book printed at Rome appeared in 1515. He made Raphael custodian of the classical antiquities of Rome and the vicinity, the ancient monuments of which formed the subject of a famous letter from Raphael to the pope in 1519. The distinguished Latinists Pietro Bembo and Jacopo Sadoleto were papal secretaries, as well as the famous poet Bernardo Accolti. Other poets, such as Marco Girolamo Vida, Gian Giorgio Trissino and Bibbiena, writers of novelle like Matteo Bandello, and a hundred other literati of the time were bishops, or papal scriptors or abbreviators, or in other papal employ.",
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"plaintext": "Several minor events of Leo's pontificate are worthy of mention. He was particularly friendly with King Manuel I of Portugal as a result of the latter's missionary enterprises in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo X was granted a large embassy from the Portuguese king furnished with goods from Manuel's colonies. His concordat with Florence (1516) guaranteed the free election of the clergy in that city.",
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"plaintext": "His constitution of 1 March 1519 condemned the King of Spain's claim to refuse the publication of papal bulls. He maintained close relations with Poland because of the Turkish advance and the Polish contest with the Teutonic Knights. His bull of July 1519, which regulated the discipline of the Polish Church, was later transformed into a concordat by Clement VII.",
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"plaintext": "Leo showed special favours to the Jews and permitted them to erect a Hebrew printing-press at Rome. Under Daniel Bomberg, that press produced manuscripts of the Talmud and Mikraot Gedolot with Leo's approval and protection.",
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"plaintext": "Luther Martin. Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. vol.I (1507–1521) and vol.2 (1521–1530) from Google Books. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ",
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"plaintext": " Betavoltic Battery: Scientists Invent 30 Year Continuous Power Laptop Battery at NextEnergyNews.com",
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"plaintext": " Basic Nuclear Science Information at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory",
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37,875 | 1,104,252,790 | August_Ferdinand_Möbius | [
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"plaintext": "NOAA was officially formed in 1970 and in 2017 had over 11,000 civilian employees. Its research and operations are further supported by 321 uniformed service members who make up the NOAA Commissioned Corps.",
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"plaintext": "Richard (Rick) W. Spinrad is the 11th and current NOAA Administrator. He was nominated by President Biden, and his nomination was confirmed by the US Senate on June 17, 2021, by voice vote. He was sworn in on June 23, 2021.",
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"plaintext": "From February 25, 2019, to January 20, 2021, Neil Jacobs, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Environmental Observation and Prediction, served as acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at the US Department of Commerce and as NOAA's interim administrator. Jacobs succeeded Timothy Gallaudet, who succeeded Benjamin Friedman. The three served in series as NOAA's interim administrator throughout the Trump Administration. In October 2017, Barry Lee Myers, CEO of AccuWeather, was proposed to be the agency's administrator by the Trump Administration. After two years in the nomination process, on November 21, 2019, Myers withdrew his name from consideration due to health concerns.",
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"plaintext": "NOAA works toward its mission through six major line offices, the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the National Ocean Service (NOS), the National Weather Service (NWS), the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) and the Office of Marine & Aviation Operations (OMAO). and in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library, the Office of Program Planning and Integration (PPI).",
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"plaintext": "The National Weather Service (NWS) is tasked with providing \"weather, hydrologic and climate forecasts and warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the enhancement of the national economy.\" This is done through a collection of national and regional centers, 13 river forecast centers (RFCs), and more than 120 local weather forecast offices (WFOs). They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches, and warnings on a daily basis. They issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is also relevant to the issues of climate change and ozone depletion.",
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"plaintext": "The National Ocean Service (NOS) focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, and productive. NOS scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists serve America by ensuring safe and efficient marine transportation, promoting innovative solutions to protect coastal communities, and conserving marine and coastal places.",
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"plaintext": "The National Ocean Service is composed of eight program offices: the Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services, the Office for Coastal Management, the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, the Office of Coast Survey, the Office of National Geodetic Survey, the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management and the Office of Response and Restoration.",
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"plaintext": "The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) was created by NOAA to operate and manage the US environmental satellite programs, and manage NWS data and those of other government agencies and departments. NESDIS's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) archives data collected by the NOAA, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, the Federal Aviation Administration, and meteorological services around the world and comprises the Center for Weather and Climate (previously NOAA's National Climatic Data Center), National Coastal Data Development Center (NCDDC), National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), and the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)).",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, TIROS-1, NASA's first owned and operated geostationary satellite, was launched. Since 1966, NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites (POES) and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites (GOES). In 1979, NOAA's first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched. Current operational satellites include NOAA-15, NOAA-18, NOAA-19, GOES 13, GOES 14, GOES 15, Jason-2 and DSCOVR. In 1983, NOAA assumed operational responsibility for Landsat satellite system.",
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"plaintext": "Since May 1998, NESDIS has operated the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites on behalf of the Air Force Weather Agency.",
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"plaintext": "NESDIS runs the Office of Projects, Planning, and Analysis (OPPA) formerly the Office of Systems Development, the Office of Satellite Ground Systems (formerly the Office of Satellite Operations) the Office of Satellite and Project Operations, the Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR)], the Joint Polar Satellite System Program Office the GOES-R Program Office, the International & Interagency Affairs Office, the Office of Space Commerce and the Office of System Architecture and Advanced Planning.",
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"plaintext": "The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), also known as NOAA Fisheries, was initiated in 1871 with a primary goal of the research, protection, management, and restoration of commercial and recreational fisheries and their habitat, and protected species. NMFS operates twelve headquarters offices, five regional offices, six fisheries science centers, and more than 20 laboratories throughout the United States and U.S. territories, which are the sites of research and management of marine resources. NMFS also operates the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Office of Law Enforcement in Silver Spring, Maryland, which is the primary site of marine resource law enforcement.",
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"plaintext": "NOAA's research, conducted through the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services that protect life and property and promote economic growth. Research, conducted in OAR laboratories and by extramural programs, focuses on enhancing our understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes, hurricanes, climate variability, solar flares, changes in the ozone, air pollution transport and dispersion, El Niño/La Niña events, fisheries productivity, ocean currents, deep sea thermal vents, and coastal ecosystem health. NOAA research also develops innovative technologies and observing systems.",
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"plaintext": "The NOAA Research network consists of seven internal research laboratories, extramural research at 30 Sea Grant university and research programs, six undersea research centers, a research grants program through the Climate Program Office, and 13 cooperative institutes with academia. Through NOAA and its academic partners, thousands of scientists, engineers, technicians, and graduate students participate in furthering our knowledge of natural phenomena that affect the lives of us all.",
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"plaintext": "The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is one of the laboratories in the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. It studies processes and develops models relating to climate and air quality, including the transport, dispersion, transformation and removal of pollutants from the ambient atmosphere. The emphasis of the ARL's work is on data interpretation, technology development and transfer. The specific goal of ARL research is to improve and eventually to institutionalize prediction of trends, dispersion of air pollutant plumes, air quality, atmospheric deposition, and related variables.",
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"plaintext": "The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), is part of NOAA's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, located in Miami, Florida. AOML's research spans hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, oceans, and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations. AOML's organizational structure consists of an Office of the Director and three scientific research divisions (Physical Oceanography, Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems, and Hurricane Research). The Office of the Director oversees the Laboratory's scientific programs, as well as its financial, administrative, computer, outreach/education, and facility management services. Research programs are augmented by the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies (CIMAS), a joint enterprise with the University of Miami's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. CIMAS enables AOML and university scientists to collaborate on research areas of mutual interest and facilitates the participation of students and visiting scientists. AOML is a member of a unique community of marine research and educational institutions located on Virginia Key in Miami, Florida.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) deployed the first successful moored equatorial current meter – the beginning of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean, TAO, array. In 1984, the Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) program began.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic Report Card is the Annual update charts of the ongoing impact of changing conditions on the environment and community by NOAA. It was compiled by 81 scientists from 12 nations in the year 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The Office of Marine and Aviation Operations is responsible for the fleet of NOAA ships, aircraft, and diving operations. It has the largest research fleet of the Federal government. Its personnel is made up of civilians and the NOAA Commissioned Corps. The office is headed by a NOAA Corps two-star rear admiral, who also commands the Corps.",
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"plaintext": "The National Integrated Drought Information System is a program within NOAA with an interagency mandate to coordinate and integrate drought research, building upon existing federal, tribal, state, and local partnerships in support of creating a national drought early warning information system.",
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"plaintext": "Hurricane Dorian was an extremely powerful and destructive tropical cyclone that devastated the northwestern Bahamas and caused significant damage to the Southeastern United States and Atlantic Canada in September 2019. By September 1, NOAA had issued a statement saying that the \"current forecast path of Dorian does not include Alabama\". However, on that date, President Donald Trump tweeted that Alabama, among other states, \"will most likely be hit (much) harder than anticipated\". Shortly thereafter, the Birmingham, Alabama office of the National Weather Service issued a tweet that appeared to contradict Trump, saying that Alabama \"will NOT see any impacts from Dorian\" On September 6, NOAA published a statement from an unidentified spokesperson supporting Trump's September 1 claim. The statement also labelled the Birmingham, Alabama branch of the National Weather Service's contradiction of Trump as incorrect. The New York Times reported that the NOAA September 6 statement was prompted by a threat from U.S. Commerce Secretary Wilbur Ross to fire high-level NOAA staff unless they supported President Trump's claim. The Department of Commerce described this report as \"false\". Meanwhile, The Washington Post reported that NOAA had twice ordered National Weather Service employees not to provide \"any opinion\" on Hurricane Dorian and to \"only stick with official National Hurricane Center forecasts\". The first order came after Trump's September 1 comments and the Birmingham, Alabama National Weather Service's contradiction of Trump. The second order came on September 4 after Trump displayed an August 29 map that was altered with a black marker to show that Hurricane Dorian may hit Alabama.",
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"plaintext": "On September 9, speaking at an Alabama National Weather Service (NWS) meeting the Director of the National Weather Service gave a speech supporting Birmingham NWS and said the team \"stopped public panic\" and \"ensured public safety\". He said that when Birmingham issued their instructions they were not aware that the calls they were receiving were a result of Trump's tweet. The acting chief scientist and assistant administrator for the ocean and atmospheric research said he is \"pursuing the potential violations\" of the agency's scientific integrity policy.",
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"plaintext": "The NOAA flag is a modification of the flag of one of its predecessor organizations, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Coast and Geodetic Survey's flag, authorized in 1899 and in use until 1970, was blue, with a white circle centered in it and a red triangle centered within the circle. It symbolized the use of triangulation in surveying, and was flown by ships of the Survey.",
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"plaintext": "Although they appear similar, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate biological families. The gharial, with its narrow snout, is easier to distinguish, while morphological differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators. The most obvious external differences are visible in the head, with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators and caimans. Another obvious trait is that the upper and lower jaws of the crocodiles are the same width, and the teeth in the lower jaw fall along the edge or outside the upper jaw when the mouth is closed; therefore, all teeth are visible, unlike an alligator, which possesses in the upper jaw small depressions into which the lower teeth fit. Also, when the crocodile's mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the protruding tooth is the most reliable feature to define the species' family. Crocodiles have more webbing on the toes of the hind feet and can better tolerate saltwater due to specialized salt glands for filtering out salt, which are present, but non-functioning, in alligators. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their much higher levels of aggression.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodile size, morphology, behaviour and ecology differ somewhat among species. However, they have many similarities in these areas as well. All crocodiles are semiaquatic and tend to congregate in freshwater habitats such as rivers, lakes, wetlands and sometimes in brackish water and saltwater. They are carnivorous animals, feeding mostly on vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, birds and mammals, and sometimes on invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans, depending on species and age. All crocodiles are tropical species that, unlike alligators, are very sensitive to cold. They separated from other crocodilians during the Eocene epoch, about 55 million years ago. Many species are at the risk of extinction, some being classified as critically endangered.",
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"plaintext": "The word crocodile comes from the Ancient Greek () meaning 'lizard', used in the phrase , \"the lizard of the (Nile) river\". There are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form () found cited in many English reference works. In the Koine Greek of Roman times, and would have been pronounced identically, and either or both may be the source of the Latinized form used by the ancient Romans. It has been suggested, but it is not certain that the word or is a compound of ('pebbles'), and ('worm'), although is only attested as a colloquial term for 'penis'. It is ascribed to Herodotus, and supposedly describes the basking habits of the Egyptian crocodile.",
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"plaintext": "The form is attested in Medieval Latin. It is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternative Greco-Latin forms (late Greek and are attested). A (further) corrupted form is found in Old French and was borrowed into Middle English as . The Modern English form crocodile was adapted directly from the Classical Latin in the 16th century, replacing the earlier form. The use of -y- in the scientific name Crocodylus (and forms derived from it) is a corruption introduced by Laurenti (1768).",
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"plaintext": "A total of 18 extant species have been recognized. Further genetic study is needed for the confirmation of proposed species under the genus Osteolaemus.",
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"plaintext": "A crocodile's physical traits allow it to be a successful predator. Its external morphology is a sign of its aquatic and predatory lifestyle. Its streamlined body enables it to swim swiftly; it also tucks its feet to the side while swimming, making it faster by decreasing water resistance. Crocodiles have webbed feet which, though not used to propel them through the water, allow them to make fast turns and sudden moves in the water or initiate swimming. Webbed feet are an advantage in shallow water, where the animals sometimes move around by walking. Crocodiles have a palatal flap, a rigid tissue at the back of the mouth that blocks the entry of water. The palate has a special path from the nostril to the glottis that bypasses the mouth. The nostrils are closed during submergence.",
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"plaintext": "Like other archosaurs, crocodilians are diapsid, although their post-temporal fenestrae are reduced. The walls of the braincase are bony but lack supratemporal and postfrontal bones. Their tongues are not free, but held in place by a membrane that limits movement; as a result, crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues. Crocodiles have smooth skin on their bellies and sides, while their dorsal surfaces are armoured with large osteoderms. The armoured skin has scales and is thick and rugged, providing some protection. They are still able to absorb heat through this armour, as a network of small capillaries allows blood through the scales to absorb heat. The osteoderms are highly vascularised and aid in calcium balance, both to neutralize acids while the animal cannot breathe underwater and to provide calcium for eggshell formation. Crocodilian tegument have pores believed to be sensory in function, analogous to the lateral line in fishes. They are particularly seen on their upper and lower jaws. Another possibility is that they are secretory, as they produce an oily substance which appears to flush mud off.",
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"plaintext": "Size greatly varies among species, from the dwarf crocodile to the saltwater crocodile. Species of the dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus grow to an adult size of just , whereas the saltwater crocodile can grow to sizes over and weigh over . Several other large species can reach over long and weigh over . Crocodilians show pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males growing much larger and more rapidly than females. Despite their large adult sizes, crocodiles start their lives at around long. The largest species of crocodile is the saltwater crocodile, found in eastern India, northern Australia, throughout South-east Asia, and in the surrounding waters.",
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"plaintext": "The brain volume of two adult crocodiles was 5.6cm3 for a spectacled caiman and 8.5cm3 for a larger Nile crocodile.",
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"plaintext": "The largest crocodile ever held in captivity is a saltwater–Siamese hybrid named Yai (, meaning big; born 10 June 1972) at the Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Thailand. This animal measures in length and weighs .",
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"plaintext": "The longest crocodile captured alive was Lolong, a saltwater crocodile which was measured at and weighed at by a National Geographic team in Agusan del Sur Province, Philippines.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles are polyphyodonts; they are able to replace each of their 80 teeth up to 50 times in their 35- to 75-year lifespan. Next to each full-grown tooth, there is a small replacement tooth and an odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina in standby that can be activated if required.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodilians are more closely related to birds and dinosaurs than to most animals classified as reptiles, the three families being included in the group Archosauria ('ruling reptiles'). Despite their prehistoric look, crocodiles are among the more biologically complex reptiles. Unlike other reptiles, a crocodile has a cerebral cortex and a four-chambered heart. Crocodilians also have the functional equivalent of a diaphragm by incorporating muscles used for aquatic locomotion into respiration. Salt glands are present in the tongues of crocodiles and they have a pore opening on the surface of the tongue, a trait that separates them from alligators. Salt glands are dysfunctional in Alligatoridae. Their function appears to be similar to that of salt glands in marine turtles. Crocodiles do not have sweat glands and release heat through their mouths. They often sleep with their mouths open and may pant like a dog. Four species of freshwater crocodile climb trees to bask in areas lacking a shoreline.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles have acute senses, an evolutionary advantage that makes them successful predators. The eyes, ears and nostrils are located on top of the head, allowing the crocodile to lie low in the water, almost totally submerged and hidden from prey.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles have very good night vision, and are mostly nocturnal hunters. They use the disadvantage of most prey animals' poor nocturnal vision to their advantage. The light receptors in crocodilians' eyes include cones and numerous rods, so it is assumed all crocodilians can see colours. Crocodiles have vertical-slit shaped pupils, similar to those of domestic cats. One explanation for the evolution of slit pupils is that they exclude light more effectively than a circular pupil, helping to protect the eyes during daylight. On the rear wall of the eye is a tapetum lucidum, which reflects incoming light back onto the retina, thus utilizing the small amount of light available at night to best advantage. In addition to the protection of the upper and lower eyelids, crocodiles have a nictitating membrane (sometimes called a \"third eye-lid\") that can be drawn over the eye from the inner corner while the lids are open. The eyeball surface is thus protected under the water while a certain degree of vision is still possible.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodilian sense of smell is also very well developed, aiding them to detect prey or animal carcasses that are either on land or in water, from far away. It is possible that crocodiles use olfaction in the egg prior to hatching.",
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"plaintext": "Chemoreception in crocodiles is especially interesting because they hunt in both terrestrial and aquatic surroundings. Crocodiles have only one olfactory chamber and the vomeronasal organ is absent in the adults indicating all olfactory perception is limited to the olfactory system. Behavioural and olfactometer experiments indicate that crocodiles detect both air-borne and water-soluble chemicals and use their olfactory system for hunting. When above water, crocodiles enhance their ability to detect volatile odorants by gular pumping, a rhythmic movement of the floor of the pharynx. Crocodiles close their nostrils when submerged, so olfaction underwater is unlikely. Underwater food detection is presumably gustatory and tactile.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles can hear well; their tympanic membranes are concealed by flat flaps that may be raised or lowered by muscles.",
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"plaintext": "The touch sensors, concentrated in crocodile skin, can be thicker than those in human fingerprints. Crocodiles can feel the touch on their skin. ",
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"plaintext": "Cranial: The upper and lower jaws are covered with sensory pits, visible as small, black speckles on the skin, the crocodilian version of the lateral line organs seen in fish and many amphibians, though arising from a completely different origin. These pigmented nodules encase bundles of nerve fibers innervated beneath by branches of the trigeminal nerve. They respond to the slightest disturbance in surface water, detecting vibrations and small pressure changes as small as a single drop. This makes it possible for crocodiles to detect prey, danger and intruders, even in total darkness. These sense organs are known as domed pressure receptors (DPRs).",
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"plaintext": "Post-Cranial: While alligators and caimans have DPRs only on their jaws, crocodiles have similar organs on almost every scale on their bodies. The function of the DPRs on the jaws is clear; to catch prey, but it is still not clear what the function is of the organs on the rest of the body. The receptors flatten when exposed to increased osmotic pressure, such as that experienced when swimming in sea water hyperosmotic to the body fluids. When contact between the integument and the surrounding sea water solution is blocked, crocodiles are found to lose their ability to discriminate salinities. It has been proposed that the flattening of the sensory organ in hyperosmotic sea water is sensed by the animal as \"touch\", but interpreted as chemical information about its surroundings. This might be why in alligators they are absent on the rest of the body.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles are ambush predators, waiting for fish or land animals to come close, then rushing out to attack. Crocodiles mostly eat fish, amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles, and mammals, and they occasionally cannibalize smaller crocodiles. What a crocodile eats varies greatly with species, size and age. From the mostly fish-eating species, like the slender-snouted and freshwater crocodiles, to the larger species like the Nile crocodile and the saltwater crocodile that prey on large mammals, such as buffalo, deer and wild boar, diet shows great diversity. Diet is also greatly affected by the size and age of the individual within the same species. All young crocodiles hunt mostly invertebrates and small fish, gradually moving on to larger prey. Being ectothermic (cold-blooded) predators, they have a very slow metabolism, so they can survive long periods without food. Despite their appearance of being slow, crocodiles have a very fast strike and are top predators in their environment, and various species have been observed attacking and killing other predators such as sharks and big cats. Crocodiles are also known to be aggressive scavengers who feed upon carrion and steal from other predators. Evidence suggests that crocodiles also feed upon fruits, based on the discovery of seeds in stools and stomachs from many subjects as well as accounts of them feeding.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles have the most acidic stomach of any vertebrate. They can easily digest bones, hooves and horns. The BBC TV reported that a Nile crocodile that has lurked a long time underwater to catch prey builds up a large oxygen debt. When it has caught and eaten that prey, it closes its right aortic arch and uses its left aortic arch to flush blood loaded with carbon dioxide from its muscles directly to its stomach; the resulting excess acidity in its blood supply makes it much easier for the stomach lining to secrete more stomach acid to quickly dissolve bulks of swallowed prey flesh and bone. Many large crocodilians swallow stones (called gastroliths or stomach stones), which may act as ballast to balance their bodies or assist in crushing food, similar to grit ingested by birds. Herodotus claimed that Nile crocodiles had a symbiotic relationship with certain birds, such as the Egyptian plover, which enter the crocodile's mouth and pick leeches feeding on the crocodile's blood; with no evidence of this interaction actually occurring in any crocodile species, it is most likely mythical or allegorical fiction.",
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"plaintext": "Since they feed by grabbing and holding onto their prey, they have evolved sharp teeth for piercing and holding onto flesh, and powerful muscles to close the jaws and hold them shut. The teeth are not well-suited to tearing flesh off of large prey items as are the dentition and claws of many mammalian carnivores, the hooked bills and talons of raptorial birds, or the serrated teeth of sharks. However, this is an advantage rather than a disadvantage to the crocodile since the properties of the teeth allow it to hold onto prey with the least possibility of the prey animal escaping. Cutting teeth, combined with the exceptionally high bite force, would pass through flesh easily enough to leave an escape opportunity for prey. The jaws can bite down with immense force, by far the strongest bite of any animal. The force of a large crocodile's bite is more than , which was measured in a Nile crocodile, in the field; comparing to for a Rottweiler, for a hyena, for an American alligator, and for the largest confirmed great white shark. ",
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"plaintext": "A long saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the strongest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting. It was able to apply a bite force value of , and thus surpassed the previous record of made by a long American alligator. Taking the measurements of several crocodiles as reference, the bite forces of 6-m individuals were estimated at . The study, led by Dr. Gregory M. Erickson, also shed light on the larger, extinct species of crocodilians. Since crocodile anatomy has changed only slightly over the last 80 million years, current data on modern crocodilians can be used to estimate the bite force of extinct species. An Deinosuchus would apply a force of , nearly twice that of the latest, higher bite force estimations of Tyrannosaurus (). The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The muscle is so stiff, it is almost as hard as bone to touch, as if it were the continuum of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. Crocodiles can thus be subdued for study or transport by taping their jaws or holding their jaws shut with large rubber bands cut from automobile inner tubes.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles can move quickly over short distances, even out of water. The land speed record for a crocodile is measured in a galloping Australian freshwater crocodile. Maximum speed varies between species. Some species can gallop, including Cuban crocodiles, Johnston's crocodiles, New Guinea crocodiles, African dwarf crocodiles, and even small Nile crocodiles. The fastest means by which most species can move is a \"belly run\", in which the body moves in a snake-like (sinusoidal) fashion, limbs splayed out to either side paddling away frantically while the tail whips to and fro. Crocodiles can reach speeds of when they \"belly run\", and often faster if slipping down muddy riverbanks. When a crocodile walks quickly, it holds its legs in a straighter and more upright position under its body, which is called the \"high walk\". This walk allows a speed of up to 5km/h.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles may possess a homing instinct. In northern Australia, three rogue saltwater crocodiles were relocated by helicopter, but returned to their original locations within three weeks, based on data obtained from tracking devices attached to them.",
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"plaintext": "Measuring crocodile age is unreliable, although several techniques are used to derive a reasonable guess. The most common method is to measure lamellar growth rings in bones and teeth—each ring corresponds to a change in growth rate which typically occurs once a year between dry and wet seasons. Bearing these inaccuracies in mind, it can be safely said that all crocodile species have an average lifespan of at least 30–40 years, and in the case of larger species an average of 60–70 years. The oldest crocodiles appear to be the largest species. C. porosus is estimated to live around 70 years on average, with limited evidence of some individuals exceeding 100 years.",
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"plaintext": "In captivity, some individuals are claimed to have lived for over a century. A male crocodile lived to an estimated age of 110–115 years in a Russian zoo in Yekaterinburg. Named Kolya, he joined the zoo around 1913 to 1915, fully grown, after touring in an animal show, and lived until 1995. A male freshwater crocodile lived to an estimated age of 120–140 years at the Australia Zoo. Known affectionately as \"Mr. Freshie\", he was rescued around 1970 by Bob Irwin and Steve Irwin, after being shot twice by hunters and losing an eye as a result, and lived until 2010. Crocworld Conservation Centre, in Scottburgh, South Africa, claims to have a male Nile crocodile that was born in 1900. Named Henry, the crocodile is said to have lived in Botswana along the Okavango River, according to centre director Martin Rodrigues.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles are the most social of reptiles. Even though they do not form social groups, many species congregate in certain sections of rivers, tolerating each other at times of feeding and basking. Most species are not highly territorial, with the exception of the saltwater crocodile, which is a highly territorial and aggressive species: a mature, male saltwater crocodile will not tolerate any other males at any time of the year, but most other species are more flexible. There is a certain form of hierarchy in crocodiles: the largest and heaviest males are at the top, having access to the best basking site, while females are priority during a group feeding of a big kill or carcass. A good example of the hierarchy in crocodiles would be the case of the Nile crocodile. This species clearly displays all of these behaviours. Studies in this area are not thorough, however, and many species are yet to be studied in greater detail. Mugger crocodiles are also known to show toleration in group feedings and tend to congregate in certain areas. However, males of all species are aggressive towards each other during mating season, to gain access to females.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles are also the most vocal of all reptiles, producing a wide variety of sounds during various situations and conditions, depending on species, age, size and sex. Depending on the context, some species can communicate over 20 different messages through vocalizations alone. Some of these vocalizations are made during social communication, especially during territorial displays towards the same sex and courtship with the opposite sex; the common concern being reproduction. Therefore most conspecific vocalization is made during the breeding season, with the exception being year-round territorial behaviour in some species and quarrels during feeding. Crocodiles also produce different distress calls and in aggressive displays to their own kind and other animals; notably other predators during interspecific predatory confrontations over carcasses and terrestrial kills.",
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"plaintext": "Specific vocalisations include—",
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"plaintext": " Chirp: When about to hatch, the young make a \"peeping\" noise, which encourages the female to excavate the nest. The female then gathers the hatchlings in her mouth and transports them to the water, where they remain in a group for several months, protected by the female",
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"plaintext": " Distress call: A high-pitched call used mostly by younger animals to alert other crocodiles to imminent danger or an animal being attacked.",
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"plaintext": " Threat call: A hissing sound that has also been described as a coughing noise.",
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"plaintext": " Hatching call: Emitted by a female when breeding to alert other crocodiles that she has laid eggs in her nest.",
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"plaintext": " Bellowing: Male crocodiles are especially vociferous. Bellowing choruses occur most often in the spring when breeding groups congregate, but can occur at any time of year. To bellow, males noticeably inflate as they raise the tail and head out of water, slowly waving the tail back and forth. They then puff out the throat and with a closed mouth, begin to vibrate air. Just before bellowing, males project an infrasonic signal at about 10Hz through the water, which vibrates the ground and nearby objects. These low-frequency vibrations travel great distances through both air and water to advertise the male's presence and are so powerful they result in the water's appearing to \"dance\".",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles lay eggs, which are laid in either holes or mound nests, depending on species. A hole nest is usually excavated in sand and a mound nest is usually constructed out of vegetation. Nesting periods range from a few weeks up to six months. Courtship takes place in a series of behavioural interactions that include a variety of snout rubbing and submissive display that can take a long time. Mating always takes place in water, where the pair can be observed mating several times. Females can build or dig several trial nests which appear incomplete and abandoned later. Egg-laying usually takes place at night and about 30–40 minutes. Females are highly protective of their nests and young. The eggs are hard shelled, but translucent at the time of egg-laying. Depending on the species of crocodile, 7 to 95 eggs are laid. Crocodile embryos do not have sex chromosomes, and unlike humans, sex is not determined genetically. Sex is determined by temperature, where at or less most hatchlings are females and at , offspring are of both sexes. A temperature of gives mostly males whereas above in some species continues to give males, but in other species resulting in females, which are sometimes called high-temperature females. Temperature also affects growth and survival rate of the young, which may explain the sexual dimorphism in crocodiles. The average incubation period is around 80 days, and also is dependent on temperature and species that usually ranges from 65 to 95 days. The eggshell structure is very conservative through evolution but there are enough changes to tell different species apart by their eggshell microstructure. Scutes may play a role in calcium storage for eggshell formation.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of hatching, the young start calling within the eggs. They have an egg-tooth at the tip of their snouts, which is developed from the skin, and that helps them pierce out of the shell. Hearing the calls, the female usually excavates the nest and sometimes takes the unhatched eggs in her mouth, slowly rolling the eggs to help the process. The young is usually carried to the water in the mouth. She would then introduce her hatchlings to the water and even feed them. The mother would then take care of her young for over a year before the next mating season. In the absence of the mother crocodile, the father would act in her place to take care of the young. However, even with a sophisticated parental nurturing, young crocodiles have a very high mortality rate due to their vulnerability to predation. A group of hatchlings is called a pod or crèche and may be protected for months.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles possess some advanced cognitive abilities. They can observe and use patterns of prey behaviour, such as when prey come to the river to drink at the same time each day. Vladimir Dinets of the University of Tennessee, observed that crocodiles use twigs as bait for birds looking for nesting material. They place sticks on their snouts and partly submerge themselves. When the birds swooped in to get the sticks, the crocodiles then catch the birds. Crocodiles only do this in spring nesting seasons of the birds, when there is high demand for sticks to be used for building nests. Vladimir also discovered other similar observations from various scientists, some dating back to the 19th century. Aside from using sticks, crocodiles are also capable of cooperative hunting. Large numbers of crocodiles swim in circles to trap fish and take turns snatching them. In hunting larger prey, crocodiles swarm in, with one holding the prey down as the others rip it apart.",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2015 study, crocodiles engage in all three main types of play behaviour recorded in animals: locomotor play, play with objects and social play. Play with objects is reported most often, but locomotor play such as repeatedly sliding down slopes, and social play such as riding on the backs of other crocodiles is also reported. This behaviour was exhibited with conspecifics and mammals and is apparently not uncommon, though has been difficult to observe and interpret in the past due to obvious dangers of interacting with large carnivores.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodylidae is cladistically defined as a crown group composed of the last common ancestor of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), the Dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis), and all of its descendants. It contains two subfamilies: Crocodylinae and Osteolaeminae. Crocodylinae contains 13-14 living species, as well as 6 extinct species. Osteolaeminae was named by Christopher Brochu in 2003 as a subfamily of Crocodylidae separate from Crocodylinae, and contains the two extant genera Osteolaemus and Mecistops, along with several extinct genera. The number of extant species within Osteolaeminae is currently in question.",
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"plaintext": " Subfamily Crocodylinae",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Crocodylus",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus acutus, American crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
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19,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus halli, Hall's New Guinea crocodile found South of the New Guinea Highlands",
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"target_page_ids": [
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0,
16
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[
18,
45
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[
65,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus intermedius, Orinoco crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
3176247,
3176247
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus johnsoni, freshwater crocodile, or Johnstone's crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
1553128,
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"anchor_spans": [
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21,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus mindorensis, Philippine crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
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24,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus moreletii, Morelet's crocodile or Mexican crocodile",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
7139802,
7139802
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
20
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22,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus niloticus, Nile crocodile or African crocodile (the subspecies found in Madagascar is sometimes called the black crocodile)",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus novaeguineae, New Guinea crocodile found North of the New Guinea Highlands",
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"target_page_ids": [
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25,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus palustris, mugger, marsh or Indian crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus porosus, saltwater crocodile or estuarine crocodile",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus raninus, the Borneo crocodile, is currently considered to be a synonym of Crocodylus porosus; whether or not it is a distinct species remains unclear.",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus rhombifer, Cuban crocodile",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus siamensis, Siamese crocodile (may be extinct in the wild)",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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22,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus suchus, West African crocodile, desert or sacred crocodile",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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17
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41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus anthropophagus",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus checchiai",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus falconensis",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus palaeindicus",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Voay",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Voay robustus (formerly Crocodylus robustus)",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Subfamily Osteolaeminae",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Osteolaemus",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
7,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Osteolaemus tetraspis, dwarf crocodile (There has been controversy as to whether or not this is actually two species; recent (2010) DNA analysis indicate three distinct species: O. tetraspis, O. osborni and a third, currently unnamed.)",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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7139731
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
],
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24,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Mecistops",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mecistops cataphractus West African slender-snouted crocodile",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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9189661
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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22
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23,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mecistops leptorhynchus Central African slender-snouted crocodile",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
58871550,
58871550
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
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25,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Brochuchus",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
39327926
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
7,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brochuchus pigotti (formerly Crocodylus pigotti)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
39327926
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brochuchus parvidens",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
39327926
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Euthecodon",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
7,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Euthecodon nitriae",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
22539149
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Euthecodon brumpti",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
22539149
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Euthecodon arambourgi",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
22539149
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Rimasuchus",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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7,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rimasuchus lloydi (formerly Crocodylus lloydi)",
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"section_name": "Taxonomy and phylogeny",
"target_page_ids": [
30774471
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Recent molecular studies using DNA sequencing have shown crocodiles to be more closely related to the gavialids rather than to alligators, contrary to prior theories based on morphological studies alone.",
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],
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Below is a cladogram showing the relationships of the major extant crocodile groups based on molecular studies, excluding separate extinct taxa:",
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"plaintext": "Below is a more detailed cladogram of Crocodylidae, based on a 2021 study using paleogenomics that extracted DNA from the extinct Voay.",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, some morphological studies have recovered Mecistops as a basal member of Crocodylinae, more closely related to Crocodylus than to Osteolaemus and the other members of Osteolaeminae, as shown in the cladogram below.",
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"plaintext": "The larger species of crocodiles are very dangerous to humans, mainly because of their ability to strike before the person can react. The saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile are the most dangerous, killing hundreds of people each year in parts of Southeast Asia and Africa. The mugger crocodile and American crocodile are also dangerous to humans.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, but are also farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles, while a hybrid of the saltwater and the rare Siamese crocodile is also bred in Asian farms. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather can be made into goods such as wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. Crocodiles were eaten by Vietnamese while they were taboo and off limits for Chinese. Vietnamese women who married Chinese men adopted the Chinese taboo.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodile meat is consumed in some countries, such as Australia, Ethiopia, Thailand, South Africa, China and also Cuba (in pickled form). It is also occasionally eaten as an \"exotic\" delicacy in the western world. Cuts of meat include backstrap and tail fillet.",
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"plaintext": "Due to high demand for crocodile products, TRAFFIC states that 1,418,487 Nile Crocodile skins were exported from Africa between 2006 and 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles have appeared in various forms in religions across the world. Ancient Egypt had Sobek, the crocodile-headed god, with his cult-city Crocodilopolis, as well as Taweret, the goddess of childbirth and fertility, with the back and tail of a crocodile. The Jukun shrine in the Wukari Federation, Nigeria is dedicated to crocodiles in thanks for their aid during migration. In Madagascar various peoples such as the Sakalava and Antandroy see crocodiles as ancestor spirits and under local fady often offer them food; in the case of the latter at least a crocodile features prominently as an ancestor deity.",
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"plaintext": "Crocodiles appear in different forms in Hinduism. Varuna, a Vedic and Hindu god, rides a part-crocodile makara; his consort Varuni rides a crocodile. Similarly the goddess personifications of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers are often depicted as riding crocodiles. Also in India, in Goa, crocodile worship is practised, including the annual Mannge Thapnee ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "Akali Nihang Sikh warriors also have connections with crocodiles. Nihang may come from the Persian word for a mythical sea creature (). The term owes its origin to Mughal historians, who compared the ferocity of the Akali with that of crocodiles. The meaning of Akali in Sikhism however, is the immortal army of Akal (god).",
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"plaintext": "In Latin America, Cipactli was the giant earth crocodile of the Aztec and other Nahua peoples.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"crocodile tears\" (and equivalents in other languages) refers to a false, insincere display of emotion, such as a hypocrite crying fake tears of grief. It is derived from an ancient anecdote that crocodiles weep in order to lure their prey, or that they cry for the victims they are eating, first told in the Bibliotheca by Photios I of Constantinople. The story is repeated in bestiaries such as De bestiis et aliis rebus. This tale was first spread widely in English in the stories of the Travels of Sir John Mandeville in the 14th century, and appears in several of Shakespeare's plays. In fact, crocodiles can and do generate tears, but they do not actually cry.",
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"plaintext": "The name of Surabaya, Indonesia, is locally believed to be derived from the words \"suro\" (shark) and \"boyo\" (crocodile), two creatures which, in a local myth, fought each other in order to gain the title of \"the strongest and most powerful animal\" in the area. It was said that the two powerful animals agreed for a truce and set boundaries; that the shark's domain would be in the sea while the crocodile's domain would be on the land. However one day the shark swam into the river estuary to hunt, this angered the crocodile, who declared it his territory. The Shark argued that the river was a water-realm which meant that it was shark territory, while the crocodile argued that the river flowed deep inland, so it was therefore crocodile territory. A ferocious fight resumed as the two animals bit each other. Finally the shark was badly bitten and fled to the open sea, and the crocodile finally ruled the estuarine area that today is the city.",
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"plaintext": "Another source alludes to a Jayabaya prophecy—a 12th-century psychic king of Kediri Kingdom—as he foresaw a fight between a giant white shark and a giant white crocodile taking place in the area, which is sometimes interpreted as a foretelling of the Mongol invasion of Java, a major conflict between the forces of the Kublai Khan, Mongol ruler of China, and those of Raden Wijaya's Majapahit in 1293. The two animals are now used as the city's symbol, with the two facing and circling each other, as depicted in a statue appropriately located near the entrance to the city zoo (see photo on the Surabaya page).",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, a row of schoolchildren walking in pairs, or two by two is known as 'crocodile'.",
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"plaintext": "The French clothing company Lacoste features its iconic crocodile in its logo. The American shoe company Crocs also uses this imagery in its logo.",
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"plaintext": "Alligator meat",
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"plaintext": "The Crocodile Hunter ",
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"plaintext": "Sobek – an ancient Egyptian deity associated with the Nile crocodile",
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"plaintext": " Iskandar, DT (2000). Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea. ITB, Bandung.",
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"plaintext": " Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. FLMNH.ufl.edu, \"How long do crocodiles live for?\" Adam Britton.",
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"plaintext": " Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. FLMNH.ufl.edu, \"How fast can a crocodile run?\" Adam Britton.",
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"plaintext": " Crocodilian Online",
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"plaintext": " Crocodilian Biology Database",
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"plaintext": " Crocodile Attacks in Australia",
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"plaintext": " BBC news finds powerful agent in crocodile blood",
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"plaintext": " World's most expensive handbag sells in Hong Kong for over US$377,000 – a Hermès white crocodile (31 May 2017), South China Morning Post",
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"plaintext": " 292 New Guinea crocodiles massacred in West Papua, Indonesia",
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"Reptiles_of_Asia",
"Reptiles_of_Africa",
"Crocodiles_of_Australia",
"Reptiles_of_North_America",
"Reptiles_of_South_America",
"Extant_Ypresian_first_appearances",
"Taxa_named_by_Georges_Cuvier"
] | 2,535,664 | 72,344 | 1,466 | 380 | 0 | 0 | crocodile | large reptilian carnivore | [
"Crocodylidae"
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37,885 | 1,102,953,798 | Falstaff_(opera) | [
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"plaintext": "Falstaff () is a comic opera in three acts by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi. The Italian-language libretto was adapted by Arrigo Boito from the play The Merry Wives of Windsor and scenes from Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2, by William Shakespeare. The work premiered on 9 February 1893 at La Scala, Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi wrote Falstaff, the last of his 28 operas, as he approached the age of 80. It was his second comedy, and his third work based on a Shakespeare play, following Macbeth and Otello. The plot revolves around the thwarted, sometimes farcical, efforts of the fat knight Sir John Falstaff to seduce two married women to gain access to their husbands' wealth.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi was concerned about working on a new opera at his advanced age, but he yearned to write a comic work and was pleased with Boito's draft libretto. It took the collaborators three years from mid-1889 to complete. Although the prospect of a new opera from Verdi aroused immense interest in Italy and around the world, Falstaff did not prove to be as popular as earlier works in the composer's canon. After the initial performances in Italy, other European countries and the US, the work was neglected until the conductor Arturo Toscanini insisted on its revival at La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in New York from the late 1890s into the next century. Some felt that the piece suffered from a lack of the full-blooded melodies of the best of Verdi's previous operas, a view strongly contradicted by Toscanini. Conductors of the generation after Toscanini to champion the work included Herbert von Karajan, Georg Solti and Leonard Bernstein. The work is now part of the regular operatic repertory.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi made numerous changes to the music after the first performance, and editors have found difficulty in agreeing on a definitive score. The work was first recorded in 1932 and has subsequently received many studio and live recordings. Singers closely associated with the title role have included Victor Maurel (the first Falstaff), Mariano Stabile, Giuseppe Valdengo, Tito Gobbi, Geraint Evans, Bryn Terfel and Ambrogio Maestri.",
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"plaintext": "By 1889 Verdi had been an opera composer for more than fifty years. He had written 27 operas, of which only one was a comedy, his second work, Un giorno di regno, staged unsuccessfully in 1840. His fellow composer Rossini commented that he admired Verdi greatly, but thought him incapable of writing a comedy. Verdi disagreed and said that he longed to write another light-hearted opera, but nobody would give him the chance. He had included moments of comedy even in his tragic operas, for example in Un ballo in maschera and La forza del destino.",
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"plaintext": "For a comic subject Verdi considered Cervantes' Don Quixote and plays by Goldoni, Molière and Labiche, but found none of them wholly suitable. The singer Victor Maurel sent him a French libretto based on Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew. Verdi liked it, but replied that \"to deal with it properly you need a Rossini or a Donizetti\". Following the success of Otello in 1887 he commented, \"After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines, I have at last the right to laugh a little.\" He confided his ambition to the librettist of Otello, Arrigo Boito. Boito said nothing at the time, but he secretly began work on a libretto based on The Merry Wives of Windsor with additional material taken from Henry IV, parts 1 and 2. Many composers had set the play to music, with little success, among them Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1796), Antonio Salieri (1799), Michael William Balfe (1835) and Adolphe Adam (1856). The first version to secure a place in the operatic repertoire was Otto Nicolai's The Merry Wives of Windsor in 1849, but its success was largely confined to German opera houses.",
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"plaintext": "Boito was doubly pleased with The Merry Wives as a plot. Not only was it Shakespearian, it was based in part on Trecento Italian works – Il Pecorone by Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, and Boccaccio's Decameron. Boito adopted a deliberately archaic form of Italian to \"lead Shakespeare's farce back to its clear Tuscan source\", as he put it. He trimmed the plot, halved the number of characters in the play, and gave the character of Falstaff more depth by incorporating dozens of passages from Henry IV.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi received the draft libretto a few weeks later, by early July 1889, at a time when his interest had been piqued by reading Shakespeare's play: \"Benissimo! Benissimo!... No one could have done better than you\", he wrote back. Like Boito, Verdi loved and revered Shakespeare. The composer did not speak English, but he owned and frequently re-read Shakespeare's plays in Italian translations by Carlo Rusconi and , which he kept by his bedside. He had earlier set operatic adaptations of Shakespeare's Macbeth (in 1847) and Othello (in 1887) and had considered King Lear as a subject; Boito had suggested Antony and Cleopatra.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi still had doubts, and on the next day sent another letter to Boito expressing his concerns. He wrote of \"the large number of years\" in his age, his health (which he admitted was still good) and his ability to complete the project: \"if I were not to finish the music?\" He said that the project could all be a waste of the younger man's time and distract Boito from completing his own new opera (which became Nerone). Yet, as his biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz notes, \"Verdi could not hide his delight at the idea of writing another opera\". On 10 July 1889 he wrote again:",
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"plaintext": "Boito's original sketch is lost, but surviving correspondence shows that the finished opera is not greatly different from his first thoughts. The major differences were that an act 2 monologue for Ford was moved from scene 2 to scene 1, and that the last act originally ended with the marriage of the lovers rather than with the lively vocal and orchestral fugue, which was Verdi's idea. He wrote to Boito in August 1889 telling him that he was writing a fugue: \"Yes, Sir! A fugue... and a buffa fugue\", which \"could probably be fitted in\".",
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"plaintext": "Verdi accepted the need to trim Shakespeare's plot to keep the opera within an acceptable length. He was sorry, nonetheless, to see the loss of Falstaff's second humiliation, dressed up as the Wise Woman of Brentford to escape from Ford. He wrote of his desire to do justice to Shakespeare: \"To sketch the characters in a few strokes, to weave the plot, to extract all the juice from that enormous Shakespearian orange\". Shortly after the premiere an English critic, R A Streatfeild, remarked on how Verdi succeeded:",
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"plaintext": "In November Boito took the completed first act to Verdi at Sant'Agata, along with the second act, which was still under construction: \"That act has the devil on its back; and when you touch it, it burns\", Boito complained. They worked on the opera for a week, then Verdi and his wife Giuseppina Strepponi went to Genoa. No more work was done for some time.",
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"plaintext": "The writer Russ McDonald observes that a letter from Boito to Verdi touches on the musical techniques used in the opera – he wrote of how to portray the characters Nannetta and Fenton: \"I can't quite explain it: I would like as one sprinkles sugar on a tart to sprinkle the whole comedy with that happy love without concentrating it at any one point.\"",
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"plaintext": "The first act was completed by March 1890; the rest of the opera was not composed in chronological order, as had been Verdi's usual practice. The musicologist Roger Parker comments that this piecemeal approach may have been \"an indication of the relative independence of individual scenes\". Progress was slow, with composition \"carried out in short bursts of activity interspersed with long fallow periods\" partly caused by the composer's depression. Verdi was weighed down by the fear of being unable to complete the score, and also by the deaths and impending deaths of close friends, including the conductors Franco Faccio and Emanuele Muzio. There was no pressure on the composer to hurry. As he observed at the time, he was not working on a commission from a particular opera house, as he had in the past, but was composing for his own pleasure: \"in writing Falstaff, I haven't thought about either theatres or singers\". He reiterated this idea in December 1890, a time when his spirits were very low after Muzio's death that November: \"Will I finish it [Falstaff]? Or will I not finish it? Who knows! I am writing without any aim, without a goal, just to pass a few hours of the day\". By early 1891 he was declaring that he could not finish the work that year, but in May he expressed some small optimism, which by mid-June, had turned into:",
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"plaintext": "Boito was overjoyed, and Verdi reported that he was still working on the opera. The two men met in October or November 1891, after which the Verdis were in Genoa for the winter. They were both taken ill there, and two months of work were lost. By mid-April 1892 the scoring of the first act was complete and by June–July Verdi was considering potential singers for roles in Falstaff. For the title role he wanted Victor Maurel, the baritone who had sung Iago in Otello, but at first the singer sought contractual terms that Verdi found unacceptable: \"His demands were so outrageous, exorbitant, [and] incredible that there was nothing else to do but stop the entire project\". Eventually they reached agreement and Maurel was cast.",
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"plaintext": "By September Verdi had agreed in a letter to his publisher Casa Ricordi that La Scala could present the premiere during the 1892–93 season, but that he would retain control over every aspect of the production. An early February date was mentioned along with the demand that the house would be available exclusively after 2 January 1893 and that, even after the dress rehearsal, he could withdraw the opera: \"I will leave the theatre, and [Ricordi] will have to take the score away\". The public learned of the new opera towards the end of 1892, and intense interest was aroused, increased rather than diminished by the secrecy with which Verdi surrounded the preparations; rehearsals were in private, and the press was kept at arm's length. Apart from Verdi's outrage at the way that La Scala announced the season's programme on 7 December – \"either a revival of Tannhäuser or Falstaff\" – things went smoothly in January 1893 up to the premiere performance on 9 February.",
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"plaintext": "The first performance of Falstaff was at La Scala in Milan on 9 February 1893, nearly six years after Verdi's previous premiere. For the first night, official ticket prices were thirty times greater than usual. Royalty, aristocracy, critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present. The performance was a huge success under the baton of Edoardo Mascheroni; numbers were encored, and at the end the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour. That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer, his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Over the next two months the work was given twenty-two performances in Milan and then taken by the original company, led by Maurel, to Genoa, Rome, Venice, Trieste, Vienna and, without Maurel, to Berlin. Verdi and his wife left Milan on 2 March; Ricordi encouraged the composer to go to the planned Rome performance of 14 April, to maintain the momentum and excitement that the opera had generated. The Verdis, along with Boito and Giulio Ricordi, attended together with King Umberto I and other major royal and political figures of the day. The king introduced Verdi to the audience from the Royal Box to great acclaim, \"a national recognition and apotheosis of Verdi that had never been tendered him before\", notes Phillips-Matz.",
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"plaintext": "During these early performances Verdi made substantial changes to the score. For some of these he altered his manuscript, but for others musicologists have had to rely on the numerous full and piano scores put out by Ricordi. Further changes were made for the Paris premiere in 1894, which are also inadequately documented. Ricordi attempted to keep up with the changes, issuing new edition after new edition, but the orchestral and piano scores were often mutually contradictory. The Verdi scholar James Hepokoski considers that a definitive score of the opera is impossible, leaving companies and conductors to choose between a variety of options. In a 2013 study Philip Gossett disagrees, believing that the autograph is essentially a reliable source, augmented by contemporary Ricordi editions for the few passages that Verdi omitted to amend in his own score.",
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"plaintext": "The first performances outside the Kingdom of Italy were in Trieste and Vienna, in May 1893. The work was given in the Americas and across Europe. The Berlin premiere of 1893 so excited Ferruccio Busoni that he drafted a letter to Verdi, in which he addressed him as \"Italy's leading composer\" and \"one of the noblest persons of our time\", and in which he explained that \"Falstaff provoked in me such a revolution of spirit that I can... date [to the experience] the beginning of a new epoch in my artistic life.\" Antonio Scotti played the title role in Buenos Aires in July 1893; Gustav Mahler conducted the opera in Hamburg in January 1894; a Russian translation was presented in St Petersburg in the same month. Paris was regarded by many as the operatic capital of Europe, and for the production there in April 1894 Boito, who was fluent in French, made his own translation with the help of the Parisian poet Paul Solanges. This translation, approved by Verdi, is quite free in its rendering of Boito's original Italian text. Boito was content to delegate the English and German translations to William Beatty-Kingston and Max Kalbeck respectively. The London premiere, sung in Italian, was at Covent Garden on 19 May 1894. The conductor was Mancinelli, and Zilli and Pini Corsi repeated their original roles. Falstaff was sung by Arturo Pessina; Maurel played the role at Covent Garden the following season. On 4 February 1895 the work was first presented at the Metropolitan Opera, New York; Mancinelli conducted and the cast included Maurel as Falstaff, Emma Eames as Alice, Zélie de Lussan as Nannetta and Sofia Scalchi as Mistress Quickly.",
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"plaintext": "After the initial excitement, audiences quickly diminished. Operagoers were nonplussed by the absence of big traditional arias and choruses. A contemporary critic summed it up: \"'Is this our Verdi?' they asked themselves. 'But where is the motive; where are the broad melodies... where are the usual ensembles; the finales?'\" By the time of Verdi's death in 1901 the work had fallen out of the international repertoire, though Gustav Mahler, an admirer of Verdi, led a production of \"exceptional quality\" in 1904 at the Vienna Court Opera. The rising young conductor Arturo Toscanini was a strong advocate of the work, and did much to save it from neglect. As musical director of La Scala (from 1898) and the Metropolitan Opera (from 1908), he programmed Falstaff from the start of his tenure. Richard Aldrich, music critic of The New York Times, wrote that Toscanini's revival \"ought to be marked in red letters in the record of the season. Falstaff, which was first produced here on February 4, 1895, has not been given since the following season, and was heard in these two seasons only half a dozen times in all.\" Aldrich added that though the general public might have had difficulty with the work, \"to connoisseurs it was an unending delight\".",
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"plaintext": "In Britain, as in continental Europe and the US, the work fell out of the repertoire. Sir Thomas Beecham revived it in 1919, and recalling in his memoirs that the public had stayed away he commented:",
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"plaintext": "Toscanini recognised that this was the view of many, but he believed the work to be Verdi's greatest opera; he said, \"I believe it will take years and years before the general public understand this masterpiece, but when they really know it they will run to hear it like they do now for Rigoletto and La traviata.\"",
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"plaintext": "Toscanini returned to La Scala in 1921 and remained in charge there until 1929, presenting Falstaff in every season. He took the work to Germany and Austria in the late 1920s and the 1930s, conducting it in Vienna, Berlin and at three successive Salzburg Festivals. Among those inspired by Toscanini's performances were Herbert von Karajan and Georg Solti, who were among his répétiteurs at Salzburg. Toscanini's younger colleague Tullio Serafin continued to present the work in Germany and Austria after Toscanini refused to perform there because of his loathing of the Nazi regime.",
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"plaintext": "When Karajan was in a position to do so he added Falstaff to the repertoire of his opera company at Aachen in 1941, and he remained a proponent of the work for the rest of his career, presenting it frequently in Vienna, Salzburg and elsewhere, and making audio and video recordings of it. Solti also became closely associated with Falstaff, as did Carlo Maria Giulini; they both conducted many performances of the work in mainland Europe, Britain and the US and made several recordings. Leonard Bernstein conducted the work at the Met and the Vienna State Opera, and on record. The advocacy of these and later conductors has given the work an assured place in the modern repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "Among revivals in the 1950s and later, Hepokoski singles out as particularly notable the Glyndebourne productions with Fernando Corena and later Geraint Evans in the title role; three different stagings by Franco Zeffirelli, for the Holland Festival (1956), Covent Garden (1961) and the Metropolitan Opera (1964); and Luchino Visconti's 1966 version in Vienna. A 1982 production by Ronald Eyre, more reflective and melancholy than usual, was staged in Los Angeles, London and Florence; Renato Bruson was Falstaff and Giulini conducted. Among more recent players of the title role Bryn Terfel has taken the part at Covent Garden in 1999, in a production by Graham Vick, conducted by Bernard Haitink. and at the Metropolitan Opera in a revival of the Zeffirelli production, conducted by James Levine in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Although Falstaff has become a regular repertoire work there nonetheless remains a view expressed by John von Rhein in the Chicago Tribune in 1985: \"Falstaff probably always will fall into the category of 'connoisseur's opera' rather than taking its place as a popular favorite on the order of La traviata or Aida.\"",
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"plaintext": "Time: The reign of Henry IV, 1399 to 1413",
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"plaintext": "Place: Windsor, England",
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"plaintext": "A room at the Garter Inn",
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"plaintext": "Falstaff and his servants, Bardolfo and Pistola, are drinking at the inn. Dr Caius bursts in and accuses Falstaff of burgling his house and Bardolfo of picking his pocket. Falstaff laughs at him; he leaves, vowing only to go drinking with honest, sober companions in future. When the innkeeper presents a bill for the wine, Falstaff tells Bardolfo and Pistola that he needs more money, and plans to obtain it by seducing the wives of two rich men, one of whom is Ford. Falstaff hands Bardolfo a love-letter to one of the wives (Alice Ford), and hands Pistola an identical letter addressed to the other (Meg). Bardolfo and Pistola refuse to deliver the letters, claiming that honour prevents them from obeying him. Falstaff loses his temper and rants at them, saying that \"honour\" is nothing but a word, with no meaning (Monologue: L'onore! Ladri... ! / \"Honour! You rogues... !\") Brandishing a broom, he chases them out of his sight.",
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"plaintext": "Ford's garden",
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"plaintext": "Alice and Meg have received Falstaff's letters. They compare them, see that they are identical and, together with Mistress Quickly and Nannetta Ford, resolve to punish Falstaff. Meanwhile, Bardolfo and Pistola warn Ford of Falstaff's plan. Ford resolves to disguise himself and visit Falstaff and set a trap for him.",
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"plaintext": "A young, handsome fellow called Fenton is in love with Ford's daughter Nannetta, but Ford wants her to marry Dr. Caius, who is wealthy and respected. Fenton and Nannetta enjoy a moment of privacy, but are interrupted by the return of Alice, Meg and Mistress Quickly. The act ends with an ensemble in which the women and the men separately plan revenge on Falstaff, the women gleefully anticipating an enjoyable prank, while the men angrily mutter dire threats.",
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"plaintext": "A room at the Garter Inn",
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"plaintext": "Falstaff is alone at the inn. Bardolfo and Pistola, now in the pay of Ford, enter and beg Falstaff to allow them to re-enter his service, secretly planning to spy on him for Ford. Mistress Quickly enters and tells him that Alice is in love with him and will be alone in Ford's home that afternoon, from two o'clock until three o'clock, just time for an amorous dalliance. Falstaff celebrates his potential success (\"Va, vecchio John\" / \"Go, old Jack, go your own way\"). ",
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"plaintext": "Ford arrives, masquerading as a wealthy stranger, using the false name \"Signor Fontana\". He tells Falstaff that he is in love with Alice, but she is too virtuous to entertain him. He offers to pay Falstaff to use his impressive title and (alleged) charms to seduce her away from her virtuous convictions, after which he (\"Fontana\") might have a better chance of seducing her himself. Falstaff, delighted at the prospect of being paid to seduce the wealthy and beautiful woman, agrees, and reveals that he already has a rendezvous arranged with Alice for two o'clock – the hour when Ford is always absent from home. Ford is consumed with jealousy, but conceals his feelings. Falstaff withdraws to a private room to change into his finest clothes, and Ford, left alone, reflects on the evil of an uncertain marriage and vows to have revenge (È sogno o realtà? / \"Is it a dream or reality?\"). When Falstaff returns in his finery, they leave together with elaborate displays of mutual courtesy.",
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"plaintext": "A room in Ford's house",
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"plaintext": "The three women plot their strategy (\"Gaie Comari di Windsor\" / \"Merry wives of Windsor, the time has come!\"). Alice notices that Nannetta is too unhappy and anxious to share their gleeful anticipation. This is because Ford plans to marry her to Dr Caius, a man old enough to be her grandfather; the women reassure her that they will prevent it. Mistress Quickly announces Falstaff's arrival, and Mistress Ford has a large laundry basket and a screen placed in readiness. Falstaff attempts to seduce Alice with tales of his past youth and glory (\"Quand'ero paggio del Duca di Norfolk\" / \"When I was page to the Duke of Norfolk I was slender\"). Mistress Quickly rushes in, shouting that Ford has returned home unexpectedly with a retinue of henchmen to catch his wife's lover. Falstaff hides first behind the screen, but realizes that Ford will likely look for him there. The women urge him to hide in the laundry basket, which he does. In the meantime Fenton and Nannetta hide behind the screen for another moment of privacy. Ford and his men storm in and search for Falstaff, and hear the sound of Fenton and Nannetta kissing behind the screen. They assume it is Falstaff with Alice, but instead they find the young lovers. Ford orders Fenton to leave. Badly cramped and almost suffocating in the laundry hamper, Falstaff moans with discomfort while the men resume the search of the house. Alice orders her servants to throw the laundry basket through the window into the River Thames, where Falstaff endures the jeers of the crowd. Ford, seeing that Alice had never intended to betray him, smiles happily.",
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"plaintext": "Before the inn",
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"plaintext": "Falstaff, cold and discouraged, glumly curses the sorry state of the world. Some mulled wine soon improves his mood. Mistress Quickly arrives and delivers another invitation to meet Alice. Falstaff at first wants nothing to do with it, but she persuades him. He is to meet Alice at midnight at Herne's Oak in Windsor Great Park dressed up as the ghost of Herne the Hunter who, according to local superstition, haunts the area near the tree, and appears there at midnight with a band of supernatural spirits. He and Mistress Quickly go inside the inn. Ford has realized his error in suspecting his wife, and they and their allies have been watching secretly. They now concoct a plan for Falstaff's punishment: dressed as supernatural creatures, they will ambush and torment him at midnight. Ford draws Dr. Caius aside and privately proposes a separate plot to marry him to Nannetta: Nannetta will be disguised as Queen of the Fairies, Caius will wear a monk's costume, and Ford will join the two of them with a nuptial blessing. Mistress Quickly overhears and quietly vows to thwart Ford's scheme.",
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"plaintext": "Herne's Oak in Windsor Park on a moonlit midnight",
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"plaintext": "Fenton arrives at the oak tree and sings of his happiness (\"Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola\" / \"From my lips, a song of ecstasy flies\") ending with \"Lips that are kissed lose none of their allure.\" Nannetta enters to finish the line with \"Indeed, they renew it, like the moon.\" The women arrive and disguise Fenton as a monk, telling him that they have arranged to spoil Ford's and Caius's plans. Nannetta, as the Fairy Queen, instructs her helpers (\"Sul fil d'un soffio etesio\" / \"On the breath of a fragrant breeze, fly, nimble spirits\") before all the characters arrive on the scene. Falstaff's attempted love scene with Alice is interrupted by the announcement that witches are approaching, and the men, disguised as elves and fairies, soundly thrash Falstaff. In the middle of the beating, he recognizes Bardolfo in disguise. The joke is over, and Falstaff acknowledges that he has received his due. Ford announces that a wedding will ensue. Caius and the Queen of the Fairies enter. A second couple, also in masquerade, ask Ford to deliver the same blessing for them as well. Ford conducts the double ceremony. Caius finds that instead of Nannetta, his bride is the disguised Bardolfo, and Ford has unwittingly blessed the marriage of Fenton and Nannetta. Ford accepts the fait accompli with good grace. Falstaff, pleased to find himself not the only dupe, proclaims that all the world is folly, and all are figures of fun (Tutto nel mondo è burla... Tutti gabbati!...Ma ride ben chi ride La risata final. / \"Everything in the world is a jest... but he laughs well who laughs the final laugh\"). The entire company repeats his proclamation in a bewildering ten-voice fugue.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi scored Falstaff for three flutes (third doubling piccolo), two oboes, English horn, two clarinets, bass clarinet, two bassoons, four horns, three trumpets, four trombones, timpani, percussion (triangle, cymbals, bass drum), harp, and strings. In addition, a guitar, natural horn, and bell are heard from offstage. Unlike most of Verdi's earlier operatic scores, Falstaff is through-composed. No list of numbers is printed in the published full score. The score differs from much of Verdi's earlier work by having no overture: there are seven bars for the orchestra before the first voice (Dr Caius) enters. The critic Rodney Milnes comments that \"enjoyment... shines from every bar in its irresistible forward impulse, its effortless melody, its rhythmic vitality, and sureness of dramatic pace and construction.\" In The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Roger Parker writes that:",
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"plaintext": "The opera was described by its creators as a commedia lirica. McDonald commented in 2009 that Falstaff is very different – a stylistic departure – from Verdi's earlier work. In McDonald's view most of the musical expression is in the dialogue, and there is only one traditional aria. The result is that \"such stylistic economy – more sophisticated, more challenging than he had employed before – is the keynote of the work.\" McDonald argues that consciously or unconsciously, Verdi was developing the idiom that would come to dominate the music of the 20th century: \"the lyricism is abbreviated, glanced at rather than indulged. Melodies bloom suddenly and then vanish, replaced by contrasting tempo or an unexpected phrase that introduces another character or idea\". In McDonald's view the orchestral writing acts as a sophisticated commentator on the action. It has influenced at least one of Verdi's operatic successors: in 1952 Imogen Holst, musical assistant to Benjamin Britten, wrote, after a performance of Falstaff, \"I realised for the first time how much Ben owes to [Verdi]. There are orchestral bits which are just as funny to listen to as the comic instrumental bits in A. Herring!\"",
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"plaintext": "The extent to which Falstaff is a \"Shakespearian\" opera has often been debated by critics. Although the action is taken from The Merry Wives of Windsor, some commentators feel that Boito and Verdi have transmuted Shakespeare's play into a wholly Italian work. The soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf believed there was nothing English or Shakespearian about the comedy: \"it was all done through the music\". In 1961 Peter Heyworth wrote in The Observer, \"Because of Shakespeare we like to think of Falstaff as a work that has a certain Englishness. In fact the opera is no more English than Aida is Egyptian. Boito and Verdi between them transformed the fat knight into one of the archetypes of opera buffa.\" Verdi himself, however, felt that the Falstaff of the opera is not a conventional Italian buffo character, but portrays Shakespeare's fuller, more ambiguous Falstaff of the Henry IV plays: \"My Falstaff is not merely the hero of The Merry Wives of Windsor, who is simply a buffoon, and allows himself to be tricked by the women, but also the Falstaff of the two parts of Henry IV. Boito has written the libretto in accordance.\" A contemporary critic argued that the text \"imitated with marvellous accuracy the metre and rhythm of Shakespeare's verse\", but Hepokoski notes Boito's use of traditional Italian metric conventions.",
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"plaintext": "Another recurrent question is how much, if at all, Verdi was influenced by Wagner's comic opera Die Meistersinger. At the time of the premiere this was a sensitive subject; many Italians were suspicious of or hostile to Wagner's music, and were protective in a nationalistic way of Verdi's reputation. Nevertheless, Verdi's new style was markedly different from that of his popular works of the 1850s and 1860s, and it seemed to some to have Wagnerian echoes. In 1999 the critic Andrew Porter wrote, \"That Falstaff was Verdi's and Boito's answer to Wagner's Meistersinger seems evident now. But the Italian Falstaff moves more quickly.\" Toscanini, who did more than anyone else to bring Falstaff into the regular operatic repertoire, commented:",
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"plaintext": "Verdi scholars including Julian Budden have analysed the music in symphonic terms – the opening section \"a perfect little sonata movement\", the second act concluding with a variant of the classic slow concertante ensemble leading to a fast stretto, and the whole opera ending with \"the most academic of musical forms\", a fugue. Milnes suggests that this shows \"a wise old conservative's warning about the excesses of the verismo school of Italian opera\" already on the rise by the 1890s. Among the solo numbers woven into the continuous score are Falstaff's \"honour\" monologue, which concludes the first scene, and his reminiscent arietta (\"Quand'ero paggio\") about himself as a young page. The young lovers, Nannetta and Fenton, are given a lyrical and playful duet (\"Labbra di foco\") in Act I; in Act III, Fenton's impassioned love song, \"Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola\" briefly becomes a duet when Nannetta joins him. She then has the last substantial solo section of the score, the \"fairy\" aria, \"Sul fil d'un soffio etesio\", described by Parker as \"yet another aria suffused with the soft orchestral colours that characterize this scene\".",
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"plaintext": "The score is seen by the critic Richard Osborne as rich in self-parody, with sinister themes from Rigoletto and Un ballo in maschera transmuted into comedy. For Osborne the nocturnal music of Act III draws on the examples of Weber, Berlioz and Mendelssohn, creating a mood akin to that of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. Osborne views the whole opera as an ensemble piece, and he comments that grand soliloquy in the old Verdian style is reserved for Ford's \"jealousy\" aria in Act II, which is almost tragic in style but comic in effect, making Ford \"a figure to be laughed at.\" Osborne concludes his analysis, \"Falstaff is comedy's musical apogee: the finest opera, inspired by the finest dramatist, by the finest opera composer the world has known\".",
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"plaintext": "There are two early recordings of Falstaff's short arietta \"Quand'ero paggio\". Pini Corsi, the original Ford, recorded it in 1904, and Maurel followed in 1907. The first recording of the complete opera was made by Italian Columbia in March and April 1932. It was conducted by Lorenzo Molajoli with the chorus and orchestra of La Scala, and a cast including Giacomo Rimini as Falstaff and Pia Tassinari as Alice. Some live stage performances were recorded in the 1930s, but the next studio recording was that conducted by Arturo Toscanini for the 1950 NBC radio broadcast released on disc by RCA Victor. The first stereophonic recording was conducted by Herbert von Karajan for EMI in 1956.",
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"plaintext": "Among the singers whose performances of the title role are on live or studio recordings, Italians include Renato Bruson, Tito Gobbi, Rolando Panerai, Ruggero Raimondi, Mariano Stabile, Giuseppe Taddei and Giuseppe Valdengo; Francophone singers include Gabriel Bacquier, Jean-Philippe Lafont and José van Dam; Germans include Walter Berry, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Hans Hotter; and UK and US singers include Geraint Evans, Donald Gramm, Bryn Terfel, Leonard Warren and Willard White.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " Beaumont, Antony, ed. (1987). Busoni: Selected Letters. New York: Columbia University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Libretto at giuseppeverdi.it",
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"plaintext": " Kingston, W. Beatty (translator), Falstaff: A Lyrical Comedy in Three Acts. Libretto with original English translation at archive.org.",
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"plaintext": " Detailed information on the key arias at aria-database.com",
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"plaintext": " Detailed Falstaff discography at operadis-opera-discography.org.uk",
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"plaintext": " Victor Maurel's 1907 recording of \"Quand'ero paggio\", at the Bibliothèque nationale de France",
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] | [
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"Opera_world_premieres_at_La_Scala",
"Operas_by_Giuseppe_Verdi",
"Operas",
"Operas_based_on_The_Merry_Wives_of_Windsor",
"Libretti_by_Arrigo_Boito"
] | 318,455 | 4,310 | 786 | 190 | 0 | 1 | Falstaff | opera by Giuseppe Verdi | [] |
37,888 | 1,106,051,678 | Aida | [
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"plaintext": "Aida (or Aïda, ) is an opera in four acts by Giuseppe Verdi to an Italian libretto by Antonio Ghislanzoni. Set in the Old Kingdom of Egypt, it was commissioned by Cairo's Khedivial Opera House and had its première there on 24 December 1871, in a performance conducted by Giovanni Bottesini. Today the work holds a central place in the operatic canon, receiving performances every year around the world; at New York's Metropolitan Opera alone, Aida has been sung more than 1,100 times since 1886. Ghislanzoni's scheme follows a scenario often attributed to the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, but Verdi biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz argues that the source is actually Temistocle Solera.",
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"plaintext": "Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, commissioned Verdi to write an opera for performance to celebrate the opening of the Khedivial Opera House, paying him 150,000 francs. The premiere was delayed because of the Siege of Paris (1870–71), during the Franco-Prussian War, when the scenery and costumes were stuck in the French capital, and Verdi's Rigoletto was performed instead. Aida eventually premiered in Cairo in late 1871. Contrary to popular belief, the opera was not written to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, for which Verdi had been invited to write an inaugural hymn, but had declined. Instead music by Jacques Offenbach was performed at the inauguration. The plot bears striking, though unintentional, similarities to Metastasio's libretto La Nitteti (1756).",
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"plaintext": "Verdi originally chose to write a brief orchestral prelude instead of a full overture for the opera. He then composed an overture of the \"potpourri\" variety to replace the original prelude. However, in the end he decided not to have the overture performed because of its—his own words—\"pretentious silliness\". This overture, never used today, was given a rare broadcast performance by Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra on 30 March 1940, but was never commercially issued.",
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"plaintext": "Aida met with great acclaim when it finally opened in Cairo on 24 December 1871. The costumes and accessories for the première were designed by Auguste Mariette, who also oversaw the design and construction of the sets, which were made in Paris by the Opéra's scene painters Auguste-Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon (acts 1 and 4) and Édouard Desplechin and Jean-Baptiste Lavastre (acts 2 and 3), and shipped to Cairo. Although Verdi did not attend the premiere in Cairo, he was most dissatisfied with the fact that the audience consisted of invited dignitaries, politicians and critics, but no members of the general public. He therefore considered the Italian (and European) première, held at La Scala, Milan on 8 February 1872, and a performance in which he was heavily involved at every stage, to be its real première.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi had also written the role of Aida for the voice of Teresa Stolz, who sang it for the first time at the Milan première. Verdi had asked her fiancé, Angelo Mariani, to conduct the Cairo première, but he declined, so Giovanni Bottesini filled the gap. The Milan Amneris, Maria Waldmann, was his favourite in the role and she repeated it a number of times at his request.",
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"plaintext": "Aida was received with great enthusiasm at its Milan première. The opera was soon mounted at major opera houses throughout Italy, including the Teatro Regio di Parma (20 April 1872), the Teatro di San Carlo (30 March 1873), La Fenice (11 June 1873), the Teatro Regio di Torino (26 December 1874), the Teatro Comunale di Bologna (30 September 1877, with Giuseppina Pasqua as Amneris and Franco Novara as the King), and the Teatro Costanzi (8 October 1881, with Theresia Singer as Aida and Giulia Novelli as Amneris) among others.",
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"plaintext": "Details of important national and other premières of Aida follow:",
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"plaintext": " Argentina: 4 October 1873, at the original Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires, located at Rivadavia and Reconquista, then replaced by the headquarters of the Bank of the Argentine Nation.",
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"plaintext": " United States: 26 November 1873, Academy of Music in New York City, with Ostava Torriani in the title role, Annie Louise Cary as Amneris, Italo Campanini as Radamès, Victor Maurel as Amonasro, and Evasio Scolara as the King",
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"plaintext": " Germany: 20 April 1874, Berlin State Opera, with Mathilde Mallinger as Aida, Albert Niemann as Radamès, and Franz Betz as Amonasro",
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"plaintext": " Austria: 29 April 1874, Vienna State Opera, with Amalie Materna as Amneris",
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"plaintext": " Hungary: 10 April 1875, Hungarian State Opera House, Budapest",
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"plaintext": " France: 22 April 1876, Théâtre-Lyrique Italien, Salle Ventadour, Paris, with almost the same cast as the Milan premiere, but with Édouard de Reszke making his debut as the King. This performance was conducted by Verdi.",
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"plaintext": " United Kingdom: 22 June 1876, Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, with Adelina Patti as Aida, Ernesto Nicolini as Radamès, and Francesco Graziani as Amonasro",
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"plaintext": " Australia: 6 September 1877, Royal Theatre, Melbourne",
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"plaintext": " Munich: 1877, Bavarian State Opera, with Josephine Schefsky as Amneris",
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"plaintext": " Stockholm: 16 February 1880, Royal Swedish Opera in Swedish, with Selma Ek in the title role",
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"plaintext": " Palais Garnier, Paris: 22 March 1880, sung in French, with Gabrielle Krauss as Aida, Rosine Bloch as Amnéris, Henri Sellier as Radamès, Victor Maurel as Amonasro, Georges-François Menu as the King, and Auguste Boudouresque as Ramphis.",
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"plaintext": " Metropolitan Opera, New York: 12 November 1886, conducted by Anton Seidl, with Therese Herbert-Förster (the wife of Victor Herbert) in the title role, Carl Zobel as Radamès, Marianne Brandt as Amneris, Adolf Robinson as Amonasro, Emil Fischer as Ramfis, and as the King.",
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"plaintext": " Rio de Janeiro: 30 June 1886, Theatro Lyrico Fluminense. During rehearsals, the performers of the Italian touring opera company had disagreements with the local conductor Leopoldo Miguez, described as \"inept\". After the failure of two replacement conductors, Arturo Toscanini, at the time a 19-year-old cellist who was assistant chorus master, was persuaded conduct the performance. He conducted the entire opera from memory with great success—the start of a great career.",
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"plaintext": "A complete concert version of the opera was given in New York City in 1949. Conducted by Toscanini with Herva Nelli as Aida and Richard Tucker as Radamès, it was televised on the NBC television network. Due to the length of the opera, it was divided into two telecasts, preserved on kinescopes, and later released on video by RCA and Testament. The audio portion of the broadcast, including some remakes in June 1954, was released on LP and CD by RCA Victor. Other notable performances from this period include a 1955 performance conducted by Tullio Serafin with Maria Callas as Aida and Richard Tucker as Radamès and a 1959 performance conducted by Herbert von Karajan with Renata Tebaldi as Aida and Carlo Bergonzi as Radamès.",
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"plaintext": "La Scala mounted a lavish new production of Aida designed by Franco Zeffirelli for the opening night of its 2006/2007 season. The production starred Violeta Urmana in the title role and Roberto Alagna as Radamès. Alagna subsequently made the headlines when he was booed for his rendition of \"Celeste Aida\" during the second performance, walked off the stage, and was dismissed from the remainder of the run. The production continued to cause controversy in 2014 when Zeffirelli protested La Scala's rental of the production to the Astana Opera House in Kazakhstan without his permission. According to Zeffirelli, the move had doomed his production to an \"infamous and brutal\" fate.",
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"plaintext": "Aida continues to be a staple of the standard operatic repertoire. It is frequently performed in the Verona Arena, and is a staple of its renowned opera festival.",
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"plaintext": "3 flutes (3rd also piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, cimbasso, timpani, triangle, bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, harp, strings; on-stage banda: 6 Egyptian trumpets (\"Aida trumpets\"), military band, harp",
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"plaintext": "The libretto does not specify a precise time period, so it is difficult to place the opera more specifically than the Old Kingdom. For the first production, Mariette went to great efforts to make the sets and costumes authentic. Given the consistent artistic styles throughout the 3000-year history of ancient Egypt, a given production does not particularly need to choose a specific time period within the larger frame of ancient Egyptian history.",
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"plaintext": "Backstory: The Egyptians have captured and enslaved Aida, an Ethiopian princess. An Egyptian military commander, Radamès, struggles to choose between his love for her and his loyalty to the King of Egypt. To complicate the story further, the King's daughter Amneris is in love with Radamès, although he does not return her feelings.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: A hall in the King's palace; through the rear gate the pyramids and temples of Memphis are visible",
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"plaintext": "Ramfis, the high priest of Egypt, tells Radamès, the young warrior, that war with the Ethiopians seems inevitable, and Radamès hopes that he will be chosen as the Egyptian commander (Ramfis, Radamès: \"Sì, corre voce l'Etiope ardisca\" / Yes, it is rumored that Ethiopia dares once again to threaten our power).",
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"plaintext": "Radamès dreams both of gaining victory on the battlefield and of Aida, an Ethiopian slave, with whom he is secretly in love (Radamès: \"Se quel guerrier io fossi! ... Celeste Aida\" / Heavenly Aida). Aida, who is also secretly in love with Radamès, is the captured daughter of the Ethiopian King Amonasro, but her Egyptian captors are unaware of her true identity. Her father has invaded Egypt to deliver her from servitude.",
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"plaintext": "Amneris, the daughter of the Egyptian King, enters the hall. She too loves Radamès, but fears that his heart belongs to someone else (Radamès, Amneris: \"Quale insolita gioia nel tuo sguardo\" / In your looks I trace an unwonted joy).",
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"plaintext": "Aida appears and, when Radamès sees her, Amneris notices that he looks disturbed. She suspects that Aida could be her rival, but is able to hide her jealousy and approach Aida (Amneris, Aida, Radamès: \"Vieni, o diletta, appressati\" / Come, O delight, come closer).",
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"plaintext": "The King enters, along with the High Priest, Ramfis, and the whole palace court. A messenger announces that the Ethiopians, led by King Amonasro, are marching towards Thebes. The King declares war and proclaims that Radamès is the man chosen by the goddess Isis to be the leader of the army (The King, Messenger, Radamès, Aida, Amneris, Ramfis, chorus: \"Alta cagion v'aduna .. Guerra, guerra, guerra!\" / Oh fate o'er Egypt looming .. War, war, war!). Upon receiving this mandate from the King, Radamès proceeds to the temple of Vulcan to take up the sacred arms (The King, Radamès, Aida, Amneris, chorus: \"Su! del Nilo al sacro lido\" .. (reprise) \"Guerra, guerra guerra!\" / On! Of Nilus' sacred river, guard the shores .. (reprise) War, war, war!).",
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"plaintext": "Alone in the hall, Aida feels torn between her love for her father, her country, and Radamès (Aida: \"Ritorna vincitor!\" / Return a conqueror!).",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: Inside the Temple of Ptah",
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"plaintext": "Solemn ceremonies and dances by the priestesses take place (High Priestess, chorus, Radamès: \"Possente Ftha... Tu che dal nulla\" / O mighty Ptah). This is followed by the installation of Radamès to the office of commander-in-chief (High Priestess, chorus, Ramfis, Radamès: \"Immenso Ftha .. Mortal, diletto ai Numi\" / O mighty one, guard and protect!). All present in the temple pray fervently for the victory of Egypt and protection for their warriors (\"Nume, custode e vindice\"/ Hear us, O guardian deity).",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The chamber of Amneris",
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"plaintext": "Dances and music to celebrate Radamès' victory take place (Chorus, Amneris: \"Chi mai fra gli inni e i plausi\" / Our songs his glory praising). However, Amneris is still in doubt about Radamès' love and wonders whether Aida is in love with him. She tries to forget her doubt, entertaining her worried heart with the dance of Moorish slaves (Chorus, Amneris: \"Vieni: sul crin ti piovano\" / Come bind your flowing tresses).",
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"plaintext": "When Aida enters the chamber, Amneris asks everyone to leave. By falsely telling Aida that Radamès has died in the battle, she tricks her into professing her love for him. In grief, and shocked by the news, Aida confesses that her heart belongs to Radamès eternally (Amneris, Aida: \"Fu la sorte dell'armi a' tuoi funesta\" / The battle's outcome was cruel for your people).",
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"plaintext": "This confession fires Amneris with rage, and she plans on taking revenge on Aida. Ignoring Aida's pleadings (Amneris, Aida, chorus: \"Su! del Nilo al sacro lido\" / Up! at the sacred shores of the Nile), Amneris leaves her alone in the chamber.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: The grand gate of the city of Thebes",
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"plaintext": "Radamès returns victorious and the troops march into the city (Chorus, Ramfis: \"Gloria all'Egitto, ad Iside\" / Glory to Egypt, [and] to Isis!).",
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"plaintext": "The Egyptian king decrees that on this day the triumphant Radamès may have anything he wishes. The Ethiopian captives are led onstage in chains, Amonasro among them. Aida immediately rushes to her father, who whispers to her to conceal his true identity as King of Ethiopia from the Egyptians. Amonasro deceptively proclaims to the Egyptians that the Ethiopian king (referring to himself) has been slain in battle. Aida, Amonasro, and the captured Ethiopians plead with the Egyptian King for mercy, but Ramfis and the Egyptian priests call for their death (Aida, Amneris, Radamès, The King, Amonasro, chorus: \"Che veggo! .. Egli? .. Mio padre! .. Anch'io pugnai .. Struggi, o Re, queste ciurme feroci\" / What do I see?.. Is it he? My father? .. Destroy, O King, these ferocious creatures).",
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"plaintext": "Claiming the reward promised by the King of Egypt, Radamès pleads with him to spare the lives of the prisoners and to set them free. The King grants Radamès' wish, and declares that he (Radamès) will be his (the King's) successor and will marry the King's daughter (Amneris). (Aida, Amneris, Radamès, Ramfis, The King, Amonasro, chorus: \"O Re: pei sacri Numi! .. Gloria all'Egitto\" / O King, by the sacred gods ... Glory to Egypt!). At Ramfis' suggestion to the King, Aida and Amonasro remain as hostages to ensure that the Ethiopians do not avenge their defeat.",
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"plaintext": "On the banks of the Nile, near the Temple of Isis",
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"plaintext": "Prayers are said (Chorus, High Priestess, Ramfis, Amneris: \"O tu che sei d'Osiride\" / O thou who to Osiris art) on the eve of Amneris and Radamès' wedding in the Temple of Isis. Outside, Aida waits to meet with Radamès as they had planned (Aida: \"Qui Radamès verra .. O patria mia\" / Oh, my dear country!).",
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"plaintext": "Amonasro appears and orders Aida to find out the location of the Egyptian army from Radamès. Aida, torn between her love for Radamès and her loyalty to her native land and to her father, reluctantly agrees. (Aida, Amonasro: \"Ciel, mio padre! .. Rivedrai le foreste imbalsamate\" / Once again shalt thou gaze). When Radamès arrives, Amonasro hides behind a rock and listens to their conversation.",
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"plaintext": "Radamès affirms that he will marry Aida (\"Pur ti riveggo, mia dolce Aida .. Nel fiero anelito\"; \"Fuggiam gli ardori inospiti .. Là, tra foreste vergini\" / I see you again, my sweet Aida!), and Aida convinces him to flee to the desert with her.",
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"plaintext": "In order to make their escape easier, Radamès proposes that they use a safe route without any fear of discovery and reveals the location where his army has chosen to attack. Upon hearing this, Amonasro comes out of hiding and reveals his identity. Radamès realizes, to his extreme dismay, that he has unwittingly revealed a crucial military secret to the enemy. At the same time, Amneris and Ramfis leave the temple and, seeing Radamès in conference with the enemy, call for the imperial guards. Amonasro draws a dagger, intending to kill Amneris and Ramfis before the guards can hear them, but Radamès disarms him, quickly orders him to flee with Aida, and surrenders himself to the imperial guards as Aida and Amonasro run off. The guards arrest him as a traitor.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: A hall in the Temple of Justice. To one side is the door leading to Radamès' prison cell",
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"plaintext": "Amneris desires to save Radamès (\"L'aborrita rivale a me sfuggia\" / My hated rival has escaped me). She calls for the guard to bring him to her.",
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"plaintext": "She asks Radamès to deny the accusations, but Radamès, who does not wish to live without Aida, refuses. He is relieved to know Aida is still alive and hopes she has reached her own country (Amneris, Radamès: \"Già i Sacerdoti adunansi\" / Already the priests are assembling).",
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"plaintext": "Offstage, Ramfis recites the charges against Radamès and calls on him to defend himself, but he stands mute, and is condemned to death as a traitor. Amneris, who remains onstage, protests that Radamès is innocent, and pleads with the priests to show mercy. The priests sentence him to be buried alive; Amneris weeps and curses the priests as he is taken away (Judgment scene, Amneris, Ramfis, and chorus: \"Ahimè! .. morir mi sento .. Radamès, è deciso il tuo fato\" / Alas.. I feel death .. Radamès, your fate is decided).",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: The lower portion of the stage shows the vault in the Temple of Ptah; the upper portion represents the temple itself",
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"plaintext": "Radamès has been taken into the lower floor of the temple and sealed up in a dark vault, where he thinks that he is alone. As he hopes that Aida is in a safer place, he hears a sigh and then sees Aida. She has hidden herself in the vault in order to die with Radamès (Radamès: \"La fatal pietra sovra me si chiuse\" / The fatal stone now closes over me). They accept their terrible fate (Radamès: \"Morir! Sì pura e bella\" / To die! So pure and lovely!) and bid farewell to Earth and its sorrows (duet \"Invan! Tutto e finito ... O terra addio\"). Above the vault in the temple of Ptah, Amneris weeps and prays to the goddess Isis. In the vault below, Aida dies in Radamès' arms as the priests, offstage, pray to the god Ptah. (Chorus, Aida, Radamès, Amneris: \"Immenso Ftha\" / Almighty Ptah).",
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"plaintext": "The opera has been adapted for motion pictures on several occasions, most notably in a 1953 production which starred Lois Maxwell as Amneris and Sophia Loren as Aida, and a 1987 Swedish production. In both cases, the lead actors lip-synched to recordings by actual opera singers. In the case of the 1953 film, Ebe Stignani sang as Amneris, while Renata Tebaldi sang as Aida. The opera's story, but not its music, was used as the basis for a 1998 musical of the same name written by Elton John and Tim Rice. The opera has been portrayed in the 2001 Italian animated film Aida of the Trees (Aida degli alberi). The characters are seen as anthropomorphic creatures between the fictional kingdoms of Alborea and Petra as the star-crossed lovers must find a way to unify their worlds together while facing off against the evil high priest Ramfis.",
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"plaintext": " (hardcover); (paperback).",
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"plaintext": " Paris: Slatkine (1983 reprint) .",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " De Van, Gilles (trans. Gilda Roberts) (1998). Verdi's Theater: Creating Drama Through Music. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. (hardback), (paperback)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Forment, Bruno (2015). \"Staging Verdi in the Provinces: The Aida Scenery of Albert Dubosq\", in Staging Verdi and Wagner, ed. Naomi Matsumoto (pp.263–286). Turnhout: Brepols.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gossett, Philip (2006). Divas and Scholars: Performing Italian Opera. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": " \"Aida\" in The Oxford Dictionary of Music, (ed.) Michael Kennedy. 2nd ed. rev., (Accessed 19 September 2010) ",
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"plaintext": " Martin, George Whitney (1963). Verdi: His Music, Life and Times. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. ",
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},
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"plaintext": " , translated by Richard Salinger (1921). [ The Opera Goer's Complete Guide], pp. 7–9. Dodd, Mead and Company. (Source of synopsis with updating to its language)",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Osborne, Charles (1969). The Complete Operas of Verdi, New York: Da Capo Press, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": " Parker, Roger (1998). \"Aida\", in Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1998 ",
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"plaintext": " Parker, Roger (2007). The New Grove Guide to Verdi and His Operas, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pistone, Danièle (1995). Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera: From Rossini to Puccini, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Rous, Samual Holland (1924). The Victrola Book of the Opera: Stories of One Hundred and Twenty Operas with Seven-Hundred Illustrations and Descriptions of Twelve-Hundred Victor Opera Records. Victor Talking Machine Co.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Toye, Francis (1931). Giuseppe Verdi: His Life and Works, New York: Knopf.",
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"plaintext": " Walker, Frank (1982). The Man Verdi. New York: Knopf, 1962, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Warrack, John and West, Ewan (1992). The Oxford Dictionary of Opera New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul (1973). Verdi: The Man and His Letters, New York, Vienna House. ",
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"plaintext": " Opera Guide, Synopsis – libretto – highlights",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " \"Synopsis, libretto\", Naxos Records",
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"plaintext": " Complete libretto of the opera",
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{
"plaintext": " Piano reduction, William and Gayle Cook Music Library, Indiana University School of Music",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aria Database list of arias",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Further Aida discography",
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"plaintext": " Libretto in Italian and English, Online Library of Liberty",
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"plaintext": " Synopsis, commentary, music analysis, anecdotes, opera-inside.com",
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] | [
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"plaintext": "George Michael Dolenz Jr. (born March 8, 1945) is an American actor, musician, TV producer and businessman. He is best known as the vocalist and drummer for the 1960s pop-rock band the Monkees (1966-1970, and multiple reunions through 2021) and a co-star of the TV series The Monkees (1966–1968). Following the death of Michael Nesmith in 2021, Dolenz is the only surviving member of the band.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz was born at the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles, California, the son of actors George Dolenz and Janelle Johnson. He has three sisters, Gemma Marie (\"Coco\"; born April 5, 1949), Deborah (born 1958), and Kathleen (\"Gina\"; born 1960). Gemma's nickname, Coco, is a shortened form of \"Coco Sunshine\", a nickname given to her as a child by Micky. Coco was a frequent guest on the set of The Monkees TV show and sometimes a guest performer on records by the Monkees, singing background vocals or duetting with Micky. She often performs as a member of Micky's backing band during his concerts.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz suffered from Perthes disease as a child, affecting his hip joint and right leg, leaving that leg weaker (and shorter) than the other. This resulted in Dolenz adapting an unorthodox drum setup – right-handed and left-footed – in his musical career.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz began his show-business career in 1956 when he starred in a children's TV show called Circus Boy under the name Mickey Braddock. He played Corky, an orphaned water boy for the elephants in a one-ring circus at the start of the 20th century. The program ran for two seasons, after which Dolenz made sporadic appearances on network television shows and pursued his education. Dolenz went to Ulysses S. Grant High School in Valley Glen, Los Angeles, California and graduated in 1962. In 1964, he was cast as Ed in the episode \"Born of Kings and Angels\" of the NBC education drama series Mr. Novak, starring James Franciscus as an idealistic Los Angeles teacher. Dolenz was attending college in Los Angeles when he was hired for the \"drummer\" role in NBC's The Monkees.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz originally had his own rock band called \"Micky and the One-Nighters\" in the early- to mid-1960s with himself as lead singer. He had already begun writing his own songs. According to Dolenz, his band's live stage act included rock songs, cover songs, and even some R&B. One of his favorite songs to sing was Chuck Berry's \"Johnny B. Goode\", which he sang at his Monkees audition, resulting in his being hired as one of the cast/band members. He recorded two 45s in 1965 that went unreleased until the Monkees' success in 1967. Issued on the Challenge label, the recordings were \"Don't Do It\" b/w \"Plastic Symphony III\" and \"Huff Puff\" b/w \"Fate (Big Ben)\". Neither B-side on the Challenge 45s is by Dolenz, but rather a band later credited as The Obvious.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, Dolenz was cast in the television sitcom The Monkees and became the drummer and a lead vocalist in the band created for the show. He was not actually a drummer and needed lessons to be able to mime credibly, but eventually was taught how to play properly. By the time the Monkees went on tour in late 1966, Dolenz was competent enough to play the drums himself.",
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"plaintext": "Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart, writers of many of the Monkees' songs, observed quickly that when brought into the studio together, the four actors would try to make each other laugh. Because of this, the writers often brought in each singer individually. The antics escalated until Dolenz poured a cup of ice on Don Kirshner's head. At the time, Dolenz did not know Kirshner on sight.",
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"plaintext": "According to Michael Nesmith, Dolenz's voice made the Monkees' sound distinctive, and during tension-filled times, Nesmith and Peter Tork voluntarily turned over lead vocal duties to Dolenz on their own compositions.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz purchased the third modular Moog synthesizer sold commercially. (The first two belonged to Wendy Carlos and Buck Owens.) His performance on the Monkees' song \"Daily Nightly\" (written by Nesmith), from the album Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., was one of the first uses of the synthesizer on a rock recording. He eventually sold his instrument to Bobby Sherman.",
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"plaintext": "He is the last surviving member of the Monkees (after Davy Jones's death in 2012, Tork's in 2019, and Nesmith's in 2021). He is the only member of the Monkees who was part of every lineup from the band's inception, and the only member with contemporary recordings of his vocals on all studio albums.",
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"plaintext": "The Moog synthesizer that Dolenz had bought proved vital when he composed a song entitled \"Easy on You\" in 1971; he began recording it in his home studio, playing acoustic guitar and drums, and using the Moog like a keyboard. With that song completed, he next invited former Monkee Peter Tork over to help with more recordings. Then, a fortuitous street encounter led to former Monkee stand-in David Price joining, as well as contributing a rock song he had written called \"Oh Someone\". With Dolenz on drums and vocals, Tork on bass, and Price on rhythm guitar, the song was completed in only two hours; subsequently, guitarist B.J. Jones came in two days later and added lead guitar. With these two songs recorded, Dolenz contacted his former high school friend Mike Curb, then the head of MGM Records; after playing the songs for Curb, Dolenz was immediately signed to MGM.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz recorded and released songs for MGM for about three years (with a few of the songs being credited to Starship, an ersatz group, not the later Jefferson Starship). After the first year, Dolenz's friend Harry Nilsson contributed his song \"Daybreak\", also arranging and producing the recording, which included Keith Allison on guitar, former Monkees producer Chip Douglas on bass, and steel-guitarist Orville \"Red\" Rhodes.",
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"plaintext": "By early 1974, with no chart successes to date, Dolenz headed to England, and with Tony Scotti, he cut four songs for MGM: two rock classics, \"Splish Splash\" and \"Purple People Eater\", as well as \"I Hate Rock and Roll\" and a new song, \"Wing Walker\". Meanwhile, Mike Curb left MGM and joined Warner Bros. Records. Dolenz's association with MGM then ended (and those final four songs remained unreleased).",
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"plaintext": "Due in part to reruns of The Monkees on Saturday mornings and in syndication, The Monkees Greatest Hits charted in 1976. The LP, issued by Arista (a subsidiary of Columbia Pictures), was actually a repackaging of a 1972 compilation LP called Re-Focus that had been issued by Arista's previous label imprint, Bell Records, also owned by Columbia Pictures.",
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"plaintext": "Dolenz and Jones took advantage of this, joining ex-Monkees songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to tour the United States. They could not use the Monkees name for legal reasons, but from 1975 to 1977, as the \"Golden Hits of The Monkees\" show (\"The Guys Who Wrote 'Em and the Guys Who Sang 'Em!\"), they successfully performed in smaller venues such as state fairs and amusement parks, as well as making stops in Japan, Thailand, and Singapore. They also released an album of new material, appropriately called Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart, and a live album, Concert in Japan, was released by Capitol in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Nesmith had not been interested in a reunion. Tork also did not participate, as they didn't know where he was at that time to invite him. A Christmas single (credited to Dolenz, Jones and Tork) was produced by Chip Douglas and released on his own label in 1976. The single featured Douglas's and Howard Kaylan's \"Christmas Is My Time of Year\" (originally recorded by a 1960s supergroup, The Christmas Spirit), with a B-side of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\" (Douglas released a remixed version of the single, with additional overdubbed instruments, in 1986). Tork also joined Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart on stage at Disneyland on July 4, 1976, and also joined Dolenz and Jones on stage at the Starwood in Hollywood, California in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, he performed with former bandmate Davy Jones in a stage production of the Harry Nilsson musical The Point! at London's Mermaid Theatre, playing and singing the part of the \"Count's Kid\" and the Leafman to Jones' starring role as Oblio (according to the CD booklet). An original cast recording was made and released. The comedic chemistry of Dolenz and Jones proved so strong that the show was revived in 1978 with Nilsson inserting additional comedy for the two, plus two more songs, with one of them (\"Gotta Get Up\") being sung by Dolenz and Jones together. The show was considered so good that it was planned to be revived again in 1979, but it proved cost-prohibitive. After the show's run, Dolenz remained in England and began directing for stage and television, as well as producing several of the shows he directed.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2006, Dolenz played Charlemagne at the Goodspeed Opera House for the revival of the musical Pippin in East Haddam, Connecticut. He also toured in that role. Also in the mid-2000s, Dolenz played the role of Zoser in the Broadway production of Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida.",
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"plaintext": "Both Dolenz and Michael Nesmith auditioned for the role of Arthur \"The Fonz\" Fonzarelli on Happy Days, but neither was selected due to both being taller (6ft., 1 in.) than lead actor Ron Howard (Richie Cunningham), who is 5ft., 9 in. tall, and co-stars Anson Williams (Warren \"Potsie\" Weber) and Don Most (Ralph Malph), both under 6ft. The producers preferred a shorter Fonzie in hopes that Fonzie would not overshadow the rest of the cast, a strategy that eventually proved to be unsuccessful, as the Fonz would be the show's breakout character. A search for a shorter actor eventually resulted in Henry Winkler's hiring.",
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"plaintext": "Early in the development of Batman Forever, Dolenz was a contender for the role of the Riddler, which ultimately went to Jim Carrey.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, a screening of the entire Monkees television series by MTV led to renewed interest in the band, followed by a single, \"That Was Then, This Is Now\", which reached No. 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the U.S., a 20th-anniversary tour, a greatest hits album, and a brand new LP, Pool It! in 1987. The band's original albums were reissued, and all hit the record charts at the same time.",
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"plaintext": "However, WCBS-FM eventually returned to its oldies format on July 12, 2007, with Taylor re-assuming his role as the morning disc jockey the following day. Several months later, on February 3, 2008, Dolenz was invited back to the station to present his long-postponed 101st show and final in-studio appearance there by guest-hosting a three-hour broadcast during WCBS' Sunday evening \"New York Radio Greats\" program.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Dolenz signed a deal to record an album of the classic songs of Carole King, titled King for a Day. The album (released on Gigitone Records) was produced by Jeffrey Foskett, who has worked extensively with Brian Wilson and played on Wilson's 2004 Grammy-winning Brian Wilson Presents Smile. King's songs \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\", \"Sometime in the Morning\", and \"Porpoise Song\" (Theme from Head) have emerged as signature songs from the Monkees. As of February 2010, he was appearing on stage in London in Hairspray with Michael Ball. The show also went on tour and had a successful run in Dublin, Ireland, during November 2010. In 2011, he rejoined Tork and Jones for The 45th Anniversary Tour. ",
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"plaintext": "In late 2019, Dolenz toured with Todd Rundgren, Jason Scheff, Christopher Cross, and Joey Molland of Badfinger, in celebration of the Beatles' White Album on the \"It Was Fifty Years Ago Today – A Tribute to the Beatles' White Album\" tour. Dolenz performed the Monkees' songs \"I'm a Believer\" and \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\".",
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"plaintext": "He married Trina Dow in 1977. The couple had three daughters: Charlotte Janelle (born August 8, 1981), Emily Claire (born July 25, 1983), and Georgia Rose (born September 3, 1984). They divorced in 1991. Trina Dow Dolenz has become a couples therapist, still using her married name. Dolenz married his third wife, Donna Quinter, in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "The Point! (MCA, 1977) - with the London cast of The Point! (MCA Records - VIM 6262; CD release 2016, Varèse Sarabande)",
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"plaintext": "\"Huff Puff\"/\"Fate (Big Ben)\" (Challenge, 1967) (recorded in 1965)",
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"plaintext": "\"Johnny B. Goode\"/\"It's Amazing to Me\" (Lion, 1972) - with Starship",
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"plaintext": "\"The Buddy Holly Tribute\"/\"Ooh, She's Young\" (Romar, 1974)",
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"plaintext": "\"I Remember the Feeling\"/\"You and I\" (Capitol, 1975) - with Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart",
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"plaintext": "\"To Be or Not to Be\"/\"Beverly Hills\" (JAM, 1981)",
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"plaintext": "\"Tomorrow\"/\"Fat Sam's Grand Slam\" (A&M, 1983) - with the Bugsy Malone Gang",
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"plaintext": "\"Chance of a Lifetime\"/\"Livin' on Lies\" (7A Records, 2016)",
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"plaintext": "\"Porpoise Song\"/\"Good Morning Good Morning\"/\"Crying in the Rain\"/\"Randy Scouse Git\" (7A Records, 2016) - with Christian Nesmith and Circe Link",
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"plaintext": "\"Sunny Girlfriend\"/\"Zor and Zam\" (Live in Japan, 1982) (7A Records, 2016)",
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"plaintext": " 1977–1978: The Point!, Mermaid Theatre, London, England (Role: Count's Kid / The Leafman)",
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"plaintext": " 1983: Bugsy Malone, Her Majesty's Theatre, London, England (director)",
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"plaintext": " 1994–1998: Grease, Eugene O'Neill Theatre, NYC (Role: Vince Fontaine - replacement)",
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"plaintext": " 2004: Aida, Palace Theatre, NYC (Role: Zoser - replacement)",
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"plaintext": " 2006: Pippin, Goodspeed Opera House, East Haddam, Connecticut (Role: Charlemagne)",
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"plaintext": " 2010: Hairspray, Grand Canal Theatre, Dublin, Ireland (Role: Wilbur Turnblad - alternate)",
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"plaintext": " Dye, David. Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914-1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p.24.",
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"plaintext": " Micky's First Television Show: Circus Boy",
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"plaintext": " Former Monkee still a player",
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"plaintext": " 2006 radio interview with Micky",
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"George Michael Dolenz Jr."
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37,892 | 1,101,867,854 | Thrust | [
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"plaintext": "Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton's third law. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction, the accelerated mass will cause a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction to be applied to that system.",
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"plaintext": "The force applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular or normal to the surface is also called thrust. Force, and thus thrust, is measured using the International System of Units (SI) in newtons (symbol: N), and represents the amount needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at the rate of 1 meter per second per second. In mechanical engineering, force orthogonal to the main load (such as in parallel helical gears) is referred to as static thrust.",
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"plaintext": "A fixed-wing aircraft propulsion system generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done by different means such as the spinning blades of a propeller, the propelling jet of a jet engine, or by ejecting hot gases from a rocket engine. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft use rotors and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use propellers or engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft and to provide forward propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Where T is the thrust generated (force), is the rate of change of mass with respect to time (mass flow rate of exhaust), and v is the velocity of the exhaust gases measured relative to the rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Each of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines could produce a thrust of 1.8meganewton, and each of the Space Shuttle's two Solid Rocket Boosters , together 29.4MN.",
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"plaintext": "In the air-breathing category, the AMT-USA AT-180 jet engine developed for radio-controlled aircraft produce 90N (20 lbf) of thrust. The GE90-115B engine fitted on the Boeing 777-300ER, recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the \"World's Most Powerful Commercial Jet Engine,\" has a thrust of 569kN (127,900lbf) until it was surpassed by the GE9X, fitted on the upcoming Boeing 777X, at 609 kN (134,300 lbf).",
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"plaintext": "The power needed to generate thrust and the force of the thrust can be related in a non-linear way. In general, . The proportionality constant varies, and can be solved for a uniform flow, where is the incoming air velocity, is the velocity at the actuator disc, and is the final exit velocity:",
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"plaintext": "When incoming air is accelerated from a standstill – for example when hovering – then , and we can find:",
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"plaintext": "From here we can see the relationship, finding:",
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"plaintext": "The inverse of the proportionality constant, the \"efficiency\" of an otherwise-perfect thruster, is proportional to the area of the cross section of the propelled volume of fluid () and the density of the fluid (). This helps to explain why moving through water is easier and why aircraft have much larger propellers than watercraft.",
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"plaintext": "A very common question is how to compare the thrust rating of a jet engine with the power rating of a piston engine. Such comparison is difficult, as these quantities are not equivalent. A piston engine does not move the aircraft by itself (the propeller does that), so piston engines are usually rated by how much power they deliver to the propeller. Except for changes in temperature and air pressure, this quantity depends basically on the throttle setting.",
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"plaintext": "A jet engine has no propeller, so the propulsive power of a jet engine is determined from its thrust as follows. Power is the force (F) it takes to move something over some distance (d) divided by the time (t) it takes to move that distance:",
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"plaintext": "In case of a rocket or a jet aircraft, the force is exactly the thrust (T) produced by the engine. If the rocket or aircraft is moving at about a constant speed, then distance divided by time is just speed, so power is thrust times speed:",
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"plaintext": "This formula looks very surprising, but it is correct: the propulsive power (or power available ) of a jet engine increases with its speed. If the speed is zero, then the propulsive power is zero. If a jet aircraft is at full throttle but attached to a static test stand, then the jet engine produces no propulsive power, however thrust is still produced. The combination piston engine–propeller also has a propulsive power with exactly the same formula, and it will also be zero at zero speed – but that is for the engine–propeller set. The engine alone will continue to produce its rated power at a constant rate, whether the aircraft is moving or not.",
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"plaintext": "If a powered aircraft is generating thrust T and experiencing drag D, the difference between the two, T−D, is termed the excess thrust. The instantaneous performance of the aircraft is mostly dependent on the excess thrust.",
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"plaintext": " Gas turbine engine thrust",
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"plaintext": " Gimballed thrust, most common in modern rockets",
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"plaintext": " Pound of thrust (same as pound (force))",
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37,894 | 1,084,461,806 | Savoy_knot | [
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"plaintext": "The Savoy knot can also be seen on the Alfa Romeo automobile badge (founded and manufactured in Milan, Italy) up to 1943.",
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"plaintext": "It is named after mathematician Lothar Collatz, who introduced the idea in 1937, two years after receiving his doctorate. It is also known as the problem, the conjecture, the Ulam conjecture (after Stanisław Ulam), Kakutani's problem (after Shizuo Kakutani), the Thwaites conjecture (after Sir Bryan Thwaites), Hasse's algorithm (after Helmut Hasse), or the Syracuse problem. ",
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"plaintext": "The sequence of numbers involved is sometimes referred to as the hailstone sequence, hailstone numbers or hailstone numerals (because the values are usually subject to multiple descents and ascents like hailstones in a cloud), or as wondrous numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Paul Erdős said about the Collatz conjecture: \"Mathematics may not be ready for such problems.\" He also offered US$500 for its solution. Jeffrey Lagarias stated in 2010 that the Collatz conjecture \"is an extraordinarily difficult problem, completely out of reach of present day mathematics\".",
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"plaintext": "In modular arithmetic notation, define the function as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Now form a sequence by performing this operation repeatedly, beginning with any positive integer, and taking the result at each step as the input at the next.",
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"plaintext": "In notation:",
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"plaintext": "(that is: is the value of applied to recursively times; ).",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz conjecture is: This process will eventually reach the number 1, regardless of which positive integer is chosen initially.",
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"plaintext": "If the conjecture is false, it can only be because there is some starting number which gives rise to a sequence that does not contain 1. Such a sequence would either enter a repeating cycle that excludes 1, or increase without bound. No such sequence has been found.",
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"plaintext": "The smallest such that is called the stopping time of . Similarly, the smallest such that is called the total stopping time of . If one of the indexes or doesn't exist, we say that the stopping time or the total stopping time, respectively, is infinite.",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz conjecture asserts that the total stopping time of every is finite. It is also equivalent to saying that every has a finite stopping time.",
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"plaintext": "Since is even whenever is odd, one may instead use the \"shortcut\" form of the Collatz function:",
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"plaintext": "This definition yields smaller values for the stopping time and total stopping time without changing the overall dynamics of the process.",
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"plaintext": "For instance, starting with and applying the function without \"shortcut\", one gets the sequence 12, 6, 3, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1.",
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"plaintext": "The number takes longer to reach 1: 19, 58, 29, 88, 44, 22, 11, 34, 17, 52, 26, 13, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1.",
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"plaintext": "The sequence for , listed and graphed below, takes 111 steps (41 steps through odd numbers, in bold), climbing as high as 9232 before descending to 1.",
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"plaintext": " 27, 82, 41, 124, 62, 31, 94, 47, 142, 71, 214, 107, 322, 161, 484, 242, 121, 364, 182, 91, 274, 137, 412, 206, 103, 310, 155, 466, 233, 700, 350, 175, 526, 263, 790, 395, 1186, 593, 1780, 890, 445, 1336, 668, 334, 167, 502, 251, 754, 377, 1132, 566, 283, 850, 425, 1276, 638, 319, 958, 479, 1438, 719, 2158, 1079, 3238, 1619, 4858, 2429, 7288, 3644, 1822, 911, 2734, 1367, 4102, 2051, 6154, 3077, 9232, 4616, 2308, 1154, 577, 1732, 866, 433, 1300, 650, 325, 976, 488, 244, 122, 61, 184, 92, 46, 23, 70, 35, 106, 53, 160, 80, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 ",
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"plaintext": "Numbers with a total stopping time longer than that of any smaller starting value form a sequence beginning with:",
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"plaintext": "1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 18, 25, 27, 54, 73, 97, 129, 171, 231, 313, 327, 649, 703, 871, 1161, 2223, 2463, 2919, 3711, 6171, ... .",
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"plaintext": "The starting values whose maximum trajectory point is greater than that of any smaller starting value are as follows:",
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"plaintext": "1, 2, 3, 7, 15, 27, 255, 447, 639, 703, 1819, 4255, 4591, 9663, 20895, 26623, 31911, 60975, 77671, 113383, 138367, 159487, 270271, 665215, 704511, ... ",
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"plaintext": "Number of steps for to reach 1 are",
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"plaintext": "0, 1, 7, 2, 5, 8, 16, 3, 19, 6, 14, 9, 9, 17, 17, 4, 12, 20, 20, 7, 7, 15, 15, 10, 23, 10, 111, 18, 18, 18, 106, 5, 26, 13, 13, 21, 21, 21, 34, 8, 109, 8, 29, 16, 16, 16, 104, 11, 24, 24, ... ",
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"plaintext": "The starting value having the largest total stopping time while being",
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"plaintext": "less than 10 is 9, which has 19 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 100 is 97, which has 118 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 1000 is 871, which has 178 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 104 is 6171, which has 261 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 105 is , which has 350 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 106 is , which has 524 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 107 is , which has 685 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 108 is , which has 949 steps, ",
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"plaintext": "less than 109 is , which has 986 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 1010 is , which has 1132 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 1011 is , which has 1228 steps,",
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"plaintext": "less than 1012 is , which has 1348 steps.",
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"plaintext": "These numbers are the lowest ones with the indicated step count, but not necessarily the only ones below the given limit. As an example, has 1132 steps, as does .",
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"plaintext": "The starting values having the smallest total stopping time with respect to their number of digits (in base 2) are the powers of two since is halved times to reach 1, and is never increased.",
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"plaintext": "Although the conjecture has not been proven, most mathematicians who have looked into the problem think the conjecture is true because experimental evidence and heuristic arguments support it.",
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"plaintext": ", the conjecture has been checked by computer for all starting values up to 268 ≈ . All initial values tested so far eventually end in the repeating cycle of period 3. ",
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"plaintext": "This computer evidence is not sufficient to prove that the conjecture is true for all starting values. As in the case of some disproved conjectures, like the Pólya conjecture, counterexamples might be found when considering very large numbers.",
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"plaintext": "However, such verifications may have other implications. For example, one can derive additional constraints on the period and structural form of a non-trivial cycle.",
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"plaintext": "method of growing the so-called Collatz graph. The Collatz graph is a graph defined by the inverse relation",
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"plaintext": "So, instead of proving that all positive integers eventually lead to 1, we can try to prove that 1 leads backwards to all positive integers. For any integer , if and only if . Equivalently, if and only if . Conjecturally, this inverse relation forms a tree except for the 1–2–4 loop (the inverse of the 4–2–1 loop of the unaltered function defined in the Statement of the problem section of this article).",
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"plaintext": "When the relation of the function is replaced by the common substitute \"shortcut\" relation , the Collatz graph is defined by the inverse relation,",
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"plaintext": "For any integer , if and only if . Equivalently, if and only if . Conjecturally, this inverse relation forms a tree except for a 1–2 loop (the inverse of the 1–2 loop of the function f(n) revised as indicated above).",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, replace the with where and is the highest power of 2 that divides (with no remainder). The resulting function maps from odd numbers to odd numbers. Now suppose that for some odd number , applying this operation times yields the number 1 (that is, ). Then in binary, the number can be written as the concatenation of strings where each is a finite and contiguous extract from the representation of . The representation of therefore holds the repetends of , where each repetend is optionally rotated and then replicated up to a finite number of bits. It is only in binary that this occurs. Conjecturally, every binary string that ends with a '1' can be reached by a representation of this form (where we may add or delete leading '0's to).",
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"plaintext": "Repeated applications of the Collatz function can be represented as an abstract machine that handles strings of bits. The machine will perform the following three steps on any odd number until only one remains:",
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"plaintext": " Append to the (right) end of the number in binary (giving );",
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"plaintext": " Add this to the original number by binary addition (giving );",
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"plaintext": " Remove all trailing s (that is, repeatedly divide by 2 until the result is odd).",
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"plaintext": "The starting number 7 is written in base two as . The resulting Collatz sequence is:",
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"plaintext": " 1111",
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"plaintext": " 11011",
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"plaintext": " 101",
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"plaintext": " 1011",
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"plaintext": " 1",
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"plaintext": "For this section, consider the Collatz function in the slightly modified form",
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"plaintext": "This can be done because when is odd, is always even.",
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"plaintext": "If is the parity of a number, that is and , then we can define the Collatz parity sequence (or parity vector) for a number as , where , and .",
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"plaintext": "Which operation is performed, or , depends on the parity. The parity sequence is the same as the sequence of operations.",
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"plaintext": "Using this form for , it can be shown that the parity sequences for two numbers and will agree in the first terms if and only if and are equivalent modulo . This implies that every number is uniquely identified by its parity sequence, and moreover that if there are multiple Hailstone cycles, then their corresponding parity cycles must be different.",
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"plaintext": "Applying the function times to the number will give the result , where is the result of applying the function times to , and is how many increases were encountered during that sequence. For example, for there are 3 increases as 1 iterates to 2, 1, 2, 1, and finally to 2 so the result is ; for there is only 1 increase as 1 rises to 2 and falls to 1 so the result is . When is then there will be rises and the result will be . The factor of 3 multiplying is independent of the value of ; it depends only on the behavior of . This allows one to predict that certain forms of numbers will always lead to a smaller number after a certain number of iterations: for example, becomes after two applications of and becomes after 4 applications of . Whether those smaller numbers continue to 1, however, depends on the value of .",
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"plaintext": "For the Collatz function in the form",
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"plaintext": "Hailstone sequences can be computed by the extremely simple 2-tag system with production rules",
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"plaintext": ", , .",
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"plaintext": "In this system, the positive integer is represented by a string of copies of , and iteration of the tag operation halts on any word of length less than2. (Adapted from De Mol.)",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz conjecture equivalently states that this tag system, with an arbitrary finite string of as the initial word, eventually halts (see Tag system for a worked example).",
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"plaintext": "An extension to the Collatz conjecture is to include all integers, not just positive integers. Leaving aside the cycle 0 → 0 which cannot be entered from outside, there are a total of four known cycles, which all nonzero integers seem to eventually fall into under iteration of . These cycles are listed here, starting with the well-known cycle for positive:",
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"plaintext": "Odd values are listed in large bold. Each cycle is listed with its member of least absolute value (which is always odd) first.",
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"plaintext": "The generalized Collatz conjecture is the assertion that every integer, under iteration by , eventually falls into one of the four cycles above or the cycle 0 → 0. (The 0 → 0 cycle is only included for the sake of completeness.)",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz map can be extended to (positive or negative) rational numbers which have odd denominators when written in lowest terms. ",
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"plaintext": "The number is taken to be 'odd' or 'even' according to whether its numerator is odd or even. Then the formula for the map is exactly the same as when the domain is the integers: an 'even' such rational is divided by 2; an 'odd' such rational is multiplied by 3 and then 1 is added. A closely related fact is that the Collatz map extends to the ring of 2-adic integers, which contains the ring of rationals with odd denominators as a subring.",
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"plaintext": "When using the \"shortcut\" definition of the Collatz map, it is known that any periodic As a parity sequence is generated by exactly one rational. Conversely, it is conjectured that every rational with an odd denominator has an eventually cyclic parity sequence (Periodicity Conjecture).",
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"plaintext": "If a parity cycle has length and includes odd numbers exactly times at indices , then the unique rational which generates immediately and periodically this parity cycle is",
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"plaintext": "For example, the parity cycle has length 7 and four odd terms at indices 0, 2, 3, and 6. It is repeatedly generated by the fraction",
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"plaintext": "as the latter leads to the rational cycle ",
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"plaintext": "Any cyclic permutation of is associated to one of the above fractions. For instance, the cycle is produced by the fraction",
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"plaintext": "For a one-to-one correspondence, a parity cycle should be irreducible, that is, not partitionable into identical sub-cycles. As an illustration of this, the parity cycle and its sub-cycle are associated to the same fraction when reduced to lowest terms.",
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"plaintext": "In this context, assuming the validity of the Collatz conjecture implies that and are the only parity cycles generated by positive whole numbers (1 and 2, respectively).",
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"plaintext": "If the odd denominator of a rational is not a multiple of 3, then all the iterates have the same denominator and the sequence of numerators can be obtained by applying the \"\" generalization of the Collatz function",
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"plaintext": "The function ",
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"plaintext": "is well-defined on the ring of 2-adic integers, where it is continuous and measure-preserving with respect to the 2-adic measure. Moreover, its dynamics is known to be ergodic.",
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"plaintext": "Define the parity vector function acting on as",
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"plaintext": "The function is a 2-adic isometry. Consequently, every infinite parity sequence occurs for exactly one 2-adic integer, so that almost all trajectories are acyclic in .",
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"plaintext": "An equivalent formulation of the Collatz conjecture is that",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz map (with shortcut) can be viewed as the restriction to the integers of the smooth map",
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"plaintext": "The iterations of this map on the real line lead to a dynamical system, further investigated by Chamberland.",
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"plaintext": "He showed that the conjecture does not hold for positive real numbers since there are infinitely many fixed points, as well as orbits escaping monotonically to infinity. The function has two attracting cycles of period 2, and . Moreover, the set of unbounded orbits is conjectured to be of measure 0.",
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"plaintext": "Letherman, Schleicher, and Wood extended the study to the complex plane, where most of the points have orbits that diverge to infinity (colored region on the illustration). The boundary between the colored region and the black components, namely the Julia set of , is a fractal pattern, sometimes called the \"Collatz fractal\".",
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"plaintext": "The section As a parity sequence above gives a way to speed up simulation of the sequence. To jump ahead steps on each iteration (using the function from that section), break up the current number into two parts, (the least significant bits, interpreted as an integer), and (the rest of the bits as an integer). The result of jumping ahead steps can be found as:",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": "The (or better ) and arrays are precalculated for all possible -bit numbers , where is the result of applying the function times to , and is the number of odd numbers encountered on the way. For example, if , one can jump ahead 5 steps on each iteration by separating out the 5 least significant bits of a number and using:",
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"plaintext": " (0...31) = { 0, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 1, 4, 1, 3, 2, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 3, 1, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 3, 4, 5 }",
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"plaintext": " (0...31) = { 0, 2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 20, 1, 26, 1, 10, 4, 4, 13, 40, 2, 5, 17, 17, 2, 2, 20, 20, 8, 22, 8, 71, 26, 26, 80, 242 }.",
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"plaintext": "This requires precomputation and storage to speed up the resulting calculation by a factor of , a space–time tradeoff.",
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"plaintext": "For the special purpose of searching for a counterexample to the Collatz conjecture, this precomputation leads to an even more important acceleration, used by Tomás Oliveira e Silva in his computational confirmations of the Collatz conjecture up to large values of. If, for some given and , the inequality",
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"plaintext": "holds for all , then the first counterexample, if it exists, cannot be modulo . For instance, the first counterexample must be odd because , smaller than ; and it must be 3 mod 4 because , smaller than . For each starting value which is not a counterexample to the Collatz conjecture, there is a for which such an inequality holds, so checking the Collatz conjecture for one starting value is as good as checking an entire congruence class. As increases, the search only needs to check those residues that are not eliminated by lower values of. Only an exponentially small fraction of the residues survive. For example, the only surviving residues mod 32 are 7, 15, 27, and 31.",
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"plaintext": "If is an odd integer, then is even, so with odd and . The Syracuse function is the function from the set of odd integers into itself, for which .",
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"plaintext": "Some properties of the Syracuse function are:",
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"plaintext": " For all , . (Because .)",
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"plaintext": " In more generality: For all and odd , . (Here is function iteration notation.)",
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"plaintext": " For all odd , ",
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"plaintext": "The Collatz conjecture is equivalent to the statement that, for all in , there exists an integer such that .",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, John Horton Conway proved that a natural generalization of the Collatz problem is algorithmically undecidable.",
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"plaintext": "Specifically, he considered functions of the form",
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"plaintext": "and are rational numbers which are so chosen that is always an integer.",
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"plaintext": "The standard Collatz function is given by , , , , . Conway proved that the problem:",
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"plaintext": " Given and , does the sequence of iterates reach 1?",
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"plaintext": "is undecidable, by representing the halting problem in this way.",
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"plaintext": "Closer to the Collatz problem is the following universally quantified problem:",
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"plaintext": " Given does the sequence of iterates reach 1, for all ?",
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"plaintext": "Modifying the condition in this way can make a problem either harder or easier to solve (intuitively, it is harder to justify a positive answer but might be easier to justify a negative one). Kurtz and Simon proved that the above problem is, in fact, undecidable and even higher in the arithmetical hierarchy, specifically -complete. This hardness result holds even if one restricts the class of functions by fixing the modulus to 6480.",
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"plaintext": "In the movie Incendies, a graduate student in pure mathematics explains the Collatz conjecture to a group of undergraduates. She puts her studies on hold for a time to address some unresolved questions about her family's past. Late in the movie, the Collatz conjecture turns out to have foreshadowed a disturbing and difficult discovery that she makes about her family.",
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"plaintext": " semigroup",
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"plaintext": " Arithmetic dynamics",
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"plaintext": " Modular arithmetic",
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"plaintext": " Residue-class-wise affine group",
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"plaintext": " The Ultimate Challenge: The Problem, published in 2010 by the American Mathematical Society and edited by Jeffrey Lagarias, is a compendium of information on the Collatz conjecture, methods of approaching it, and generalizations. It includes two survey papers by the editor and five by other authors concerning the history of the problem, generalizations, statistical approaches, and results from the theory of computation. It also includes reprints of early papers on the subject, including the paper by Lothar Collatz.",
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"plaintext": " An ongoing distributed computing project by David Bařina verifies Convergence of the Collatz conjecture for large values. (furthest progress so far)",
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"plaintext": " Distributed computing (BOINC) project that verifies the Collatz conjecture for larger values.",
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"plaintext": " An ongoing distributed computing project by Eric Roosendaal verifies the Collatz conjecture for larger and larger values.",
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"plaintext": " Another ongoing distributed computing project by Tomás Oliveira e Silva continues to verify the Collatz conjecture (with fewer statistics than Eric Roosendaal's page but with further progress made).",
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"plaintext": " .",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
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"plaintext": " Are computers ready to solve this notoriously unwieldy math problem?",
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] | [
"Conjectures",
"Arithmetic_dynamics",
"Integer_sequences",
"Unsolved_problems_in_number_theory"
] | 837,314 | 37,032 | 67 | 84 | 0 | 0 | Collatz conjecture | conjecture in mathematics that concerns sequences | [
"3n+1 conjecture",
"Ulam conjecture",
"Kakutani's problem",
"Thwaites conjecture",
"Hasse's algorithm",
"Syracuse problem",
"3x+1 problem",
"Hailstone problem"
] |
37,899 | 1,105,177,430 | Cyprian | [
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"plaintext": "Cyprian ( ; ; 210 – 14 September 258 AD) was a bishop of Carthage and an early Christian writer of Berber descent, many of whose Latin works are extant. He is recognized as a saint in the Western and Eastern churches. ",
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"plaintext": "He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education. Soon after converting to Christianity, he became a bishop in 249. A controversial figure during his lifetime, his strong pastoral skills, firm conduct during the Novatianist heresy and outbreak of the Plague of Cyprian (named after him due to his description of it), and eventual martyrdom at Carthage established his reputation and proved his sanctity in the eyes of the Church. ",
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"plaintext": "His skillful Latin rhetoric led to his being considered the pre-eminent Latin writer of Western Christianity until Jerome and Augustine.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian was born into a rich pagan Berber (Roman African), Carthaginian family sometime during the early third century. His original name was Thascius; he took the additional name Caecilius in memory of the priest to whom he owed his conversion. Before his conversion, he was a leading member of a legal fraternity in Carthage, an orator, a \"pleader in the courts\", and a teacher of rhetoric. After a \"dissipated youth\", Cyprian was baptised when he was thirty-five years old, 245 AD. After his baptism, he gave away a portion of his wealth to the poor of Carthage, as befitted a man of his status.",
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"plaintext": "In the early days of his conversion, he wrote an Epistola ad Donatum de gratia Dei and the Testimoniorum Libri III that adhere closely to the models of Tertullian, who influenced his style and thinking. Cyprian described his own conversion and baptism in the following words:",
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"plaintext": "Not long after his baptism he was ordained a deacon and soon afterwards a priest. Sometime between July 248 and April 249, he was elected bishop of Carthage, a popular choice among the poor who remembered his patronage as demonstrating good equestrian style. However, his rapid rise did not meet with the approval of senior members of the clergy in Carthage, an opposition that did not disappear during his episcopate.",
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"plaintext": "Not long afterward, the entire community was put to an unwanted test. Christians in North Africa had not suffered persecution for many years; the Church was assured and lax. In early 250, the Decian persecution began. Emperor Decius issued an edict, the text of which is lost, ordering sacrifices to the gods to be made throughout the Empire. Jews were specifically exempted from that requirement. Cyprian chose to go into hiding, rather than face potential execution. While some clergy saw that decision as a sign of cowardice, Cyprian defended himself by saying that he had fled in order not to leave the faithful without a shepherd during the persecution and that his decision to continue to lead them, although from a distance, was in accordance with divine will. Moreover, he pointed to the actions of the Apostles and Jesus himself: \"And therefore the Lord commanded us in the persecution to depart and to flee; and both taught that this should be done, and Himself did it. For as the crown is given by the condescension of God, and cannot be received unless the hour comes for accepting it, whoever abiding in Christ departs for a while does not deny his faith, but waits for the time...\".",
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"plaintext": "The persecution was especially severe at Carthage, according to Church sources. Many Christians fell away and were thereafter referred to as \"Lapsi\" (fallen). The majority had obtained signed statements (libelli) certifying that they had sacrificed to the Roman gods to avoid persecution or confiscation of property. In some cases Christians had actually sacrificed, whether under torture or otherwise. Cyprian found those libellatici especially cowardly and demanded that they and the rest of the lapsi undergo public penance before being readmitted to the Church.",
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"plaintext": "However, in Cyprian's absence, some priests disregarded his wishes by readmitting the lapsed to communion with little or no public penance. Some of the lapsi presented a second libellus purported to bear the signature of some martyr or confessor who, it was held, had the spiritual prestige to reaffirm individual Christians. That system was not limited to Carthage, but on a wider front by its charismatic nature, it clearly constituted a challenge to institutional authority in the Church, in particular to that of the bishop. Hundreds or even thousands of lapsi were readmitted that way against the express wishes of Cyprian and the majority of the Carthaginian clergy, who insisted upon earnest repentance.",
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"plaintext": "A schism then broke out in Carthage, as the laxist party, led largely by the priests who had opposed Cyprian's election, attempted to block measures taken by him during his period of absence. After fourteen months, Cyprian returned to the diocese and in letters addressed to the other North African bishops defended having left his post. After issuing a tract, \"De lapsis\" (On the Fallen), he convoked a council of North African bishops at Carthage to consider the treatment of the lapsed, and the apparent schism of Felicissimus (251). Cyprian took a middle course between the followers of Novatus of Carthage, who were in favour of welcoming back all with little or no penance, and Novatian of Rome, who would not allow any of those who had lapsed to be reconciled. The council in the main sided with Cyprian and condemned Felicissimus though no acts of that council survive.",
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"plaintext": "The schism continued as the laxists elected a certain Fortunatus as bishop in opposition to Cyprian. At the same time, the rigorist party in Rome, who refused reconciliation to any of the lapsed, elected Novatian as bishop of Rome in opposition to Pope Cornelius. The Novatianists also secured the election of a certain Maximus as a rival bishop of their own at Carthage. Cyprian now found himself wedged between laxists and rigorists, but the polarisation highlighted the firm but moderate position adopted by Cyprian and strengthened his influence by wearing down the numbers of his opponents. Moreover, his dedication during the time of a great plague and famine gained him still further popular support.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian comforted his brethren by writing his De mortalitate and in his De eleemosynis exhorted them to active charity towards the poor and set a personal example. He defended Christianity and the Christians in the apologia Ad Demetrianum, directed against a certain Demetrius, and countered pagan claims that Christians were the cause of the public calamities.",
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"plaintext": "In late 256, a new persecution of the Christians broke out under Emperor Valerian, and Pope Sixtus II was executed in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "In Africa, Cyprian prepared his people for the expected edict of persecution by his De exhortatione martyrii and set an example when he was brought before the Roman proconsul Aspasius Paternus (30 August 257). He refused to sacrifice to the pagan deities and firmly professed Christ.",
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"plaintext": "The proconsul banished him to Curubis, now Korba, where, to the best of his ability, he comforted his flock and his banished clergy. In a vision, he believed he saw his approaching fate. When a year had passed, he was recalled and kept practically a prisoner in his own villa in expectation of severe measures after a new and more stringent imperial edict arrived, which Christian writers subsequently claimed demanded the execution of all Christian clerics.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 September 258, Cyprian was imprisoned on the orders of the new proconsul, Galerius Maximus. The public examination of Cyprian by Galerius Maximus, on 14 September 258, has been preserved:",
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"plaintext": "Galerius Maximus: \"Are you Thascius Cyprianus?\"",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian: \"I am.\"",
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"plaintext": "Galerius: \"The most sacred Emperors have commanded you to conform to the Roman rites.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian: \"I refuse.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Galerius: \"Take heed for yourself.\"",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian: \"Do as you are bid; in so clear a case I may not take heed.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Galerius, after briefly conferring with his judicial council, with much reluctance pronounced the following sentence: \"You have long lived an irreligious life, and have drawn together a number of men bound by an unlawful association, and professed yourself an open enemy to the gods and the religion of Rome; and the pious, most sacred and august Emperors... have endeavoured in vain to bring you back to conformity with their religious observances; whereas therefore you have been apprehended as principal and ringleader in these infamous crimes, you shall be made an example to those whom you have wickedly associated with you; the authority of law shall be ratified in your blood.\" He then read the sentence of the court from a written tablet: \"It is the sentence of this court that Thascius Cyprianus be executed with the sword.\"",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian: \"Thanks be to God.”",
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"plaintext": "The execution was carried out at once in an open place near the city. A vast multitude followed Cyprian on his last journey. He removed his garments without assistance, knelt down, and prayed. After he blindfolded himself, he was beheaded by the sword. The body was interred by Christians near the place of execution.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian's martyrdom was followed by the martyrdom of eight of his disciples in Carthage.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian's works were edited in volumes 3 and 4 of the Patrologia Latina. He was not a speculative theologian, his writings being always related to his pastoral ministry. The first major work was a monologue spoken to a friend called Ad Donatum, detailing his own conversion, the corruption of Roman government and the gladiatorial spectacles, and pointing to prayer as \"the only refuge of the Christian\". Another early written work was the Testimonia ad Quirinum. During his exile from Carthage Cyprian wrote his most famous treatise, De Ecclesiae Catholicae Unitate (On the Unity of the Catholic Church) and on returning to his see, he issued De Lapsis (On the Fallen). Another important work is his Treatise on the Lord's Prayer. Doubtless only part of his written output has survived, and this must apply especially to his correspondence, of which some sixty letters are extant, in addition to some of the letters he received.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian of Carthage is often confused with Cyprian of Antioch, reputedly a magician before his conversion. A number of grimoires, such as Libellus Magicus, are thus mistakenly attributed to Cyprian of Carthage.",
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"plaintext": "Pontius the Deacon wrote a biography of Cyprian titled The Life and Passion of St. Cyprian, which details the saint's early life, his conversion, notable acts, and martyrdom under Valerian.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian believed in infant baptism and infant communion. Cyprian however spoke against the efficiency of baptism done by heretics and insisted on their rebaptism, and he believed that the Eucharist cannot be properly done outside the church. ",
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"plaintext": "One of the earliest of the Church Fathers to enunciate clearly and unambiguously the doctrine of baptismal regeneration (\"the idea that salvation happens at and by water baptism duly administered\") was Cyprian: \"While he attributed all the saving energy to the grace of God, he considered the 'laver of saving water' the instrument of God that makes a person 'born again,' receiving a new life and putting off what he had previously been. The 'water of new birth' animated him to new life by the Spirit of holiness working through it.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian believed that the lapsed can be re-admitted to the Church after penance and he opposed the Novatians.",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian believed that every bishop occupies Peter's throne, but the see of Peter (Rome) is the direct heir of Peter. Cyprian believed that all the apostles were equal and that all the bishops followed the Apostles in succession. ",
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"plaintext": "Cyprian was amillenial. Augustine argued that Cyprian taught the gift of perseverance. Cyprian argued that each days of Genesis consisted of 1000 years.",
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"plaintext": "Churches were erected over his tomb and over the place of his death. In later centuries, however, these churches were destroyed by the Vandals. The graves of such saints as Cyprian and Martin of Tours came to be regarded as \"contact points between Heaven and Earth\", and they became the centres of new, redefined, Christian urban communities. A surviving homily from Augustine on Cyprian's feast day indicates that his following was fairly widespread throughout Africa by the fourth century.",
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"plaintext": "Charlemagne is said to have had the bones transferred to France; and Lyons, Arles, Venice, Compiègne, and Roenay in Flanders all have claimed to possess part of the martyr's relics.",
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"plaintext": "The Catholic Church celebrates his feastday together with that of his good friend Pope St. Cornelius on 16 September, and in the Catholic Middle Ages the Sarum use observed it on the day of his death, 14 September. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him on 31 August. Lutherans now commemorate him on 16 September, while Anglicans celebrate his feast usually either on 13 September (e.g. the Anglican Church of Australia) or 15 September (the present-day Church of England remember him with a Lesser Festival.",
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"plaintext": "Brent, Allen, editor and translator, \"St Cyprian of Carthage: Selected Treatises,\" St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2007, ",
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"plaintext": "Campbell, Phillip, editor, \"The Complete works of Saint Cyprian\" Evolution Publishing, 2013, ",
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"plaintext": "Daniel, Robin, \"This Holy Seed: Faith, Hope and Love in the Early Churches of North Africa\", (Chester, Tamarisk Publications, 2010: from www.opaltrust.org) ",
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"plaintext": "Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Cyprian texts",
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"plaintext": "J.M. Tebes, \"Cyprian of Carthage: Christianity and Social World in the 3rd. century\", Cuadernos de Teología 19, (2000) ",
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"plaintext": "Pontius the Deacon (Pontius Diaconis), \"The Life and Passion of Cyprian, Bishop and Martyr\"",
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"plaintext": "\"The Plague of AD 251\"",
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"plaintext": "Works by Cyprian at the IntraText Digital Library, with concordance and frequency lists",
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"plaintext": "Acta proconsularia S. Cypriani",
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"plaintext": "Multilanguage Opera Omnia",
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"plaintext": "Pope, Charles. \"The Life of Saint Cyprian of Carthage\"",
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37,900 | 1,100,733,982 | Amelia | [
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37,901 | 1,104,684,842 | Valerian_(herb) | [
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"plaintext": "Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, Caprifoliaceae) is a perennial flowering plant native to Europe and Asia. In the summer when the mature plant may have a height of , it bears sweetly scented pink or white flowers that attract many fly species, especially hoverflies of the genus Eristalis. It is consumed as food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including the grey pug.",
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"plaintext": "John Gerard's Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, first published in 1597, states that his contemporaries found valerian \"excellent for those burdened and for such as be troubled with croup and other like convulsions, and also for those that are bruised with falls.\" He says that the dried root was valued as a medicine by the poor in the north of England and the south of Scotland, such that \"no brothes, pottages or phisicalle meates are woorth [worth] anything if Setwall [valerian] were not at one end.\"",
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"plaintext": "The 17th century astrological botanist Nicholas Culpeper thought the plant was \"under the influence of Mercury, and therefore hath a warming faculty.\" He recommended both herb and root, and said that \"the root boiled with liquorice, raisons and aniseed is good for those troubled with cough. Also, it is of special value against the plague, the decoction thereof being drunk and the root smelled. The green herb being bruised and applied to the head taketh away pain and pricking thereof.\"",
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"plaintext": "The name of the herb is derived from the personal name Valeria and the Latin verb valere (to be strong, healthy). Other names used for this plant include garden valerian (to distinguish it from other Valeriana species), garden heliotrope (although not related to Heliotropium), setwall and all-heal (which is also used for plants in the genus Stachys). Red valerian, often grown in gardens, is also sometimes referred to as \"valerian\", but is a different species (Centranthus ruber), from the same family but not very closely related. It is also called cat's love for its catnip-like effects.",
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"plaintext": "Known compounds detected in valerian include:",
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"plaintext": " Alkaloids: actinidine, chatinine, shyanthine, valerianine, and valerine",
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"plaintext": " Isovaleramide may be created in the extraction process.",
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"plaintext": " Sesquiterpenes (contained in the volatile oil): valerenic acid, hydroxyvalerenic acid and acetoxyvalerenic acid",
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"plaintext": " Flavanones: hesperidin, 6-methylapigenin, and linarin",
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"plaintext": "Because of valerian's historical use in traditional medicine for diverse purposes, such as for sedation or pain relief, laboratory research has been directed at the GABAA receptor, a class of receptors on which benzodiazepines act. Valeric acid, which is responsible for the typical odor of mostly older valerian roots, does not have any sedative properties. Valproic acid, a widely prescribed anticonvulsant, is a derivative of valeric acid. ",
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"plaintext": "Although valerian is a common traditional medicine used for treating insomnia, there is no good evidence it is effective for this purpose. Valerian has not been shown to be helpful in treating restless leg syndrome or anxiety.",
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"plaintext": "The European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved the health claim that valerian can be used as a traditional herb to relieve mild nervous tension and to aid sleep; the EMA stated that although there is insufficient evidence from clinical studies, its effectiveness as a dried extract is considered plausible.",
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"plaintext": "Oral forms are available in both standardized and unstandardized forms. Standardized products may be preferable considering the wide variation of the chemicals in the dried root, as noted above. When standardized, it is done so as a percentage of valerenic acid or valeric acid. In commonly used doses, valerian is recognized as GRAS in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "As an unregulated product, the concentration, contents, and potential contaminants in valerian preparations cannot be easily determined. Because of this uncertainty and the potential for toxicity in the fetus and hepatotoxicity in the mother, valerian use is discouraged during pregnancy. Headache and diarrhea have occurred among subjects using valerian in clinical studies.",
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"plaintext": "Valerian is considered an invasive species in many jurisdictions outside its natural range, including the US state of Connecticut where it is officially banned, and in New Brunswick, Canada, where it is listed as a plant of concern.",
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37,902 | 1,100,332,502 | La_traviata | [
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"plaintext": "La traviata (; The Fallen Woman) is an opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi set to an Italian libretto by Francesco Maria Piave. It is based on La Dame aux camélias (1852), a play by Alexandre Dumas fils adapted from his own 1848 novel. The opera was originally titled Violetta, after the main character. It was first performed on 6 March 1853 at La Fenice opera house in Venice.",
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"plaintext": "Piave and Verdi wanted to follow Dumas in giving the opera a contemporary setting, but the authorities at La Fenice insisted that it be set in the past, \"c.1700\". It was not until the 1880s that the composer's and librettist's original wishes were carried out and \"realistic\" productions were staged. La traviata has become immensely popular and is among the most frequently performed of all operas.",
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"plaintext": "For Verdi, the years 1851 to 1853 were filled with operatic activity. First, he had agreed with the librettist Salvadore Cammarano on a subject for what would become Il trovatore, but work on this opera could not proceed while the composer was writing Rigoletto, which premiered in Venice in March 1851. In addition, personal affairs in his home town limited his activities that spring, but after Rigolettos success in Venice, an additional commission was offered by Brenna, the secretary of La Fenice.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi and Giuseppina Strepponi visited Paris from late 1851 and into March 1852. In February the couple attended a performance of Alexander Dumas filss The Lady of the Camellias. As a result of this, Verdi's biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz reports, the composer immediately began to compose music for what would later become La traviata. However, Julian Budden notes that Verdi had probably read the Dumas novel some time before, and, after seeing the play and returning to Italy, \"he was already setting up an ideal operatic cast for it in his mind\", shown by his dealings with La Fenice.",
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"plaintext": "Francesco Maria Piave was engaged to write the new libretto and the two men tried to come up with a suitable subject, but the composer complained that his librettist \"had not yet offered him an 'original' or 'provocative' idea\". Writing to Piave, he added that \"I don't want any of those everyday subjects that one can find by the hundreds.\" But at the same time, the composer expressed concern about censorship in Venice, something with which he was very familiar after his dealings with the censors concerning Rigoletto. As the months dragged on into October, it was agreed that Piave would come to Sant'Agata (Verdi's home near Busseto) and work with the composer. One subject was chosen, Piave set to work, and then Verdi threw in another idea, which may have been La traviata. Within a short time, a synopsis was dispatched to Venice under the title of Amore e morte (Love and Death). However, as Budden reveals, Verdi writes to his friend De Sanctis telling him that \"for Venice I'm doing La Dame aux camélias which will probably be called La traviata. A subject for our own age.\" Although still bogged down at Sant'Agata, Piave was sanguine: \"Everything will turn out fine, and we'll have a new masterpiece from this true wizard of modern harmonies\".",
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"plaintext": "When back at Sant'Agata in late January 1853 Verdi was reminded that his contract called for him to be in Venice within a week or two and for the premiere to be held on the \"first Saturday in March 1853\". However, it soon became clear that a modern-dress staging of the new opera was impossible—the requirement was that it should be set in the 17th century \"in the era of Richelieu\"—and reports from the opening of the season confirmed the limitations of the chosen soprano, the 38-year-old Fanny Salvini-Donatelli for taking the role of Violetta. Verdi was distraught, for he held on to the notion that the opera could be staged in modern dress—as Stiffelio had been done—Piave was sent back to Sant'Agata to no avail: he could not persuade the composer to back down on his insistence that another soprano be secured, yet the 15 January deadline for securing one had come and gone. Verdi was filled with premonitions of disaster upon his arrival in Venice on 21 February for rehearsals and he made his unhappiness clear to the singers.",
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"plaintext": "The audience jeered at times during the premiere, directing some of their scorn at the casting of soprano Fanny Salvini-Donatelli in the lead role of Violetta. Though she was an acclaimed singer, they considered her to be too old (at 38) and overweight to credibly play a young woman dying of consumption. (Verdi had previously attempted to persuade the manager of La Fenice to re-cast the role with a younger woman, but with no success.) Nevertheless, the first act was met with applause and cheering at the end; but in the second act, the audience began to turn against the performance, especially after the singing of the baritone Felice Varesi and the tenor Lodovico Graziani. The next day, Verdi wrote to his friend Emanuele Muzio in what has now become perhaps his most famous letter: \"La traviata last night a failure. Was the fault mine or the singers'? Time will tell.\"",
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"plaintext": "Coincidentally, as Philips-Matz points out, an Italian translation of the play La Dame aux camélias was being presented just a short distance from La Fenice.",
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"plaintext": "While there were demands for productions from impresarios in various Italian cities, Verdi was loath to allow them unless he could be sure of the strength of the singers, and in spite of their pleas, the composer refused. As Budden notes, it came to be Venice \"that made an honest woman of Violetta\" when Verdi allowed a performance at the Teatro San Benedetto. Some revisions took place between 1853 and May 1854, mostly affecting acts 2 and 3, but the opera was performed again on 6 May 1854 and was a great success, largely due to Maria Spezia-Aldighieri's portrayal of Violetta. \"Then [referring to the La Fenice performances] it was a fiasco; now it has created a furore. Draw your own conclusions!\" reported Piave (who had overseen the production in Verdi's absence).",
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"plaintext": "The opera (in the revised version) was first performed in Madrid on 1 February 1855 with Spezia-Aldighieri at Teatro Real, in Vienna on 4 May 1855 in Italian and in Barcelona on 25 October at Gran Teatre del Liceu. It was first performed in England on 24 May 1856 in Italian at Her Majesty's Theatre in London, where it was considered morally questionable, and \"the heads of the Church did their best to put an injunction upon performance; the Queen refrained from visiting the theatre during the performances, though the music, words and all, were not unheard at the palace\". It was first performed in the United States by the Max Maretzek Italian Opera Company on 3 December 1856 in Italian at the Academy of Music in New York. George Templeton Strong noted in his diary: \"People say the plot's immoral, but I don't see that it's so much worse than many others, not to speak of Don Giovanni, which as put on the stage is little but rampant lechery\", while the Evening Post critic wrote: \"Those who have quietly sat through the glaring improprieties of Don Giovanni will hardly blush or frown at anything in La traviata.\"",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first performed in France on 6 December 1856 in Italian by the Théâtre-Italien at the Salle Ventadour in Paris, and on 27 October 1864 in French as Violetta (an adaptation by Édouard Duprez, older brother of the tenor Gilbert Duprez) at the Théâtre Lyrique on the Place du Châtelet with Christina Nilsson in the title role. The French adaptation of the libretto was published in 1865.",
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"plaintext": "Today, the opera has become immensely popular and is a staple of the standard operatic repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Paris and its vicinity.",
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"plaintext": "Time: Beginning of the 19th century",
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"plaintext": "The salon in Violetta's house",
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"plaintext": "Violetta Valéry, a famed courtesan, throws a lavish party at her Paris salon to celebrate her recovery from an illness. Gastone, a viscount, has brought with him a friend, Alfredo Germont, a young bourgeois from a provincial family who has long adored Violetta from afar. While walking to the salon, Gastone tells Violetta that Alfredo loves her, and that while she was ill, he came to her house every day. Alfredo joins them, admitting the truth of Gastone's remarks.",
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"plaintext": "Baron Douphol, Violetta's current lover, waits nearby to escort her to the salon. Once there, the Baron is asked to give a toast, but refuses, and the crowd turns to Alfredo, who agrees to sing a brindisi – a drinking song (Alfredo, Violetta, chorus: – \"Let's drink from the joyful cups\").",
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"plaintext": "From the next room, the sound of the orchestra is heard and the guests move there to dance. After a series of severe coughs and almost fainting, Violetta begins to feel dizzy and asks her guests to go ahead and to leave her to rest until she recovers. While the guests dance in the next room, Violetta looks at her pale face in her mirror. Alfredo enters and expresses his concern for her fragile health, later declaring his love for her (Alfredo, Violetta: – \"One day, happy and ethereal\"). At first, she rejects him because his love means nothing to her, but there is something about Alfredo that touches her heart. He is about to leave when she gives him a flower, telling him to return it when it has wilted, which will be the very next day.",
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"plaintext": "After the guests leave, Violetta wonders if Alfredo could actually be the one in her life (Violetta: – \"Ah, perhaps he is the one\"). But she concludes that she needs freedom to live her life (Violetta, Alfredo: – \"Always free\"). From off stage, Alfredo's voice is heard singing about love as he walks down the street.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Violetta's country house outside Paris",
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"plaintext": "Three months later, Alfredo and Violetta are living together in a peaceful country house outside Paris. Violetta has fallen in love with Alfredo and she has completely abandoned her former life. Alfredo sings of their happy life together (Alfredo: – \"The youthful ardor of my ebullient spirits\"). Annina, the maid, arrives from Paris, and, when questioned by Alfredo, tells him that she went there to sell the horses, carriages and everything owned by Violetta to support their country lifestyle.",
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"plaintext": "Alfredo is shocked to learn this and leaves for Paris immediately to settle matters himself. Violetta returns home and receives an invitation from her friend, Flora, to a party in Paris that evening. Alfredo's father, Giorgio Germont, is announced and demands that she break off her relationship with his son for the sake of his family, since he reveals that Violetta's relationship with Alfredo has threatened his daughter's engagement (Giorgio: – \"Pure as an angel, God gave me a daughter\") because of Violetta's reputation. Meanwhile, he reluctantly becomes impressed by Violetta's nobility, something which he did not expect from a courtesan. She responds that she cannot end the relationship because she loves Alfredo so much, but Giorgio pleads with her for the sake of his family. With growing remorse, she finally agrees (Violetta, Giorgio: – \"Tell the young girl, so beautiful and pure,\") and says goodbye to Giorgio. In a gesture of gratitude for her kindness and sacrifice, Giorgio kisses her forehead before leaving her weeping alone.",
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"plaintext": "Violetta gives a note to Annina to send to Flora accepting the party invitation and, as she is writing a farewell letter to Alfredo, he enters. She can barely control her sadness and tears; she tells him repeatedly of her unconditional love (Violetta: – \"Love me, Alfredo, love me as I love you\"). Before rushing out and setting off for Paris, she hands the farewell letter to her servant to give to Alfredo.",
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"plaintext": "Soon, the servant brings the letter to Alfredo and, as soon as he has read it, Giorgio returns and attempts to comfort his son, reminding him of his family in Provence (Giorgio: – \"Who erased the sea, the land of Provence from your heart?\"). Alfredo suspects that the Baron is behind his separation from Violetta, and the party invitation, which he finds on the desk, strengthens his suspicions. He decides to confront Violetta at the party. Giorgio tries to stop Alfredo, but he rushes out.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: Party at Flora's house",
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"plaintext": "At the party, the Marquis tells Flora that Violetta and Alfredo have separated, much to the amazement of everyone who had previously seen the happy couple. She calls for the entertainers to perform for the guests (Chorus: – \"We are gypsy girls who have come from afar\"; – \"We are matadors from Madrid\"). Gastone and his friends join the matadors and sing (Gastone, chorus, dancers: – \"Piquillo is a bold and handsome matador from Biscay\").",
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"plaintext": "Violetta arrives with Baron Douphol. They see Alfredo at the gambling table. When he sees them, Alfredo loudly proclaims that he will take Violetta home with him. Feeling annoyed, the Baron goes to the gambling table and joins him in a game. As they bet, Alfredo wins some large sums until Flora announces that supper is ready. Alfredo leaves with handfuls of money.",
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"plaintext": "As everyone is leaving the room, Violetta has asked Alfredo to see her. Fearing that the Baron's anger will lead him to challenge Alfredo to a duel, she gently asks Alfredo to leave. Alfredo misunderstands her apprehension and demands that she admit that she loves the Baron. In grief, she makes that admission and, furiously, Alfredo calls the guests to witness what he has to say ( – \"You know this woman?\"). He humiliates and denounces Violetta in front of the guests and then throws his winnings at her feet in payment for her services. She faints onto the floor. The guests reprimand Alfredo: (\"Ignoble insulter of women, go away from here, you fill us with horror!\").",
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"plaintext": "In search of his son, Giorgio enters the hall and, knowing the real significance of the scene, denounces his son's behavior (Giorgio, Alfredo, Violetta, chorus: – \"A man, who even in anger, offends a woman renders himself deserving of contempt.\").",
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"plaintext": "Flora and the ladies attempt to persuade Violetta to leave the dining room, but Violetta turns to Alfredo: – \"Alfredo, Alfredo, you can't understand all the love in this heart...\".",
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"plaintext": "Violetta's bedroom",
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"plaintext": "Dr. Grenvil tells Annina that Violetta will not live long since her tuberculosis has worsened. Alone in her room, Violetta reads a letter from Alfredo's father telling her that the Baron was only wounded in his duel with Alfredo. He has informed Alfredo of the sacrifice she has made for him and his sister; and he is sending his son to see her as quickly as possible to ask for her forgiveness. But Violetta senses it is too late (Violetta: – \"Farewell, lovely, happy dreams of the past\").",
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"plaintext": "Annina rushes into the room to tell Violetta of Alfredo's arrival. The lovers are reunited and Alfredo suggests that they leave Paris (Alfredo, Violetta: – \"We will leave Paris, O beloved\").",
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"plaintext": "But it is too late: she knows her time is up (Alfredo, Violetta: – \"Great God!...to die so young\"). Alfredo's father enters with the doctor, regretting what he has done. After singing a duet with Alfredo, Violetta suddenly revives, exclaiming that the pain and discomfort have left her. A moment later, she dies in Alfredo's arms.",
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"plaintext": "The opera uses an orchestra with the following instrumentation: 2 flutes (fl. 2 doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, harp, cimbasso, timpani, cymbals, bass drum, triangle, strings.",
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"plaintext": "Banda: Verdi did not fully orchestrate the parts of the on-stage band, but rather composed it in the style of a piano reduction, leaving the actual realization to the person in charge of the band. Over the years many versions were created, varying from theater to theater depending on the instruments available, but none of them is authoritative. A widespread version is: 1 piccolo, 4 clarinets, 2 horns, flugelhorn, 3 trumpets, at least 2 trombones, low brasses (number unspecified), bass drum.",
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"plaintext": "The prelude to the opera begins with very soft, very high strings depicting the frail heroine, followed by the main love theme of the opera, which is then played on lower strings while the higher instruments decorate the melody.",
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"plaintext": "This delicate atmosphere is altered on curtain rise by lively dance tunes in the orchestra. After the famous \"Brindisi\", an offstage band plays a series of waltzes (waltz rhythms pervade the first act of the opera, creating a Parisian atmosphere). The concluding part of Violetta's solo scene that ends the first act is full of vocal decoration and feverish ornamentation as she swears to stay free (\"Sempre libera\"). These coloratura effects are not required for the character after the first act.",
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"plaintext": "The lengthy and crucial duet between the elder Germont and Violetta in act 2 is multi-sectioned with the music following the changing dramatic situation.",
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"plaintext": "La traviata is the only one of Verdi's many operas to be set entirely indoors. Unlike Il trovatore, which was composed simultaneously, La traviata is an intimate piece, full of tender lyricism. The character of Violetta dominates the work and her music changes as she develops through the drama, from the hectic, almost hysterical coloratura of the first act, to the more dramatic passages of the second, and the spiritual quality of her music as she dies in act 3.",
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"plaintext": " A 1967 film version by Mario Lanfranchi features Anna Moffo as Violetta, Franco Bonisolli as Alfredo, Gino Bechi as Giorgio Germont, and the chorus and orchestra of the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, conducted by Giuseppe Patanè.",
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"plaintext": " Franco Zeffirelli directed La Traviata in 1983, with Teresa Stratas as Violetta, Plácido Domingo as Alfredo, and Cornell MacNeil as Giorgio Germont.",
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"plaintext": " The 2012 documentary film Becoming Traviata chronicles at length rehearsals for a production of La traviata directed by at the Aix-en-Provence Festival featuring Natalie Dessay and Charles Castronovo.",
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"plaintext": " Donato Lovreglio (1841–1907), an Italian flautist and composer, wrote the \"Concert Fantasy on themes from Verdi's La traviata\", Op. 45, for clarinet and orchestra (published Ricordi, 1865); in it, Lovreglio used the overture and several arias from the opera.",
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"plaintext": " The Spanish composer Julián Arcas (1832–1882) wrote a \"Fantasía sobre motivos de La traviata\".",
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"plaintext": "Baldini, Gabriele (1970), (trans. Roger Parker, 1980), The Story of Giuseppe Verdi: Oberto to Un Ballo in Maschera. Cambridge, et al: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Balthazar, Scott. The Cambridge Companion to Verdi. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. .",
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"plaintext": "De Van, Gilles (trans. Gilda Roberts) (1998), Verdi's Theater: Creating Drama Through Music. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. (hardback), ",
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"plaintext": "Gossett, Philip (2006), Divas and Scholar: Performing Italian Opera, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles (1969), The Complete Opera of Verdi, New York: Da Capo Press, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": "Parker, Roger (2007), The New Grove Guide to Verdi and His Operas, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Pistone, Danièle (1995), Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera: From Rossini to Puccini, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Rattalino, Pierro (2006), Memoriale di \"Pura Siccome\". La storia di Violetta la traviata raccontata dalla sorella nubile di Alfredo. Zecchini Editore. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": "Toye, Francis (1931), Giuseppe Verdi: His Life and Works, New York: Knopf",
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"plaintext": "Walker, Frank, The Man Verdi (1982), New York: Knopf, 1962, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Warrack, John and West, Ewan, The Oxford Dictionary of Opera New York: Oxford University Press: 1992 ",
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"plaintext": "Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul (1973), Verdi: The Man and His Letters, New York, Vienna House. ",
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"plaintext": " Digitised miniature score for solo piano published by Ricordi in Milan in 1855, from National Library of Scotland.",
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"plaintext": " Vocal score at Indiana University School of Music, public domain vocal score (scanned from an 1899 edition)",
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"plaintext": " Orchestra score at Indiana University School of Music, public domain orchestra score (scanned from an old edition)",
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"plaintext": " Libretto",
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] | 186,162 | 23,589 | 1,903 | 100 | 0 | 0 | La traviata | opera by Giuseppe Verdi | [
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37,903 | 1,100,222,802 | Il_trovatore | [
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"plaintext": "Il trovatore ('The Troubadour') is an opera in four acts by Giuseppe Verdi to an Italian libretto largely written by Salvadore Cammarano, based on the play El trovador (1836) by Antonio García Gutiérrez. It was Gutiérrez's most successful play, one which Verdi scholar Julian Budden describes as \"a high flown, sprawling melodrama flamboyantly defiant of the Aristotelian unities, packed with all manner of fantastic and bizarre incident.\"",
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"plaintext": "The premiere took place at the Teatro Apollo in Rome on 19 January 1853, where it \"began a victorious march throughout the operatic world,\" a success due to Verdi's work over the previous three years. It began with his January 1850 approach to Cammarano with the idea of Il trovatore. There followed, slowly and with interruptions, the preparation of the libretto, first by Cammarano until his death in mid-1852 and then with the young librettist Leone Emanuele Bardare, which gave the composer the opportunity to propose significant revisions, which were accomplished under his direction. These revisions are seen largely in the expansion of the role of Leonora.",
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"plaintext": "For Verdi, the three years were filled with musical activity; work on this opera did not proceed while the composer wrote and premiered Rigoletto in Venice in March 1851. His personal affairs also limited his professional work. In May 1851, an additional commission was offered by the Venice company after Rigolettos success there. Another commission came from Paris while he was visiting that city from late 1851 to March 1852. Before the libretto for Il trovatore was completed, before it was scored, and before it premiered, Verdi had four operatic projects in various stages of development.",
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"plaintext": "Today, Il trovatore is performed frequently and is a staple of the standard operatic repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "How and when Verdi acquired a copy of the Gutiérrez play is uncertain, but Budden notes that it appears that Giuseppina Strepponi, with whom Verdi had been living in Busseto since September 1849, had translated the play, as evidenced in a letter from her two weeks before the premiere urging him to \"hurry up and give OUR Trovatore\".",
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"plaintext": "When considering setting Gutiérrez's play, Verdi turned to work with Cammarano, \"the born operatic poet\" (according to Budden). Their correspondence began as early as January 1850, well before Verdi had done anything to develop a libretto with Piave for what later became Rigoletto in Venice. At this time, it was also the first since Oberto that the composer was beginning to prepare an opera with a librettist but without a commission of any kind from an opera house. In his first letter to Cammarano, Verdi proposed El Trovador as the subject with \"two feminine roles. The first, the gypsy, a woman of unusual character after whom I want to name the opera.\"",
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"plaintext": "With regard to the chosen librettist's strength as a poet in preparing verse for opera, Budden also comments that his approach was very traditional, something which began to become clear during the preparation of the libretto and which appears in the correspondence between the two men.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi's time and energy were spent mostly on finishing Rigoletto, which premiered at La Fenice in Venice in March 1851. Within a matter of weeks, Verdi was expressing his frustration to a mutual friend, de Sanctis, at having no communication from Cammarano. His letter emphasized that \"the bolder he is, the happier it will make me,\" although it appears that Cammarano's reply contained several objections, which Verdi answered on 4 April and, in his response, he emphasized certain aspects of the plot which were important to him. These included Leonora taking the veil and also the importance of the Azucena/Manrico relationship. He continued by asking whether the librettist liked the drama and emphasized that \"the more unusual and bizarre the better\".",
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"plaintext": "Verdi also writes that if there were no standard forms – \"cavatinas, duets, trios, choruses, finales, etc. [....] and if you could avoid beginning with an opening chorus....\" he would be quite happy. Correspondence continued between the two men for the following two months or so, including another letter from the composer of 9 April which included three pages of suggestions. But he also made concessions and expresses his happiness in what he is receiving in the way of verse.",
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"plaintext": "During the period to follow, in spite of his preoccupations but especially after he had begun to overcome them, Verdi had kept in touch with the librettist. In a letter around the time of his intended departure for France, he wrote encouragingly to Cammarano: \"I beg you with all my soul to finish this Trovatore as quickly as you possibly can.\"",
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"plaintext": "There then arose the question of where the opera would eventually be presented. Verdi had turned down an offer from Naples, but became concerned about the availability of his preferred Azucena, Rita Gabussi-De Bassini. She turned out not to be on the Naples roster, but expressed an interest in the possibility of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Things were put on hold for several months as Verdi became preoccupied with family matters, which included the illnesses of both his mother (who died in July) and father, the estrangement from his parents with communications conducted only between lawyers, and the administration of his newly acquired property at Sant'Agata (now the Villa Verdi near his hometown of Busseto), where he had established his parents. But his relationship with his parents, albeit legally severed, as well as Strepponi's situation living with the composer in an unmarried state, continued to preoccupy him, as did the deterioration of his relationship with his father-in-law, Antonio Barezzi. Finally, in April 1851, agreement was reached with the elder Verdis on the payment of debts mutually owed and the couple were given time to resettle, leaving Sant'Agata for Verdi and Strepponi to occupy for the next fifty years.",
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"plaintext": "May 1851 brought an offer for a new opera from the Venice authorities, and it was followed by an agreement with the Rome Opera company to present Trovatore during the 1852/1853 Carnival season, specifically in January 1853.",
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"plaintext": "By November Verdi and Strepponi left Italy to spend the winter of 1851/52 in Paris, where he concluded an agreement with the Paris Opéra to write what became Les vêpres siciliennes, his first grand opera, although he had adapted his earlier I Lombardi into Jérusalem for the stage. Including work on Trovatore, other projects consumed him, but a significant event occurred in February, when the couple attended a performance of The Lady of the Camellias by Alexandre Dumas fils. What followed is reported by Verdi's biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz who states that the composer revealed that, after seeing the play, he immediately began to compose music for what would later become La traviata.",
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"plaintext": "The couple returned to Sant'Agata by mid-March 1852 and Verdi immediately began work on Trovatore after a year's delay.",
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"plaintext": "Then, in July 1852, by way of an announcement in a theatrical journal, Verdi received news of Cammarano's death earlier that month. This was both a professional and a personal blow. The composer learned that Cammarano had completed Manrico's third-act aria, \"Di quella pira\" just eight days before his death, but now he turned to De Sanctis to find him another librettist. Leone Emanuele Bardare was a young poet from Naples who was beginning his career; eventually he wrote more than 15 librettos before 1880. Composer and librettist met in Rome around 20 December 1852 and Verdi began work on both Trovatore and La traviata.",
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"plaintext": "His main aim, having changed his mind about the distribution of characters in the opera, was to enhance the role of Leonora, thus making it \"a two-women opera\" and he communicated many of these ideas ahead of time via letters to De Sanctis over several months. Leonora now was to have a cantabile for the Miserere as well as retaining \"Tacea la Notte\" in act 1 with its cabaletta. Changes were also made to Azucena's \"Stride la vampa\" and to the Count's lines. Taking into account the last-minute requirements of the censor and the consequent changes, overall, the revisions and changes enhanced the opera, and the result was that it was a critical and a popular success.",
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"plaintext": "In Italian as Il trovatore ",
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"plaintext": "The opera's immense popularity – albeit a popular success rather than a critical one – came from some 229 productions worldwide in the three years following its premiere on 19 January 1853, and is illustrated by the fact that \"in Naples, for example, where the opera in its first three years had eleven stagings in six theaters, the performances totalled 190\".",
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"plaintext": "First given in Paris in Italian on 23 December 1854 by the Théâtre-Italien at the Salle Ventadour, the cast included Lodovico Graziani as Manrico and Adelaide Borghi-Mamo as Azucena.",
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"plaintext": "Il trovatore was first performed in the US by the Max Maretzek Italian Opera Company on 2 May 1855 at the then-recently opened Academy of Music in New York. The cast included Balbina Steffenone as Leonora, Pasquale Brignoli as Manrico, Felicita Vestvali as Azucena, and Alessandro Amodio as the Count di Luna. The work's UK premiere took place on 10 May 1855 at Covent Garden in London, with Jenny Bürde-Ney as Leonora, Enrico Tamberlick as Manrico, Pauline Viardot as Azucena and Francesco Graziani as the Conte di Luna.",
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"plaintext": "As the 19th century proceeded there was a decline in interest, but Il trovatore saw a revival of interest after Toscanini's 1902 revivals. From its performance at the Met on 26 October 1883 the opera has been a staple of its repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "Today, almost all performances use the Italian version and it is one of the world's most frequently performed operas.",
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"plaintext": "In French as Le trouvère ",
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"plaintext": "After the successful presentation of the opera in Italian in Paris, François-Louis Crosnier, director of l'Opéra de Paris, proposed that Verdi revise his opera for the Paris audience as a grand opera, which would include a ballet, to be presented on the stage of the major Paris house. While Verdi was in Paris with Giuseppina Strepponi from late July 1855, working on the completion of Aroldo and beginning to prepare a libretto with Piave for what would become Simon Boccanegra, he encountered some legal difficulties in dealing with Toribio Calzado, the impresario of the Théâtre des Italiens, and, with his contacts with the Opėra, agreed to prepare a French version of Trovatore on 22 September 1855.",
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"plaintext": "A translation of Cammarano's libretto was made by librettist Émilien Pacini under the title of Le trouvère and it was first performed at La Monnaie in Brussels on 20 May 1856. There followed the production at the Paris Opera's Salle Le Peletier on 12 January 1857 after which Verdi returned to Italy. Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie attended the latter performance.",
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"plaintext": "For the French premiere, Verdi made some changes to the score of Le trouvère including the addition of music for the ballet in act 3 which followed the soldiers' chorus, where gypsies danced to entertain them. The quality of Verdi's ballet music has been noted by scholar Charles Osborne: \"He could have been the Tchaikovsky of Italian ballet\" he states, continuing to praise it as \"perfect ballet music\". In addition, he describes the unusual practice of Verdi having woven in themes from the gypsy chorus of act 2, ballet music for opera rarely connecting with the themes of the work. Several other revisions focused on Azucena's music, including an extended version of the finale of act 4, to accommodate the role's singer Adelaide Borghi-Mamo. Some of these changes have even been used in modern performances in Italian.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990 Tulsa Opera presented the first staging of Le trouvère in the United States using a new critical edition by musicologist, conductor, and Verdi scholar David Lawton. Recorded live for broadcast on NPR, Lawton conducted the premiere with Margaret Jane Wray as Leonore, Craig Sirianni as Manrique, Greer Grimsley as Le Comte de Luna, Barbara Conrad as Alzucena, and the Tulsa Philharmonic. This version was published by Ricordi and the University of Chicago Press in 2001. An updated version of this critical edition by Lawton was published by Ricordi in 2018, and given its premiere at the Festival Verdi in Parma that same year.",
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"plaintext": "Rarely given in French, it was presented as part of the 1998 Festival della Valle d'Itria and in 2002 Le trouvère appeared as part of the Sarasota Opera's \"Verdi Cycle\" of all the composer's work.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Biscay and Aragon (Spain)",
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"plaintext": "Time: Fifteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The guard room in the castle of Luna (The Palace of Aljafería, Zaragoza, Spain)",
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"plaintext": "Ferrando, the captain of the guards, orders his men to keep watch while Count di Luna wanders restlessly beneath the windows of Leonora, lady-in-waiting to the Princess. Di Luna loves Leonora and is jealous of his successful rival, a troubadour whose identity he does not know. In order to keep the guards awake, Ferrando narrates the history of the count (Racconto: / \"The good Count di Luna lived happily, the father of two sons\"): many years ago, a gypsy was wrongfully accused of having bewitched the youngest of the di Luna children; the child had fallen sick, and for this the gypsy had been burnt alive as a witch, her protests of innocence ignored. Dying, she had commanded her daughter Azucena to avenge her, which she did by abducting the baby. Although the burnt bones of a child were found in the ashes of the pyre, the father refused to believe his son's death. Dying, the father commanded his firstborn, the new Count di Luna, to seek Azucena.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: Garden in the palace of the princess",
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"plaintext": "Leonora confesses her love for the Troubadour to her confidante, Ines (Cavatina: Tacea la notte placida / \"The peaceful night lay silent\"... Di tale amor / \"A love that words can scarcely describe\"), in which she tells how she fell in love with a mystery knight, victor at a tournament: lost track of him when a civil war broke out: then encountered him again, in disguise as a wandering troubadour who sang beneath her window. When they have gone, Count di Luna enters, intending to pay court to Leonora himself, but hears the voice of his rival, in the distance: (Deserto sulla terra / \"Alone upon this earth\"). Leonora in the darkness briefly mistakes the count for her lover, until the Troubadour himself enters the garden, and she rushes to his arms. The Count challenges his rival to reveal his true identity, which he does: Manrico, a knight now outlawed and under death sentence for his allegiance to a rival prince. Manrico in turn challenges him to call the guards, but the Count regards this encounter as a personal rather than political matter, and challenges Manrico instead to a duel over their common love. Leonora tries to intervene, but cannot stop them from fighting (Trio: Di geloso amor sprezzato / \"The fire of jealous love\" ).",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The gypsies' camp",
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"plaintext": "The gypsies sing the Anvil Chorus: Vedi le fosche notturne / \"See! The endless sky casts off her sombre nightly garb...\". Azucena, the daughter of the Gypsy burnt by the count, is still haunted by her duty to avenge her mother (Canzone: Stride la vampa / \"The flames are roaring!\"). The Gypsies break camp while Azucena confesses to Manrico that after stealing the di Luna baby she had intended to burn the count's little son along with her mother, but overwhelmed by the screams and the gruesome scene of her mother's execution, she became confused and threw her own child into the flames instead (Racconto: Condotta ell'era in ceppi / \"They dragged her in bonds\"). ",
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"plaintext": "Manrico realises that he is not the son of Azucena, but loves her as if she were indeed his mother, as she has always been faithful and loving to him - and, indeed, saved his life only recently, discovering him left for dead on a battlefield after being caught in ambush. Manrico tells Azucena that he defeated di Luna in their earlier duel, but was held back from killing him by a mysterious power (Duet: Mal reggendo / \"He was helpless under my savage attack\"): and Azucena reproaches him for having stayed his hand then, especially since it was the Count's forces that defeated him in the subsequent battle of Pelilla. A messenger arrives and reports that Manrico's allies have taken Castle Castellor, which Manrico is ordered to hold in the name of his prince: and also that Leonora, who believes Manrico dead, is about to enter a convent and take the veil that night. Although Azucena tries to prevent him from leaving in his weak state (Ferma! Son io che parlo a te! / \"I must talk to you\"), Manrico rushes away to prevent her from carrying out this intent.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: In front of the convent",
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"plaintext": "Di Luna and his attendants intend to abduct Leonora and the Count sings of his love for her (Aria: Il balen del suo sorriso / \"The light of her smile\" ... Per me ora fatale / \"Fatal hour of my life\"). Leonora and the nuns appear in procession, but Manrico prevents di Luna from carrying out his plans and takes Leonora away with him, although once again leaving the Count behind unharmed, as the soldiers on both sides back down from bloodshed, the Count being held back by his own men.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Di Luna's camp",
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"plaintext": "Di Luna and his army are attacking the fortress Castellor where Manrico has taken refuge with Leonora (Chorus: Or co' dadi ma fra poco / \"Now we play at dice\"). Ferrando drags in Azucena, who has been captured wandering near the camp. When she hears di Luna's name, Azucena's reactions arouse suspicion and Ferrando recognizes her as the supposed murderer of the count's brother. Azucena cries out to her son Manrico to rescue her and the count realizes that he has the means to flush his enemy out of the fortress. He orders his men to build a pyre and burn Azucena before the walls.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: A chamber in the castle",
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"plaintext": "Inside the castle, Manrico and Leonora are preparing to be married. She is frightened; the battle with di Luna is imminent and Manrico's forces are outnumbered. He assures her of his love (Aria: Ah sì, ben mio, coll'essere / \"Ah, yes, my love, in being yours\"), even in the face of death. When news of Azucena's capture reaches him, he summons his men and desperately prepares to attack (Cabaletta: Di quella pira l'orrendo foco / \"The horrid flames of that pyre\"). Leonora faints.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Before the dungeon keep",
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"plaintext": "Manrico has failed to free Azucena and has been imprisoned himself. Leonora attempts to free him (Aria: D'amor sull'ali rosee / \"On the rosy wings of love\"; Chorus & Duet: Miserere / \"Lord, thy mercy on this soul\") by begging di Luna for mercy and offers herself in place of her lover. She promises to give herself to the count, but secretly swallows poison from her ring in order to die before di Luna can possess her (Duet: Mira, d'acerbe lagrime / \"See the bitter tears I shed\").",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: In the dungeon",
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"plaintext": "Manrico and Azucena are awaiting their execution. Manrico attempts to soothe Azucena, whose mind wanders to happier days in the mountains (Duet: Ai nostri monti ritorneremo / \"Again to our mountains we shall return\"). At last the gypsy slumbers. Leonora comes to Manrico and tells him that he is saved, begging him to escape. When he discovers she cannot accompany him, he refuses to leave his prison. He believes Leonora has betrayed him until he realizes that she has taken poison to remain true to him. As she dies in agony in Manrico's arms she confesses that she prefers to die with him than to marry another (Trio: Prima che d'altri vivere / \"Rather than live as another's\"). The count has heard Leonora's last words and orders Manrico's execution. Azucena awakens and tries to stop di Luna. Once she finds out Manrico is dead, she cries: Egli era tuo fratello! Sei vendicata, o madre. / \"He was your brother ... You are avenged, oh mother!\"",
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"plaintext": "Woodwinds: piccolo, flute, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons",
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"plaintext": "String: harp, strings",
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"plaintext": "Today, most opera scholars recognize the expressive musical qualities of Verdi's writing. However, musicologist Roger Parker notes that \"the extreme formalism of the musical language has been seen as serving to concentrate and define the various stages of the drama, above all channeling them into those key confrontations that mark its inexorable progress\".",
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"plaintext": "Here he, like many other writers, notes the elements of musical form (then often described as \"closed forms\") which characterize the opera and make it appear to be something of a return to the language of earlier times, \"the veritable apotheosis of bel canto with its demands for vocal beauty, agility and range,\" notes Charles Osborne. Thus, the cantabile-cabaletta two-part arias, the use of the chorus, etc., which Verdi had originally asked Cammarano to ignore, are evident. But Verdi wanted something else: \"the freer the forms he presents me with, the better I shall do,\" he wrote to the librettist's friend in March 1851. It was not what he received from his librettist, but he certainly demonstrated his total mastery over this style. Osborne's take on Il trovatore is that \"it is as though Verdi had decided to do something which he had been perfecting over the years, and to do it so beautifully that he need never to do it again. Formally, it is a step backward after Rigoletto\".",
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"plaintext": "Budden describes one of the musical qualities as the relationship between the \"consistent dramatic impetus\" of the action being caused by the \"propulsive quality\" of the music which produces a \"sense of continuous forward motion\". Parker describes it as \"sheer musical energy apparent in all the numbers\". And Budden gives many examples which show Verdi as \"the equal of Bellini\" as a melodist.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi also clearly recognizes the importance of the role of Azucena. Remembering that the composer's initial suggestion to Cammarano was that he wanted to name the opera after her, Budden notes that this character \"is the first of a glorious line\" and he names Ulrica (from Ballo), Eboli (from Don Carlos), and Amneris (from Aida) as followers in the same vocal range and with the same expressive and distinct qualities which separate them from the other female role in the opera in which they feature. He quotes from a letter which Verdi wrote to Marianna Barbieri-Nini, the soprano who was due to sing the Leonora in Venice after the premiere, and who expressed reservations about her music. Here, Verdi emphasizes the importance of the role of Azucena:",
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"plaintext": "..it's a principal, the principal role; finer and more dramatic and more original than the other. If I were a prima donna (a fine thing that would be!), I would always rather sing the part of the Gypsy in Il trovatore.",
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"plaintext": "From this position, Budden comments on the distinct differences in an era where vocal registers were less defined and which extend into Leonora's and Azucena's music \"where greater verbal projection of the lower voice [can be] turned to advantage\" and where \"the polarity between the two female roles [extends] into every field of comparison.\" He then sums up the musical relationship which exists between the two female characters, the men having simply been defined as being representative of their own voice types, something evident and very striking in Verdi's significant use of voice types in Ernani of 1844. Regarding Leonora, Budden describes her music as \"mov[ing] in long phrases most characterized by a soaring 'aspiring' quality\" whereas \"Azucena's melodies evolve in short, often commonplace phrases based on the repetition of short rhythmic patterns\".",
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"plaintext": "Enrico Caruso once said that all it takes for a successful performance of Il trovatore is the four greatest singers in the world. On many occasions, this opera and its music have been featured in various forms of popular culture and entertainment. Scenes of comic chaos play out over a performance of Il trovatore in the Marx Brothers film A Night at the Opera (including a quotation, in the middle of the Act I Overture, of Take Me Out to the Ball Game). Luchino Visconti used a performance of Il trovatore at La Fenice opera house for the opening sequence of his 1954 film Senso. As Manrico sings his battle cry in \"Di quella pira\", the performance is interrupted by the answering cries of Italian nationalists on the upper balcony who shower the stalls area below with patriotic leaflets. In Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism, Millicent Marcus proposes that Visconti used this operatic paradigm throughout Senso, with parallels between the opera's protagonists, Manrico and Leonora, and the film's protagonists, Ussoni and Livia. A staging of Act 1, Scene 2 of Il trovatore is featured in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1979 film La Luna. Music from the opera was featured on Kijiji in Canada for commercials. ",
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"plaintext": "While the story and most of the characters are fictitious, it is set towards the end of a real civil war in Aragon. Following the death of King Martin of Aragon in 1410, no fewer than six candidates staked a claim for the throne. A political meeting, the Compromise of Caspe, found in favour of Martin's sororal nephew Ferdinand. Count James II of Urgell, King Martin's brother-in-law and the closest relative through purely patrilineal line of descent, refused to accept the decision of the Compromise, believing (with some justification) that Martin had intended to adopt him as the heir by appointing him Governor-General after the death of his own son Martin the Younger, and rebelled. A third candidate was Frederic, Count of Luna, bastard son of Martin the Younger, whose legitimization had been sought from the Pope unsuccessfully. As part of the compromise for withdrawing his own claim in favour of Ferdinand, Frederic was granted the County of Luna, one of the lesser titles that his father had held.",
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"plaintext": "While neither of the two princes who actually took part in the war appears in the operaneither is even referred to by name, and only Urgell is referred to by his titlethe fortunes of their followers mirror those of their princes. Thus, with his military success, Ferdinand's side has the upper hand in the war and is effectively the Royalist party, with the backing of much of the nobility and the Dowager Queen, and he also has Di Luna as his chief henchman (Luna's own connection to the royal family is not mentioned, being not necessary to the drama): while Urgel, losing the war and on the back foot, is forced to recruit among outlaws and the dispossessed, effectively taking the part of a rebel despite having some legal right to his case. Thus the fact that the forces of Urgel, in the opera as in real life, lose every pitched battle: and on the single occasion that they capture a castle (named in the opera as \"Castellor\", a fairly generic name for a castle, there being many Castellars in the region), it proves a handicap to them because their only hope in battle lies in speed, mobility, surprise and ambush, all of which are lost when defending a fortress.",
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"plaintext": "Thus it is that the fictitious troubadour Manrico can gain his rags-to-riches background, having risen from the obscurity of a Biscayan gypsy camp to become Urgel's chief general, a knight and a master swordsman in his own right, good enough to defeat Di Luna himself in a personal duel, or win a knightly tournament: only to lose it again on the military battlefield, where the odds are perpetually against him, and he is damned as an outlaw even before the opera begins, for no deed of his own but because his master is the rebel. And yet he gets to be a heroic, popular outlaw, who might just escape with his life in return for a vow of future loyalty, if put on trial in front of the Prince himself: a chance that Luna does not want to risk, given that his rivalry with Manrico is personal as well as political. Hence the challenge to the duel over the personal rivalry, instead of calling the guards and making the arrest political, in Act 1: and hence also the decision to execute without trial in Act 4 even though Luna knows he is abusing his position. Leonora and Azucena are, of course, as fictitious as Manrico, as is the story's conceit that the former Count of Luna had not one but two sons.",
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"plaintext": "Budden, Julian (1984). The Operas of Verdi: From Il trovatore to La forza del destino. London: Cassell. (hardcover); (paperback).",
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"plaintext": "Grover-Friedlander, Michal (2005). Vocal Apparitions: The Attraction of Cinema to Opera. Princeton University Press. . Preview at Google Books.",
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"plaintext": "Kimbell, David (2001), in Holden, Amanda, (ed.), 2001. The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam. .",
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"plaintext": "Marcus, Millicent Joy (1986). Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism. Princeton University Press. . Preview at Google Books.",
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"plaintext": "Melitz, Leo (1921). The Opera Goer's Complete Guide. . View at Google Books.",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles (1977). The Complete Operas of Verdi. New York: Da Capo Press. .",
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"plaintext": "Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane (1993), Verdi: A Biography, London & New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Parker, Roger, \"Il trovatore\" in Stanley Sadie, (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Four. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc. 1998 ",
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"plaintext": " Pitou, Spire (1990). The Paris Opéra: An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, and Performers. Growth and Grandeur, 18151914. New York: Greenwood Press. .",
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"plaintext": "Tambling, Jeremy (1987). Opera, Ideology and Film. Manchester University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul (1973), Verdi: The Man and His Letters, New York, Vienna House. ",
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"plaintext": "Baldini, Gabriele (1970), (trans. Roger Parker, 1980), The Story of Giuseppe Verdi: Oberto to Un Ballo in Maschera. Cambridge, et al: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Chusid, Martin, (ed.) (1997), Verdi’s Middle Period, 1849 to 1859, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "De Van, Gilles (trans. Gilda Roberts) (1998), Verdi’s Theater: Creating Drama Through Music. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. (hardback), ",
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"plaintext": "Gossett, Philip (2006), Divas and Scholar: Performing Italian Opera, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Martin, George, Verdi: His Music, Life and Times (1983), New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. ",
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"plaintext": "Parker, Roger (2007), The New Grove Guide to Verdi and His Operas, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Pistone, Danièle (1995), Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera: From Rossini to Puccini, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Toye, Francis (1931), Giuseppe Verdi: His Life and Works, New York: Knopf",
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"plaintext": "Walker, Frank, The Man Verdi (1982), New York: Knopf, 1962, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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{
"plaintext": "Warrack, John and West, Ewan, The Oxford Dictionary of Opera New York: OUP: 1992 ",
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] | 203,470 | 5,752 | 1,130 | 141 | 0 | 0 | Il trovatore | opera by Giuseppe Verdi | [] |
37,907 | 1,091,605,547 | Ernani | [
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"plaintext": "Ernani is an operatic dramma lirico in four acts by Giuseppe Verdi to an Italian libretto by Francesco Maria Piave, based on the 1830 play Hernani by Victor Hugo.",
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"plaintext": "Verdi was commissioned by the Teatro La Fenice in Venice to write an opera, but finding the right subject took some time, and the composer worked with the inexperienced Piave in shaping first one and then another drama by Hugo into an acceptable libretto. As musicologist Roger Parker notes, the composer \"intervened on several important points, insisting for example that the role of Ernani be sung by a tenor (rather than by a contralto as had originally been planned).",
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"plaintext": "Ernani was first performed on 9 March 1844 and it was \"immensely popular, and was revived countless times during its early years\". It became Verdi's most popular opera until it was superseded by Il trovatore after 1853. In 1904 it became the first opera to be recorded completely.",
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"plaintext": "Following the success of both Nabucco and I Lombardi, Verdi was approached by many opera companies wanting to commission him to write an opera for their houses. Rather than prepare another for La Scala, he was interested in a commission for two operas for the 1843–44 season (one of which would be I Lombardi) which came from the President of the Teatro la Fenice in Venice, Marquis Nanni Mocenigo.",
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"plaintext": "However, the composer was only willing to accept the terms which he proposed: 12,000 Austrian lire to be paid after the first performance, not the third as proposed by Venice (Verdi recalled what had happened to Un giorno di regno with its one and only performance). Amongst other stipulations, he demanded the right to choose his own subject, his own librettist, and also to pay him directly, as well as refusing to accept the requirement that a full orchestral score be available in advance. In addition, he had the right to choose the singers from the assembled company for that season. David Kimbell notes one additional demand:",
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"plaintext": "He explains [to Mocenigo at La Fenice]—and this was rare at the time—that he began to compose only when the libretto was completed to his satisfaction because \"when I have a general conception of the whole poem, the music comes of its own accord\"",
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"plaintext": "Once this agreement was settled upon, the next step was to choose a subject, something which took some time. Several subjects came to Verdi's attention: for example, Byron's The Corsair was considered, but the right baritone was not available. In thinking about an opera about the Venetian Foscari family, he found that it was forbidden by the censor in order to avoid upsetting any of the descendants of that family who were then living in Venice. However, both of these subjects were to become later Verdi operas, Il corsaro and I due Foscari.",
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"plaintext": "An unsolicited manuscript from the unknown Francesco Piave (who was La Fenice's resident poet and stage manager in addition to being a friend of Brenna, the company's Secretary) proposed an opera, Cromwell, based on Victor Hugo's play, and on which he had started work. Mocenigo assured the composer of Piave's sense of the theatre and of musical forms, and so they agreed to proceed, although by the time of its approval by the Fenice authorities, it had become Allan Cameron, a story set in the time just prior to the accession of Britain's Charles II. Immediately, Verdi took control and made it clear to Piave what he wanted in the way of a theatrical experience: \"...Let's have as few words as possible [.....] Remember that brevity is never a fault [....] But I do insist on brevity because that's what the public wants....\"",
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"plaintext": "The Cromwell libretto arrived from Piave in pieces, and Verdi put it away until he had the complete version to work from. However, when the composer and La Fenice's president met in Venice in late August, Verdi expressed some dissatisfaction at how the libretto had turned out. Then Mocenigo's casual reference to Hugo's successful 1830 drama Hernani as an idea for a libretto caught Verdi's imagination, as seen in a letter which the latter wrote to Mocenigo in early September which expressed concerns about Allan Cameron and the way it had turned out, though noting that this was \"the fault of the subject and not the poet\". He continues:",
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"plaintext": "But oh, if only we could do Hernani instead that would be tremendous. I know that it would mean a great deal of trouble for the poet but my first task would be to try and compensate him....[...] all he would have to do would be to condense and tighten up; the action is already there ready made, and it's all immensely good theatre. Tomorrow I'll write at length to Piave setting out all the scenes from Hernani which seem to me suitable.",
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"plaintext": "At this point he continues with suggestions for the poet. For Verdi, the appeal of Hugo's work – which the latter described as \"Romanticism or the Liberalism in literature\" – was \"the struggle between love and honour\", and Budden sums up this appeal as \"Within Hugo's scheme each illogical action follows logically from the one that precedes it, giving Verdi the pace, the eventfulness and above all the dramatic unity that he has been looking for.\"",
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"plaintext": "However, Piave was not at all pleased by this turn of events and felt that an opera based on Hernani could not be staged for reasons of censorship. For instance, the King's first appearance in the play is from a cupboard where he has been hiding since some time after his arrival and before he meets Elvira. Thus he overhears much of the interaction between Elvira and Ernani before finally revealing himself. Verdi must have realized that no king \"would ever be allowed to hide in a cupboard\", something which Budden notes.",
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"plaintext": "But the La Fenice directorate did approve the concept and the librettist was offered compensation, although he saved his Allan Cameron in reserve in case of mishap. As it evolved, the opera – originally titled Don Ruy Gomez de Silva in synopsis form – came more and more \"to reflect the unique character of the parent drama\" as Verdi wished to stick as closely as possible to the original play. For Budden, this \"marks a new outlook in Italian opera\", because this would never have occurred to either Rossini or Donizetti, for whom plots were interchangeable.",
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"plaintext": "Although Verdi had agreed to try to accommodate the contralto Carolina Vietti when the opera was Allan Cameron, he was against making the leading character of Ernani a musico contralto. However, he compromised somewhat and, by the end of October, it appeared that the four voice types were to be soprano (Elvira), contralto (Ernani), tenor (Don Carlo), and baritone (de Silva), but after the acceptance of the libretto by the Venetian police, Verdi was able to hold firm and ultimately get what he wanted: a soprano, a tenor, a baritone, and – although Rosi was not an experienced enough singer – a bass in the role of de Silva. Thus it became a comprimario role, one to be sung by a second-rung singer in the company. But, as Budden notes, Verdi's \"difficulties with singers were not yet over\".",
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"plaintext": "The season opened with I Lombardi in December 1843. It was a disaster, with terrible singing from the tenor Domenico Conti. Two other operas early in the 1843/44 season were equally poorly received. Having heard one other potential tenor, Vitali, as a possible replacement, the composer presented an ultimatum: either be released from his contract or the company would engage Carlo Guasco in the role of Ernani. With a premiere set for March, two final glitches were overcome: the bass Rosi had disappeared from consideration as de Silva but was replaced by Meini, who then withdrew because he found the part too low. Verdi then engaged a member of the chorus, the bass Antonio Selva who went on to a distinguished career. And, in spite of complaints from the soprano, Sophie Löwe, that she was not to be front and centre for the finale, she became part of the final trio.",
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"plaintext": "Budden notes the following in regard to the specific relationship between this opera and the work of Victor Hugo:",
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"plaintext": "...from the first the spirit of Hugo is there. Verdi [ten years younger than the playwright] was part of that youthful audience to which the play Hernani is addressed. The bounding energy of Hugo's alexandrines is reflected in the spirit of Verdi's music, which is far more forceful than anything he had written so far. Victor Hugo, one might say, was good for Verdi; and it significant that both the operas that he based on Hugo's plays (the other was of course Rigoletto) were landmarks in his career.",
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"plaintext": "But it is the composer himself who, in a letter to Brenna, the La Fenice secretary and a friend of Piave's, sums up his own sense of theatre, of what works and what doesn't. This was written at a time when Piave was unhappy about the shift from his original libretto to the one for what became Ernani. With this shift came many changes of direction as issues such as casting came into consideration, and Verdi asks Brenna to communicate his feelings to the librettist:",
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"plaintext": "However little experience I may have had, I do go to the theatre [Verdi is referring to the opera house] all the year round and I pay the most careful attention to what I see and hear. I've been able to put my finger on so many works which wouldn't have failed if the pieces had been better laid out, the effects better calculated, the musical forms clearer, etc....in a word, if either the composer or the poet had been more experienced.",
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"plaintext": "In effect, Verdi is taking control over all aspects of the piece, which includes the condensation of the sprawling play into his four acts. (The first two acts of Hugo's play become act 1 of the opera). Rather than allow the librettist a free hand in composing his verses, \"this would have perpetuated in a diminished form the word-music division that Verdi precisely wanted to get away from. The composer's desire to take charge of every aspect of an opera implied that he had the power to decide what weight to give the text and the music, respectively, depending upon the \"moment\" of the action.",
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"plaintext": "Budden sums up the opening night success of Ernani: nothing \"prevented [the opera] from being a tremendous success. With it, Verdi's fame took a new leap which carried it at once across the boundaries of Italy. For better or worse, he was now a world composer [.....and] wherever there was an Italian opera house, Ernani arrived sooner or later.\" However, it was not all smooth sailing: due to Hugo's opposition, the first performances in Paris at the Théâtre des Italiens two years later required a change of title - to Il Proscritto - and a change of characters' names: \"The practice was followed in other cities where the names Victor Hugo and Hernani smacked of revolution.\" In Palermo in 1845 it became Elvira d'Aragona and in Messina in 1847 the title became Il proscritto ossia Il corsaro di Venezia. Overall, Ernani was staged in one form or another up to the mid-1850s, with \"32 theatres [giving] the work in 1844, 60 in 1845, and at least 65 in 1846, not including revivals in houses that had already presented it.\"",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom premiere, the first of Verdi's operas to be translated into English, took place at Her Majesty's Theatre in London on 8 March 1845 followed on 13 April 1847 by its US premiere in New York.",
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"plaintext": "Ernani appeared on the roster of the Metropolitan Opera as early as 1903 and has been given many times since then. The opera was revived in a series of new productions at the San Francisco Opera (1982), the Met (1983), the Lyric Opera of Chicago (1984), and at La Scala (1984). It was given as part of the 1997 season of the Sarasota Opera's \"Verdi Cycle\". The Teatro Regio di Parma, another company with the aim of presenting every Verdi opera, gave it in October 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Today Ernani receives numerous performances at opera houses around the world.",
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"plaintext": "Time: 1519.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Aragon, Aachen, and Zaragoza.",
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"plaintext": "Mountains of Aragon",
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"plaintext": "The bandits demand the reason for Ernani's gloom (Chorus: Evviva! Beviam! Beviam! / \"To you we drink\"; Ernani pensoso! / \"Ernani, so gloomy? Why, oh strong one, does care sit on your brow?\"). Ernani replies that he loves Elvira (Recitative: \"Thanks, dear friends\"; Cavatina: Come rugiada al cespite / \"As the flower turns to the sun\"), who is about to be married against her will to old Gomez de Silva (O tu che l'alma adora). He asks the bandits to abduct her.",
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"plaintext": "In Elvira's chamber",
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"plaintext": "Elvira worries about her upcoming marriage (Scena: \"Now sinks the sun and Silva does not return\"; Cavatina: Ernani, Ernani involami / \"Ernani, Ernani, save me\") as servants deliver Silva's wedding presents to her. She reaffirms her love for Ernani (Tutto sprezzo che d'Ernani / \"I scorn everything which does not speak to my heart of Ernani\"). King Carlos, disguised as a peasant, enters, but Elvira recognizes him and rejects the love that he offers her. As he attempts to use force, she grasps a dagger, but Ernani suddenly arrives and stops Carlos (Trio: \"A friend comes quickly to your aid\"). Carlos recognizes Ernani as the leader of the bandits. Ernani replies that Carlos robbed him of his lands and forced him into a life of banditry. As he invites Carlos to fight, Silva appears and sees Ernani (Infelice!... e tu credevi... che mai vegg'io! / \"Dreadful sight\"; Silva's cavatina: \"Unhappy man! You thought this lovely...was yours\").",
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"plaintext": "[La Scala, Autumn 1844, Silva's cabaletta added: \"Infin che un brando vindice\" using music originally written for Verdi's first opera, Oberto]",
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"plaintext": "Ernani offers to fight them both when Riccardo approaches and recognises the king. Silva is horrified and apologizes to the king, while Ernani whispers to Elvira to prepare to flee.",
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"plaintext": "A hall in Silva's palace",
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"plaintext": "Ernani enters disguised as a pilgrim. He asks for shelter, which Silva grants him, and then learns from Silva that he is about to marry Elvira, who believes Ernani to be dead. Ernani reveals his true identity to Elvira and she tells him that she plans to kill herself at the altar (Duet: Ah, morir potessi adesso / \"Ah, if I could die now\"). Silva walks in at that moment, discovers the pair, but agrees to keep his word to Ernani and protect him from the king, for which Ernani will owe him a perpetual debt. (Trio: No, vendetta più tremenda / \"No, I want to keep a greater revenge\"). Carlos arrives and wishes to know why the castle is barred. Silva refuses to surrender Ernani (Carlos' aria: Lo vedremo, veglio audace / \"We shall see, you bold old man\") and Don Carlos's men cannot find Ernani's hiding place. Silva keeps his word, even when the king secures Elvira as a hostage. Silva releases Ernani, and then challenges him to a duel. Ernani refuses to fight, but unites with Silva in his plans to free Elvira from the king. Ernani swears to appear at the summons of Silva, wherever he may be at that time (Odi il voto o grande Iddio / \"Oh God, hear the vow\"),",
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"plaintext": "[Added for Parma, 26 December 1844: \"at Rossini's request, Verdi wrote a grand aria for the tenor \". Ernani gathers his men to him. His aria of vengeance: Sprezzo la vita né più m'alletta / \"Life means nothing to me, only hope of vengeance\" concludes the act].",
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"plaintext": "In the burial vault of Charles the Great at Aachen",
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"plaintext": "Carlos visits the grave of the emperor Charlemagne (Carlo Magno), whose successor, the new Holy Roman Emperor, is being elected by delegates from the relevant countries. Carlos resolves to change his life if he is crowned (Cavatina: Oh, de' verd'anni miei/ \"Oh, the dreams and deceits of my youth\"). Hiding behind the vault, he overhears a gathering of conspirators including Silva and Ernani. Ernani swears to murder Carlos. The conspiracy is foiled when Carlos's attendants enter and surprise the conspirators. The king commands that all the traitorous noblemen be executed. Ernani steps forward, declaring that thus he must die too; he is not the bandit Ernani, but Don Juan of Aragon, whose lands were taken from him. Elvira, who had been brought to Carlos as his intended empress, begs mercy for her lover, and Carlos, whose mood has changed, forgives them both and places Elvira's hand in that of Ernani.",
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"plaintext": "Ernani's Castle",
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"plaintext": "Elvira and Ernani have just been married, when, in consternation, Ernani hears a bugle call. Silva arrives and silently hands Ernani a dagger. Ernani asks for time to \"sip from the cup of love\" (Ascolta, ascolta un detto ancor/ \"Listen, just one word...\") but, cursed by Silva as a coward, Ernani keeps his oath and stabs himself in the heart (Trio with Silva: È vano, o donna, il piangere, è vano / \"Your weeping is in vain, woman\"). He dies in Elvira's arms, telling her to live.",
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"plaintext": "Ernani is scored for one piccolo, one flute, two oboes, two clarinets, one bass clarinet, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, one cimbasso, one harp, timpani, bass drum and cymbals, snare drum, on-stage band with on-stage bass drum, one offstage horn, six offstage trumpets, and strings.",
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"plaintext": "Noting that the dramatic structure of this opera \"brought about a fresh consideration of the fixed forms of Italian opera, in particular an expansion and enrichment of the solo aria and duet together with a more flexible approach to the musical sequences that bind together lyrical pieces\", Roger Parker continues by stating that of greatest importance was \"Verdi's gathering sense of musical drama's larger rhetoric, his increasing control over the dynamics of entire acts rather than merely of entire numbers. In this respect, the third act of Ernani sets up an imposing standard of coherence, one that is rarely equalled until the operas of the early 1850s.\"",
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"plaintext": "However, it is writer Gabriele Baldini (whose specialization was in English literature) who in 1980 points to one of the most significant aspects of Ernani'''s dramatic and musical structure, the concept of male vocal archetypes, something which is echoed in Budden's 1984 chapter on this opera. Baldini writes of the musical conflicts inherent in the drama as a result of the use of certain voice types:",
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"plaintext": "A youthful, passionate female voice is besieged by three male voices, each of whom establishes a specific relationship with her. The siege is fruitless. The male voices, or rather registers, meet with various fates, and each is granted a relationship with the woman, although on different levels. This relationship varies in intensity of passion according to the distance between the soprano register and the particular male voice.",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, it is the lowest voice [the bass, de Silva], which is \"farthest away, and thus his relationship is the coldest and most retrained\". The baritone [the King, Don Carlo] \"manages to draw somewhat closer, although indirectly and ambiguously\", but Baldini continues by noting that it the highest male voice [the tenor, Ernani] who \"gets near a relationship which if not complete [....] is at least reciprocated for long periods\".",
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"plaintext": "Finally, while Baldini agrees with Parker that it is act 3 of Ernani which is the strongest - \"in my opinion it marks the first occasion on which Verdi enclosed within a fairly extended musical space (about twenty five minutes) a perfect structural unit\" - he also echoes Budden and De Van in noting the importance of the opening horn motif and references to the horn which recur throughout the opera and which ends with the final horn call, the fatal summons to Ernani by de Silva.",
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"plaintext": "The first complete recording of an opera was the 1904 recording of Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs, by the Gramophone Company in England. Later recordings include:",
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"plaintext": "Baldini, Gabriele, (trans. Roger Parker) (1980), The Story of Giuseppe Verdi: Oberto to Un Ballo in Maschera. Cambridge, et al.: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Budden, Julian (1984), The Operas of Verdi, Volume 1: From Oberto to Rigoletto. London: Cassell. .",
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"plaintext": "De Van, Gilles (trans. Gilda Roberts) (1998), Verdi’s Theater: Creating Drama Through Music. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. (hardback), ",
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"plaintext": "Kimbell, David, in Holden, Amanda (ed.) (2001), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam. ",
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"plaintext": "Melitz, Leo (1921), opera synopsis in The Opera Goer's Complete Guide ",
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"plaintext": "Parker, Roger (1998), \"Ernani in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. 2, pp.70–73. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": "Verdi, Giuseppe, Ernani, full score critical edition, ed. Claudio Gallico, Chicago & Milan: University of Chicago Press & G. Ricordi, 1985. .",
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"plaintext": "Gossett, Philip (2006), Divas and Scholar: Performing Italian Opera, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Martin, George, Verdi: His Music, Life and Times (1983), New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. ",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles (1969), The Complete Opera of Verdi, New York: Da Capo Press, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": "Pistone, Danièle (1995), Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera: From Rossini to Puccini, Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane (1993), Verdi: A Biography, London & New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Walker, Frank, The Man Verdi (1982), New York: Knopf, 1962, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul (1973), Verdi: The Man and His Letters'', New York, Vienna House. ",
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"plaintext": "Libretto on giuseppeverdi.it Retrieved 3 February 2012",
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"plaintext": "Modern English translation of Victor Hugo's Hernani, the inspiration for Ernani on bedard.com. Retrieved 3 February 2012.",
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] | [
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] | 211,279 | 3,110 | 271 | 73 | 0 | 0 | Ernani | opera by Giuseppe Verdi | [] |
37,909 | 1,094,896,748 | Don_Carlos | [
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"plaintext": "Don Carlos is a five-act grand opera composed by Giuseppe Verdi to a French-language libretto by Joseph Méry and Camille du Locle, based on the dramatic play Don Carlos, Infant von Spanien (Don Carlos, Infante of Spain) by Friedrich Schiller. In addition, several incidents, of which the Forest of Fontainebleau scene and auto-da-fé were the most substantial, were borrowed from Eugène Cormon's 1846 play Philippe II, Roi d'Espagne. The opera is most often performed in Italian translation, usually under the title Don Carlo. ",
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"plaintext": "The opera's story is based on conflicts in the life of Carlos, Prince of Asturias (1545–1568). Though he was betrothed to Elisabeth of Valois, part of the peace treaty ending the Italian War of 1551–59 between the Houses of Habsburg and Valois demanded that she be married instead to his father Philip II of Spain. It was commissioned and produced by the Théâtre Impérial de l'Opéra (Paris Opera) and given its premiere at the Salle Le Peletier on 11 March 1867.",
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"plaintext": "The first performance in Italian was given at Covent Garden in London in June 1867. The first performance in Italy was in Bologna in October 1867, also in Italian translation. After some revisions by Verdi, it was performed in Italian in Naples in November/December 1872. Verdi was also responsible for a short four-act \"Milan version\" in which the first act was removed and the ballet omitted (performed in Milan in January 1884 in Italian translation) but also apparently approved a five-act \"Modena version\" in which the first act was restored but the ballet still omitted (performed in Modena in December 1886, also in Italian translation). Around 1970, substantial passages of music cut before the premiere were discovered in Paris archives, giving rise to at least one additional version that can be ascribed to Verdi: the version he prepared for the Paris Opera in 1866, before any cuts were made. No other Verdi opera exists in so many authentic versions. At its full length (including the ballet and the cuts made before the first performance), it contains close to four hours of music and is Verdi's longest opera.",
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"plaintext": "Pre-première cuts and first published edition",
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"plaintext": "Verdi made a number of cuts in 1866, after finishing the opera but before composing the ballet, simply because the work was becoming too long. These were a duet for Elisabeth and Eboli in Act 4, Scene 1; a duet for Carlos and the King after the death of Posa in Act 4, Scene 2; and an exchange between Elisabeth and Eboli during the insurrection in the same scene.",
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"plaintext": "After the ballet had been composed, it emerged during the 1867 rehearsal period that, without further cuts, the opera would not finish before midnight (the time by which patrons would need to leave in order to catch the last trains to the Paris suburbs). Verdi then authorised some further cuts, which were, firstly, the introduction to Act 1 (with a chorus of woodcutters and their wives, and including the first appearance of Elisabeth); secondly, a short entry solo for Posa (J'étais en Flandres) in Act 2, Scene 1; and, thirdly, part of the dialogue between the King and Posa at the end of Act 2, Scene 2.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first published as given at the première and consisted of Verdi's original conception, without the music of the above-named cuts, but with the ballet. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, at a Verdi congress in Verona, the American musicologist David Rosen presented the missing section from the Philip-Posa duet from the end of Act 2, which he had found folded down in the conductor's copy of the score. Other pages with cuts had simply been removed from the autograph score and the conductor's copy. Shortly thereafter, the British music critic Andrew Porter found most of these other cut passages could be reconstructed from the individual parts, in which the pages with the \"lost\" music had been either \"pasted, pinned or stitched down.\" In all, 21 minutes of missing music was restored. Nearly all of the known music Verdi composed for the opera, including the pre-première cuts and later revisions, can be found in an integral edition prepared by the German musicologist Ursula Günther, first published in 1980 and in a second, revised version in 1986.",
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"plaintext": "After the première and before leaving Paris, Verdi authorised the Opéra authorities to end Act 4, Scene 2 with the death of Posa (thereby omitting the insurrection scene) if they thought fit. This was done, beginning with the second performance on 13 March, after his departure. Further (unauthorised) cuts were apparently made during the remaining performances. Despite a grandiose production designed by scenic artists Charles-Antoine Cambon and Joseph Thierry (Acts I and III), Édouard Desplechin and Jean-Baptiste Lavastre (Acts II and V), and Auguste Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon (Act IV), it appears to have been a \"problem opera\" for the Opéra—it disappeared from its repertoire after 1869.",
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"plaintext": "It was common practice at the time for most theatres (other than those in French-speaking communities) to perform operas in Italian, and an Italian translation of Don Carlos was prepared in the autumn of 1866 by Achille de Lauzières. On 18 November 1866 Verdi wrote to Giovanni Ricordi, offering the Milan publisher the Italian rights, but insisting that the opera:",
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"plaintext": "must be performed in its entirety as it will be performed for the first time at the Paris Opéra. Don Carlos is an opera in five acts with ballet: if nevertheless the management of Italian theatres would like to pair it with a different ballet, this must be placed either before or after the uncut opera, never in the middle, following the barbarous custom of our day.",
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"plaintext": "However, the Italian translation was first performed not in Italy but in London at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden on 4 June 1867, where it was produced and conducted by Michael Costa. However, it was not as Verdi desired; the opera was given in a cut and altered form, with the first act being removed, the ballet in Act 3 being omitted, and Carlo's aria Io la vidi (originally in Act 1) being moved to Act 3, just before the terzetto. Additionally, the duet between Philip and the Inquisitor was shortened by four lines, and Elisabeth's aria in Act 5 consisted only of part of the middle section and the reprise. The production was initially considered a success, and Verdi sent a congratulatory note to Costa. Later when he learned of the alterations, Verdi was greatly irritated, but Costa's version anticipated revisions Verdi himself would make a few years later in 1882–83.",
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"plaintext": "The Italian premiere on 27 October 1867 at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna, conducted by Verdi's close friend Angelo Mariani, was an \"instant success\", and this version, although produced in Verdi's absence, was more complete and included the ballet. For the Rome premiere on 9 February 1868 at the Teatro Apollo, perhaps unsurprisingly, the Papal censor changed the Inquisitor into a Gran Cancelliere (Grand Chancellor) and the Monk/Emperor into a Solitario (Recluse).",
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"plaintext": "This version of the opera was first performed in Milan at La Scala on 25 March 1868, and prestige productions in most other Italian opera houses followed, but it did not become a popular success. The length was a particular problem, and subsequent performances were generally heavily cut. The first production in Naples in 1871 was indisputably a failure.",
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"plaintext": "Following the unsuccessful performance in Naples in 1871, Verdi was persuaded to visit the city for further performances in November / December 1872, and he made two more modifications to the score: (a) a revision of the closing two-thirds of the Philippe-Rodrique duet in Act 2, Scene 2 (to Italian verses, almost certainly by Antonio Ghislanzoni), which replaced some of the previously cut material, and (b) the removal of the allegro marziale section of the final Elisabeth-Carlos duet (replaced with an 8-bar patch). These are the only portions of the opera that were composed to an Italian rather than a French text. According to Julian Budden, Verdi \"was to regret both modifications\". Ricordi incorporated the revisions into later prints of the opera without changing the plate numbers. This subsequently confused some authors, e.g. Francis Toye and Ernest Newman, who dated them to 1883.",
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"plaintext": "The idea of reducing the scope and scale of Don Carlos had originally come to Verdi in 1875, partly as a result of his having heard reports of productions, such as Costa's, which had removed Act 1 and the ballet and introduced cuts to other parts of the opera. By April 1882, he was in Paris where he was ready to make changes. He was already familiar with the work of Charles-Louis-Étienne Nuitter, who had worked on French translations of Macbeth, La forza del destino and Aida with du Locle, and the three proceeded to spend nine months on major revisions of the French text and the music to create a four-act version. This omitted Act 1 and the ballet, and was completed by March 1883. An Italian translation of this revised French text, re-using much of the original 1866 translation by de Lauzières, was made by . The La Scala première of the 1883 revised version took place on 10 January 1884 in Italian.",
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"plaintext": "Although Verdi had accepted the need to remove the first act, it seems that he changed his mind and allowed a performance which presented the \"Fontainebleau\" first act along with the revised four-act version. It was given on 29 December 1886 in Modena, and has become known as the \"Modena version\", which was published by Ricordi as \"a new edition in five acts without ballet\".",
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"plaintext": "In Italian",
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"plaintext": "Performances of Don Carlo in the first half of the twentieth century were rare, but in the post Second World War period it has been regularly performed, particularly in the four-act 1884 \"Milan version\" in Italian. In 1950, to open Rudolf Bing's first season as director of the Metropolitan Opera, the four-act version was performed without the ballet in a production by Margaret Webster with Jussi Björling in the title role, Delia Rigal as Elizabeth, Robert Merrill as Rodrigo, Fedora Barbieri as Eboli, Cesare Siepi as Philip II and Jerome Hines as the Grand Inquisitor. This version was performed there until 1972. The four-act version in Italian continued to be championed by conductors such as Herbert von Karajan (1978 audio recording and 1986 video recording) and Riccardo Muti (1992 video recording). ",
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"plaintext": "Also influential was a 1958 staging of the 1886 five-act \"Modena version\" in Italian by The Royal Opera company, Covent Garden, directed by Luchino Visconti and conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini. The cast included Jon Vickers as Don Carlo, Tito Gobbi as Rodrigo, Boris Christoff as King Phillip and Gré Brouwenstijn as Elizabeth. This version has increasingly been performed elsewhere and has been recorded by, among others, Georg Solti and Giulini.",
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"plaintext": "After the discovery of music cut before the premiere, conductors began performing five-act versions that included some of it. In 1973 at La Fenice, Georges Prêtre conducted a 5-act version in Italian without the ballet that included the discarded woodcutters scene, the first Carlo-Rodrigo duet in a hybrid beginning with the Paris edition but ending with the Milan revision, the discarded Elisabeth-Eboli duet from Act 4, and the Paris finale. In 1975, Charles Mackerras conducted an expanded and modified five-act version (with Verdi's original prelude, the woodcutters' scene and the original Paris ending) in an English translation for English National Opera at the London Coliseum. In 1978, Claudio Abbado mounted an expanded five-act version in Italian at La Scala. The cast included Mirella Freni as Elizabeth, Elena Obraztsova as Eboli, José Carreras in the title role, Piero Cappuccilli as Rodrigo, Nicolai Ghiaurov as King Phillip, and Evgeny Nesterenko as the Grand Inquisitor. On 5 February 1979, James Levine conducted an expanded five-act version in Italian at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. The cast included Renata Scotto as Elizabeth, Marilyn Horne as Eboli, Giuseppe Giacomini as Don Carlo, Sherrill Milnes as Rodrigo, Nicolai Ghiaurov as King Philip, and James Morris as the Grand Inquisitor.",
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"plaintext": "Today, as translated into Italian and presented in four-act and five-act versions, the opera has become part of the standard repertory.",
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"plaintext": "In French",
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"plaintext": "Stagings and broadcasts of five-act French versions of the opera have become more frequent in the later 20th and into the 21st century. Up to 1973, these productions consisted of the revised and abridged four-act score of 1882–83 prefaced by the shortened, revised Act 1 set in Fontainebleau. A radio broadcast by ORTF in France was given in 1967 with a nearly all-French cast, with the exception of the Italian Matteo Manuguerra as Rodrigue. A five-act French version was performed at La Scala Milan in 1970.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 May 1973, the Opera Company of Boston under the direction of Sarah Caldwell presented a nearly complete five-act French version which included the 21 minutes of music cut before the premiere, but not the ballet. The 1867 version was used, since the restored music does not easily fit with the 1886 revised version. The cast included John Alexander in the title role, the French-Canadian Édith Tremblay as Élisabeth, the French singer as Princess Eboli, William Dooley as Rogrigue and Donald Gramm as Philippe. According to Andrew Porter, the Boston production was \"the first performance, ever, of the immense opera that Verdi prepared in 1867; and in doing so it opened a new chapter in the stage history of the piece.\"",
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"plaintext": "The BBC Concert Orchestra under John Matheson broadcast the opera in June 1973 with the roles of Don Carlos sung by André Turp, Philippe II by Joseph Rouleau, and Rodrigue by Robert Savoie. Julian Budden comments that \"this was the first complete performance of what could be called the 1866 conception in French with the addition of the ballet.\"",
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"plaintext": "Several notable productions of five-act French versions have been mounted more recently. A five-act French version was performed by the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie in Brussels in 1983. A co-production between the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris and the Royal Opera in London in 1996 used Andrew Porter as a consultant and was a \"judicious mixture\" of music from the 1866 original and the 1883 revision. The production, staged by Luc Bondy, was also shared with the opera houses in Brussels, Nice and Lyon. The performance by the Paris cast (March 1996), was conducted by Antonio Pappano with Roberto Alagna as Don Carlos, Karita Mattila as Elisabeth, Thomas Hampson as Rodrigue, José Van Dam as Philippe II and Waltraud Meier as Eboli. It was recorded on videotape and is now available in a remastered HD video format.",
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"plaintext": "A Vienna State Opera production, staged by Peter Konwitschny and performed in Vienna in October 2004, included all of the music excised during the Paris rehearsal period plus the ballet. Patrick O'Connor, writing in the Gramophone magazine, reports the ballet was \"staged as 'Eboli's Dream'. She and Don Carlos are living in suburban bliss, and have Philip and Elisabeth round for a pizza, delivered by Rodrigo. Musically, the performance, apart from the Auto-da-fé scene, has a lot going for it under the direction of Bertrand de Billy.\" A DVD video recording is available.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 September 2005 a co-production directed by John Caird of the largely uncut Paris version in French between the Welsh National Opera and the Canadian Opera Company (Toronto) was premiered by the WNO at the Wales Millenium Center. The performance was conducted by Carlo Rizzi with Nuccia Focile as Elizabeth, Paul Charles Clarke as Don Carlos, Scott Hendricks as Rodrigue, Guang Yang as Eboli, Andrea Silvestrelli as Philippe II, and Daniel Sumegi as the Grand Inquisitor. The production was taken on tour to Edinburgh, Oxford, Birmingham, Bristol, Southampton and Liverpool. It was performed by the Canadian Opera Company in Toronto in October/November 2007 with a different cast. The production was performed several times by the Houston Grand Opera from 13 April 2012 until 28 April. The Houston production was conducted by Patrick Summers with Brandon Jovanovich as Don Carlos, Tamara Wilson as Elizabeth, Andrea Silvestrelli as Philippe II, Christine Goerke as Eboli, Scott Hendricks as Rodrigue and Samuel Ramey as the Grand Inquisitor.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the Opéra National de Paris performed the 1866 French version (before the ballet was composed) in a production staged by Krzysztof Warlikowski at the Bastille. Conducted by Philippe Jordan, the cast included Jonas Kaufmann as Don Carlos, Sonya Yoncheva as Elisabeth, Ludovic Tézier as Rodrigue, Ildar Abdrazakov as Philippe II and Elīna Garanča as Eboli.",
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"plaintext": "[This synopsis is based on the original five-act version composed for Paris and completed in 1866. Important changes for subsequent versions are noted in indented brackets. First lines of arias, etc., are given in French and Italian].",
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"plaintext": "[This act was omitted in the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "The Forest of Fontainebleau, France in winter",
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"plaintext": "A prelude and chorus of woodcutters and their wives is heard. They complain of their hard life, made worse by war with Spain. Elisabeth, daughter of the King of France, arrives with her attendants. She reassures the people that her impending marriage to Don Carlos, Infante and son of Philip II, King of Spain, will bring the war to an end, and departs.",
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"plaintext": "[The preceding prelude and chorus of woodcutters was cut before the Paris première and replaced by a short scene in which Elisabeth crosses the stage and hands out money to the woodcutters; she exits without singing. The prelude and chorus of woodcutters was also omitted when Act 1 was restored in the 1886 five-act Modena version.]",
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"plaintext": "Carlos, coming out from hiding, has seen Elisabeth and fallen in love with her (Aria: \"Je l'ai vue\" / \"Io la vidi\"). When she reappears, he initially pretends to be a member of the Count of Lerma's delegation. She asks him about Don Carlos, whom she has not yet met. Before long, Carlos reveals his true identity and his feelings, which she reciprocates (Duet: \"De quels transports poignants et doux\" / \"Di quale amor, di quanto ardor\"). A cannon-shot signifies that peace has been declared between Spain and France. Thibault appears and gives Elisabeth the surprising news that her hand is to be claimed not by Carlos but by his father, Philip. When Lerma and his followers confirm this, Elisabeth is devastated but feels bound to accept, in order to consolidate the peace. She departs for Spain, leaving Carlos equally devastated.",
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"plaintext": "[This is Act 1 in the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The monastery of Saint-Just (San Jerónimo de Yuste) in Spain",
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"plaintext": "The scene takes place soon after King Philip II and Elisabeth have married. Monks pray before the tomb of the former Emperor Charles V (\"Carlo Quinto\"). The monks' leader proclaims that the Emperor was proud but has been humbled through error. ",
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"plaintext": "Don Carlos enters, anguished that the woman he loves is now his stepmother.",
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"plaintext": "[In the 1883 revision, he sings a revised version of the aria \"Je l'ai vue\" / \"Io la vidi\", which was salvaged from the omitted first act but with some different music and different text to reflect his current situation. In the four-act version he already knows that he cannot marry Elisabeth. In the original, when singing the aria, he was still expecting to marry her]",
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"plaintext": "When Carlos pauses in his lament, the leader of the monks proclaims that the turbulence of the world persists even in sacred places; we cannot rest except in Heaven. The sound of his voice frightens Carlos, who thinks it sounds like that of the Emperor Charles V. Carlos further notices that the monk physically resembles the Emperor, and recalls hearing rumors that the Emperor's ghost haunts the monastery.",
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"plaintext": "Carlos' dear friend Rodrigue, Marquis of Posa, who has just arrived from the oppressed land of Flanders, enters. The two greet each other joyfully (Aria: \"J'étais en Flandres\").",
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"plaintext": "Posa asks for the Infante's aid on behalf of the suffering people there. Carlos reveals that he loves his stepmother. Posa is first shocked, but then sympathetic. He encourages Carlos to leave Spain and go to Flanders, and to forget his pain by focusing on political activity there. The two men swear eternal friendship (Duet: \"Dieu, tu semas dans nos âmes\" / \"Dio, che nell'alma infondere\"). ",
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"plaintext": "King Philip and his new wife, with their attendants, enter also to do homage at Charles V's tomb, while Don Carlos laments his lost love.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: A garden near Saint-Just",
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"plaintext": "Princess Eboli sings the Veil Song (\"Au palais des fées\" / \"Nel giardin del bello\") about a Moorish King trying to seduce an alluring veiled beauty, who turns out to be his own neglected wife. Elisabeth enters. Posa gives her a letter from France, which covers a secret note from Don Carlos. At his urging (Aria: \"L'Infant Carlos, notre espérance\" / \"Carlo ch'è sol il nostro amore\"), Elisabeth agrees to see the Infante alone. Unaware of this relationship, Eboli infers that she, Eboli, is the one Don Carlos loves.",
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"plaintext": "When they are alone, Don Carlos tells Elisabeth that he is miserable, and asks her to request the King to send him to Flanders. She promptly agrees, provoking Carlos to renew his declarations of love, which she piously rejects. Don Carlos exits in a frenzy, shouting that he must be under a curse. The King enters and becomes angry because the Queen is alone and unattended. His suspicions are insulting to her. He orders the lady-in-waiting who was meant to be attending her, the Countess of Aremberg, to return to France, prompting Elizabeth to sing a sorrowful farewell-aria. (Aria: \"Oh ma chère compagne\" / \"Non pianger, mia compagna\"). ",
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"plaintext": "The King now approaches Posa, with whose character and activism he is impressed, and offers to reward him for his loyalty and service. Posa begs the King to stop oppressing the people of Flanders. The King calls Posa's idealism unrealistic and warns that the Grand Inquisitor is watching him. The King confides in Posa, telling him that he fears that Carlos is having an affair with Elisabeth. Posa replies that Carlos is innocent, and offers to watch Elisabeth and to be responsible for her good behavior. The King gratefully accepts this offer, and again warns Posa to beware of the Grand Inquisitor.",
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"plaintext": "[This dialogue was revised three times by Verdi.]",
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"plaintext": "[This is Act 2 in the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Evening in the Queen's garden in Madrid",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeth is tired, and wishes to concentrate on the following day's coronation of the King. To avoid the divertissement planned for the evening, she exchanges masks with Eboli, assuming that thereby her absence will not be noticed, and leaves.",
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"plaintext": "[This scene was omitted from the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "[In the première, the ballet (choreographed by Lucien Petipa and entitled \"La Pérégrina\") took place at this point]",
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"plaintext": "At midnight, Don Carlos enters, clutching a note suggesting a tryst in the gardens. Although he thinks this is from Elisabeth, it is really from Eboli. Eboli, who still thinks Don Carlos loves her, enters. Don Carlos mistakes her for Elisabeth in the dark, and passionately declares his love. When he sees Eboli's face, he realizes his error and recoils from her. Eboli guesses his secret—that he was expecting the Queen, whom he loves. She threatens to tell the King that Elisabeth and Carlos are lovers. Carlos, terrified, begs for mercy. Posa enters, and warns her not to cross him; he is the King's confidant. Eboli replies by hinting darkly that she is a formidable and dangerous foe, with power which Posa does not yet know about. (Her power is that she is having an affair with the King, but she does not reveal this yet.) Posa draws his dagger, intending to stab her to death, but reconsiders, spares her, and declares his trust in the Lord. Eboli exits in a vengeful rage. Posa advises Carlos to entrust to him any sensitive, potentially incriminating political documents that he may have and, when Carlos agrees, they reaffirm their friendship.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: In front of the Cathedral of Valladolid",
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"plaintext": "Preparations are being made for an auto-da-fé, the public parade and burning of condemned heretics. While the people celebrate, monks drag the condemned to the woodpile. A royal procession follows, and the King addresses the populace, promising to protect them with fire and sword. Don Carlos enters with six Flemish envoys, who plead with the King for their country's freedom. Although the people and the court are sympathetic, the King, supported by the monks, orders his guards to arrest the envoys. Carlos demands that the King grant him authority to govern Flanders; the King scornfully refuses. Enraged, Carlos draws his sword against the King. The King calls for help but the guards will not attack Don Carlos. Posa realizes that actually attacking the King would be disastrous for Carlos. He steps forward and defuses the situation by taking Carlos' sword from him. Carlos, astonished, yields to his friend without resisting. Relieved and grateful, the King raises Posa to the rank of Duke. The guards arrest Carlos, the monks fire the woodpile, and as the flames start to rise, a heavenly voice can be heard promising heavenly peace to the condemned souls.",
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"plaintext": "[This is Act 3 in the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Dawn in King Philip's study in Madrid",
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"plaintext": "Alone and suffering from insomnia, the King, in a reverie, laments that Elisabeth has never loved him, that his position means that he has to be eternally vigilant and that he will only sleep properly when he is in his tomb in the Escorial (Aria: \"Elle ne m'aime pas\" / \"Ella giammai m'amò\"). The blind, ninety-year-old Grand Inquisitor is announced and shuffles into the King's apartment. When the King asks if the Church will object to him putting his own son to death, the Inquisitor replies that the King will be in good company: God sacrificed His own son. In return for his support, the Inquisitor demands that the King have Posa killed. The King refuses at first to kill his friend, whom he admires and likes. However, the Grand Inquisitor reminds the King that the Inquisition can take down any king; he has created and destroyed other rulers before. Frightened and overwhelmed, the King begs the Grand Inquisitor to forget about the past discussion. The latter replies \"Peut-être\" / \"Forse!\" – perhaps! – and leaves. The King bitterly muses on his helplessness to oppose the Church.",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeth enters, alarmed at the apparent theft of her jewel casket. However, the King produces it and points to the portrait of Don Carlos which it contains, accusing her of adultery. She protests her innocence but, when the King threatens her, she faints. In response to his calls for help, into the chamber come Eboli and Posa. Their laments of suspicion cause the King to realize that he has been wrong to suspect his wife (Quartet: \"Maudit soit le soupçon infâme\" / \"Ah, sia maledetto, il rio sospetto\"). Aside, Posa resolves to save Carlos, though it may mean his own death. Eboli feels remorse for betraying Elisabeth; the latter, recovering, expresses her despair.",
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"plaintext": "[The quartet was revised by Verdi in 1883 and begins: \"Maudit soit, maudit le soupçon infâme\" / \"Ah! sii maledetto, sospetto fatale\".]",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeth and Eboli are left together. Eboli confesses that it was she who told the King that Elisabeth and Carlos were having an affair, for revenge against Carlos for having rejected her. This is followed by the duet \"J'ai tout compris\". Eboli also confesses that she herself is guilty of that which she accused the Queen, and has become the King’s mistress. Elisabeth leaves, and the Count di Lerma orders Eboli to choose between exile or the convent, then leaves.",
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"plaintext": "[At the premiere, the duet \"J'ai tout compris\" and Eboli's second confession, of her affair with the king, were omitted. Elisabeth orders Eboli to choose between exile or the convent immediately after Eboli's first confession. In 1883, the duet was omitted, but Eboli's second confession was reinstated in a revised version, and Elisabeth remains on stage to sing the Count di Lerma's lines.] ",
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"plaintext": "Eboli, left alone, curses her own beauty and pride, and resolves to make amends by trying to save Carlos from the Inquisition (Aria: \"O don fatal\" / \"O don fatale\").",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: A prison",
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"plaintext": "Don Carlos has been imprisoned. Posa arrives and tells Carlos that he (Posa) has saved Carlos from being executed, by allowing himself (Posa) to be incriminated by the politically sensitive documents which he had obtained from Carlos earlier (Aria, part 1: \"C'est mon jour suprême\" / \"Per me giunto è il dì supremo\"). A shadowy figure appears--one of the Grand Inquisitor's assassins--and shoots Posa in the chest. As he dies, Posa tells Carlos that Elisabeth will meet him at Saint-Just the following day. He adds that he is content to die if his friend can save Flanders and rule over a happier Spain (Aria, part 2: \"Ah, je meurs, l'âme joyeuse\" / \"Io morrò, ma lieto in core\"). At that moment, the King enters, offering his son freedom, as Posa had arranged. Carlos repulses him for having murdered Posa. The King sees that Posa is dead and cries out in sorrow.",
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"plaintext": "[Duet: Carlos and the King- \"Qui me rendra ce mort ?\" /\"Chi rende a me quest'uom\" It was cut before the première and, following it, Verdi authorized its optional removal. The music was later re-used by Verdi for the Lacrimosa of his Messa da Requiem of 1874]",
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"plaintext": "Bells ring as Elisabeth and Eboli enter. The crowd pushes its way into the prison and threatens the King, demanding the release of Carlos. In the confusion, Eboli escapes with Carlos. The people are brave enough at first in the presence of the King, but they are terrified by the arrival of the Grand Inquisitor, and instantly obey his angry command to quiet down and pay homage to the King.",
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"plaintext": "[After the première, some productions ended this act with the death of Posa. However, in 1883 Verdi provided a much shortened version of the insurrection, as he felt that otherwise it would not be clear how Eboli had fulfilled her promise to rescue Carlos]",
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"plaintext": "[This is Act 4 in the 1883 revision]",
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"plaintext": "The moonlit monastery of Yuste",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeth kneels before the tomb of Charles V. She is committed to help Don Carlos on his way to fulfill his destiny in Flanders, but she herself longs only for death (Aria: \"Toi qui sus le néant\" / \"Tu che le vanità\"). Carlos appears and tells her that he has overcome his desire for her; he now loves her honorably, as a son loves his mother. They say a final farewell, promising to meet again in Heaven (Duet: \"Au revoir dans un monde où la vie est meilleure\" / \"Ma lassù ci vedremo in un mondo migliore\").",
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"plaintext": "The King and the Grand Inquisitor enter, with several armed guards. The King infers that Carlos and Elisabeth have been lovers and demands that they both be immediately killed in a double sacrifice. The Inquisitor confirms that the Inquisition will do its duty. A short summary trial follows, confirming Carlos's putative culpability.",
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"plaintext": "[The trial was omitted in 1883 and does not occur on any commercially available audio recording, although it was performed at La Scala in 1978. It was performed in Vienna in 2004 and recorded on video.]",
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"plaintext": "Carlos, cries \"Ah, God will avenge me, this tribunal of blood, His hand will crush.\" Defending himself, Carlos retreats towards the tomb of Charles V. The gate opens, the Monk appears, draws Carlos into his arms, covers him with his coat and sings: \"My son, the pains of the earth still follow us in this place, the peace your heart hopes for is found only with God.\" The King and the Inquisitor recognize the Monk's voice: he is the King's father, Charles V, who was believed dead. As the curtain slowly falls, the Monk leads the distraught Carlos into the cloister to the chanting of monks in the chapel that \"Charles V, the august Emperor is naught but ash and dust.\" The opera concludes softly with pianissimo chords and tremolos played by the strings.",
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"plaintext": " Budden, Julian (1981), The Operas of Verdi, Volume 3: From Don Carlos to Falstaff. London: Cassell. .",
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"plaintext": "Kimbell, David (2001), in Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001. ",
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"plaintext": "Parker, Roger (1998), \"Don Carlos\", in Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. One. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc. 1998 .",
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"plaintext": " Kobbé, Gustav (1997). The New Kobbé's Opera Book, edited by the Earl of Harewood and Antony Peattie. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. .",
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"plaintext": "Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane (1994), Verdi: A Biography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. .",
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"plaintext": "Porter, Andrew (1982), Review of: \"Giuseppe Verdi. Don Carlos: Edizione integrale..., edited by Ursula Günther (and Lucian Petazzoni). 1980.\" Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 35, no. 2 (Summer, 1982), pp. 360–370. .",
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"plaintext": " Verdi, Giuseppe (2011). Don Carlos (\"Don Carlo\") in Full Score. The classic Italian translation authorized by the composer, published as DON CARLO in a revised five-act restoration, with notations for an alternative four-act version. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2001, 2011. . Dover states this is an unabridged republication of the work published by G. Ricordi, Milan, undated, as Giuseppe Verdi, Don Carlo—Partitura (Valevole per l'edizione in 4 e 5 atti).",
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"plaintext": " Verdi, Giuseppe; Ursula Günther, editor (1986), Don Carlos, edizione integrale delle varie versioni in cinque e in quattro atti (comprendente gli inediti verdiani a cura di Ursula Günther). Second revision of the sources, prepared by Ursula Günther and Luciano Petazzoni. Piano-vocal score in two volumes with French and Italian text. Milan: Ricordi. Copyright 1974. .",
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"plaintext": " Walker, Frank (1962), The Man Verdi. New York: Knopf. . London: Dent. . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (1982 paperback reprint with a new introduction by Philip Gossett). .",
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"plaintext": "Other sources",
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"plaintext": " Batchelor, Jennifer (ed.) (1992), Don Carlos/Don Carlo, London: John Calder; New York: Riverrun. .",
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"plaintext": " De Van, Gilles (trans. Gilda Roberts) (1998), Verdi’s Theater: Creating Drama Through Music. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. (hardback), ",
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"plaintext": "Gossett, Philip (2006), Divas and Scholar: Performing Italian Opera, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Martin, George, Verdi: His Music, Life and Times (1983), New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. ",
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"plaintext": "Osborne, Charles (1969), The Complete Operas of Verdi, New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1969. ",
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"plaintext": "Pistone, Danièle (1995), Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera: From Rossini to Puccini, Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul (1973), Verdi: The Man and His Letters, New York, Vienna House. ",
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"plaintext": "Verdi: \"The story\" and \"History\" on giuseppeverdi.it",
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},
{
"plaintext": "1867 French libretto at Google Books",
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"plaintext": "Humanity has achieved space flight, but only a few nations have the technology for orbital launches: Russia (RSA or \"Roscosmos\"), the United States (NASA), the member states of the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan (JAXA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO), Taiwan (National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology, Taiwan National Space Organization (NSPO), Israel (ISA), Iran (ISA), and North Korea (NADA). In addition, several private companies have developed or are developing the technology for orbital launches independently from government agencies. The most prominent examples of such companies are SpaceX and Blue Origin.",
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"plaintext": "A German V-2 became the first spacecraft when it reached an altitude of 189km in June 1944 in Peenemünde, Germany. Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit (LEO) by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments; while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer's density, through measuring the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellite's false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite traveled at , taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit, and emitted radio signals at 20.005 and 40.002MHz",
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"plaintext": "While Sputnik 1 was the first spacecraft to orbit the Earth, other man-made objects had previously reached an altitude of 100km, which is the height required by the international organization Fédération Aéronautique Internationale to count as a spaceflight. This altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, some of which reached altitudes well over 100km.",
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"plaintext": "The first crewed spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, and completed a full Earth orbit. There were five other crewed missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second crewed spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over . There were five other crewed missions using Mercury spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Other Soviet crewed spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown uncrewed as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, and the Salyut and Mir crewed space stations. Other American crewed spacecraft include the Gemini spacecraft, the Apollo spacecraft including the Apollo Lunar Module, the Skylab space station, the Space Shuttle with undetached European Spacelab and private US Spacehab space stations-modules, and the SpaceX Crew Dragon configuration of their Dragon 2. US company Boeing also developed and flown a spacecraft of their own, the CST-100, commonly referred to as Starliner, but a crewed flight is yet to occur. China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou (its first crewed mission was in 2003).",
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"plaintext": "Except for the Space Shuttle, all of the recoverable crewed orbital spacecraft were space capsules.",
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"plaintext": "The International Space Station, crewed since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries.",
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"plaintext": "Spaceplanes are spacecraft are built in the shape of, and function as, airplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, which conducted two crewed flights which reached an altitude of over 100km in the 1960s. This first reusable spacecraft was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963.",
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"plaintext": "The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 SCA and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was Columbia, followed by Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Endeavour was built to replace Challenger when it was lost in January 1986. Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.",
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"plaintext": "The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran-class shuttle, launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight and this was uncrewed. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran. The Space Shuttle was subsequently modified to allow for autonomous re-entry in case of necessity.",
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"plaintext": "Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 mainly due to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by SpaceX's SpaceX Dragon 2 and Boeing's CST-100 Starliner. Dragon 2's first crewed flight occurred on May 30, 2020. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Space Launch System and ULA's Vulcan rocket, as well as the commercial launch vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Scaled Composites' SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company will build its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic was planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers in 2014, but was delayed after the crash of VSS Enterprise.",
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"plaintext": " Progress – uncrewed USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft",
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"plaintext": " TKS – uncrewed USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft and space station module",
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"plaintext": " Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) – uncrewed European cargo spacecraft",
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"plaintext": " H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) – uncrewed Japanese cargo spacecraft",
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"plaintext": " SpaceX Dragon – uncrewed private spacecraft",
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"plaintext": " Northrop Grumman Cygnus – uncrewed commercial spacecraft",
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"plaintext": " Explorer 1 – first US satellite",
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"plaintext": " Project SCORE – first communications satellite",
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"plaintext": " Sputnik 1 – world's first artificial satellite",
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"plaintext": " Sputnik 2 – first animal in orbit (Laika)",
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"plaintext": " Hubble Space Telescope – largest orbital observatory",
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"plaintext": " Clementine – US Navy mission, orbited Moon, detected hydrogen at the poles",
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"plaintext": " Kaguya JPN – lunar orbiter",
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"plaintext": " Luna 1 – first lunar flyby",
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"plaintext": " Luna 2 – first lunar impact",
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"plaintext": "Curiosity – Rover sent to Mars by NASA in 2012",
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"plaintext": " Ingenuity - experimental rotorcraft sent to Mars in 2020",
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"plaintext": " Cluster",
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12
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14,
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},
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{
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"plaintext": "A spacecraft astrionics system comprises different subsystems, depending on the mission profile. Spacecraft subsystems comprise the spacecraft's \"bus\" and may include attitude determination and control (variously called ADAC, ADC, or ACS), guidance, navigation and control (GNC or GN&C), communications (comms), command and data handling (CDH or C&DH), power (EPS), thermal control (TCS), propulsion, and structures. Attached to the bus are typically payloads.",
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{
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"plaintext": " A Spacecraft needs an attitude control subsystem to be correctly oriented in space and respond to external torques and forces properly. The attitude control subsystem consists of sensors and actuators, together with controlling algorithms. The attitude-control subsystem permits proper pointing for the science objective, sun pointing for power to the solar arrays and earth pointing for communications.",
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"plaintext": " Guidance refers to the calculation of the commands (usually done by the CDH subsystem) needed to steer the spacecraft where it is desired to be. Navigation means determining a spacecraft's orbital elements or position. Control means adjusting the path of the spacecraft to meet mission requirements.",
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"plaintext": " The C&DH subsystem receives commands from the communications subsystem, performs validation and decoding of the commands, and distributes the commands to the appropriate spacecraft subsystems and components. The CDH also receives housekeeping data and science data from the other spacecraft subsystems and components, and packages the data for storage on a data recorder or transmission to the ground via the communications subsystem. Other functions of the CDH include maintaining the spacecraft clock and state-of-health monitoring.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, utilize various communications systems for communication with terrestrial stations as well as for communication between spacecraft in space. Technologies utilized include RF and optical communication. In addition, some spacecraft payloads are explicitly for the purpose of ground–ground communication using receiver/retransmitter electronic technologies.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft need an electrical power generation and distribution subsystem for powering the various spacecraft subsystems. For spacecraft near the Sun, solar panels are frequently used to generate electrical power. Spacecraft designed to operate in more distant locations, for example Jupiter, might employ a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) to generate electrical power. Electrical power is sent through power conditioning equipment before it passes through a power distribution unit over an electrical bus to other spacecraft components. Batteries are typically connected to the bus via a battery charge regulator, and the batteries are used to provide electrical power during periods when primary power is not available, for example when a low Earth orbit spacecraft is eclipsed by Earth.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand transit through Earth's atmosphere and the space environment. They must operate in a vacuum with temperatures potentially ranging across hundreds of degrees Celsius as well as (if subject to reentry) in the presence of plasmas. Material requirements are such that either high melting temperature, low density materials such as beryllium and reinforced carbon–carbon or (possibly due to the lower thickness requirements despite its high density) tungsten or ablative carbon–carbon composites are used. Depending on mission profile, spacecraft may also need to operate on the surface of another planetary body. The thermal control subsystem can be passive, dependent on the selection of materials with specific radiative properties. Active thermal control makes use of electrical heaters and certain actuators such as louvers to control temperature ranges of equipments within specific ranges.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft may or may not have a propulsion subsystem, depending on whether or not the mission profile calls for propulsion. The Swift spacecraft is an example of a spacecraft that does not have a propulsion subsystem. Typically though, LEO spacecraft include a propulsion subsystem for altitude adjustments (drag make-up maneuvers) and inclination adjustment maneuvers. A propulsion system is also needed for spacecraft that perform momentum management maneuvers. Components of a conventional propulsion subsystem include fuel, tankage, valves, pipes, and thrusters. The thermal control system interfaces with the propulsion subsystem by monitoring the temperature of those components, and by preheating tanks and thrusters in preparation for a spacecraft maneuver.",
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"plaintext": " Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand launch loads imparted by the launch vehicle, and must have a point of attachment for all the other subsystems. Depending on mission profile, the structural subsystem might need to withstand loads imparted by entry into the atmosphere of another planetary body, and landing on the surface of another planetary body.",
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37,913 | 1,098,305,061 | Escape_velocity | [
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"plaintext": "In celestial mechanics, escape velocity or escape speed is the minimum speed needed for a free, non-propelled object to escape from the gravitational influence of a primary body, thus reaching an infinite distance from it. It is typically stated as an ideal speed, ignoring atmospheric friction. Although the term \"escape velocity\" is common, it is more accurately described as a speed than a velocity because it is independent of direction; the escape speed increases with the mass of the primary body and decreases with the distance from the primary body. The escape speed thus depends on how far the object has already traveled, and its calculation at a given distance takes into account that without new acceleration it will slow down as it travels—due to the massive body's gravity—but it will never quite slow to a stop. ",
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"plaintext": "A rocket, continuously accelerated by its exhaust, can escape without ever reaching escape speed, since it continues to add kinetic energy from its engines. It can achieve escape at any speed, given sufficient propellant to provide new acceleration to the rocket to counter gravity's deceleration and thus maintain its speed. ",
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"plaintext": "More generally, escape velocity is the speed at which the sum of an object's kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy is equal to zero; an object which has achieved escape velocity is neither on the surface, nor in a closed orbit (of any radius). With escape velocity in a direction pointing away from the ground of a massive body, the object will move away from the body, slowing forever and approaching, but never reaching, zero speed. Once escape velocity is achieved, no further impulse need be applied for it to continue in its escape. In other words, if given escape velocity, the object will move away from the other body, continually slowing, and will asymptotically approach zero speed as the object's distance approaches infinity, never to come back. Speeds higher than escape velocity retain a positive speed at infinite distance. Note that the minimum escape velocity assumes that there is no friction (e.g., atmospheric drag), which would increase the required instantaneous velocity to escape the gravitational influence, and that there will be no future acceleration or extraneous deceleration (for example from thrust or from gravity of other bodies), which would change the required instantaneous velocity.",
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"plaintext": "Escape speed at a distance d from the center of a spherically symmetric primary body (such as a star or a planet) with mass M is given by the formula",
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"plaintext": "where G is the universal gravitational constant (). The escape speed is independent of the mass of the escaping object. For example, the escape speed from Earth's surface is about . ",
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"plaintext": "When given an initial speed greater than the escape speed the object will asymptotically approach the hyperbolic excess speed satisfying the equation:",
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"plaintext": "The existence of escape velocity is a consequence of conservation of energy and an energy field of finite depth. For an object with a given total energy, which is moving subject to conservative forces (such as a static gravity field) it is only possible for the object to reach combinations of locations and speeds which have that total energy; and places which have a higher potential energy than this cannot be reached at all. By adding speed (kinetic energy) to the object it expands the possible locations that can be reached, until, with enough energy, they become infinite.",
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"plaintext": "For a given gravitational potential energy at a given position, the escape velocity is the minimum speed an object without propulsion needs to be able to \"escape\" from the gravity (i.e. so that gravity will never manage to pull it back). Escape velocity is actually a speed (not a velocity) because it does not specify a direction: no matter what the direction of travel is, the object can escape the gravitational field (provided its path does not intersect the planet).",
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"plaintext": "An elegant way to derive the formula for escape velocity is to use the principle of conservation of energy (for another way, based on work, see Deriving escape velocity using calculus). For the sake of simplicity, unless stated otherwise, we assume that an object will escape the gravitational field of a uniform spherical planet by moving away from it and that the only significant force acting on the moving object is the planet's gravity. Imagine that a spaceship of mass m is initially at a distance r from the center of mass of the planet, whose mass is M, and its initial speed is equal to its escape velocity, . At its final state, it will be an infinite distance away from the planet, and its speed will be negligibly small. Kinetic energy K and gravitational potential energy Ug are the only types of energy that we will deal with (we will ignore the drag of the atmosphere), so by the conservation of energy,",
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"plaintext": "We can set Kfinal = 0 because final velocity is arbitrarily small, and Ugfinal = 0 because final distance is infinity, so",
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"plaintext": "where μ is the standard gravitational parameter.",
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"plaintext": "The same result is obtained by a relativistic calculation, in which case the variable r represents the radial coordinate or reduced circumference of the Schwarzschild metric.",
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"plaintext": "Defined a little more formally, \"escape velocity\" is the initial speed required to go from an initial point in a gravitational potential field to infinity and end at infinity with a residual speed of zero, without any additional acceleration. All speeds and velocities are measured with respect to the field. Additionally, the escape velocity at a point in space is equal to the speed that an object would have if it started at rest from an infinite distance and was pulled by gravity to that point.",
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"plaintext": "In common usage, the initial point is on the surface of a planet or moon. On the surface of the Earth, the escape velocity is about 11.2km/s, which is approximately 33 times the speed of sound (Mach 33) and several times the muzzle velocity of a rifle bullet (up to 1.7km/s). However, at 9,000km altitude in \"space\", it is slightly less than 7.1km/s. Note that this escape velocity is relative to a non-rotating frame of reference, not relative to the moving surface of the planet or moon (see below).",
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"plaintext": "The escape velocity is independent of the mass of the escaping object. It does not matter if the mass is 1kg or 1,000kg; what differs is the amount of energy required. For an object of mass the energy required to escape the Earth's gravitational field is GMm/r, a function of the object's mass (where r is radius of the Earth, nominally 6,371 kilometres (3,959 mi), G is the gravitational constant, and M is the mass of the Earth, ). A related quantity is the specific orbital energy which is essentially the sum of the kinetic and potential energy divided by the mass. An object has reached escape velocity when the specific orbital energy is greater than or equal to zero.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative expression for the escape velocity particularly useful at the surface on the body is:",
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"plaintext": "where r is the distance between the center of the body and the point at which escape velocity is being calculated and g is the gravitational acceleration at that distance (i.e., the surface gravity).",
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"plaintext": "For a body with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass, the escape velocity from the surface is proportional to the radius assuming constant density, and proportional to the square root of the average density ρ.",
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"plaintext": "where ",
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"plaintext": "Note that this escape velocity is relative to a non-rotating frame of reference, not relative to the moving surface of the planet or moon, as we now explain.",
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"plaintext": "The escape velocity relative to the surface of a rotating body depends on direction in which the escaping body travels. For example, as the Earth's rotational velocity is 465m/s at the equator, a rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's equator to the east requires an initial velocity of about 10.735km/s relative to the moving surface at the point of launch to escape whereas a rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's equator to the west requires an initial velocity of about 11.665km/s relative to that moving surface. The surface velocity decreases with the cosine of the geographic latitude, so space launch facilities are often located as close to the equator as feasible, e.g. the American Cape Canaveral (latitude 28°28N) and the French Guiana Space Centre (latitude 5°14N).",
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"plaintext": "In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2km/s, or 40,320km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has a significant orbital speed (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8km/s, or 28,080km/h).",
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"plaintext": "The escape velocity at a given height is times the speed in a circular orbit at the same height, (compare this with the velocity equation in circular orbit). This corresponds to the fact that the potential energy with respect to infinity of an object in such an orbit is minus two times its kinetic energy, while to escape the sum of potential and kinetic energy needs to be at least zero. The velocity corresponding to the circular orbit is sometimes called the first cosmic velocity, whereas in this context the escape velocity is referred to as the second cosmic velocity.",
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"plaintext": "For a body in an elliptical orbit wishing to accelerate to an escape orbit the required speed will vary, and will be greatest at periapsis when the body is closest to the central body. However, the orbital speed of the body will also be at its highest at this point, and the change in velocity required will be at its lowest, as explained by the Oberth effect.",
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"plaintext": "Technically escape velocity can either be measured as a relative to the other, central body or relative to center of mass or barycenter of the system of bodies. Thus for systems of two bodies, the term escape velocity can be ambiguous, but it is usually intended to mean the barycentric escape velocity of the less massive body. In gravitational fields, escape velocity refers to the escape velocity of zero mass test particles relative to the barycenter of the masses generating the field. In most situations involving spacecraft the difference is negligible. For a mass equal to a Saturn V rocket, the escape velocity relative to the launch pad is 253.5 am/s (8nanometers per year) faster than the escape velocity relative to the mutual center of mass.",
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"plaintext": "Ignoring all factors other than the gravitational force between the body and the object, an object projected vertically at speed from the surface of a spherical body with escape velocity and radius will attain a maximum height satisfying the equation",
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"plaintext": "which, solving for h results in",
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"plaintext": "where is the ratio of the original speed to the escape velocity ",
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"plaintext": "Unlike escape velocity, the direction (vertically up) is important to achieve maximum height.",
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"plaintext": "If an object attains exactly escape velocity, but is not directed straight away from the planet, then it will follow a curved path or trajectory. Although this trajectory does not form a closed shape, it can be referred to as an orbit. Assuming that gravity is the only significant force in the system, this object's speed at any point in the trajectory will be equal to the escape velocity at that point due to the conservation of energy, its total energy must always be 0, which implies that it always has escape velocity; see the derivation above. The shape of the trajectory will be a parabola whose focus is located at the center of mass of the planet. An actual escape requires a course with a trajectory that does not intersect with the planet, or its atmosphere, since this would cause the object to crash. When moving away from the source, this path is called an escape orbit. Escape orbits are known as C3 = 0 orbits. C3 is the characteristic energy, = −GM/2a, where a is the semi-major axis, which is infinite for parabolic trajectories.",
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"plaintext": "If the body has a velocity greater than escape velocity then its path will form a hyperbolic trajectory and it will have an excess hyperbolic velocity, equivalent to the extra energy the body has. A relatively small extra delta-v above that needed to accelerate to the escape speed can result in a relatively large speed at infinity. Some orbital manoeuvres make use of this fact. For example, at a place where escape speed is 11.2km/s, the addition of 0.4km/s yields a hyperbolic excess speed of 3.02km/s:",
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"plaintext": "If a body in circular orbit (or at the periapsis of an elliptical orbit) accelerates along its direction of travel to escape velocity, the point of acceleration will form the periapsis of the escape trajectory. The eventual direction of travel will be at 90 degrees to the direction at the point of acceleration. If the body accelerates to beyond escape velocity the eventual direction of travel will be at a smaller angle, and indicated by one of the asymptotes of the hyperbolic trajectory it is now taking. This means the timing of the acceleration is critical if the intention is to escape in a particular direction.",
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"plaintext": "If the speed at periapsis is , then the eccentricity of the trajectory is given by:",
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"plaintext": "This is valid for elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic trajectories. If the trajectory is hyperbolic or parabolic, it will asymptotically approach an angle from the direction at periapsis, with",
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"plaintext": "The speed will asymptotically approach",
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"plaintext": "In this table, the left-hand half gives the escape velocity from the visible surface (which may be gaseous as with Jupiter for example), relative to the centre of the planet or moon (that is, not relative to its moving surface). In the right-hand half, Ve refers to the speed relative to the central body (for example the sun), whereas Vte is the speed (at the visible surface of the smaller body) relative to the smaller body (planet or moon).",
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"plaintext": "The last two columns will depend precisely where in orbit escape velocity is reached, as the orbits are not exactly circular (particularly Mercury and Pluto).",
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"plaintext": "Let G be the gravitational constant and let M be the mass of the earth (or other gravitating body) and m be the mass of the escaping body or projectile. At a distance r from the centre of gravitation the body feels an attractive force",
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"plaintext": "The work needed to move the body over a small distance dr against this force is therefore given by",
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"plaintext": "The total work needed to move the body from the surface r0 of the gravitating body to infinity is then",
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"plaintext": "In order to do this work to reach infinity, the body's minimal kinetic energy at departure must match this work, so the escape velocity v0 satisfies",
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"plaintext": "which results in",
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"plaintext": " Black hole – an object with an escape velocity greater than the speed of light",
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"plaintext": " Characteristic energy (C3)",
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"plaintext": " Delta-v budget – speed needed to perform maneuvers.",
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"plaintext": " Gravitational slingshot – a technique for changing trajectory",
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"plaintext": " Gravity well",
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"plaintext": " List of artificial objects in heliocentric orbit",
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"plaintext": " List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System",
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"plaintext": " Newton's cannonball",
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"plaintext": " Oberth effect – burning propellant deep in a gravity field gives higher change in kinetic energy",
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"plaintext": " Two-body problem",
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"plaintext": " Escape velocity calculator",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Web-based numerical escape velocity calculator",
"section_idx": 9,
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"Orbits",
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37,914 | 1,106,779,076 | Carmen | [
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"plaintext": "Carmen () is an opera in four acts by the French composer Georges Bizet. The libretto was written by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, based on the novella of the same title by Prosper Mérimée. The opera was first performed by the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 3 March 1875, where its breaking of conventions shocked and scandalised its first audiences.",
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"plaintext": "Bizet died suddenly after the 33rd performance, unaware that the work would achieve international acclaim within the following ten years. Carmen has since become one of the most popular and frequently performed operas in the classical canon; the \"Habanera\" from act 1 and the \"Toreador Song\" from act 2 are among the best known of all operatic arias.",
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"plaintext": "The opera is written in the genre of opéra comique with musical numbers separated by dialogue. It is set in southern Spain and tells the story of the downfall of Don José, a naïve soldier who is seduced by the wiles of the fiery gypsy Carmen. José abandons his childhood sweetheart and deserts from his military duties, yet loses Carmen's love to the glamorous torero Escamillo, after which José kills her in a jealous rage. The depictions of proletarian life, immorality, and lawlessness, and the tragic death of the main character on stage, broke new ground in French opera and were highly controversial.",
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"plaintext": "After the premiere, most reviews were critical, and the French public was generally indifferent. Carmen initially gained its reputation through a series of productions outside France, and was not revived in Paris until 1883. Thereafter, it rapidly acquired popularity at home and abroad. Later commentators have asserted that Carmen forms the bridge between the tradition of opéra comique and the realism or verismo that characterised late 19th-century Italian opera.",
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"plaintext": "The music of Carmen has since been widely acclaimed for brilliance of melody, harmony, atmosphere, and orchestration, and for the skill with which Bizet musically represented the emotions and suffering of his characters. After the composer's death, the score was subject to significant amendment, including the introduction of recitative in place of the original dialogue; there is no standard edition of the opera, and different views exist as to what versions best express Bizet's intentions. The opera has been recorded many times since the first acoustical recording in 1908, and the story has been the subject of many screen and stage adaptations.",
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"plaintext": "In the Paris of the 1860s, despite being a Prix de Rome laureate, Bizet struggled to get his stage works performed. The capital's two main state-funded opera houses—the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique—followed conservative repertoires that restricted opportunities for young native talent. Bizet's professional relationship with Léon Carvalho, manager of the independent Théâtre Lyrique company, enabled him to bring to the stage two full-scale operas, Les pêcheurs de perles (1863) and La jolie fille de Perth (1867), but neither enjoyed much public success.",
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"plaintext": "When artistic life in Paris resumed after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Bizet found wider opportunities for the performance of his works; his one-act opera Djamileh opened at the Opéra-Comique in May 1872. Although this failed and was withdrawn after 11 performances, it led to a further commission from the theatre, this time for a full-length opera for which Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy would provide the libretto. Halévy, who had written the text for Bizet's student opera Le docteur Miracle (1856), was a cousin of Bizet's wife, Geneviève; he and Meilhac had a solid reputation as the librettists of many of Jacques Offenbach's operettas.",
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"plaintext": "Bizet was delighted with the Opéra-Comique commission, and expressed to his friend Edmund Galabert his satisfaction in \"the absolute certainty of having found my path\". The subject of the projected work was a matter of discussion between composer, librettists and the Opéra-Comique management; Adolphe de Leuven, on behalf of the theatre, made several suggestions that were politely rejected. It was Bizet who first proposed an adaptation of Prosper Mérimée's novella Carmen. Mérimée's story is a blend of travelogue and adventure yarn, possibly inspired by the writer's lengthy travels in Spain in 1830, and had originally been published in 1845 in the journal Revue des deux Mondes. It may have been influenced in part by Alexander Pushkin's 1824 poem \"The Gypsies\", a work Mérimée had translated into French; it has also been suggested that the story was developed from an incident told to Mérimée by his friend the Countess Montijo. Bizet may first have encountered the story during his Rome sojourn of 1858–60, since his journals record Mérimée as one of the writers whose works he absorbed in those years.",
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"plaintext": " Cast details are as provided by Curtiss from the original piano and vocal score. The stage designs are credited to Charles Ponchard.",
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"plaintext": "The orchestration consists of two flutes (doubling piccolo), two oboes (the second doubling cor anglais), two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, harp, and strings. The percussion section consists of timpani, side drum, triangle, tambourine, cymbals, castanets, and bass drum. The orchestral complement for the premiere run was 62 or 57 musicians in total (depending on whether the pit trumpet and trombone players doubled off-stage music).",
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"plaintext": "Place: Seville, Spain, and surrounding hills",
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"plaintext": "Time: Around 1820",
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"plaintext": "A square, in Seville. On the right, a door to the tobacco factory. At the back, a bridge. On the left, a guardhouse.",
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"plaintext": "A group of soldiers relax in the square, waiting for the changing of the guard and commenting on the passers-by (\"Sur la place, chacun passe\"). Micaëla appears, seeking José. Moralès tells her that \"José is not yet on duty\" and invites her to wait with them. She declines, saying she will return later. José arrives with the new guard, who is greeted and imitated by a crowd of urchins (\"Avec la garde montante\").",
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"plaintext": "As the factory bell rings, the cigarette girls emerge and exchange banter with young men in the crowd (\"La cloche a sonné\"). Carmen enters and sings her provocative habanera on the untameable nature of love (\"L'amour est un oiseau rebelle\"). The men plead with her to choose a lover, and after some teasing she throws a flower to Don José, who thus far has been ignoring her but is now annoyed by her insolence.",
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"plaintext": "As the women go back to the factory, Micaëla returns and gives José a letter and a kiss from his mother (\"Parle-moi de ma mère!\"). He reads that his mother wants him to return home and marry Micaëla, who retreats in shy embarrassment on learning this. Just as José declares that he is ready to heed his mother's wishes, the women stream from the factory in great agitation. Zuniga, the officer of the guard, learns that Carmen has attacked a woman with a knife. When challenged, Carmen answers with mocking defiance (\"Tra la la... Coupe-moi, brûle-moi\"); Zuniga orders José to tie her hands while he prepares the prison warrant. Left alone with José, Carmen beguiles him with a seguidilla, in which she sings of a night of dancing and passion with her lover—whoever that may be—in Lillas Pastia's tavern. Confused yet mesmerised, José agrees to free her hands; as she is led away she pushes her escort to the ground and runs off laughing. José is arrested for dereliction of duty.",
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"plaintext": "Lillas Pastia's Inn",
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"plaintext": "Two months have passed. Carmen and her friends Frasquita and Mercédès are entertaining Zuniga and other officers (\"Les tringles des sistres tintaient\") in Pastia's inn. Carmen is delighted to learn of José's release from two months' detention. Outside, a chorus and procession announces the arrival of the toreador Escamillo (\"Vivat, vivat le Toréro\"). Invited inside, he introduces himself with the \"Toreador Song\" (\"Votre toast, je peux vous le rendre\") and sets his sights on Carmen, who brushes him aside. Lillas Pastia hustles the crowds and the soldiers away.",
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"plaintext": "When only Carmen, Frasquita and Mercédès remain, smugglers Dancaïre and Remendado arrive and reveal their plans to dispose of some recently acquired contraband (\"Nous avons en tête une affaire\"). Frasquita and Mercédès are keen to help them, but Carmen refuses, since she wishes to wait for José. After the smugglers leave, José arrives. Carmen treats him to a private exotic dance (\"Je vais danser en votre honneur... La la la\"), but her song is joined by a distant bugle call from the barracks. When José says he must return to duty, she mocks him, and he answers by showing her the flower that she threw to him in the square (\"La fleur que tu m'avais jetée\"). Unconvinced, Carmen demands he show his love by leaving with her. José refuses to desert, but as he prepares to depart, Zuniga enters looking for Carmen. He and José fight. Carmen summons her gypsy comrades, who restrain Zuniga. Having attacked a superior officer, José now has no choice but to join Carmen and the smugglers (\"Suis-nous à travers la campagne\").",
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"plaintext": "A wild spot in the mountains",
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"plaintext": "Carmen and José enter with the smugglers and their booty (\"Écoute, écoute, compagnons\"); Carmen has now become bored with José and tells him scornfully that he should go back to his mother. Frasquita and Mercédès amuse themselves by reading their fortunes from the cards; Carmen joins them and finds that the cards are foretelling her death, and José's. The smugglers depart to transport their goods while the women distract the local customs officers. José is left behind on guard duty.",
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"plaintext": "Micaëla enters with a guide, seeking José and determined to rescue him from Carmen (\"Je dis que rien ne m'épouvante\"). On hearing a gunshot she hides in fear; it is José, who has fired at an intruder who proves to be Escamillo. José's pleasure at meeting the bullfighter turns to anger when Escamillo declares his infatuation with Carmen. The pair fight (\"Je suis Escamillo, toréro de Grenade\"), but are interrupted by the returning smugglers and girls (\"Holà, holà José\"). As Escamillo leaves he invites everyone to his next bullfight in Seville. Micaëla is discovered; at first, José will not leave with her despite Carmen's mockery, but he agrees to go when told that his mother is dying. He departs, vowing he will return. Escamillo is heard in the distance, singing the toreador's song.",
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"plaintext": "A square in Seville. At the back, the walls of an ancient amphitheatre",
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"plaintext": "Zuniga, Frasquita and Mercédès are among the crowd awaiting the arrival of the bullfighters (\"Les voici! Voici la quadrille!\"). Escamillo enters with Carmen, and they express their mutual love (\"Si tu m'aimes, Carmen\"). As Escamillo goes into the arena, Frasquita and Mercédès warn Carmen that José is nearby, but Carmen is unafraid and willing to speak to him. Alone, she is confronted by the desperate José (\"C'est toi!\", \"C'est moi!\"). While he pleads vainly for her to return to him, cheers are heard from the arena. As José makes his last entreaty, Carmen contemptuously throws down the ring he gave her and attempts to enter the arena. He then stabs her, and as Escamillo is acclaimed by the crowds, Carmen dies. José kneels and sings \"Ah! Carmen! ma Carmen adorée!\"; as the crowd exits the arena, José confesses to killing Carmen.",
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"plaintext": "Meilhac and Halévy were a long-standing duo with an established division of labour: Meilhac, who was completely unmusical, wrote the dialogue and Halévy the verses. There is no clear indication of when work began on Carmen. Bizet and the two librettists were all in Paris during 1873 and easily able to meet; thus there is little written record or correspondence relating to the beginning of the collaboration. The libretto was prepared in accordance with the conventions of opéra comique, with dialogue separating musical numbers. It deviates from Mérimée's novella in a number of significant respects. In the original, events are spread over a much longer period of time, and much of the main story is narrated by José from his prison cell, as he awaits execution for Carmen's murder. Micaëla does not feature in Mérimée's version, and the Escamillo character is peripheral—a picador named Lucas who is only briefly Carmen's grand passion. Carmen has a husband called Garcia, whom José kills during a quarrel. In the novella, Carmen and José are presented much less sympathetically than they are in the opera; Bizet's biographer Mina Curtiss comments that Mérimée's Carmen, on stage, would have seemed \"an unmitigated and unconvincing monster, had her character not been simplified and deepened\".",
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"plaintext": "With rehearsals due to begin in October 1873, Bizet began composing in or around January of that year, and by the summer had completed the music for the first act and perhaps sketched more. At that point, according to Bizet's biographer Winton Dean, \"some hitch at the Opéra-Comique intervened\", and the project was suspended for a while. One reason for the delay may have been the difficulties in finding a singer for the title role. Another was a split that developed between the joint directors of the theatre, Camille du Locle and Adolphe de Leuven, over the advisability of staging the work. De Leuven had vociferously opposed the entire notion of presenting so risqué a story in what he considered a family theatre and was sure audiences would be frightened away. He was assured by Halévy that the story would be toned down, that Carmen's character would be softened, and offset by Micaëla, described by Halévy as \"a very innocent, very chaste young girl\". Furthermore, the gypsies would be presented as comic characters, and Carmen's death would be overshadowed at the end by \"triumphal processions, ballets and joyous fanfares\". De Leuven reluctantly agreed, but his continuing hostility towards the project led to his resignation from the theatre early in 1874.",
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"plaintext": "After the various delays, Bizet appears to have resumed work on Carmen early in 1874. He completed the draft of the composition—1,200 pages of music—in the summer, which he spent at the artists' colony at Bougival, just outside Paris. He was pleased with the result, informing a friend: \"I have written a work that is all clarity and vivacity, full of colour and melody.\" During the period of rehearsals, which began in October, Bizet repeatedly altered the music—sometimes at the request of the orchestra who found some of it impossible to perform, sometimes to meet the demands of individual singers, and otherwise in response to the demands of the theatre's management. The vocal score that Bizet published in March 1875 shows significant changes from the version of the score he sold the publishers, , in January 1875; the conducting score used at the premiere differs from each of these documents. There is no definitive edition, and there are differences among musicologists about which version represents the composer's true intentions. Bizet also changed the libretto, reordering sequences and imposing his own verses where he felt the librettists had strayed too far from the character of Mérimée's original. Among other changes, he provided new words for Carmen's \"Habanera\", and rewrote the text of Carmen's solo in the act 3 card scene. He also provided a new opening line for the \"Seguidilla\" in act 1.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the characters in Carmen—the soldiers, the smugglers, the Gypsy women and the secondary leads Micaëla and Escamillo—are reasonably familiar types within the opéra comique tradition, although drawing them from proletarian life was unusual. The two principals, José and Carmen, lie outside the genre. While each is presented quite differently from Mérimée's portrayals of a murderous brigand and a treacherous, amoral schemer, even in their relatively sanitised forms neither corresponds to the norms of opéra comique. They are more akin to the verismo style that would find fuller expression in the works of Puccini.",
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"plaintext": "Dean considers that José is the central figure of the opera: \"It is his fate rather than Carmen's that interests us.\" The music characterises his gradual decline, act by act, from honest soldier to deserter, vagabond and finally murderer. In act 1 he is a simple countryman aligned musically with Micaëla; in act 2 he evinces a greater toughness, the result of his experiences as a prisoner, but it is clear that by the end of the act his infatuation with Carmen has driven his emotions beyond control. Dean describes him in act 3 as a trapped animal who refuses to leave his cage even when the door is opened for him, ravaged by a mix of conscience, jealousy and despair. In the final act his music assumes a grimness and purposefulness that reflects his new fatalism: \"He will make one more appeal; if Carmen refuses, he knows what to do.\"",
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"plaintext": "Carmen herself, says Dean, is a new type of operatic heroine representing a new kind of love, not the innocent kind associated with the \"spotless soprano\" school, but something altogether more vital and dangerous. Her capriciousness, fearlessness and love of freedom are all musically represented: \"She is redeemed from any suspicion of vulgarity by her qualities of courage and fatalism so vividly realised in the music\". Curtiss suggests that Carmen's character, spiritually and musically, may be a realisation of the composer's own unconscious longing for a freedom denied to him by his stifling marriage. Harold C. Schonberg likens Carmen to \"a female Don Giovanni. She would rather die than be false to herself.\" The dramatic personality of the character, and the range of moods she is required to express, call for exceptional acting and singing talents. This has deterred some of opera's most distinguished exponents; Maria Callas, though she recorded the part, never performed it on stage. The musicologist Hugh Macdonald observes that \"French opera never produced another femme as fatale as Carmen\", though she may have influenced some of Massenet's heroines. Macdonald suggests that outside the French repertoire, Richard Strauss's Salome and Alban Berg's Lulu \"may be seen as distant degenerate descendants of Bizet's temptress\".",
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"plaintext": "Bizet was reportedly contemptuous of the music he wrote for Escamillo: \"Well, they asked for ordure, and they've got it\", he is said to have remarked about the toreador's song—but, as Dean comments, \"the triteness lies in the character, not in the music\". Micaëla's music has been criticised for its \"Gounodesque\" elements, although Dean maintains that her music has greater vitality than that of any of Gounod's own heroines.",
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"plaintext": "The search for a singer-actress to play Carmen began in the summer of 1873. Press speculation favoured Zulma Bouffar, who was perhaps the librettists' preferred choice. She had sung leading roles in many of Offenbach's operas, but she was unacceptable to Bizet and was turned down by du Locle as unsuitable. In September an approach was made to Marie Roze, well known for previous triumphs at the Opéra-Comique, the Opéra and in London. She refused the part when she learned that she would be required to die on stage. The role was then offered to Célestine Galli-Marié, who agreed to terms with du Locle after several months' negotiation. Galli-Marié, a demanding and at times tempestuous performer, would prove a staunch ally of Bizet, often supporting his resistance to demands from the management that the work should be toned down. At the time it was generally believed that she and the composer were conducting a love affair during the months of rehearsal.",
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"plaintext": "The leading tenor part of Don José was given to Paul Lhérie, a rising star of the Opéra-Comique who had recently appeared in works by Massenet and Delibes. He would later become a baritone, and in 1887 sang the role of Zurga in the Covent Garden premiere of Les pêcheurs de perles. Jacques Bouhy, engaged to sing Escamillo, was a young Belgian-born baritone who had already appeared in demanding roles such as Méphistophélès in Gounod's Faust and as Mozart's Figaro. Marguerite Chapuy, who sang Micaëla, was at the beginning of a short career in which she was briefly a star at London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane; the impresario James H. Mapleson thought her \"one of the most charming vocalists it has been my pleasure to know\". However, she married and left the stage altogether in 1876, refusing Mapleson's considerable cash inducements to return.",
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"plaintext": "Because rehearsals did not start until October 1874 and lasted longer than anticipated, the premiere was delayed. The final rehearsals went well, and in a generally optimistic mood the first night was fixed for 3 March 1875, the day on which, coincidentally, Bizet's appointment as a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour was formally announced. The premiere, which was conducted by Adolphe Deloffre, was attended by many of Paris's leading musical figures, including Massenet, Offenbach, Delibes and Gounod; during the performance the last-named was overheard complaining bitterly that Bizet had stolen the music of Micaëla's act 3 aria from him: \"That melody is mine!\" Halévy recorded his impressions of the premiere in a letter to a friend; the first act was evidently well received, with applause for the main numbers and numerous curtain calls. The first part of act 2 also went well, but after the toreador's song there was, Halévy noted, \"coldness\". In act 3 only Micaëla's aria earned applause as the audience became increasingly disconcerted. The final act was \"glacial from first to last\", and Bizet was left \"only with the consolations of a few friends\". The critic Ernest Newman wrote later that the sentimentalist Opéra-Comique audience was \"shocked by the drastic realism of the action\" and by the low standing and defective morality of most of the characters. According to the composer Benjamin Godard, Bizet retorted, in response to a compliment, \"Don't you see that all these bourgeois have not understood a wretched word of the work I have written for them?\" In a different vein, shortly after the work had concluded, Massenet sent Bizet a congratulatory note: \"How happy you must be at this time—it's a great success!\"",
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"plaintext": "The general tone of the next day's press reviews ranged from disappointment to outrage. The more conservative critics complained about \"Wagnerism\" and the subordination of the voice to the noise of the orchestra. There was consternation that the heroine was an amoral seductress rather than a woman of virtue; Galli-Marié's interpretation of the role was described by one critic as \"the very incarnation of vice\". Others compared the work unfavourably with the traditional Opéra-Comique repertoire of Auber and Boieldieu. Léon Escudier in L'Art Musical called Carmens music \"dull and obscure... the ear grows weary of waiting for the cadence that never comes.\" It seemed that Bizet had generally failed to fulfill expectations, both of those who (given Halévy's and Meilhac's past associations) had expected something in the Offenbach mould, and of critics such as Adolphe Jullien who had anticipated a Wagnerian music drama. Among the few supportive critics was the poet Théodore de Banville; writing in Le National, he applauded Bizet for presenting a drama with real men and women instead of the usual Opéra-Comique \"puppets\".",
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"plaintext": "In its initial run at the Opéra-Comique, Carmen provoked little public enthusiasm; it shared the theatre for a while with Verdi's much more popular Requiem. Carmen was often performed to half-empty houses, even when the management gave away large numbers of tickets. Early on 3 June, the day after the opera's 33rd performance, Bizet died suddenly of heart disease, at the age of 36. It was his wedding anniversary. That night's performance was cancelled; the tragic circumstances brought a temporary increase in public interest during the brief period before the season ended. Du Locle brought Carmen back in November 1875, with the original cast, and it ran for a further 12 performances until 15 February 1876 to give a year's total for the original production of 48. Among those who attended one of these later performances was Tchaikovsky, who wrote to his benefactor, Nadezhda von Meck: \"Carmen is a masterpiece in every sense of the word... one of those rare creations which expresses the efforts of a whole musical epoch.\" After the final performance, Carmen was not seen in Paris again until 1883.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly before his death Bizet signed a contract for a production of Carmen by the Vienna Court Opera. For this version, first staged on 23 October 1875, Bizet's friend Ernest Guiraud replaced the original dialogue with recitatives, to create a \"grand opera\" format. Guiraud also reorchestrated music from Bizet's L'Arlésienne suite to provide a spectacular ballet for Carmens second act. Shortly before the initial Vienna performance, the Court Opera's director Franz von Jauner decided to use parts of the original dialogue along with some of Guiraud's recitatives; this hybrid and the full recitative version became the norms for productions of the opera outside France for most of the next century.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its deviations from Bizet's original format, and some critical reservations, the 1875 Vienna production was a great success with the city's public. It also won praise from both Wagner and Brahms. The latter reportedly saw the opera twenty times, and said he would have \"gone to the ends of the earth to embrace Bizet\". The Viennese triumph began the opera's rapid ascent towards worldwide fame. In February 1876 it began a run in Brussels at La Monnaie; it returned there the following year, with Galli-Marié in the title role, and thereafter became a permanent fixture in the Brussels repertory. On 17 June 1878 Carmen was produced in London, at Her Majesty's Theatre, where Minnie Hauk began her long association with the part of Carmen. A parallel London production at Covent Garden, with Adelina Patti, was cancelled when Patti withdrew. The successful Her Majesty's production, sung in Italian, had an equally enthusiastic reception in Dublin. On 23 October 1878 the opera received its American premiere, at the New York Academy of Music, and in the same year was introduced to Saint Petersburg.",
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"plaintext": "In the following five years performances were given in numerous American and European cities. The opera found particular favour in Germany, where the Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, apparently saw it on 27 different occasions and where Friedrich Nietzsche opined that he \"became a better man when Bizet speaks to me\". Carmen was also acclaimed in numerous French provincial cities including Marseille, Lyon and, in 1881, Dieppe, where Galli-Marié returned to the role. In August 1881 the singer wrote to Bizet's widow to report that Carmens Spanish premiere, in Barcelona, had been \"another great success\". But Carvalho, who had assumed the management of the Opéra-Comique, thought the work immoral and refused to reinstate it. Meilhac and Hálevy were more prepared to countenance a revival, provided that Galli-Marié had no part in it; they blamed her interpretation for the relative failure of the opening run.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1883 Carvalho finally revived Carmen at the Opéra-Comique, with Adèle Isaac featuring in an under-rehearsed production that removed some of the controversial aspects of the original. Carvalho was roundly condemned by the critics for offering a travesty of what had come to be regarded as a masterpiece of French opera; nevertheless, this version was acclaimed by the public and played to full houses. In October Carvalho yielded to pressure and revised the production; he brought back Galli-Marié, and restored the score and libretto to their 1875 forms.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 January 1884, Carmen was given its first New York Metropolitan Opera performance, to a mixed critical reception. The New York Times welcomed Bizet's \"pretty and effective work\", but compared Zelia Trebelli's interpretation of the title role unfavourably with that of Minnie Hauk. Thereafter Carmen was quickly incorporated into the Met's regular repertory. In February 1906 Enrico Caruso sang José at the Met for the first time; he continued to perform in this role until 1919, two years before his death. On 17 April 1906, on tour with the Met, he sang the role at the Grand Opera House in San Francisco. Afterwards he sat up until 3 am reading the reviews in the early editions of the following day's papers. Two hours later he was awakened by the first violent shocks of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, after which he and his fellow performers made a hurried escape from the Palace Hotel.",
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"plaintext": "The popularity of Carmen continued through succeeding generations of American opera-goers; by the beginning of 2011 the Met alone had performed it almost a thousand times. It enjoyed similar success in other American cities and in all parts of the world, in many different languages. Carmen's habanera from act 1, and the toreador's song \"Votre toast\" from act 2, are among the most popular and best-known of all operatic arias, the latter \"a splendid piece of swagger\" according to Newman, \"against which the voices and the eyebrows of purists have long been raised in vain\". Most of the productions outside France followed the example created in Vienna and incorporated lavish ballet interludes and other spectacles, a practice which Mahler abandoned in Vienna when he revived the work there in 1900. In 1919, Bizet's aged contemporary Camille Saint-Saëns was still complaining about the \"strange idea\" of adding a ballet, which he considered \"a hideous blemish in that masterpiece\", and he wondered why Bizet's wife had permitted it.",
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"plaintext": "At the Opéra-Comique, after its 1883 revival, Carmen was always presented in the dialogue version with minimal musical embellishments. By 1888, the year of the 50th anniversary of Bizet's birth, the opera had been performed there 330 times; by 1938, his centenary year, the total of performances at the theatre had reached 2,271. However, outside France the practice of using recitatives remained the norm for many years; the Carl Rosa Opera Company's 1947 London production, and Walter Felsenstein's 1949 staging at the Berlin Komische Oper, are among the first known instances in which the dialogue version was used other than in France. Neither of these innovations led to much change in practice; a similar experiment was tried at Covent Garden in 1953 but hurriedly withdrawn, and the first American production with spoken dialogue, in Colorado in 1953, met with a similar fate.",
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"plaintext": "Dean has commented on the dramatic distortions that arise from the suppression of the dialogue; the effect, he says, is that the action moves forward \"in a series of jerks, rather instead of by smooth transition\", and that most of the minor characters are substantially diminished. Only late in the 20th century did dialogue versions become common in opera houses outside France, but there is still no universally recognised full score. Fritz Oeser's 1964 edition is an attempt to fill this gap, but in Dean's view is unsatisfactory. Oeser reintroduces material removed by Bizet during the first rehearsals, and ignores many of the late changes and improvements that the composer made immediately before the first performance; he thus, according to Susan McClary, \"inadvertently preserves as definitive an early draft of the opera\". In the early 21st century new editions were prepared by Robert Didion and Richard Langham-Smith, published by Schott and Peters respectively. Each departs significantly from Bizet's vocal score of March 1875, published during his lifetime after he had personally corrected the proofs; Dean believes this vocal score should be the basis of any standard edition. Lesley Wright, a contemporary Bizet scholar, remarks that, unlike his compatriots Rameau and Debussy, Bizet has not been accorded a critical edition of his principal works; should this transpire, she says, \"we might expect yet another scholar to attempt to refine the details of this vibrant score which has so fascinated the public and performers for more than a century.\" Meanwhile, Carmens popularity endures; according to Macdonald: \"The memorability of Bizet's tunes will keep the music of Carmen alive in perpetuity,\" and its status as a popular classic is unchallenged by any other French opera.",
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"plaintext": "Hervé Lacombe, in his survey of 19th-century French opera, contends that Carmen is one of the few works from that large repertory to have stood the test of time. While he places the opera firmly within the long opéra comique tradition, Macdonald considers that it transcends the genre and that its immortality is assured by \"the combination in abundance of striking melody, deft harmony and perfectly judged orchestration\". Dean sees Bizet's principal achievement in the demonstration of the main actions of the opera in the music, rather than in the dialogue, writing that \"Few artists have expressed so vividly the torments inflicted by sexual passions and jealousy.\" Dean places Bizet's realism in a different category from the verismo of Puccini and others; he likens the composer to Mozart and Verdi in his ability to engage his audiences with the emotions and sufferings of his characters.",
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"plaintext": "Bizet, who had never visited Spain, sought out appropriate ethnic material to provide an authentic Spanish flavour to his music. Carmen's habanera is based on an idiomatic song, \"El Arreglito\", by the Spanish composer Sebastián Yradier (1809–65). Bizet had taken this to be a genuine folk melody; when he learned its recent origin he added a note to the vocal score, crediting Yradier. He used a genuine folksong as the source of Carmen's defiant \"Coupe-moi, brûle-moi\" while other parts of the score, notably the \"Seguidilla\", utilise the rhythms and instrumentation associated with flamenco music. However, Dean insists that \"[t]his is a French, not a Spanish opera\"; the \"foreign bodies\", while they undoubtedly contribute to the unique atmosphere of the opera, form only a small ingredient of the complete music.",
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"plaintext": "The prelude to act 1 combines three recurrent themes: the entry of the bullfighters from act 4, the refrain from the Toreador Song from act 2, and the motif that, in two slightly differing forms, represents both Carmen herself and the fate she personifies. This motif, played on clarinet, bassoon, cornet and cellos over tremolo strings, concludes the prelude with an abrupt crescendo. When the curtain rises a light and sunny atmosphere is soon established, and pervades the opening scenes. The mock solemnities of the changing of the guard, and the flirtatious exchanges between the townsfolk and the factory girls, precede a mood change when a brief phrase from the fate motif announces Carmen's entrance. After her provocative habanera, with its persistent insidious rhythm and changes of key, the fate motif sounds in full when Carmen throws her flower to José before departing. This action elicits from José a passionate A major solo which Dean suggests is the turning-point in his musical characterisation. The softer vein returns briefly, as Micaëla reappears and joins with José in a duet to a warm clarinet and strings accompaniment. The tranquillity is shattered by the women's noisy quarrel, Carmen's dramatic re-entry and her defiant interaction with Zuniga. After her beguiling \"Seguidilla\" provokes José to an exasperated high A sharp shout, Carmen's escape is preceded by the brief but disconcerting reprise of a fragment from the habanera. Bizet revised this finale several times to increase its dramatic effect.",
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"plaintext": "Act 2 begins with a short prelude, based on a melody that José will sing offstage before his next entry. A festive scene in the inn precedes Escamillo's tumultuous entrance, in which brass and percussion provide prominent backing while the crowd sings along. The quintet that follows is described by Newman as \"of incomparable verve and musical wit\". José's appearance precipitates a long mutual wooing scene; Carmen sings, dances and plays the castanets; a distant cornet-call summoning José to duty is blended with Carmen's melody so as to be barely discernible. A muted reference to the fate motif on an English horn leads to José's \"Flower Song\", a flowing continuous melody that ends pianissimo on a sustained high B-flat. José's insistence that, despite Carmen's blandishments, he must return to duty leads to a quarrel; the arrival of Zuniga, the consequent fight and José's unavoidable ensnarement into the lawless life culminates musically in the triumphant hymn to freedom that closes the act.",
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"plaintext": "The prelude to act 3 was originally intended for Bizet's L'Arlésienne score. Newman describes it as \"an exquisite miniature, with much dialoguing and intertwining between the woodwind instruments\". As the action unfolds, the tension between Carmen and José is evident in the music. In the card scene, the lively duet for Frasquita and Mercédès turns ominous when Carmen intervenes; the fate motif underlines her premonition of death. Micaëla's aria, after her entry in search of José, is a conventional piece, though of deep feeling, preceded and concluded by horn calls. The middle part of the act is occupied by Escamillo and José, now acknowledged as rivals for Carmen's favour. The music reflects their contrasting attitudes: Escamillo remains, says Newman, \"invincibly polite and ironic\", while José is sullen and aggressive. When Micaëla pleads with José to go with her to his mother, the harshness of Carmen's music reveals her most unsympathetic side. As José departs, vowing to return, the fate theme is heard briefly in the woodwind. The confident, off-stage sound of the departing Escamillo singing the toreador's refrain provides a distinct contrast to José's increasing desperation.",
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"plaintext": "The final act is prefaced with a lively orchestral piece derived from Manuel García's short operetta El Criado Fingido. After the opening crowd scene, the bullfighters' march is led by the children's chorus; the crowd hails Escamillo before his short love scene with Carmen. The long finale, in which José makes his last pleas to Carmen and is decisively rejected, is punctuated at critical moments by enthusiastic off-stage shouts from the bullfighting arena. As José kills Carmen, the chorus sing the refrain of the Toreador Song off-stage; the fate motif, which has been suggestively present at various points during the act, is heard fortissimo, together with a brief reference to Carmen's card scene music. Jose's last words of love and despair are followed by a final long chord, on which the curtain falls without further musical or vocal comment.",
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"plaintext": " Sur la place chacun passe (Chorus of soldiers, Moralès, Micaëla)",
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"plaintext": " Avec la garde montante (Chorus of urchins, Zuniga)",
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"plaintext": " La cloche a sonné (Chorus of citizens, soldiers, cigarette girls)",
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"plaintext": " Habanera: L'amour est un oiseau rebelle (Carmen, chorus as above)",
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"plaintext": " Carmen! Sur tes pas nous pressons! (Chorus of citizens and cigarette girls)",
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"plaintext": " Parle-moi de ma mère (José, Micaëla)",
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"plaintext": " Que se passe-t-il là-bas? Au secours! Au secours! (Chorus of cigarette girls, soldiers, Zuniga)",
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"plaintext": " Tra-la-la ... Coupe-moi, brûle-moi (Carmen, Zuniga, cigarette girls, José)",
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"plaintext": " Seguidilla: Près des remparts de Séville (Carmen, José)",
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"plaintext": " Finale: Voici l'ordre; partez (Zuniga, Carmen)",
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"plaintext": "Carmen has been the subject of many recordings, beginning with early wax cylinder recordings of excerpts in the 1890s, a nearly complete performance in German from 1908 with Emmy Destinn in the title role, and a complete 1911 Opéra-Comique recording in French. Since then, many of the leading opera houses and artistes have recorded the work, in both studio and live performances. Over the years many versions have been commended and reissued. From the mid-1990s numerous video recordings have become available. These include David McVicar's Glyndebourne production of 2002, and the Royal Opera productions of 2007 and 2010, each designed by Francesca Zambello.",
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"plaintext": "In 1883, the Spanish violinist and composer Pablo de Sarasate (1844–1908) wrote a Carmen Fantasy for violin, described as \"ingenious and technically difficult\". Ferruccio Busoni's 1920 piece, Piano Sonatina No. 6 (Fantasia da camera super Carmen), is based on themes from Carmen. In 1967, the Russian composer Rodion Shchedrin adapted parts of the Carmen music into a ballet, the Carmen Suite, written for his wife Maya Plisetskaya, then the Bolshoi Ballet's principal ballerina.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983 the stage director Peter Brook produced an adaptation of Bizet's opera known as La Tragedie de Carmen in collaboration with the writer Jean-Claude Carrière and the composer Marius Constant. This 90-minute version focused on four main characters, eliminating choruses and the major arias were reworked for chamber orchestra. Brook first produced it in Paris, and it has since been performed in many cities.",
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"plaintext": "The character \"Carmen\" has been a regular subject of film treatment since the earliest days of cinema. The films were made in various languages and interpreted by several cultures, and have been created by prominent directors including , Raoul Walsh (1915) with Theda Bara, Cecil B. DeMille (1915), and The Loves of Carmen (1948) with Rita Hayworth and Glenn Ford, directed by Charles Vidor. Otto Preminger's 1954 Carmen Jones, with an all-black cast, is based on the 1943 Oscar Hammerstein Broadway musical of the same name, an adaptation of the opera transposed to 1940s North Carolina extending to Chicago. The Wild, Wild Rose is a 1960 Hong Kong film which adapts the plot and main character to the setting of a Wanchai nightclub, including striking renditions of some of the most famous songs by Grace Chang. Other adaptions include Carlos Saura (1983) (who made a flamenco-based dance film with two levels of story telling), Peter Brook (1983) (filming his compressed La Tragédie de Carmen) and Jean-Luc Godard (1984). Francesco Rosi's film of 1984, with Julia Migenes and Plácido Domingo, is generally faithful to the original story and to Bizet's music. Carmen on Ice (1990), starring Katarina Witt, Brian Boitano and Brian Orser, was inspired by Witt's gold medal-winning performance during the 1988 Winter Olympics. Robert Townsend's 2001 film, A Hip Hopera, starring Beyoncé Knowles, is a more recent attempt to create an African-American version. Carmen was interpreted in modern ballet by the South African dancer and choreographer Dada Masilo in 2010.",
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"plaintext": " These include:",
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"plaintext": " Full orchestral score, Choudens 1877 (republished by Könemann, 1994)",
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"plaintext": " Vocal score, Choudens 1875",
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"plaintext": " Carmen by Prosper Mérimée (1845), Project Gutenberg",
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"plaintext": " Libretto ",
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"Operas",
"Operas_based_on_novels",
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"Operas_by_Georges_Bizet",
"Opéras_comiques",
"Operas_set_in_Spain",
"Works_based_on_Carmen_(novella)",
"Music_controversies",
"Opera_controversies",
"Operas_based_on_works_by_Prosper_Mérimée"
] | 185,968 | 38,016 | 2,505 | 204 | 0 | 1 | Carmen | opera in four acts by French composer Georges Bizet | [] |
37,915 | 1,099,727,493 | Die_Meistersinger_von_Nürnberg | [
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"plaintext": " (; \"The Master-Singers of Nuremberg\"), WWV 96, is a music drama, or opera, in three acts, by Richard Wagner. It is the longest opera commonly performed, taking nearly four and a half hours, not counting two breaks, and is traditionally not cut. With Hans von Bülow conducting it was first performed on 21 June 1868 at the National Theater in Munich, today home of Bavarian State Opera.",
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"plaintext": "The story is set in Nuremberg in the mid-16th century. At the time, Nuremberg was a free imperial city and one of the centers of the Renaissance in Northern Europe. The story revolves around the city's guild of Meistersinger (Master Singers), an association of amateur poets and musicians who were primarily master craftsmen of various trades. The master singers had developed a craftsmanlike approach to music-making, with an intricate system of rules for composing and performing songs. The work draws much of its atmosphere from its depiction of the Nuremberg of the era and the traditions of the master-singer guild. One of the main characters, the cobbler-poet Hans Sachs, is based on a historical figure, Hans Sachs (1494–1576), the most famous of the master-singers.",
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"plaintext": "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg occupies a unique place in Wagner's oeuvre. It is the only comedy among his mature operas (he had come to reject his early Das Liebesverbot) and is also unusual among his works in being set in a historically well-defined time and place rather than in a mythical or legendary setting. It is the only mature Wagner opera based on an entirely original story, and in which no supernatural or magical powers or events feature. It incorporates many of the operatic conventions that Wagner had railed against in his essays on the theory of opera: rhymed verse, arias, choruses, a quintet, and even a ballet.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's autobiography (My Life) described the genesis of . Taking the waters at Marienbad in 1845 he began reading Georg Gottfried Gervinus' Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (History of German Poetry). This work included chapters on mastersong and on Hans Sachs.",
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"plaintext": "I had formed a particularly vivid picture of Hans Sachs and the mastersingers of Nuremberg. I was especially intrigued by the institution of the Marker and his function in rating master-songs ... I conceived during a walk a comic scene in which the popular artisan-poet, by hammering upon his cobbler's last, gives the Marker, who is obliged by circumstances to sing in his presence, his come-uppance for previous pedantic misdeeds during official singing contests, by inflicting upon him a lesson of his own.",
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"plaintext": "Gervinus' book also mentions a poem by the real-life Hans Sachs on the subject of Protestant reformer Martin Luther, called \"Die Wittenbergisch Nachtigall\" (The Wittenberg Nightingale). The opening lines for this poem, addressing the Reformation, were later used by Wagner in act 3 scene 5 when the crowd acclaims Sachs: \"\" (Awake, the dawn is drawing near; I hear, singing in the green grove, a blissful nightingale)",
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"plaintext": "In addition to this, Wagner added a scene drawn from his own life, in which a case of mistaken identity led to a near-riot: this was to be the basis for the finale of act 2.",
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"plaintext": "Out of this situation evolved an uproar, which through the shouting and clamour and an inexplicable growth in the number of participants in the struggle soon assumed a truly demoniacal character. It looked to me as if the whole town would break out into a riot...Then suddenly I heard a heavy thump, and as if by magic the whole crowd dispersed in every direction...One of the regular patrons had felled one of the noisiest rioters ... And it was the effect of this which had scattered everybody so suddenly.",
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"plaintext": "This first draft of the story was dated \"Marienbad 16 July 1845\". Wagner later said, in Eine Mitteilung an meine Freunde (1851) (A Communication to my Friends) that was to be a comic opera to follow a tragic opera, i.e. Tannhäuser. Just as the Athenians had followed a tragedy with a comic satyr play, so Wagner would follow with : the link being that both operas included song-contests.",
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"plaintext": "In 1854, Wagner first read Schopenhauer, and was struck by the philosopher's theories on aesthetics. In this philosophy, art is a means for escaping from the sufferings of the world, and music is the highest of the arts since it is the only one not involved in representation of the world (i.e. it is abstract). It is for this reason that music can communicate emotion without the need for words. In his earlier essay Oper und Drama (Opera and Drama) (1850–1) Wagner had derided staples of operatic construction: arias, choruses, duets, trios, recitatives, etc. As a result of reading Schopenhauer's ideas about the role of music, Wagner re-evaluated his prescription for opera, and included many of these elements in .",
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"plaintext": "Although is a comedy, it also elucidates Wagner's ideas on the place of music in society, on renunciation of Wille (Will), and on the solace that music can bring in a world full of (delusion, folly, self-deception). It is which causes the riot in act 2 – a sequence of events arising from a case of mistaken identity, which can be seen as a form of self-delusion. Commentators have observed that in his famous act 3 monologue (Madness! Madness!, Everywhere madness!), Sachs paraphrases Schopenhauer's description of the way that drives a person to behave in ways that are self-destructive:",
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"plaintext": "Following the completion of Tristan und Isolde, Wagner resumed work on in 1861 with a quite different philosophical outlook from that which he held when he developed his first draft. The character of Hans Sachs became one of the most Schopenhauerian of Wagner's creations. Wagner scholar Lucy Beckett has noted the remarkable similarity between Wagner's Sachs and Schopenhauer's description of the noble man:",
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"plaintext": "We always picture a very noble character to ourselves as having a certain trace of silent sadness... It is a consciousness that has resulted from knowledge of the vanity of all achievements and of the suffering of all life, not merely of one's own. (Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Representation)",
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"plaintext": "The other distinctive manifestation of Sachs's character – his calm renunciation of the prospect of becoming a suitor for Eva's love – is also deeply Schopenhauerian. Sachs here denies the Will in its supposedly most insistent form, that of sexual love. Wagner marks this moment with a direct musical and textual reference to Tristan und Isolde: (\"My child, I know a sad tale of Tristan and Isolde. Hans Sachs was clever and did not want anything of King Marke's lot.\")",
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"plaintext": "Having completed the scenario, Wagner began writing the libretto while living in Paris in 1862, and followed this by composing the overture. The overture was publicly performed in Leipzig on 2 November 1862, conducted by the composer. Composition of act 1 was begun in spring of 1863 in the Viennese suburb of Penzing, but the opera in its entirety was not finished until October 1867, when Wagner was living at Tribschen near Lucerne. These years were some of Wagner's most difficult: the 1861 Paris production of Tannhäuser was a fiasco, Wagner gave up hope of completing Der Ring des Nibelungen, the 1864 Vienna production of Tristan und Isolde was abandoned after 77 rehearsals, and finally in 1866 Wagner's first wife, Minna, died. Cosima Wagner was later to write: \"When future generations seek refreshment in this unique work, may they spare a thought for the tears from which the smiles arose.\"",
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"plaintext": "The premiere was given at the Königliches Hof- und National-Theater, Munich, on 21 June 1868. The production was sponsored by Ludwig II of Bavaria and the conductor was Hans von Bülow. Franz Strauss, the father of the composer Richard Strauss, played the French horn at the premiere, despite his often-expressed dislike of Wagner, who was present at many of the rehearsals. Wagner's frequent interruptions and digressions made rehearsals a very long-winded affair. After one 5 hour rehearsal, Franz Strauss led a strike by the orchestra, saying that he could not play any more. Despite these problems, the premiere was a triumph, and the opera was hailed as one of Wagner's most successful works. At the end of the first performance, the audience called for Wagner, who appeared at the front of the Royal box, which he had been sharing with King Ludwig. Wagner bowed to the crowd, breaking court protocol, which dictated that only the monarch could address an audience from the box.",
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"plaintext": " is scored for the following instruments:",
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"plaintext": "piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons",
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"plaintext": "more trumpets and horns, stierhorn, lute, military drums, organ (act 1)",
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"plaintext": "Nuremberg, towards the middle of the sixteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "Prelude (Vorspiel), one of Wagner's most familiar pieces of music.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Interior of Katharinenkirche (St. Catherine's Church) in Nuremberg, Saint John's Eve or Midsummer's Eve, June 23",
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"plaintext": "After the prelude, a church service is just ending with a singing of Da zu dir der Heiland kam (When the Saviour came to thee), an impressive pastiche of a Lutheran chorale, as Walther von Stolzing, a young knight from Franconia, addresses Eva Pogner, whom he had met earlier, and asks her if she is engaged to anyone. Eva and Walther have fallen in love at first sight, but she informs him that her father, the goldsmith and mastersinger Veit Pogner, has arranged to give her hand in marriage to the winner of the guild's song contest on Saint John's Day (Midsummer's Day), tomorrow. Eva's maid, Magdalena, gets David, Hans Sachs's apprentice, to tell Walther about the mastersingers' art. The hope is for Walther to qualify as a mastersinger during the guild meeting, traditionally held in the church after Mass, and thus earn a place in the song contest despite his utter ignorance of the master-guild's rules and conventions.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "As the other apprentices set up the church for the meeting, David warns Walther that it is not easy to become a mastersinger; it takes many years of learning and practice. David gives a confusing lecture on the mastersingers' rules for composing and singing. (Many of the tunes he describes were real master-tunes from the period.) Walther is confused by the complicated rules, but is determined to try for a place in the guild anyway.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 3",
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"plaintext": "The first mastersingers file into the church, including Eva's wealthy father Veit Pogner and the town clerk Beckmesser. Beckmesser, a clever technical singer who was expecting to win the contest without opposition, is distressed to see that Walther is Pogner's guest and intends to enter the contest. Meanwhile, Pogner introduces Walther to the other mastersingers as they arrive. Fritz Kothner the baker, serving as chairman of this meeting, calls the roll. Pogner, addressing the assembly, announces his offer of his daughter's hand for the winner of the song contest. When Hans Sachs argues that Eva ought to have a say in the matter, Pogner agrees that Eva may refuse the winner of the contest, but she must still marry a mastersinger. Another suggestion by Sachs, that the townspeople, rather than the masters, should be called upon to judge the winner of the contest, is rejected by the other masters. Pogner formally introduces Walther as a candidate for admission into the masterguild. Questioned by Kothner about his background, Walther states that his teacher in poetry was Walther von der Vogelweide whose works he studied in his own private library in Franconia, and his teachers in music were the birds and nature itself. Reluctantly the masters agree to admit him, provided he can perform a master-song of his own composition. Walther chooses love as the topic for his song and therefore is to be judged by Beckmesser alone, the \"Marker\" of the guild for worldly matters. At the signal to begin (Fanget an!), Walther launches into a novel free-form tune (So rief der Lenz in den Wald), breaking all the mastersingers' rules, and his song is constantly interrupted by the scratch of Beckmesser's chalk on his chalkboard, maliciously noting one violation after another. When Beckmesser has completely covered the slate with symbols of Walther's errors, he interrupts the song and argues that there is no point in finishing it. Sachs tries to convince the masters to let Walther continue, but Beckmesser sarcastically tells Sachs to stop trying to set policy and instead, to finish making his (Beckmesser's) new shoes, which are overdue. Raising his voice over the masters' argument, Walther finishes his song, but the masters reject him and he rushes out of the church.",
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"plaintext": "Evening. On the street corner by Pogner's and Sachs's houses. A linden tree (tilia or lime-tree or basswood) stands outside Pogner's house, a Flieder-tree (syringa or lilac-tree) before Sachs's. Apprentices are closing the shutters.",
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"plaintext": "David informs Magdalena of Walther's failure. In her disappointment, Magdalena leaves without giving David the food she had brought for him. This arouses the derision of the other apprentices, and David is about to turn on them when Sachs arrives and hustles his apprentice into the workshop.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "Pogner arrives with Eva, engaging in a roundabout conversation: Eva is hesitant to ask about the outcome of Walther's application, and Pogner has private doubts about whether it was wise to offer his daughter's hand in marriage for the song contest. As they enter their house, Magdalena appears and tells Eva about the rumours of Walther's failure. Eva decides to ask Sachs about the matter.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 3",
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"plaintext": "As twilight falls, Hans Sachs takes a seat in front of his house to work on new shoes for Beckmesser. He muses about Walther's song, which has made a deep impression on him (Was duftet doch der Flieder, known as the Flieder Monologue).",
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"plaintext": "Scene 4",
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"plaintext": "Eva approaches Sachs, and they discuss tomorrow's song contest. Eva is unenthusiastic about Beckmesser, who appears to be the only eligible contestant. She hints that she would not mind if Sachs, a widower, were to win the contest. Though touched, Sachs protests that he would be too old a husband for her. Upon further prompting, Sachs describes Walther's failure at the guild meeting. This causes Eva to storm off angrily, confirming Sachs's suspicion that she has fallen in love with Walther. Eva is intercepted by Magdalena, who informs her that Beckmesser is coming to serenade her. Eva, determined to search for Walther, tells Magdalena to pose as her (Eva) at the bedroom window.",
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"plaintext": "Just as Eva is about to leave, Walther appears. He tells her that he has been rejected by the mastersingers, and the two prepare to elope. However, Sachs has overheard their plans. As they are passing by, he illuminates the street with his lantern, forcing them to hide in the shadow of Pogner's house. Walther makes up his mind to confront Sachs, but is interrupted by the arrival of Beckmesser.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 6",
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"plaintext": "As Eva and Walther retreat further into the shadows, Beckmesser begins his serenade. Sachs interrupts him by launching into a full-bellied cobbling song, and hammering the soles of the half-made shoes. Annoyed, Beckmesser tells Sachs to stop, but the cobbler replies that he has to finish tempering the soles of the shoes, whose lateness Beckmesser had publicly complained about (in act 1). Sachs offers a compromise: he will be quiet and let Beckmesser sing, but he (Sachs) will be Beckmesser's \"marker\", and mark each of Beckmesser's musical/poetical errors by striking one of the soles with his hammer. Beckmesser, who has spotted someone at Eva's window (Magdalena in disguise), has no time to argue. He tries to sing his serenade, but he makes so many mistakes (his tune repeatedly places accents on the wrong syllables of the words) that from the repeated knocks Sachs finishes the shoes. David wakes up and sees Beckmesser apparently serenading Magdalena. He attacks Beckmesser in a fit of jealous rage. The entire neighborhood is awakened by the noise. The other apprentices rush into the fray, and the situation degenerates into a full-blown riot. In the confusion, Walther tries to escape with Eva, but Sachs pushes Eva into her home and drags Walther into his own workshop. Quiet is restored as abruptly as it was broken. A lone figure walks through the street – the nightwatchman, calling out the hour.",
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"plaintext": "Prelude (Vorspiel), a meditative orchestral introduction using music from two key episodes to be heard in act 3: Sachs's scene 1 monologue \"Wahn! Wahn!\" and the \"Wittenberg Nightingale\" quasi-chorale sung by the townspeople to greet Sachs in scene 5.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: Sachs's workshop",
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"plaintext": "As morning dawns, Sachs is reading a large book. Lost in thought, he does not respond as David returns from delivering Beckmesser's shoes. David finally manages to attract his master's attention, and they discuss the upcoming festivities – it is Saint John's day, Hans Sachs's name day. David recites his verses for Sachs, and leaves to prepare for the festival. Alone, Sachs ponders last night's riot. \"Madness! Madness! Everywhere madness!\" (Wahn! Wahn! Überall Wahn!) His attempt to prevent an elopement had ended in shocking violence. Nevertheless, he is resolved to make madness work for him today.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2",
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"plaintext": "Sachs gives Walther an interactive lesson on the history and philosophy of music and mastersinging, and teaches him to moderate his singing according to the spirit (if not the strict letter) of the masters' rules. Walther demonstrates his understanding by composing two sections of a new Prize Song in a more acceptable style than his previous effort from act 1. Sachs writes down the new verses as Walther sings them. A final section remains to be composed, but Walther postpones the task. The two men leave the room to dress for the festival.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 3",
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"plaintext": "Beckmesser, still sore from his drubbing the night before, enters the workshop. He spots the verses of the Prize Song, written in Sachs's handwriting, and infers (erroneously) that Sachs is secretly planning to enter the contest for Eva's hand. The cobbler re-enters the room and Beckmesser confronts him with the verses and asks if he wrote them. Sachs confirms that the handwriting is his, but does not clarify that he was not the author but merely served as scribe. However, he goes on to say that he has no intention of wooing Eva or entering the contest, and he presents the manuscript to Beckmesser as a gift. He promises never to claim the song for his own, and warns Beckmesser that it is a very difficult song to interpret and sing. Beckmesser, his confidence restored by the prospect of using verses written by the famous Hans Sachs, ignores the warning and rushes off to prepare for the song contest. Sachs smiles at Beckmesser's foolishness but expresses hope that Beckmesser will learn to be better in the future.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 4",
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"plaintext": "Eva arrives at the workshop. She is looking for Walther, but pretends to have complaints about a shoe that Sachs made for her. Sachs realizes that the shoe is a perfect fit, but pretends to set about altering the stitching. As he works, he tells Eva that he has just heard a beautiful song, lacking only an ending. Eva cries out as Walther enters the room, splendidly attired for the festival, and sings the third and final section of the Prize Song. The couple are overwhelmed with gratitude for Sachs, and Eva asks Sachs to forgive her for having manipulated his feelings. The cobbler brushes them off with bantering complaints about his lot as a shoemaker, poet, and widower. At last, however, he admits to Eva that, despite his feelings for her, he is resolved to avoid the fate of King Marke (a reference to the subject of another Wagner opera, Tristan und Isolde, in which an old man tries to marry a much-younger woman), thus conferring his blessing upon the lovers. David and Magdalena appear. Sachs announces to the group that a new master-song has been born, which, following the rules of the mastersingers, is to be baptized. As an apprentice cannot serve as a witness for the baptism, he promotes David to the rank of journeyman with the traditional cuff on the ear (and by this also \"promoting\" him as a groom and Magdalena as a bride). He then christens the Prize Song the Morning Dream Song (Selige Morgentraumdeut-Weise). After celebrating their good fortune with an extended quintet (Selig, wie die Sonne meines Glückes lacht) – musically capping the first four scenes of act 3 – the group departs for the festival.",
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"plaintext": "Almost an act in itself, this scene occupies about 45 minutes of the two hours of act 3 and is separated from the preceding four scenes by Verwandlungsmusik, a transforming interlude. Meadow by the Pegnitz River. It is the Feast of St. John.",
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"plaintext": "Various guilds enter boasting of their contributions to Nürnberg's success; Wagner depicts three of them: the Cobblers, whose chorus Sankt Krispin, lobet ihn! uses the signature cry streck! streck! streck!; the Tailors, who sing the chorus Als Nürnberg belagert war with the goat cry meck! meck! meck!; and the Bakers, who cut the tailors off with Hungersnot! Hungersnot!, or Famine, famine!, and its beck! beck! beck!, or bake, bake, bake!",
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"plaintext": "This leads into the Tanz der Lehrbuben (Dance of the Apprentices). The mastersingers themselves then grandly arrive: the Procession of the Masters. The crowd sings the praises of Hans Sachs, the most beloved and famous of the mastersingers; here Wagner provides a rousing chorus, Wach' auf, es nahet gen den Tag, using words written by the historical Sachs himself, in a chorale-like four-part setting, relating it to the chorales of the \"Wittenberg Nightingale\" (a metaphor for Martin Luther).",
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"plaintext": "The prize contest begins. Beckmesser attempts to sing the verses that he had obtained from Sachs. However, he garbles the words (Morgen ich leuchte) and fails to fit them to an appropriate melody, and ends up singing so clumsily that the crowd laughs him off. Before storming off in anger, he yells that the song was not even his: Hans Sachs tricked him into singing it. The crowd is confused. How could the great Hans Sachs have written such a bad song? Sachs tells them that the song is not his own, and also that it is in fact a beautiful song which the masters will love when they hear it sung correctly. To prove this, he calls a witness: Walther. The people are so curious about the song (correctly worded as Morgenlich leuchtend im rosigen Schein) that they allow Walther to sing it, and everyone is won over in spite of its novelty.",
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"plaintext": "They declare Walther the winner, and the mastersingers want to make him a member of their guild on the spot. At first Walther is tempted to reject their offer, but Sachs intervenes once more and explains that art, even ground-breaking, contrary art like Walther's, can only exist within a cultural tradition, which tradition the art sustains and improves. Walther is convinced; he agrees to join. Pogner places the symbolic master-hood medal around his neck, Eva takes his hand, and the people sing once more the praises of Hans Sachs, the beloved mastersinger of Nuremberg.",
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"plaintext": "Much critical attention has been focused on the alleged antisemitism of Wagner's characterisation of Beckmesser since the idea was put forward by the Marxist critic Theodor Adorno. Wagner scholar Barry Millington advanced the idea that Beckmesser represents a Jewish stereotype, whose humiliation by the Aryan Walther is an onstage representation of Wagner's antisemitism. Millington argued in his 1991 \"Nuremberg Trial: Is There Anti-Semitism in ?\" that common antisemitic stereotypes prevalent in 19th-century Germany were a part of the \"ideological fabric\" of and that Beckmesser embodied these unmistakable antisemitic characteristics. Millington's article spurred significant debate among Wagner scholars including Charles Rosen, Hans Rudolph Vaget, Paul Lawrence Rose, and Karl A. Zaenker.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2009 interview Katharina Wagner, the composer's great-granddaughter and co-director of the Bayreuth Festival, was asked whether she believed Wagner relied on Jewish stereotypes in his operas. Her response was, \"With Beckmesser he probably did.\" Nike Wagner, another of the composer's great-daughters, contends that Beckmesser is principally the victim of sadism, \"which is inseparable from the syndrome that also produces violent fascism\".",
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"plaintext": "Scholars Dieter Borchmeyer, and Hermann Danuser support the thesis that with the character of Beckmesser, Wagner did not intend to allude to Jewish stereotypes, but rather to criticize (academic) pedantism in general. They point out similarities to the figure of Malvolio in Shakespeare's comedy Twelfth Night.",
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"plaintext": "Although the score calls for Beckmesser to rush off in a huff after his self-defeating attempt to sing Walther's song, in some productions he remains and listens to Walther's correct rendition of his song, and shakes hands with Sachs after the final monologue.",
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"plaintext": "A related view holds that Beckmesser was designed to parody the renowned critic Eduard Hanslick, who valorized the music of Brahms and held Wagner's music in low regard. We know that the original name of the Beckmesser character was \"Veit Hanslich,\" and we know that Wagner invited Hanslick to his initial reading of the libretto, though whether then the character still had the \"Hanslich\" name when Hanslick heard it is unclear. This second interpretation of Beckmesser may dovetail with the antisemitism interpretation above, as Wagner attacked Hanslick as \"of gracefully concealed Jewish origin\" in his revised edition of his essay Jewishness in Music.",
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"plaintext": " was enthusiastically received at its premiere in 1868, and was judged to be Wagner's most immediately appealing work. Eduard Hanslick wrote in after the premiere: \"Dazzling scenes of colour and splendour, ensembles full of life and character unfold before the spectator's eyes, hardly allowing him the leisure to weigh how much and how little of these effects is of musical origin.\"",
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"plaintext": "Within a year of the premiere the opera was performed across Germany at Dresden, Dessau, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Weimar, Hanover, and in Vienna, with Berlin following in 1870. It was one of the most popular and prominent German operas during the Unification of Germany in 1871, and in spite of the opera's overall warning against cultural self-centeredness, became a potent symbol of patriotic German art. Hans Sachs's final warning at the end of act 3 on the need to preserve German art from foreign threats was a rallying point for German nationalism, particularly during the Franco-Prussian War.",
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"plaintext": "Die Meistersinger was soon performed outside Germany as well, spreading throughout Europe and around the world:",
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"plaintext": "Bohemia: 26 April 1871, Prague",
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"plaintext": "Livonia: 4 January 1872, Riga",
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"plaintext": "Denmark: 23 March 1872, Copenhagen (in Danish)",
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"plaintext": "Netherlands: 12 March 1879, Rotterdam",
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"plaintext": "United Kingdom: 30 May 1882, London, Drury Lane Theatre under Hans Richter.",
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"plaintext": "Hungary: 8 September 1883, Budapest (in Hungarian)",
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"plaintext": "Switzerland: 20 February 1885, Basel",
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"plaintext": "Belgium: 7 March 1885, Brussels (in French)",
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"plaintext": "United States: 4 January 1886, New York, Metropolitan Opera House under Anton Seidl.",
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"plaintext": "Sweden: 2 April 1887, Stockholm (in Swedish)",
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"plaintext": "Italy: 26 December 1889, Milan (in Italian)",
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"plaintext": "Spain: 6 March 1894, Madrid, under (in Italian)",
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"plaintext": "Poland: 3 March 1896, Poznan",
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"plaintext": "France: 30 December 1896, Lyon (in French), Opéra National de Lyon",
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"plaintext": "Russia: 15 March 1898, St. Petersburg (in German)",
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"plaintext": "Argentina: 6 August 1898, Buenos Aires, Teatro de la Opera",
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"plaintext": "Portugal: January 1902, Lisbon",
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"plaintext": "Brazil: 3 August 1905, Rio de Janeiro",
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"plaintext": "South Africa: 1913, Johannesburg",
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"plaintext": "Finland: 17 November 1921, Helsinki",
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"plaintext": "Monaco: February 1928, Monte Carlo",
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"plaintext": "Yugoslavia: 15 June 1929, Zagreb",
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"plaintext": "Australia: March 1933, Melbourne",
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"plaintext": "Romania: December 1934, Bucharest",
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"plaintext": "At the reopening of the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 following its closure during World War I was performed. The audience rose to its feet during Hans Sachs's final oration, and sang \"Deutschland über Alles\" after the opera had finished.",
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"plaintext": " was frequently used as part of Nazi propaganda. On 21 March 1933, the founding of the Third Reich was celebrated with a performance of the opera in the presence of Adolf Hitler. The prelude to act 3 is played over shots of old Nuremberg at the beginning of Triumph of the Will, the 1935 film by Leni Riefenstahl depicting the Nazi party congress of 1934. During World War II, was the only opera presented at the Bayreuth festivals of 1943–1944.",
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"plaintext": "The association of with Nazism led to one of the most controversial stage productions of the work. The first Bayreuth production of following World War II occurred in 1956, when Wieland Wagner, the composer's grandson, attempted to distance the work from German nationalism by presenting it in almost abstract terms, by removing any reference to Nuremberg from the scenery. The production was dubbed (The Mastersingers without Nuremberg).",
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"plaintext": " (UK title: Wagner and Philosophy, Penguin Books, )",
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{
"plaintext": " Theodor W. Adorno, Versuch über Wagner, »Gesammelte Schriften«, vol. 13, Frankfurt (Suhrkamp) 1971; English translation (Rodney Livingstone): In Search of Wagner, Manchester (NLB) 1981.",
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"plaintext": " Frank P. Bär: Wagner – Nürnberg – Meistersinger: Richard Wagner und das reale Nürnberg seiner Zeit, Verlag des Germanisches Nationalmuseum|Germanischen Nationalmuseums, Nürnberg 2013, .",
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"plaintext": " Dieter Borchmeyer, Das Theater Richard Wagners. Idee ─ Dichtung ─ Wirkung, Stuttgart (Reclam) 1982; English translation: Drama and the World of Richard Wagner, Princeton (Princeton University Press) 2003, .",
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"plaintext": " Patrick Carnegy, Wagner and the Art of the Theatre, New Haven/CT (Yale University Press) 2006, .",
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"plaintext": " Attila Csampai/Dietmar Holland (ed.), Richard Wagner, »Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg«. Texte, Materialien, Kommentare, Reinbek (Rowohlt) 1981.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Carl Dahlhaus: Wagners Konzeption des musikalischen Dramas, Regensburg (Bosse) 1971, 2. Auflage: München/Kassel (dtv/Bärenreiter) 1990.",
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"plaintext": " Carl Dahlhaus, Der Wahnmonolog des Hans Sachs und das Problem der Entwicklungsform im musikalischen Drama, in: Jahrbuch für Opernforschung 1/1985, pp. 9–25.",
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"plaintext": " John Deathridge, \"Wagner Beyond Good and Evil\", Berkeley/CA (California Univ. Press) 2008, .",
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"plaintext": " Ludwig Finscher, Über den Kontrapunkt der Meistersinger, in: Carl Dahlhaus (ed.), Das Drama Richard Wagners als musikalisches Kunstwerk, Regensburg (Bosse) 1970, pp. 303–309.",
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"plaintext": " Lydia Goehr, \"»– wie ihn uns Meister Dürer gemalt!«: Contest, Myth, and Prophecy in Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\", in: Journal of the American Musicological Society 64/2011, pp. 51–118.",
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"plaintext": " Arthur Groos, Pluristilismo e intertestualità: I »Preislieder« nei »Meistersinger von Nürnberg« e nella »Ariadne auf Naxos«, in: Opera & Libretto, 2/1993; Olschki, Firenze, pp. 225–235.",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Helmut Grosse/Norbert Götz (ed.), Die Meistersinger und Richard Wagner. Die Rezeptionsgeschichte einer Oper von 1868 bis heute, »Ausstellungskatalog des Germanischen Nationalmuseums Nürnberg«, Nürnberg (Germanisches Nationalmuseum) 1981.",
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{
"plaintext": " Klaus Günter Just, Richard Wagner ─ ein Dichter? Marginalien zum Opernlibretto des 19. Jahrhunderts, in: Stefan Kunze (ed.), Richard Wagner. Von der Oper zum Musikdrama, Bern/München (Francke) 1978, pp. 79–94.",
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"plaintext": " Marc Klesse, Richard Wagners »Meistersinger von Nürnberg«. Literatur- und kulturwissenschaftliche Lektüren zu Künstlertum und Kunstproduktion, München (AVM) 2018.",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Kolbe (ed.), Wagners Welten. Katalog zur Ausstellung im Münchner Stadtmuseum 2003–2004, München/Wolfratshausen (Minerva) 2003.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Stefan Kunze (ed.): Richard Wagner. Von der Oper zum Musikdrama, Bern/München (Francke) 1978.",
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"plaintext": " Stefan Kunze: Der Kunstbegriff Richard Wagners, Regensburg (Bosse) 1983.",
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"plaintext": " Jörg Linnenbrügger, Richard Wagners »Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg«. Studien und Materialien zur Entstehungsgeschichte des ersten Aufzugs (1861–1866), Göttingen (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) 2001.",
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"plaintext": " Alfred Lorenz, Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner , vol. 3, Berlin (Max Hesse) 1931, Reprint Tutzing (Schneider) 1966.",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder, Wagner-Forschung versus Verdi-Forschung ─ Anmerkungen zum unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstand zweier musikwissenschaftlicher Teildisziplinen, in: Arnold Jacobshagen (ed.), Verdi und Wagner, Kulturen der Oper , Wien/Köln (Böhlau) 2014, pp. 263–291, .",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder: The Intellectual Challenge of Staging Wagner: Staging Practice at Bayreuth Festival from Wieland Wagner to Patrice Chéreau, in: Marco Brighenti/Marco Targa (ed.), Mettere in scena Wagner. Opera e regia fra Ottocento e contemporaneità, Lucca (LIM) 2019, pp. 151–174.",
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"plaintext": "Melitz, Leo, The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, 1921 version.",
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"plaintext": " Volker Mertens, Richard Wagner und das Mittelalter, in: Ulrich Müller/Ursula Müller (ed.), Richard Wagner und sein Mittelalter, Anif/Salzburg (Müller-Speiser) 1989, pp. 9–84.",
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"plaintext": " Ulrich Müller/Ursula Müller (ed.): Richard Wagner und sein Mittelalter, Anif/Salzburg (Müller-Speiser) 1989.",
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"plaintext": " Ulrich Müller/Oswald Panagl, Ring und Graal. Texte, Kommentare und Interpretationen zu Richard Wagners »Der Ring des Nibelungen«, »Tristan und Isolde«, »Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg« und »Parsifal«, Würzburg (Königshausen & Neumann) 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Rayner, Robert M.: Wagner and 'Die Meistersinger''', Oxford University Press, New York, 1940. An account of the origins, creation and meaning of the opera.",
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"plaintext": " Dieter Schickling, »Schlank und wirkungsvoll«. Giacomo Puccini und die italienische Erstaufführung der »Meistersinger von Nürnberg«, in: Musik & Ästhetik 4/2000, pp. 90–101.",
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"plaintext": " Klaus Schultz (ed.), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, program book of the Bayerische Staatsoper / Munich, München (Bayerische Staatsoper) 1979 (essays by Peter Wapnewski, Hans Mayer, Stefan Kunze, John Deathridge, Egon Voss, Reinhold Brinkmann).",
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"plaintext": " Michael von Soden (ed.), Richard Wagner. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Frankfurt (Insel) 1983.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Jeremy Tambling, Opera and Novel ending together: »Die Meistersinger« and »Doktor Faustus«, in: Forum for Modern Language Studies 48/2012, pp. 208–221.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Hans Rudolf Vaget, Wehvolles Erbe. Zur »Metapolitik« der »Meistersinger von Nürnberg«, in: Musik & Ästhetik 6/2002, pp. 23–39.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Nicholas Vaszonyi (ed.), Wagner's Meistersinger. Performance, History, Representation, Rochester, New York (University of Rochester Press) 2002, .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Egon Voss, »Wagner und kein Ende«. Betrachtungen und Studien, Zürich/Mainz (Atlantis) 1996.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Peter Wapnewski: Der traurige Gott. Richard Wagner in seinen Helden, München (C. H. Beck) 1978.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Wapnewski: Richard Wagner. Die Szene und ihr Meister, München (C. H. Beck) 1978.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Johannes Karl Wilhelm Willers (ed.), Hans Sachs und die Meistersinger, »Ausstellungskatalog des Germanischen Nationalmuseums Nürnberg«, Nürnberg (Germanisches Nationalmuseum) 1981.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Franz Zademack, Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Richard Wagners Dichtung und ihre Quellen, Berlin (Dom Verlag) 1921.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Die Meistersinger at rwagner.net Includes a synopsis, list of leitmotifs and complete libretto.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Opera guide and synopsis, opera-inside.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Richard Wagner – Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. A gallery of historic postcards with motives from Richard Wagner's operas.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "For reviews of recordings of Die Meistersinger'' see and ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Wagner Operas. A comprehensive website featuring photographs of productions, recordings, librettos and sound files.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Libretto according to the 1971 edition of Wagner's operas ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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] | [
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"Libretti_by_Richard_Wagner",
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"1868_operas",
"Operas",
"Operas_set_in_Germany",
"German_patriotic_songs",
"Music_dramas",
"Nuremberg_in_fiction",
"Race-related_controversies_in_opera"
] | 465,540 | 4,163 | 950 | 156 | 0 | 0 | Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg | opera by Richard Wagner | [] |
37,916 | 1,104,681,783 | The_Magic_Flute | [
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"plaintext": "The Magic Flute (German: , ), K.620, is an opera in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. The work is in the form of a Singspiel, a popular form during the time it was written that included both singing and spoken dialogue. The work premiered on 30 September 1791 at Schikaneder's theatre, the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden in Vienna, just two months before the composer's premature death. Still a staple of the opera repertory, its popularity was reflected by two immediate sequels, Peter Winter's Das Labyrinth oder Der Kampf mit den Elementen. Der Zauberflöte zweyter Theil (1798) and a fragmentary libretto by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe titled The Magic Flute Part Two.",
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"plaintext": "The allegorical plot was influenced by Schikaneder and Mozart's interest in Freemasonry and concerns the initiation of Prince Tamino. Enlisted by the Queen of the Night to rescue her daughter Pamina from the high priest Sarastro, Tamino comes to admire the high ideals of the latter and he and Pamina both join Sarastro's community, while the Queen and her allies are vanquished.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was the culmination of a period of increasing involvement by Mozart with Schikaneder's theatrical troupe, which since 1789 had been the resident company at the Theater auf der Wieden. Mozart was a close friend of one of the singer-composers of the troupe, tenor Benedikt Schack (the first Tamino), and had contributed to the compositions of the troupe, which were often collaboratively written. Mozart's participation increased with his contributions to the 1790 collaborative opera Der Stein der Weisen (The Philosopher's Stone), including the duet (\"Nun liebes Weibchen\", K.625/592a) among other passages. Like The Magic Flute, Der Stein der Weisen was a fairy-tale opera and can be considered a kind of precursor; it employed much the same cast in similar roles.",
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"plaintext": "The libretto for The Magic Flute, written by Schikaneder, is thought by scholars to be based on many sources. Some works of literature current in Vienna in Schikaneder's day that may have served as sources include the medieval romance Yvain by Chrétien de Troyes, the novel Life of Sethos by Jean Terrasson, and the essay \"On the mysteries of the Egyptians\" by Ignaz von Born. The libretto is also a natural continuation of a series of fairy tale operas produced at the time by Schikaneder's troupe, including an adaptation of Sophie Seyler's Singspiel Oberon as well as Der Stein der Weisen. Especially for the role of Papageno, the libretto draws on the Hanswurst tradition of the Viennese popular theatre. Many scholars also acknowledge an influence of Freemasonry.",
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"plaintext": "It appears that in this opera two references to Antonio Salieri's music are included. The first is that the Papageno–Papagena duet is similar to the Cucuzze cavatina in Salieri's Prima la musica e poi le parole. Both are centred around musical-textual playfulness with humorous bird-like utterances of pseudo-Italian words. The Magic Flute also echoes Salieri's music in that Papageno's whistle is based on a motif borrowed from Salieri's Concerto for Clavicembalo in B-flat major.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was premiered in Vienna on 30 September 1791 at the suburban Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. Mozart conducted the orchestra, Schikaneder himself played Papageno, while the role of the Queen of the Night was sung by Mozart's sister-in-law Josepha Hofer.",
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"plaintext": "On the reception of the opera, Mozart scholar Maynard Solomon writes:",
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"plaintext": "As Mozart's letters show, he was very pleased to have achieved such a success. Solomon continues:",
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"plaintext": "The opera celebrated its 100th performance in November 1792, though Mozart did not have the pleasure of witnessing this milestone, as he had died 5 December 1791. The opera was first performed outside Vienna (21 September 1792) in Lemberg, then in Prague. It then made \"triumphal progress through Germany's opera houses great and small\", and with the early 19th century spread to essentially all the countries of Europe—and eventually, everywhere in the world—where opera is cultivated.",
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"plaintext": "As Branscombe documents, the earlier performances were often of highly altered, sometimes even mutilated, versions of the opera (see Ludwig Wenzel Lachnith). Productions of the past century have tended to be more faithful to Mozart's music, though faithful rendering of Mozart and Schikaneder's original (quite explicit) stage directions and dramatic vision continues to be rare; with isolated exceptions, modern productions strongly reflect the creative preferences of the stage director.",
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"plaintext": "The Magic Flute is currently among the most frequently performed of all operas.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 December 1791, three and a half weeks after Mozart's death, his widow Constanze offered to send a manuscript score of The Magic Flute to the electoral court in Bonn. Nikolaus Simrock published this text in the first full-score edition (Bonn, 1814), claiming that it was \"in accordance with Mozart's own wishes\" (Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 13 September 1815).",
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"plaintext": "The Magic Flute is noted for its prominent Masonic elements, although some scholars hold that the Masonic influence is exaggerated. Schikaneder and Mozart were Freemasons, as was Ignaz Alberti, engraver and printer of the first libretto. The opera is also influenced by Enlightenment philosophy and can be regarded as advocating enlightened absolutism. The Queen of the Night is seen by some to represent a dangerous form of obscurantism, by others to represent Roman Catholic Empress Maria Theresa, who banned Freemasonry from Austria. Still others see the Roman Catholic Church itself, which was strongly anti-Masonic. Likewise, the literature repeatedly addresses the fact that the central theme of the work is not only \"love,\" but also becoming a better person by overcoming trials (similar to Wagner's Parsifal later on).",
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"plaintext": "The names of the performers at the premiere are taken from a preserved playbill for this performance (at right), which does not give full names; \"Hr.\"=Herr, Mr.; \"Mme.\"=Madame, Mrs.; \"Mlle.\"=Mademoiselle, Miss.",
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"plaintext": "While the female roles in the opera are assigned to different voice types, the playbill for the premiere performance referred to all of the female singers as \"sopranos\". The casting of the roles relies on the actual vocal range of the part.",
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"plaintext": "The work is scored for two flutes (one doubling on piccolo), two oboes, two clarinets (doubling basset horns), two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, three trombones (alto, tenor, and bass), timpani and strings. It also requires a four-part chorus for several numbers (notably the finales of each act). Mozart also called for a (instrument of steel) to perform Papageno's magic bells. This instrument has since been lost to history, though modern day scholars believe it to be a keyed glockenspiel, which is usually replaced with a celesta in modern-day performances.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Rosen has remarked on the character of Mozart's orchestration:",
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"plaintext": "Die Zauberflöte has the greatest variety of orchestral color that the eighteenth century was to know; the very lavishness, however, is paradoxically also an economy as each effect is a concentrated one, each one—Papageno's whistle, the Queen of the Night's coloratura, the bells, Sarastro's trombones, even the farewell in scene 1 for clarinets and pizzicato strings—a single dramatic stroke.\"",
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"plaintext": "The opera begins with a brassy cadence associated with the Priests of the Temple of Wisdom, and transitions to a lively fugue, which Mozart composed after the other parts of the opera were complete.",
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"plaintext": "Tamino, a handsome prince lost in a distant land, is pursued by a serpent and asks the gods to save him (aria: \"\" / Help! Help!, segued into trio \"\" / Die, monster, by our might!). He faints, and three ladies, attendants of the Queen of the Night, appear and kill the serpent. They find the unconscious prince extremely attractive, and each of them tries to convince the other two to leave. After arguing, they reluctantly decide to leave together.",
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"plaintext": "Tamino wakes up, and is surprised to find himself still alive. Papageno enters dressed as a bird. He describes his life as a bird-catcher, complaining he has no wife or girlfriend (aria: \"\" / The birdcatcher am I indeed). Tamino introduces himself to Papageno, thinking Papageno killed the serpent. Papageno happily takes the credit – claiming he strangled it with his bare hands. The three ladies suddenly reappear and instead of giving Papageno wine, cake and figs, they give him water, a stone and place a padlock over his mouth as a warning not to lie. They give Tamino a portrait of the Queen of the Night's daughter Pamina, with whom Tamino falls instantly in love (aria: \"Dies Bildnis ist bezaubernd schön\" / This image is enchantingly beautiful).",
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"plaintext": "The ladies return and tell Tamino that Pamina has been captured by Sarastro, whom they describe as a powerful, evil demon. Tamino vows to rescue Pamina. The Queen of the Night appears and promises Tamino that Pamina will be his if he rescues her from Sarastro (Recitative and aria: \"O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn\" / Oh, tremble not, my dear son!). The Queen leaves and the ladies remove the padlock from Papageno's mouth with a warning not to lie any more. They give Tamino a magic flute which has the power to change sorrow into joy. They give Papageno magic bells for protection, telling him to go with Tamino. The ladies introduce three child-spirits, who will guide Tamino and Papageno to Sarastro's temple. Together Tamino and Papageno set forth (Quintet: \"Hm! Hm! Hm! Hm!\").",
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"plaintext": "Pamina is dragged in by Sarastro's slaves, apparently having tried to escape. Monostatos, a blackamoor and chief of the slaves, orders the slaves to chain her and leave him alone with her. Papageno, sent ahead by Tamino to help find Pamina, enters (Trio: \"\" / Just come in, you fine little dove!). Monostatos and Papageno are each terrified by the other's strange appearance and both flee. Papageno returns and announces to Pamina that her mother has sent Tamino to save her. Pamina rejoices to hear that Tamino is in love with her. She offers sympathy and hope to Papageno, who longs for a wife. Together they reflect on the joys and sacred duties of marital love (duet: \"\" / In men, who feel love).",
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"plaintext": "The three child-spirits lead Tamino to Sarastro's temple, promising that if he remains patient, wise and steadfast, he will succeed in rescuing Pamina (Quartet: \"\" / This path leads you to your goal). Tamino approaches the left-hand entrance and is denied access by voices from within. The same happens when he goes to the entrance on the right. But from the entrance in the middle, an old priest appears and lets Tamino in. (The old priest is referred to as \"The Speaker\" in the libretto, but his role is a singing role.) He tells Tamino that Sarastro is benevolent, not evil, and that he should not trust the Queen of the Night. He promises that Tamino's confusion will be lifted when Tamino approaches the temple in a spirit of friendship. Tamino plays his magic flute. Animals appear and dance, enraptured, to his music. Tamino hears Papageno's pipes sounding offstage, and hurries off to find him (aria: \"\" / How strong is thy magic tone).",
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"plaintext": "Papageno and Pamina enter, searching for Tamino (trio: \"\" / Swift steps, ready courage). They are recaptured by Monostatos and his slaves. Papageno plays his magic bells, and Monostatos and his slaves begin to dance, and exit the stage, still dancing, mesmerised by the beauty of the music (chorus: \"\" / That sounds so splendid). Papageno and Pamina hear the sound of Sarastro's retinue approaching. Papageno is frightened and asks Pamina what they should say. She answers that they must tell the truth. Sarastro enters, with a crowd of followers. (chorus: \"Es lebe Sarastro!\" / Long live Sarastro!) Pamina falls at Sarastro's feet and confesses that she tried to escape because Monostatos had forced his attentions on her. Sarastro receives her kindly and assures her that he wishes only for her happiness. But he refuses to return her to her mother, whom he describes as a proud, headstrong woman, and a bad influence on those around her. Pamina, he says, must be guided by a man.",
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"plaintext": "Monostatos brings in Tamino. The two lovers see one another for the first time and embrace, causing indignation among Sarastro's followers. Monostatos tells Sarastro that he caught Papageno and Pamina trying to escape, and demands a reward. Sarastro, however, punishes Monostatos for his lustful behaviour toward Pamina, and sends him away. He announces that Tamino must undergo trials of wisdom in order to become worthy as Pamina's husband. The priests declare that virtue and righteousness will sanctify life and make mortals like gods (\"\" / If virtue and justice).",
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"plaintext": "The council of priests of Isis and Osiris, headed by Sarastro, enters to the sound of a solemn march. Sarastro tells the priests that Tamino is ready to undergo the ordeals that will lead to enlightenment. He invokes the gods Isis and Osiris, asking them to protect Tamino and Pamina (Aria and chorus: \" / O Isis and Osiris\").",
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"plaintext": "Tamino and Papageno are led in by two priests for the first trial. The two priests advise Tamino and Papageno of the dangers ahead of them, warn them of women's wiles and swear them to silence (Duet: \" / Keep yourselves from women's tricks\"). The three ladies appear and try to frighten Tamino and Papageno into speaking. (Quintet: \"\" / How, how, how) Papageno cannot resist answering the ladies, but Tamino remains aloof, angrily instructing Papageno not to listen to the ladies' threats and to keep quiet. Seeing that Tamino will not speak to them, the ladies withdraw in confusion.",
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"plaintext": "Pamina is asleep. Monostatos approaches and gazes upon her with rapture. (Aria: \"\" / All feel the joys of love) He is about to kiss the sleeping Pamina, when the Queen of the Night appears. Monostatos hides. In response to the Queen's questioning, Pamina explains that Tamino is joining Sarastro's brotherhood and that she is thinking of accompanying him. The Queen is not pleased. She explains that her husband, the previous owner of the temple, on his deathbed gave the ownership to Sarastro instead of to her, rendering the Queen powerless (this is in the original libretto, but is usually omitted from modern productions, to shorten the scene with Pamina and her mother). She gives Pamina a dagger, ordering her to kill Sarastro with it and threatening to disown her if she does not. (Aria: \"Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen\" / Hell's vengeance boils in my heart). She leaves. Monostatos returns and tries to force Pamina's love by threatening to reveal the Queen's plot, but Sarastro enters and drives him off. Pamina begs Sarastro to forgive her mother and he reassures her that revenge and cruelty have no place in his domain (Aria: \"\" / Within these sacred halls).",
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"plaintext": "Tamino and Papageno are led in by priests, who remind them that they must remain silent. Papageno complains of thirst. An old woman enters and offers Papageno a cup of water. He drinks and teasingly asks whether she has a boyfriend. She replies that she does and that his name is Papageno. She disappears as Papageno asks for her name, and the three child-spirits bring in food, the magic flute, and the bells, sent from Sarastro (Trio: \"\" / We welcome you a second time). Tamino begins to play the flute, which summons Pamina. She tries to speak with him, but Tamino, bound by his vow of silence, cannot answer her, and Pamina begins to believe that he no longer loves her. (Aria: \"\" / Oh, I feel it, it is gone) She leaves in despair.",
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"plaintext": "The priests celebrate Tamino's successes so far, and pray that he will succeed and become worthy of their order (Chorus: \"\" / O Isis and Osiris). Pamina is brought in and Sarastro instructs Pamina and Tamino to bid each other farewell before the greater trials ahead, alarming them by describing it as their \"final farewell\". (Trio: Sarastro, Pamina, Tamino – \"\" / Shall I see you no more, dear one? — Note: In order to preserve the continuity of Pamina's suicidal feelings, this trio is sometimes performed earlier in act 2, preceding or immediately following Sarastro's aria \"\".) They exit and Papageno enters. The priests grant his request for a glass of wine and he expresses his desire for a wife. (Aria: \"\" / A girl or a woman). The elderly woman reappears and warns him that unless he immediately promises to marry her, he will be imprisoned forever. When Papageno promises to love her faithfully (muttering that he will only do this until something better comes along), she is transformed into the young and pretty Papagena. Papageno rushes to embrace her, but the priests drive him back, telling him that he is not yet worthy of her.",
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"plaintext": "The three child-spirits hail the dawn. They observe Pamina, who is contemplating suicide because she believes Tamino has abandoned her. The child-spirits restrain her and reassure her of Tamino's love. (Quartet: \"\" / To herald the morning, soon will shine). There is then a scene change without interrupting the music, leading into scene 7.",
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"plaintext": "Two men in armor lead in Tamino. They recite one of the formal creeds of Isis and Osiris, promising enlightenment to those who successfully overcome the fear of death (\"\" / He who walks this path weighed down with cares). This recitation takes the musical form of a Baroque chorale prelude, to a tune inspired by Martin Luther's hymn \"Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein\" (Oh God, look down from heaven). Tamino declares that he is ready to be tested. Pamina calls to him from offstage. The men in armour assure him that the trial by silence is over and he is free to speak with her. Pamina enters and declares her intention to undergo the remaining trials with him. She hands him the magic flute to help them through the trials (\" / Oh, what luck, my Tamino!\"). Protected by the music of the magic flute, they pass unscathed through chambers of fire and water. Offstage, the priests hail their triumph and invite the couple to enter the temple. There is then a scene change without interrupting the music, leading into scene 8.",
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"plaintext": "Papageno despairs at having lost Papagena and decides to hang himself (Aria/Quartet: \"Papagena! Papagena! Papagena! Weibchen, Täubchen, meine Schöne\" / Papagena! Papagena! Papagena! Dear woman, dear dove, my beauty) The three child-spirits appear and stop him. They advise him to play his magic bells to summon Papagena. She appears and, united, the happy couple stutter in astonishment and make bird-like courting sounds at each other. They plan their future and dream of the many children they will have together (Duet: \"Pa... pa... pa...\"). There is then a scene change without interrupting the music, leading into scene 9.",
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"plaintext": "The traitorous Monostatos appears with the Queen of the Night and her three ladies. They plot to destroy the temple (\"\" / Just quiet, quiet) and the Queen confirms that she has promised her daughter Pamina to Monostatos. But before the conspirators can enter the temple, they are magically cast out into eternal night. There is then a scene change without interrupting the music, leading into scene 10.",
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"plaintext": "Sarastro announces the sun's triumph over the night, and hails the dawn of a new era of wisdom and brotherhood. Animals appear again and dance in the sun.",
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{
"plaintext": "Act 1",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Some musical numbers",
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"plaintext": " \"Der Vogelfänger bin ich ja\" (The birdcatcher am I) – Papageno, scene 1",
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"plaintext": " \"Dies Bildnis ist bezaubernd schön\" (This image is enchantingly beautiful) – Tamino, scene 1",
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"plaintext": " \"O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn\" (Oh, tremble not, my beloved son) – The Queen of the Night, scene 1",
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"plaintext": " \"Bei Männern, welche Liebe fühlen\" (In men, who feel love) – Pamina and Papageno (duet), scene 2",
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"plaintext": " \"Wie stark ist nicht dein Zauberton\" (How strong is thy magic tone) – Tamino, finale",
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"plaintext": "Act 2",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " \"O Isis und Osiris\" (O Isis and Osiris) – Sarastro, scene 1",
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"plaintext": " \"Alles fühlt der Liebe Freuden\" (All feel the joys of love) – Monostatos, scene 3",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Some musical numbers",
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{
"plaintext": " \"Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen\" (Hell's vengeance boils in my heart) – The Queen of the Night, scene 3",
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"plaintext": " \"In diesen heil'gen Hallen\" (Within these sacred halls) – Sarastro, scene 3",
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"plaintext": " \"Ach, ich fühl's, es ist verschwunden\" (Ah, I feel it, it is vanished) – Pamina, scene 4",
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"plaintext": " \"Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen\" (A girl or a woman) – Papageno, scene 5",
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"plaintext": " \"Pa–, pa–, pa–\" – Papageno and Papagena, scene 10",
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"plaintext": "The first known recording of The Magic Flutes overture was issued around 1903, by the Victor Talking Machine Company and played by the Victor Grand Concert Band.",
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"plaintext": "The first complete recording of The Magic Flute was of a live performance at the 1937 Salzburg Festival, with Arturo Toscanini conducting the Vienna Philharmonic and Vienna State Opera, though the recording was not officially issued until many years later. The first studio recording of the work, with Sir Thomas Beecham conducting the Berlin Philharmonic, was completed in 1938. Both of these historic recordings have been reissued on LP and compact disc. Since then there have been many recordings, in both audio and video formats.",
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"plaintext": "The opera has inspired a great number of sequels, adaptations, novels, films, and other works of art. For a listing, see Works inspired by The Magic Flute.",
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"plaintext": " List of operas by Mozart",
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"plaintext": " ; with supplementary footnotes by Cliff Eisen.",
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"plaintext": " see also Das Labyrinth",
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"plaintext": "Libretto, critical editions, diplomatic editions, source evaluation (German only), links to online DME recordings; Digital Mozart Edition",
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"plaintext": " Die Zauberflöte. Facsimile of Mozart's autograph",
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{
"plaintext": " Opera Guide, Synopsis, libretto, highlights",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Opera in a nutshell\" Soundfiles (MIDI)",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
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"plaintext": " Libretto and English translation from Aria-Database.com",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Frontispiece of the first edition libretto",
"section_idx": 15,
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"plaintext": " Brief programme notes from 2006 Opera Gold production, Goldsmiths, University of London",
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"plaintext": " San Diego OperaTalk! with Nick Reveles: Mozart's The Magic Flute, UC-TV and San Diego Opera",
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37,924 | 1,085,114,611 | The_Barber_of_Seville | [
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"plaintext": "The Barber of Seville, or The Useless Precaution ( ) is an opera buffa in two acts composed by Gioachino Rossini with an Italian libretto by Cesare Sterbini. The libretto was based on Pierre Beaumarchais's French comedy The Barber of Seville (1775). The première of Rossini's opera (under the title Almaviva, o sia L'inutile precauzione) took place on 20 February 1816 at the Teatro Argentina, Rome, with designs by Angelo Toselli.",
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"plaintext": "Rossini's Barber of Seville has proven to be one of the greatest masterpieces of comedy within music, and has been described as the opera buffa of all \"opere buffe\". After two hundred years, it remains a popular work.",
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"plaintext": "Rossini's opera recounts the events of the first of the three plays by French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais that revolve around the clever and enterprising character named Figaro, the barber of the title. Mozart's opera The Marriage of Figaro, composed 30 years earlier in 1786, is based on the second part of the Beaumarchais trilogy. The first Beaumarchais play was originally conceived as an opéra comique, but was rejected as such by the Comédie-Italienne. The play as it is now known was premiered in 1775 by the Comédie-Française at the Théâtre des Tuileries in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "Other operas based on the first play were composed by Giovanni Paisiello (in 1782), by Nicolas Isouard in 1796, and then by Francesco Morlacchi in 1816. Though the work of Paisiello triumphed for a time, only Rossini's version has stood the test of time and continues to be a mainstay of operatic repertoire. On 11 November 1868, two days before Rossini's death, the composer (1842–1877) premiered an opera based on the same libretto as Rossini's work, bearing a dedication to Rossini. The premiere was not a failure, but critics condemned the \"audacity\" of the young composer and the work is now forgotten.",
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"plaintext": "Rossini was well known for being remarkably productive, completing an average of two operas per year for 19 years, and in some years writing as many as four. Musicologists believe that, true to form, the music for Il barbiere di Siviglia was composed in just under three weeks, although the famous overture was actually recycled from two earlier Rossini operas, Aureliano in Palmira and Elizabeth, Queen of England and thus contains none of the thematic material in Il barbiere di Siviglia itself.",
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"plaintext": "Luigi Zamboni, for whom Rossini wrote the role of Figaro, had urged Rossini and Francesco Sforza-Cesarini, the cash-strapped impresario of the Teatro Argentina, to engage his sister-in-law, Elisabetta Gafforini, as Rosina. However, her fee was too high and in the end they settled on Geltrude Righetti. The premiere of Rossini's opera at the Teatro Argentina in Rome on 20 February 1816 was a disaster: the audience hissed and jeered throughout, and several on-stage accidents occurred. Furthermore, many of the audience were supporters of one of Rossini's rivals, the veteran Giovanni Paisiello, who played on mob mentality to provoke the rest of the audience to dislike the opera. Paisiello had already composed The Barber of Seville and took Rossini's new version to be an affront to his version. In particular, Paisiello and his followers were opposed to the use of basso buffo, which is common in comic opera. The second performance, however, was successful. The original French play, Le Barbier de Séville, had a similar story: poorly received at first, only to become a favorite within a week.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first performed in England on 10 March 1818 at the King's Theatre in London in Italian, soon followed on 13 October at the Covent Garden Theatre by an English version translated by John Fawcett and Daniel Terry. It was first performed in America on 3 May 1819 in English (probably the Covent Garden version) at the Park Theatre in New York. It was given in French at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans on 4 March 1823, and became the first opera ever to be performed in Italian in New York, when Manuel Garcia (who played Almaviva) and his Italian troupe opened their first season there with Il barbiere on 29 November 1825 at the Park Theatre. The cast of eight had three other members of his family, including the 17-year-old Maria-Felicia, later known as Maria Malibran.",
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"plaintext": "The role of Rosina was originally written for a contralto. According to music critic Richard Osborne, writing in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, \"it is important to record the degree to which singers have sometimes distorted Rossini's intentions. The most serious distortion has been the upward transposition of the role of Rosina, turning her from a lustrous alto into a pert soprano.\" However, it has also been noted that Rossini, who frequently altered his music for specific singers, wrote a new aria for the second act for Joséphine Fodor-Mainvielle, a soprano who had sung Rosina in the 1818 London premiere, and sang the new aria c. 1820 at the Théâtre-Italien in Paris, where it was published.",
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"plaintext": "The singing lesson in act 2 has often been turned into \"a show-stopping cabaret\". Adelina Patti was known to include Luigi Arditi's \"Il bacio\", the Bolero from Verdi's I vespri siciliani, the Shadow Song from Meyerbeer's Dinorah, and Henry Bishop's \"Home! Sweet Home!\". Nellie Melba followed suit, accompanying herself on the piano in the final song. Pauline Viardot began the practice of inserting Alexander Alyabyev's \"Nightingale\". In a recording of a La Scala performance in 1956, Maria Callas sang a shortened version \"Contro un cor\", transposed up a tone, in E.",
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"plaintext": "Once after Patti had sung a particularly florid rendition of the opera's legitimate aria, \"Una voce poco fa\", Rossini is reported to have asked her: \"Very nice, my dear, and who wrote the piece you have just performed?\"",
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"plaintext": "The piece is a staple of the operatic repertoire Because of a scarcity of true contraltos, the role of Rosina has most frequently been sung by a coloratura mezzo-soprano (with or without pitch alterations, depending on the singer), and has in the past, and occasionally in more recent times, been sung by coloratura sopranos such as Marcella Sembrich, Maria Callas, Roberta Peters, Gianna D'Angelo, Victoria de los Ángeles, Beverly Sills, Lily Pons, Diana Damrau, Edita Gruberová, Kathleen Battle and Luciana Serra. Famous recent mezzo-soprano Rosinas include Marilyn Horne, Teresa Berganza, Frederica von Stade, Lucia Valentini Terrani, Susanne Marsee, Cecilia Bartoli, Joyce DiDonato, Jennifer Larmore, Elīna Garanča, Isabel Leonard and Vesselina Kasarova. Famous contralto Rosinas include Ewa Podleś who made her stage debut in that role.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Seville, Spain",
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"plaintext": "Time: 18th century",
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"plaintext": "The square in front of Bartolo's house",
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"plaintext": "In a public square outside Bartolo's house a band of musicians and a poor student named Lindoro are serenading, to no avail, the window of Rosina (\"Ecco, ridente in cielo\"; \"There, laughing in the sky\"). Lindoro, who is really the young Count Almaviva in disguise, hopes to make the beautiful Rosina love him for himself – not his money. Almaviva pays off the musicians who then depart, leaving him to brood alone. Rosina is the young ward of the grumpy, elderly Bartolo and she is allowed very little freedom because Bartolo plans to marry her once she is of age and thus appropriate her considerable dowry.",
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"plaintext": "Figaro approaches singing (Aria: \"Largo al factotum della città\"; \"Make way for the factotum of the city\"). Since Figaro used to be a servant of the Count, the Count asks him for assistance in helping him meet Rosina, offering him money should he be successful in arranging this (duet: \"All'idea di quel metallo\"; \"At the idea of that metal\"). Figaro advises the Count to disguise himself as a drunken soldier, ordered to be billeted with Bartolo, so as to gain entrance to the house. For this suggestion, Figaro is richly rewarded.",
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"plaintext": "A room in Bartolo's house with four doors",
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"plaintext": "The scene begins with Rosina's cavatina, \"Una voce poco fa\" (\"A voice a little while ago\"). (This aria was originally written in the key of E major, but it is sometimes transposed a semitone up into F major for coloratura sopranos to perform, giving them the chance to sing extra, almost traditional, cadenzas, sometimes reaching high Ds or even Fs.)",
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"plaintext": "Knowing the Count only as Lindoro, Rosina writes to him. As she is leaving the room, Bartolo enters with the music teacher Basilio. Bartolo is suspicious of the Count, and Basilio advises that he be put out of the way by creating false rumours about him (this aria, \"La calunnia è un venticello\" – \"Calumny is a little breeze\" – is almost always sung a tone lower than the original D major).",
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"plaintext": "When the two have gone, Rosina and Figaro enter. Figaro asks Rosina to write a few encouraging words to Lindoro, which she has actually already written. (Duet: \"Dunque io son...tu non m'inganni?\"; \"Then I'm the one...you're not fooling me?\"). Although surprised by Bartolo, Rosina manages to fool him, but he remains suspicious. (Aria: \"A un dottor della mia sorte\"; \"To a doctor of my class\").",
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"plaintext": "Count Almaviva, disguised as a soldier and pretending to be drunk, enters the house and demands to be quartered there. In fear of the drunken man, Berta the housekeeper rushes to Bartolo for protection. Bartolo tells the \"soldier\" that he (Bartolo) has an official exemption which excuses him from the requirement to quarter soldiers in his home. Almaviva pretends to be too drunk and belligerent to understand, and dares Bartolo to brawl. While Bartolo searches his cluttered desk for the official document which would prove his exemption, Almaviva whispers to Rosina that he is Lindoro in disguise, and passes a love-letter to her. Bartolo suspiciously demands to know what is in the piece of paper in Rosina's hands, but she fools him by handing over her laundry list. Bartolo and the Count argue loudly. Basilio enters; then Figaro, who warns that the noise of the argument is rousing the whole neighborhood. Finally, the noise attracts the attention of the Officer of the Watch and his troops, who crowd into the room. Bartolo demands that the Officer arrest the \"drunken soldier\". The Officer starts to do so, but Almaviva quietly reveals his true identity to the Officer, and he (the Officer) backs off. Bartolo and Basilio are astonished and mystified; Figaro laughs quietly at them. (Finale: \"Fredda ed immobile, come una statua\"; \"Cold and still, just like a statue\"). The confusion intensifies and causes everyone to suffer headaches and auditory hallucinations (\"Mi par d'esser con la testa in un'orrida fucina; dell'incudini sonore l'importuno strepitar\"; \"My head seems to be in a fiery forge: the sound of the anvils deafens the ear\").",
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"plaintext": "A room in Bartolo's house with a piano",
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"plaintext": "Count Almaviva again appears at the doctor's house, this time disguised as Don Alonso, a priest and singing tutor who is substituting for the supposedly ailing Basilio. To gain Bartolo's trust, Don Alonso tells him he has intercepted a note from Lindoro to Rosina, and says that Lindoro is a servant of Count Almaviva who has dishonorable intentions towards Rosina. While Almaviva pretends to give Rosina her singing lesson (\"Contro un cor\"; \"Against a heart\"), Figaro arrives to shave Bartolo. Not wanting to leave Rosina alone with the singing teacher, Bartolo insists Figaro shave him right there in the music room. Basilio suddenly appears for his scheduled music lesson, but he is bribed by a full purse from Almaviva and persuaded to leave again, with much discussion of how ill he looks. (Quintet: \"Don Basilio! – Cosa veggo!\"; \"Don Basilio! – What do I see?\"). Bartolo overhears the lovers conspiring, and angrily drives everybody away.",
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"plaintext": "A room in Bartolo's house with a grille looking out onto the square. ",
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"plaintext": "Bartolo orders Basilio to have the notary ready to marry him to Rosina that evening. Basilio leaves and Rosina arrives. Bartolo shows Rosina the letter she wrote to \"Lindoro\" and persuades her that this is proof that Lindoro is merely a flunky of Almaviva and is toying with her at Almaviva's behest. Rosina believes the story and agrees to marry Bartolo.",
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"plaintext": "During an instrumental interlude, the music creates a thunder storm to indicate the passage of time. Almaviva and Figaro climb up a ladder to the balcony and enter Rosina's room through a window. Rosina accuses Almaviva, whom she believes to be Lindoro, of betraying her. Almaviva reveals his identity and the two reconcile. While Almaviva and Rosina are enraptured by one another, Figaro keeps urging them to leave. Two people are heard approaching the front door. They are Basilio and the notary. The Count, Rosina, and Figaro attempt to leave by way of the ladder, but discover it has been removed. Using bribes and threats, Almaviva coerces the notary into marrying him to Rosina, with Basilio and Figaro as the legally required witnesses. Bartolo barges in, accompanied by the Officer and the men of the watch, but too late; the marriage is already complete. The befuddled Bartolo is pacified by being allowed to retain Rosina's dowry. The opera concludes with an anthem to love (\"Amor e fede eterna, si vegga in noi regnar!\"; \"May love and faith eternally be seen to reign in us\").",
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"plaintext": " Also at Grove Music Online ",
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"plaintext": " . Reprint (1987): New York: Limelight. .",
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"plaintext": " Sterbini Romano, Cesare (1816). Almaviva o sia L'inutile precauzione ... Con Musica del Maestro Gioacchino Rossini, libretto in Italian. Rome: Crispino Puccinelli.",
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"plaintext": " Italian libretto at stanford.edu",
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"plaintext": " English/Italian libretto at murashev.com",
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"plaintext": " Der Barbier von Sevilla, Article with photos of a 2009 production at the Zürich Opera House ",
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] | [
"The_Barber_of_Seville",
"Operas_by_Gioachino_Rossini",
"Opera_buffa",
"Italian-language_operas",
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"Operas",
"Operas_set_in_Spain",
"Fictional_hairdressers",
"Operas_based_on_plays",
"Operas_adapted_into_films",
"Operas_based_on_The_Barber_of_Seville_(play)"
] | 208,659 | 16,774 | 1,455 | 97 | 0 | 0 | The Barber of Seville | opera by Gioachino Rossini | [
"Il barbiere di Siviglia",
"Barber of Seville"
] |
37,929 | 1,094,908,476 | La_bohème | [
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"plaintext": "La bohème (; ) is an opera in four acts, composed by Giacomo Puccini between 1893 and 1895 to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, based on Scènes de la vie de bohème (1851) by Henri Murger. The story is set in Paris around 1830 and shows the Bohemian lifestyle (known in French as \"\") of a poor seamstress and her artist friends.",
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"plaintext": "The world premiere of La bohème was in Turin on 1 February 1896 at the Teatro Regio, conducted by the 28-year-old Arturo Toscanini. Since then, La bohème has become part of the standard Italian opera repertory and is one of the most frequently performed operas worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, fifty years after the opera's premiere, Toscanini conducted a commemorative performance of it on radio with the NBC Symphony Orchestra. A recording of the performance was later released by RCA Victor on vinyl record, tape and compact disc. It is the only recording ever made of a Puccini opera by its original conductor (see Recording_history below).",
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"plaintext": "As credited on its title page, the libretto of La bohème is based on Henri Murger's 1851 novel, Scènes de la vie de bohème, a collection of vignettes portraying young bohemians living in the Latin Quarter of Paris in the 1840s. Although often called a novel, the book has no unified plot. Like the 1849 play drawn from the book by Murger and Théodore Barrière, the opera's libretto focuses on the relationship between Rodolfo and Mimì, ending with her death. Also like the play, the libretto combines two characters from the novel, Mimì and Francine, into the single character of Mimì. Early in the composition stage Puccini was in dispute with the composer Ruggero Leoncavallo, who said that he had offered Puccini a completed libretto and felt that Puccini should defer to him. Puccini responded that he had had no idea of Leoncavallo's interest and that having been working on his own version for some time, he felt that he could not oblige him by discontinuing with the opera. Leoncavallo completed his own version in which Marcello was sung by a tenor and Rodolfo by a baritone. It was not as successful as Puccini's and is now rarely performed.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the libretto is original. Major sections of acts two and three are the librettists' invention, with only a few passing references to incidents and characters in Murger. Most of acts one and four follow the book, piecing together episodes from various chapters. The final scenes in acts one and four—the scenes with Rodolfo and Mimì—resemble both the play and the book. The story of their meeting closely follows chapter 18 of the book, in which the two lovers living in the garret are not Rodolphe and Mimì at all, but rather Jacques and Francine. The story of Mimì's death in the opera draws from two different chapters in the book, one relating Francine's death and the other relating Mimì's.",
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"plaintext": "The published libretto includes a note from the librettists briefly discussing their adaptation. Without mentioning the play directly, they defend their conflation of Francine and Mimì into a single character: \"Chi può non confondere nel delicato profilo di una sola donna quelli di Mimì e di Francine?\" (\"Who cannot confuse in the delicate profile of one woman the personality both of Mimì and of Francine?\"). At the time, the book was in the public domain, Murger having died without heirs, but rights to the play were still controlled by Barrière's heirs.",
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"plaintext": "The world première performance of La bohème took place in Turin on 1 February 1896 at the Teatro Regio and was conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini. The role of Rodolfo was played by Evan Gorga with Cesira Ferrani as Mimi, but Gorga was unable to accommodate the high tessitura and the music had to be transposed down for him. The initial response of the audience at the first performance was subdued and critical responses were polarized. Despite this varied introductory response, the opera quickly became popular throughout Italy and productions were soon mounted by the following companies: The Teatro di San Carlo (14March 1896, with Elisa Petri as Musetta and Antonio Magini-Coletti as Marcello); The Teatro Comunale di Bologna (4November 1896, with Amelia Sedelmayer as Musetta and Umberto Beduschi as Rodolfo); The Teatro Costanzi (17November 1896, with Maria Stuarda Savelli as Mimì, Enrico Giannini-Grifoni as Rodolfo, and Maurizio Bensaude as Marcello); La Scala (15 March 1897, with Angelica Pandolfini as Mimì, Camilla Pasini as Musetta, Fernando De Lucia as Rodolfo, and Edoardo Camera as Marcello); La Fenice (26 December 1897, with Emilia Merolla as Mimì, Maria Martelli as Musetta, Giovanni Apostolu and Franco Mannucci as Rodolfo, and Ferruccio Corradetti as Marcello); Teatro Regio di Parma (29 January 1898, with Solomiya Krushelnytska as Mimì, Lina Cassandro as Musetta, Pietro Ferrari as Rodolfo, and Pietro Giacomello as Marcello); Paris Opera (13 June 1898); and the Teatro Donizetti di Bergamo (21 August 1898, with Emilia Corsi as Mimì, Annita Barone as Musetta, Giovanni Apostolu as Rodolfo, and Giovanni Roussel as Marcello).",
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"plaintext": "The first performance of La bohème outside Italy was at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 16 June 1896. The opera was performed in Alexandria, Lisbon, and Moscow in early 1897. The United Kingdom premiere took place at the Theatre Royal in Manchester, on 22 April 1897, in a presentation by the Carl Rosa Opera Company supervised by Puccini. This performance was given in English and starred Alice Esty as Mimì, Bessie McDonald as Musetta, Robert Cunningham as Rodolfo, and William Paull as Marcello. On 2 October 1897 the same company gave the opera's first staging at the Royal Opera House in London and on 14 October 1897 in Los Angeles for the opera's United States premiere. The opera reached New York City on 16 May 1898 when it was performed at Wallack's Theatre with Giuseppe Agostini as Rodolfo. The first production of the opera actually produced by the Royal Opera House itself premiered on 1 July 1899 with Nellie Melba as Mimì, Zélie de Lussan as Musetta, Fernando De Lucia as Rodolfo, and Mario Ancona as Marcello.",
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"plaintext": "La bohème premiered in Germany at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin on 22 June 1897. The French premiere of the opera was presented by the Opéra-Comique on 13 June 1898 at the Théâtre des Nations. The production used a French translation by Paul Ferrier and starred Julia Guiraudon as Mimì, Jeanne Tiphaine as Musetta, Adolphe Maréchal as Rodolfo, and Lucien Fugère as Marcello. The Czech premiere of the opera was presented by the National Theatre on 27 February 1898.",
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"plaintext": "La bohème continued to gain international popularity throughout the early 20th century and the Opéra-Comique alone had already presented the opera one hundred times by 1903. The Belgian premiere took place at La Monnaie on 25 October 1900 using Ferrier's French translation with Marie Thiérry as Mimì, Léon David as Rodolfo, Eugène-Charles Badiali as Marcello, sets by Pierre Devis, Armand Lynen, and Albert Dubosq, and Philippe Flon conducting. The Metropolitan Opera staged the work for the first time on 26 December 1900 with Nellie Melba as Mimì, Annita Occhiolini-Rizzini as Musetta, Albert Saléza as Rodolfo, Giuseppe Campanari as Marcello, and Luigi Mancinelli conducting. La bohème was the last opera performed at New York's Metropolitan Opera's original 1883 building on April 16, 1966, conducted by George Schick.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was first performed in Brazil at the Theatro da Paz in Belém on 21 April 1900 with the Brazilian soprano Tilde Maragliano as Mimì, Maria Cavallini as Musetta, Giuseppe Agostini as Rodolfo and Alessandro Modesti as Marcello. The conductor was Giorgio Polacco ",
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"plaintext": "The following year La bohème was presented at the Teatro Amazonas in Manaus, Brazil, on 2 July 1901 with Elvira Miotti as Mimì, Mabel Nelma as Musetta, Michele Sigaldi as Rodolfo, and Enrico De Franceschi as Marcello. Other premieres soon followed:",
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"plaintext": " Melbourne: 13 July 1901 (Her Majesty's Theatre; first performance in Australia)",
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"plaintext": " Monaco: 1 February 1902, Opéra de Monte-Carlo in Monte Carlo with Nellie Melba as Mimì, Enrico Caruso as Rodolfo, Alexis Boyer as Marcello, and Léon Jehin conducting.",
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"plaintext": " Prato: 25 December 1902, Regio Teatro Metastasio with Ulderica Persichini as Mimì, Norma Sella as Musetta, Ariodante Quarti as Rodolfo, and Amleto Pollastri as Marcello.",
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"plaintext": " Catania: 9 July 1903, Politeama Pacini with Isabella Costa Orbellini as Mimì, Lina Gismondi as Musetta, Elvino Ventura as Rodolfo, and Alfredo Costa as Marcello.",
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"plaintext": " Austria: 25 November 1903, Vienna State Opera in Vienna with Selma Kurz as Mimì, Marie Gutheil-Schoder as Musetta, Fritz Schrödter as Rodolfo, Gerhard Stehmann as Marcello, and Gustav Mahler conducting.",
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"plaintext": " Sweden: 19 May 1905, Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, presented by the Royal Swedish Opera with Maria Labia as Mimì.",
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"plaintext": "Puccini died in Brussels on 29 November 1924, and the news of his death reached Rome during a performance of La bohème. The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played Chopin's Funeral March for the stunned audience.",
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"plaintext": "The first production of La bohème at the Salzburg Festival did not occur until as late as July 2012. However, that festival has not shown much interest in the operas of Puccini, only ever having one production each of Tosca and Turandot in its entire history.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the opera's popularity with audiences, Puccini has been the target of condescension by some music critics who find his music insufficiently sophisticated or difficult. The composer Benjamin Britten wrote in 1951, \"[A]fter four or five performances I never wanted to hear Bohème again. In spite of its neatness, I became sickened by the cheapness and emptiness of the music.\"",
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"plaintext": "Place: Paris",
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"plaintext": "Time: Around 1830.",
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"plaintext": "In the four bohemians' garret (Christmas Eve)",
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"plaintext": "Marcello is painting while Rodolfo gazes out of the window. They complain of the cold. In order to keep warm, they burn the manuscript of Rodolfo's drama. Colline, the philosopher, enters shivering and disgruntled at not having been able to pawn some books. Schaunard, the musician of the group, arrives with food, wine and cigars. He explains the source of his riches: a job with an eccentric English gentleman, who ordered him to play his violin to a parrot until it died. The others hardly listen to his tale as they set up the table to eat and drink. Schaunard interrupts, telling them that they must save the food for the days ahead: tonight they will all celebrate his good fortune by dining at Cafe Momus, and he will pay.",
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"plaintext": "The friends are interrupted by Benoît, the landlord, who arrives to collect the rent. They flatter him and ply him with wine. In his drunkenness, he begins to boast of his amorous adventures, but when he also reveals that he is married, they thrust him from the room—without the rent payment—in comic moral indignation. The rent money is divided for their evening out in the Quartier Latin.",
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"plaintext": "Marcello, Schaunard and Colline go out, but Rodolfo remains alone for a moment in order to finish an article he is writing, promising to join his friends soon. There is a knock at the door. It is a girl who lives in another room in the building. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches; she asks Rodolfo to light it. She is briefly overcome with faintness, and Rodolfo helps her to a chair and offers her a glass of wine. She thanks him. After a few minutes, she says that she is better and must go. But as she turns to leave, she realizes that she has lost her key.",
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"plaintext": "Her candle goes out in the draught and Rodolfo's candle goes out too; the pair stumble in the dark. Rodolfo, eager to spend time with the girl, to whom he is already attracted, finds the key and pockets it, feigning innocence. He takes her cold hand (Che gelida manina—\"What a cold little hand\") and tells her of his life as a poet, then asks her to tell him more about her life. The girl says her name is Mimì (Sì, mi chiamano Mimì—\"Yes, they call me Mimì\"), and describes her simple life as an embroiderer. Impatiently, the waiting friends call Rodolfo. He answers and turns to see Mimì bathed in moonlight (duet, Rodolfo and Mimì: O soave fanciulla—\"Oh lovely girl\"). They realize that they have fallen in love. Rodolfo suggests remaining at home with Mimì, but she decides to accompany him to the Cafe Momus. As they leave, they sing of their newfound love.",
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"plaintext": "Quartier Latin (same evening)",
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"plaintext": "A great crowd, including children, has gathered with street sellers announcing their wares (chorus: Aranci, datteri! Caldi i marroni!—\"Oranges, dates! Hot chestnuts!\"). The friends arrive; Rodolfo buys Mimì a bonnet from a vendor, while Colline buys a coat and Schaunard a horn. Parisians gossip with friends and bargain with the vendors; the children of the streets clamor to see the wares of Parpignol, the toy seller. The friends enter the Cafe Momus.",
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"plaintext": "As the men and Mimì dine at the cafe, Musetta, formerly Marcello's sweetheart, arrives with her rich (and elderly) government minister admirer, Alcindoro, whom she is tormenting. It is clear she is tired of him. To the delight of the Parisians and the embarrassment of her patron, she sings a risqué song (Musetta's waltz: Quando me'n vo'—\"When I go along\"), hoping to reclaim Marcello's attention. The ploy works; at the same time, Mimì recognizes that Musetta truly loves Marcello. To be rid of Alcindoro for a bit, Musetta pretends to be suffering from a tight shoe and sends him to the shoemaker to get her shoe mended. Alcindoro leaves, and Musetta and Marcello fall rapturously into each other's arms.",
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"plaintext": "The friends are presented with their bill. However, Schaunard's purse has gone missing and no one else has enough money to pay. The sly Musetta has the entire bill charged to Alcindoro. The sound of a military band is heard, and the friends leave. Alcindoro returns with the repaired shoe seeking Musetta. The waiter hands him the bill and, dumbfounded, Alcindoro sinks into a chair.",
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"plaintext": "At the toll gate at the Barrière d'Enfer (late February)",
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"plaintext": "Peddlers pass through the barriers and enter the city. Mimì appears, coughing violently. She tries to find Marcello, who is currently living in a little tavern where he paints signs for the innkeeper. She tells him of her hard life with Rodolfo, who abandoned her the night before, and of Rodolfo's terrible jealousy (O buon Marcello, aiuto!—\"Oh, good Marcello, help me!\"). Marcello tells her that Rodolfo is asleep inside, and expresses concern about Mimì's cough. Rodolfo wakes up and comes out looking for Marcello. Mimì hides and overhears Rodolfo first telling Marcello that he left Mimì because of her coquettishness, but finally confessing that his jealousy is a sham: he fears she is slowly being consumed by a deadly illness (most likely tuberculosis, known by the catchall name \"consumption\" in the nineteenth century). Rodolfo, in his poverty, can do little to help Mimì and hopes that his pretended unkindness will inspire her to seek another, wealthier suitor (Marcello, finalmente—\"Marcello, finally\").",
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"plaintext": "Out of kindness towards Mimì, Marcello tries to silence him, but she has already heard all. Her weeping and coughing reveal her presence, and Rodolfo hurries to her. Musetta's laughter is heard and Marcello goes to find out what has happened. Mimì tells Rodolfo that she is leaving him, and asks that they separate amicably (Mimì: Donde lieta uscì—\"From here she happily left\"); but their love for one another is too strong for the pair to part. As a compromise, they agree to remain together until the spring, when the world is coming to life again and no one feels truly alone. Meanwhile, Marcello has found Musetta, and the couple quarrel fiercely about Musetta's flirtatiousness: an antithetical counterpoint to the other pair's reconciliation (quartet: Mimì, Rodolfo, Musetta, Marcello: Addio dolce svegliare alla mattina!—\"Goodbye, sweet awakening in the morning!\").",
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"plaintext": "Back in the garret (some months later)",
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"plaintext": "Marcello and Rodolfo are trying to work, though they are primarily talking about their girlfriends, who have left them and found wealthy lovers. Rodolfo has seen Musetta in a fine carriage and Marcello has seen Mimì dressed like a queen. The men both express their nostalgia (duet: O Mimì, tu più non torni—\"O Mimì, will you not return?\"). Schaunard and Colline arrive with a very frugal dinner and all parody eating a plentiful banquet, dance together and sing, before Schaunard and Colline engage in a mock duel.",
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"plaintext": "Musetta suddenly appears; Mimì, who took up with a wealthy viscount after leaving Rodolfo in the spring, has left her patron. Musetta found her that day in the street, severely weakened by her illness, and Mimì begged Musetta to bring her to Rodolfo. Mimì, haggard and pale, is assisted onto a bed. Briefly, she feels as though she is recovering. Musetta and Marcello leave to sell Musetta's earrings in order to buy medicine, and Colline leaves to pawn his overcoat (Vecchia zimarra—\"Old coat\"). Schaunard leaves with Colline to give Mimì and Rodolfo some time together. Mimì tells Rodolfo that her love for him is her whole life (aria/duet, Mimì and Rodolfo: Sono andati?—\"Have they gone?\").",
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"plaintext": "To Mimì's delight, Rodolfo presents her with the pink bonnet he bought her, which he has kept as a souvenir of their love. They remember past happiness and their first meeting—the candles, the lost key. Mimì is overwhelmed by a seizure of coughing. The others return, with a gift of a muff to warm Mimì's hands and a cordial to soothe her cough. Mimì gently thanks Rodolfo for the muff, which she believes is a present from him, reassures him that she is better, and falls asleep. Musetta prays. Schaunard discovers that Mimì has died. Rodolfo rushes to the bed, calling Mimì's name in anguish. He sobs helplessly as the curtain falls.",
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"plaintext": "La bohème is scored for:",
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"plaintext": " woodwinds: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets (A, B-flat), bass clarinet (A, B-flat), 2 bassoons",
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"plaintext": " brass: 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in F, 3 trombones, bass trombone",
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"plaintext": " percussion: timpani, snare drum, triangle, cymbals, bass drum, xylophone, glockenspiel, chimes",
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"plaintext": " strings: harp, violins I, II, viola, cello, double bass",
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"plaintext": " off-stage (end of act 2): 4 piccolos, 6 trumpets, 2 snare drums (occasionally on-stage)",
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"plaintext": "The discography of La bohème is a long one with many distinguished recordings, including the 1972 Decca recording conducted by Herbert von Karajan with Luciano Pavarotti as Rodolfo and Mirella Freni as Mimì (made before Pavarotti became an international superstar of opera), and the 1973 RCA Victor recording conducted by Sir Georg Solti with Montserrat Caballé as Mimì and Plácido Domingo as Rodolfo which won the 1974 Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording. The 1959 recording conducted by Tullio Serafin with Renata Tebaldi as Mimì and Carlo Bergonzi was included in the soundtrack of the 1987 movie Moonstruck.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest commercially released full-length recording was probably that recorded in February 1917 and released on HMV's Italian label La Voce del Padrone. Carlo Sabajno conducted the La Scala Orchestra and Chorus with Gemma Bosini and Reno Andreini as Mimì and Rodolfo. One of the most recent is the 2008 Deutsche Grammophon release conducted by Bertrand de Billy with Anna Netrebko and Rolando Villazón as Mimì and Rodolfo.",
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"plaintext": "There are several recordings with conductors closely associated with Puccini. In the 1946 RCA Victor recording, Arturo Toscanini, who conducted the world premiere of the opera, conducts the NBC Symphony Orchestra with Jan Peerce as Rodolfo and Licia Albanese as Mimì. It is the only recording of a Puccini opera by its original conductor. Thomas Beecham, who worked closely with Puccini when preparing a 1920 production of La bohème in London, conducted a performance of the opera in English released by Columbia Records in 1936 with Lisa Perli as Mimì and Heddle Nash as Rodolfo. Beecham also conducts on the 1956 RCA Victor recording with Victoria de los Ángeles and Jussi Björling as Mimì and Rodolfo.",
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"plaintext": "Although the vast majority of recordings are in the original Italian, the opera has been recorded in several other languages. These include: a recording in French conducted by Erasmo Ghiglia with Renée Doria and Alain Vanzo as Mimì and Rodolfo (1960); a recording in German with Richard Kraus conducting the Deutsche Oper Berlin Orchestra and Chorus with Trude Eipperle and Fritz Wunderlich as Mimì and Rodolfo (1956); and the 1998 release on the Chandos Opera in English label with David Parry conducting the Philharmonia Orchestra and Cynthia Haymon and Dennis O'Neill as Mimì and Rodolfo.",
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"plaintext": "Enrico Caruso, who was closely associated with the role of Rodolfo, recorded the famous aria \"Che gelida manina\" in 1906. This aria has been recorded by nearly 500 tenors in at least seven different languages between 1900 and 1980. In 1981 the A.N.N.A. Record Company released a six LP set with 101 different tenors singing the aria.",
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"plaintext": "In 1957 Illica's widow died and his papers were given to the Parma Museum. Among them was the full libretto to La bohème. It was discovered that the librettists had prepared an act which Puccini decided not to use in his composition. It is noteworthy for explaining Rodolfo's jealous remarks to Marcello in act 3.",
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"plaintext": "The \"missing act\" is located in the timeline between the Café Momus scene and act 3 and describes an open-air party at Musetta's dwelling. Her protector has refused to pay further rent out of jealous feelings, and Musetta's furniture is moved into the courtyard to be auctioned off the following morning. The four Bohemians find in this an excuse for a party and arrange for wine and an orchestra. Musetta gives Mimì a beautiful gown to wear and introduces her to a Viscount. The pair dances a quadrille in the courtyard, which moves Rodolfo to jealousy. This explains his act 3 reference to the \"moscardino di Viscontino\" (young fop of a Viscount). As dawn approaches, furniture dealers gradually remove pieces for the morning auction.",
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"plaintext": "Ruggero Leoncavallo composed an opera based the same source material, also titled La bohème; this episode is included in Leoncavallo's treatment which premiered in 1897.",
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"plaintext": "In 1959 \"Musetta's Waltz\" was adapted by songwriter Bobby Worth for the pop song \"Don't You Know?\", a hit for Della Reese. Earlier, it was used for another song, \"One Night of Love\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1969 in Paris, American free-jazz pianist Dave Burrell recorded his La Vie de Bohème with a seven-piece group of European and American musicians. The music on the double-LP is improvised and experimental, but the listener can still discern Puccini's themes, as well as the narrative arc of the complete opera.",
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"plaintext": "Rent, a 1996 musical by Jonathan Larson, is based on La bohème. Here the lovers, Roger and Mimi, are faced with AIDS and progress through the action with songs such as \"Light My Candle\", which have direct reference to La bohème. Many of the character names are retained or are similar (e.g. the character Angel is given the surname \"Schunard\"), and at another point in the play, Roger's roommate and best friend Mark makes a wry reference to \"Musetta's Waltz\", which is a recurring theme throughout the first act and is played at the end of the second act.",
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"plaintext": "The opera was adapted into a 1983 short story by the novelist V. S. Pritchett for publication by the Metropolitan Opera Association.",
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"plaintext": "Baz Luhrmann produced the opera for Opera Australia in 1990 with modernized supertitle translations, and a budget of only A$60,000 (A$130,545.17 in 2022). A DVD was issued of the stage show. According to Luhrmann, this version was set in 1957 (rather than the original period of 1830) because \"...[they] discovered that 1957 was a very, very accurate match for the social and economic realities of Paris in the 1840s.\" In 2002, Luhrmann restaged his version on Broadway, the production won two Tony Awards out of six nominations; for Best Scenic Design and Best Lighting Design as well as a special award, the Tony Honor for Excellence in Theatre. To play the eight performances per week on Broadway, three casts of Mimìs and Rodolfos, and two Musettas and Marcellos, were used in rotation.",
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"plaintext": "Robin Norton-Hale directed a new production at the Cock Tavern Theatre, Kilburn, for OperaUpClose in December 2009. For act 2 the entire audience and cast moved downstairs to the pub itself, with the pub's patrons serving as extras in the Cafe Momus scene. In 2010 the production was transferred to the West End's Soho Theatre and won a Laurence Olivier Award.",
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"plaintext": "A 2019 production by Canada's Against the Grain Theatre featured a translated English libretto, and transposed the story to a contemporary Canadian urban setting. This production toured several Canadian cities before its production at Toronto's Tranzac Club was livestreamed by CBC Gem on October 13. The CBC broadcast received two Canadian Screen Award nominations at the 9th Canadian Screen Awards in 2021, for Best Performing Arts Program and Best Direction in a TV Movie.",
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"plaintext": " Vocal Score from the Indiana University School of Music.",
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"plaintext": " , Lotte Lehmann",
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37,931 | 1,104,599,300 | Pietro_Mascagni | [
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"plaintext": "Pietro Mascagni (7 December 1863 – 2 August 1945) was an Italian composer primarily known for his operas. His 1890 masterpiece Cavalleria rusticana caused one of the greatest sensations in opera history and single-handedly ushered in the Verismo movement in Italian dramatic music. While it was often held that Mascagni, like Ruggero Leoncavallo, was a \"one-opera man\" who could never repeat his first success, L'amico Fritz and Iris have remained in the repertoire in Europe (especially Italy) since their premieres.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni wrote fifteen operas, an operetta, several orchestral and vocal works, and also songs and piano music. He enjoyed immense success during his lifetime, both as a composer and conductor of his own and other people's music and created a variety of styles in his operas.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni was born on 7 December 1863 in Livorno, Tuscany, the second son of Domenico and Emilia Mascagni. His father owned and operated a bakery. Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti (\"Nanni\") was born the same year in the same city and became Mascagni's lifelong friend and collaborator.",
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"plaintext": "In 1876, at the age of 13, Mascagni began musical studies with Alfredo Soffredini, who founded the Instituto Musicale di Livorno (later called Istituto Cherubini). Soffredini had just completed his musical studies in Milan. Also a native of Livorno, Soffredini was a composer, teacher and musical critic. Mascagni started composing rapidly: between 1879 and 1880, he wrote several works: Sinfonia in do minore, Prima sinfonia in fa maggiore, Elegia, Kyrie, Gloria and Ave Maria.",
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"plaintext": "In 1882, he composed his Cantata alla gioia from a text by Friedrich Schiller, followed by La stella di Garibaldi for voice and piano, and La tua stella. On 6 May Mascagni left Livorno for Milan. He passed the admission examination of the Milan Conservatory on 12 October. In Milan, Mascagni met the noted composer Giacomo Puccini.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 January 1883, Mascagni's sister, Maria, died. The cantata In Filanda became Pinotta, and was proposed for the musical contest of the Conservatorio, but as his registration was late, it was not accepted.",
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"plaintext": "In 1884, he composed Ballata for tenor and piano; M'ama non m'ama, scherzo for soprano and piano; Messagio d'amore, and Alla luna.",
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"plaintext": "In 1885, Mascagni composed Il Re a Napoli in Cremona, a romance for tenor and orchestra, on a text by Andrea Maffei. He left Milan without completing his studies. That year, he began touring as a conductor in the operetta companies of Vittorio Forlì, Alfonso and Ciro Scognamiglio, and, in Genoa, the company of Luigi Arnaldo Vassallo.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni met the impresario Luigi Maresca in 1886 and started working with him. That December, Mascagni arrived in Cerignola with Maresca's company. He was accompanied by Argenide Marcellina Carbognani (Lina), his future wife. Helped by the mayor Giuseppe Cannone, Mascagni soon left the company of Maresca, though not without problems.",
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"plaintext": "He was appointed as the master of music and singing of the new philharmonia of Cerignola. His reputation grew. He also gave piano lessons. In February 1888, he began work on the Messa di Gloria. In July, Casa Sonzogno announced in the Teatro Illustrato its second competition for a one-act opera. The following year, Mascagni completed his composition of Cavalleria rusticana on 27 May and sent the manuscript to Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni married Lina Carbognani on 3 February 1889. The next day their first son, Domenico Mascagni (\"Mimì\"), was born. Their son Dino was born on 3 January 1891. A daughter, Emi, was born in 1892.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 February 1890, Mascagni was summoned to Rome to present his opera. The première of Cavalleria rusticana, winner of the Sonzogno contest, was held 17 May at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome. It had outstanding success, and the opera was soon performed in both the north and south of Italy: Florence, Turin, Bologna, Palermo, Milan, Genoa, Naples, Venice and Trieste.",
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"plaintext": "In December, Gustav Mahler conducted the opera in Budapest. Soon thereafter, the cities of Munich, Hamburg, St. Petersburg, Dresden and Buenos Aires welcomed the opera. In March 1891, it was sung in Vienna. At age 26, Mascagni had become internationally famous.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni premiered his L'amico Fritz, his second most successful opera, on 31 October 1891 at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome. I Rantzau was premiered on 10 November at the Teatro La Pergola, in Florence, under his personal direction.",
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"plaintext": "The composer next completed Silvano (1894). On 16 February 1895 he premiered Guglielmo Ratcliff at the Teatro alla Scala of Milan. On 15 March Silvano was premiered at the same theatre. That year, Mascagni accepted the directorship of the Liceo Rossini in Pesaro and moved his family there.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 March 1896, Mascagni conducted the première of Zanetto at the Liceo. He continued his composing and directing. On 29 June 1898 in Recanati, Mascagni conducted the première of his symphonic poem, A Giacomo Leopardi. Mascagni began a collaboration with Luigi Illica, a librettist. Their first work, Iris, was premiered on 22 November at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "In 1900, Mascagni toured Moscow and St. Petersburg and, on 17 January 1901, Le maschere was premiered in six Italian theaters. Giuseppe Verdi died on 27 January and the following month Mascagni commemorated Verdi's passing. That same year, he conducted Verdi's Requiem in Vienna.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni composed the incidental music for Hall Caine's play, The Eternal City in August 1902; the première of the play with Mascagni's music took place in London on 2 October.",
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"plaintext": "In 1902 and 1903, he toured in Canada and in the United States, (in particular Montreal, New York City, Philadelphia, Boston and San Francisco), where he conducted many of his and other composers' works. The tour was mostly a fiasco, except for the visit to San Francisco where Mascagni was extremely well received.",
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"plaintext": "In 1903, Mascagni left Pesaro after problems with the authorities. He became director of the Scuola Musicale Romana, in Rome. In the same year he signed a contract with the French editor Paul de Choudens.",
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"plaintext": "Amica, based on a poem by Choudens with French libretto by Paul Collin, was premiered on 16 March 1905, in Monte-Carlo. That year, he had disputes with Ruggero Leoncavallo and Giacomo Puccini. He also had the Livornese première of Le maschere.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 April 1910, Mascagni began a relationship with Anna Lolli. In October he was reconciled with Puccini.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni ceased his activity as director of the Scuola Musicale Romana in 1911. That May he left for Buenos Aires, beginning a seven-month tour in South America. The première of Isabeau took place in Buenos Aires on 2 June.",
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"plaintext": "The Italian première of Isabeau was held simultaneously at La Scala in Milan (conductor Tullio Serafin) and at La Fenice in Venice (conductor Mascagni) in 1912. On 28 March, he began to work on Parisina in Bellevue, near Paris, sometimes with his daughter Emi, his mistress Anna Lolli, and the librettist Gabriele d'Annunzio.",
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"plaintext": "Parisina was premiered in Milan on 15 December of that year. Almost all the important Italian composers of the time were present, among them Puccini, Umberto Giordano and Riccardo Zandonai. The new work was premiered in Livorno and Rome in 1914. On 28 July occurred the events that shortly led to World War I: Puccini and Mascagni were against the involvement of Italy in this war, in which Mascagni's son Dino was later made a prisoner.",
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"plaintext": "In 1915 Mascagni wrote music for Nino Oxilia's movie Rapsodia Satanica; the custom was for silent films to be accompanied live in a theater by organ, piano, or an orchestra, often using a prepared score (sometimes with original music) with cues for the conductor or musician. Mascagni had a quarrel regarding the rights of Louise de la Ramée's Two Little Wooden Shoes (I due Zoccoletti), that inspired both Puccini and Mascagni. The subject was retained by Mascagni for Lodoletta. The latter opera was premiered on 30 April 1917 in Rome. The Livornese première of the opera was on 28 July with Beniamino Gigli as Flammen.",
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"plaintext": "Sì, Mascagni's operetta, which he had been manoeuvred into writing by the impresario Carlo Lombardo, was premiered on 13 December in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "In 1920 Mascagni composed Il piccolo Marat, which was premiered in Rome on 2 May 1921, following by a premiere in Buenos Aires in September. The composer returned to South America for a tour beginning in May 1922.",
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"plaintext": "In 1930, Mascagni conducted La bohème in Torre del Lago, as a homage to Puccini, who had died in 1924. In 1931, Le maschere was performed at La Scala.",
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"plaintext": "Pinotta was premiered in San Remo on 23 March 1932. He joined the PNF (Fascist party), following the example of many contemporary musicians, including Giordano.",
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"plaintext": "In 1940, celebrations for the fiftieth anniversary of his most popular opera, Cavalleria rusticana, took place all over Italy, often with Mascagni conducting. The opera was recorded for La Voce del padrone (\"His Master's Voice\") at La Scala under the direction of Mascagni, who recorded a special spoken introduction. EMI later reissued the recording on LP and CD.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, after an audience with Pope Pius XII, newspapers quoted Mascagni, a Roman Catholic, as saying that his tuberculosis-stricken niece was cured after receiving a rosary and silver medal blessed by the pope.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1943, Mascagni appeared for the last time at La Scala to conduct L'amico Fritz. By that time he had to conduct sitting on a chair. The last season of Mascagni at the Rome Opera (Cavalleria rusticana and L'amico Fritz) was 1944–45.",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni died on 2 August 1945 in his apartment at the Grand Hotel Plaza in Rome. The funeral ceremony was on 4 August. The Italian authorities were not present. In 1951, his body was transferred from Rome to Livorno, where Mascagni finally received an official homage. On 7 December 1963, the centenary of Mascagni's birth, a plaque was erected in Rome on the Albergo del Sole where Mascagni stayed during the premiere of Cavalleria rusticana.",
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"plaintext": " Cavalleria rusticana (17 May 1890 Teatro Costanzi, Rome) ",
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"plaintext": " L'amico Fritz (31 October 1891 Teatro Costanzi, Rome)",
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"plaintext": " Guglielmo Ratcliff (16 February 1895 Teatro alla Scala, Milan), composed between 1885 and the early 1890s ",
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"plaintext": " Le maschere (17 January 1901 Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa – Teatro Regio, Turin – Teatro alla Scala, Milan – Teatro La Fenice, Venice – Teatro Filarmonico, Verona – Teatro Costanzi, Rome)",
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"plaintext": " Amica (16 March 1905, Monte Carlo, in French)",
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"plaintext": " Isabeau (2 June 1911 Teatro Coliseo, Buenos Aires)",
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"plaintext": " Lodoletta (30 April 1917 Teatro Costanzi, Rome) ",
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"plaintext": " Il piccolo Marat (2 May 1921 Teatro Costanzi, Rome)",
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"plaintext": " Pinotta (23 March 1932 Casinò, San Remo), adapted from the cantata In filanda (1881)",
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"plaintext": " Nerone (16 January 1935 Teatro alla Scala, Milan), with music written between the 1890s and the 1930s",
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"plaintext": " Messa di Gloria in F major for soloists, chorus and orchestra (1888)",
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"plaintext": " A Giacomo Leopardi, cantata for voice (soprano) and orchestra (19 June 1898, Teatro Persiani, Recanati)",
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"plaintext": " Il re a Napoli, romanza for tenor and orchestra (18 March 1885 Teatro Municipale, Cremona)",
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"plaintext": "During his long career, Mascagni contemplated writing many operas. The following is an incomplete list of such projects, which never saw the light of day:",
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"plaintext": " Zilia, probably on a libretto by Felice Romani (c. 1877)",
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"plaintext": " Scampolo, probably on a libretto by Dario Niccodemi (c. 1921)",
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"plaintext": " I Bianchi ed i Neri, on a libretto by Mario Ghisalberti (c. 1938)",
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"plaintext": "The sound track of the 1980 film Raging Bull uses the Intermezzo from Cavalleria rusticana, the Barcarolle from Silvano, and the Intermezzo from Guglielmo Ratcliff (known as Il sogno di Ratcliff).",
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"plaintext": "Official Italian web site about Pietro Mascagni",
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"plaintext": "Mascagni cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.",
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37,932 | 1,083,719,697 | Saverio_Mercadante | [
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"plaintext": "Giuseppe Saverio Raffaele Mercadante (baptised 17 September 179517 December 1870) was an Italian composer, particularly of operas. While Mercadante may not have retained the international celebrity of Gaetano Donizetti or Gioachino Rossini beyond his own lifetime, he composed as prolific a number of works as either; and his development of operatic structures, melodic styles and orchestration contributed significantly to the foundations upon which Giuseppe Verdi built his dramatic technique.",
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"plaintext": "Mercadante was born illegitimate in Altamura, near Bari in Apulia; his precise date of birth has not been recorded, but he was baptised on 17 September 1795. Mercadante studied flute, violin and composition at the conservatory in Naples, and organized concerts among his compatriots. The opera composer Gioachino Rossini said to the conservatory Director, Niccolo Zingarelli, \"My compliments, Maestro – your young pupil Mercadante begins where we finish\". In 1817 he was made conductor of the college orchestra, composing a number of symphonies, and concertos for various instruments – including six for flute about 1818–1819, and whose autograph scores are in the Naples conservatory, where they were presumably first performed with him as soloist.",
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"plaintext": "The encouragement of Rossini led him to compose for the opera, where he won considerable success with his second such work (Violenza e Constanza), in 1820. His next three operas are more or less forgotten, but an abridged recording of Maria Stuarda, Regina di Scozia was issued by Opera Rara in 2006. His next opera Elisa e Claudio was a huge success, and had occasional revivals in the 20th century, most recently by Wexford Festival Opera in 1988.",
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"plaintext": "He worked for a time in Vienna, in Madrid, in Cádiz, and in Lisbon, but re-established himself in Italy in 1831. He was invited by Rossini to Paris in 1836, where he composed I Briganti for four of the best-known singers of the time, Giulia Grisi, Giovanni Battista Rubini, Antonio Tamburini and Luigi Lablache, all of whom worked closely with Bellini. While there, he had the opportunity to hear operas by Meyerbeer and Halévy, which imparted a strong influence on him, especially the latter's La Juive. This influence took the form of greater stress on the dramatic side.",
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"plaintext": "When Mercadante returned to Italy after living in Spain and Portugal, Donizetti's music reigned supreme in Naples, an ascendancy which did not end until censorship problems with the latter's Poliuto caused a final break. But Mercadante's style began to shift with the presentation of I Normanni a Parigi at the Teatro Regio in Turin in 1832: \"It was with this score that Mercadante entered on the process of development in his musical dramaturgy which, in some aspects, actually presaged the arrival of Verdi, when he launched, from 1837 on, into master works of his artistic maturity: the so-called \"reform operas\".",
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"plaintext": "In the period after 1831 he composed some of his most important works. These included Il giuramento which was premiered at La Scala to 11 march 1837. One striking and innovative characteristic of this opera has been noted:",
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"plaintext": "..it marks the first successful attempt in an Italian opera premiered in Italy of depriving the prima donna, or some other star singer, of her until-then inalienable right of having the stage to herself at the end. By doing this, Mercadante sounded what was to be the death knell of the age of bel canto.",
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"plaintext": "Early in following year, while composing Elena da Feltre (which premiered in January 1839), Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the \"revolution\" begun in his previous opera:",
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"plaintext": "I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band.",
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"plaintext": "Elena da Feltre followed; one critic found much to praise in it:",
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"plaintext": "These temporarily put him in the forefront of composers then active in Italy, although he was soon passed by Giovanni Pacini with Saffo and Giuseppe Verdi with several operas, especially Ernani.",
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"plaintext": "Some of Mercadante's later works, especially Orazi e Curiazi, were also quite successful. Many performances of his operas were given throughout the 19th century and it has been noted that some of them received far more than those of Verdi's early operas over the same period of time.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout his life he generated more instrumental works than most of his contemporary composers of operas due to his lifelong preoccupation with orchestration, and, from 1840, his position as the Director of the Naples conservatory for the last thirty years of his life. From 1863 he was almost totally blind and dictated all his compositions.",
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"plaintext": "In the decades after his death in Naples in 1870, his output was largely forgotten, but it has been occasionally revived and recorded since World War II, although it has yet to achieve anything like the present-day popularity of the most famous compositions by his slightly younger contemporaries: see Donizetti's compositions and Bellini's compositions.",
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"plaintext": "The French soloist Jean-Pierre Rampal notably recorded several Mercadante concertos for flute and string orchestra, including the grand and romantic E minor concerto, which has since gained some popularity among concert flautists.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Bryan, Karen M. (1988), \"Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre\", Donizetti Society Journal Number 6, London.",
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"plaintext": "De Napoli, Giuseppe, (1952) La triade melodrammatica altamurana: Giacomo Tritto, Vincenzo Lavigna, Saverio Mercadante, Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Kaufman, Thomas G. (1993), \"Mercadante\", in the International Dictionary of Opera, vol. 2 pp.858–861",
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"plaintext": "Kaufman, Thomas G. (1996), \"Catalogue of the Operas of Mercadante – Chronology of Performances with Casts\", Bollettino dell Associazione Civica \"Saverio Mercadante\" N. 1; Altamura",
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"plaintext": "Gianturco, Elio, \"Review of Saverio Mercadante; nella gloria e nella luce\", in Notes, Music Library Association, Second Series, Vol. 7, No. 4 (September 1950), pp.564–565. (Accessible by subscription)",
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"plaintext": "Notarnicola, Biagio (1955), Verdi non ha vinto Mercadante, Rome",
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"plaintext": "Palermo, Santo (1985), Saverio Mercadante: biografia, epistolario, Fasano",
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"plaintext": "Petrucci, Gianluca and Giacinto Moramarco (1992), Saggi su Saverio Mercadante, Cassano Murge",
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"plaintext": "Petrucci, Gianluca (1995), Saverio Mercadante l'ultimo dei cinque re, Rome",
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"plaintext": "Summa, Matteo (1985), Bravo Mercadante, Fasano",
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"plaintext": "Rose, Michael (1998), \"Mercadante, Saverio\", in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp.334 – 339. London: Macmillan. ",
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"plaintext": "Walker, Frank, \"Mercadante and Verdi\", Music & Letters, Vol. 33, No. 4 (October 1952), pp.311–321 (Accessible by subscription)",
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"plaintext": "Wittmann, Michael (1998), \"Meyerbeer und Mercadante? Überlegungen zur italienischen Meyerbeer-Rezeption.\" In: Sieghart Döhring, Arnold Jacobshagen (eds), Meyerbeer und das europäische Musiktheater, Laaber 1998, pp.352–385.",
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"plaintext": "Wittmann, Michael (2001), \"Mercadante\", in Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart 12, with coprehensive list of works.",
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"plaintext": "Wittmann, Michael (2014), \"Die Wiederentdeckung Saverio Mercadantes auf der Opernbühne. Anmerkungen zur Uraufführung von Francesca da Rimini.\" In: Sieghart Döhring, Stefanie Rauch (eds): Musiktheater im Fokus. Zum Gedenken an Gudrun und Heinz Becker, .",
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"plaintext": "Wittmann, Michael (2020), Saverio Mercadante – Systematisches Verzeichnis seiner Werke, MW-Musikverlag, Berlin 2020: ",
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"plaintext": " (rather outdated)",
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"plaintext": "Saverio Mercadante on enjoyaltamura.com ",
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37,933 | 1,106,071,333 | Maison_Ikkoku | [
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"plaintext": "The manga was adapted into a ninety-six-episode anime television series created by Studio Deen that ran on Fuji TV from March 1986 to March 1988. A Final Chapter movie, three OVAs, and a music special were also produced, with a live-action film made by Toei in 1986. A live-action TV special aired in May 2007 on TV Asahi, with a finale aired in July 2008. Both the manga and anime have been released in North America by Viz Media. Maison Ikkoku has been both critically and commercially successful, with over 25 million copies in circulation.",
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"plaintext": "The story mainly takes place at , a worn and aging boarding house in a town called , where 20-year-old college applicant Yusaku Godai lives. Though honest and good-natured, he is weak-willed and often taken advantage of by the offbeat and mischievous tenants who live with him: Yotsuya, Akemi Roppongi and Hanae Ichinose. As he is about to move out, he is stopped at the door by the beautiful Kyoko Otonashi, who announces she will be taking over as manager. Godai immediately falls in love with her and decides to stay. Godai and the other tenants find out that despite her young age, Kyoko is a widow who had married her high school teacher, who tragically died shortly thereafter. Godai empathizes with Kyoko and endeavors to free her from her sadness. He manages to work up enough courage to confess his love to her, and it begins to look as if a relationship between them might appear. However, Kyoko meets the rich, handsome and charming tennis coach Shun Mitaka at her tennis club. Mitaka quickly declares his intention to court Kyoko and states that he is very patient, and can wait until her heart is ready.",
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"plaintext": "Godai, not willing to give up, continues to chase Kyoko. But through a series of misunderstandings, he is seen by Kyoko and Mitaka walking with the cute and innocent Kozue Nanao. For the rest of the series, Kozue is mistakenly perceived as being Godai's girlfriend (by Kozue herself as well). Angered by this, Kyoko begins to openly date Mitaka. Despite the misunderstandings, Kyoko and Godai clearly have feelings for each other, and their relationship grows over the course of the series. Godai eventually manages to get into college and, with the help of Kyoko's family, he begins student-teaching at Kyoko's old high school. Almost mirroring Kyoko's meeting of her husband, Godai catches the attention of precocious and brazen student Ibuki Yagami, who immediately begins pursuing him. Her outspoken approach stands in stark contrast to Kyoko, which helps Kyoko come face to face with her feelings for Godai.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, Mitaka's endeavors have been hindered by his phobia of dogs, as Kyoko owns a large white dog named Soichiro in honor of her late husband. He eventually overcomes his phobia but, when he is about to propose to Kyoko, his family begins to goad him into a marriage with the pure and innocent Asuna Kujo. Feeling the pressure, Mitaka begins to pursue Kyoko with increased aggression. He slowly realizes that she has decided on Godai and is waiting for him to find a job and propose. Mitaka is completely pulled out of the race when he ends up thinking he slept with Asuna and her later announcing a pregnancy. Taking responsibility, he proposes to Asuna, but finds out too late that it was her dog who was pregnant, not her.",
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"plaintext": "As things begin to really go well for Godai, Kozue Nanao makes a reappearance in his life. Kozue tells Godai and the other Ikkoku tenants that she is thinking of marrying another man, even though Godai said he has his own proposal, which made Kozue believes he had proposed to her (which is another misunderstanding). Kyoko, feeling foolish and betrayed, slaps Godai and demands that he move out. When Godai refuses, he wakes up the next morning to find her gone and her room empty. Godai tries to explain himself by visiting Kyoko every day, even though she won't answer the door. After she calms down a bit, Kyoko checks on the house and runs into the other tenants. They try to convince her to return.",
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"plaintext": "The seductive Akemi, sensing that Kyoko is still hesitant, threatens to seduce Godai if Kyoko doesn't want him. She later tells the other tenants that she only said that to threaten Kyoko into coming back. This backfires when Godai is spotted leaving a love hotel with Akemi (he was only there to lend her money). It results in Kozue resolving to marry the other man. As Kyoko is about to return to Ikkoku, she learns that Godai has ended it with Kozue, but she thinks he slept with Akemi. She insults him, tells him that she hates him, and runs away. Godai follows her explaining that she doesn't trust him and that, despite the other girls, she never considered one important thing: Godai's own feelings. He passionately tells her that he loves only her: From the first moment he saw her and forevermore, she is the only woman in his eyes. The two spend the night together. Having cleared his last barrier of getting a teaching job, Godai proposes to Kyoko and, with the blessings of both families, they get married. The story ends as Godai and Kyoko arrive home with their newborn daughter, Haruka, and Kyoko tells her that Maison Ikkoku is the place where they first met.",
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"plaintext": "Takahashi created Maison Ikkoku as a love story that could occur in the real world. She originally only wanted to start the series focusing on Kyoko and Godai's relationship before moving on to include the other tenants to have a \"human drama,\" but said the love story attracted her more and took over. She had wanted to create a story about an apartment complex for some time, as when she lived in an apartment in Nagano during college, there was another decrepit apartment behind it. The strange actions of the people living there served as inspiration.",
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"plaintext": "She wrote the bimonthly Maison Ikkoku simultaneously alongside the weekly Urusei Yatsura. In an interview during its serialization, she stated she usually took two days to create the story and draw rough drafts, and then takes one night to finish them. At the time she had two female assistants, refusing to have males so that they would not be distracted. The series' title utilizes the French word maison (\"house\") and translates to \"The House of One-Moment\". The story occurs over a six-year period, approximate to the publication period of the series.",
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"plaintext": "Written and illustrated by Rumiko Takahashi, Maison Ikkoku was serialized in Big Comic Spirits as 162 chapters between 1980 and 1987. The chapters were collected and published into 15 tankōbon volumes by Shogakukan from May 1, 1982, to July 1, 1987. The series has since been re-released in several different editions. A 10 volume wide-ban edition was released between September 1, 1992, and June 1, 1993, 10 bunkoban from 1996 to 1997, and 15 shinsōban throughout 2007.",
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"plaintext": "North American publisher Viz Media originally released the series, adapted into English by Gerard Jones, in a monthly comic book format from June 1993. This release was collected into 14 graphic novels. The images were \"flipped\" to read left-to-right, causing the art to be mirrored, and some chapters were out of order or completely missing. Four of the five missing chapters were published in Animerica Extra Vol. 3 Number 1 and Vol. 3 Number 2. Viz later re-released the series in its original format and chapter order across 15 volumes. These were released between September 24, 2003, and February 14, 2006. At New York Comic Con 2019, Viz announced that they will start releasing Maison Ikkoku in a collector's edition, with the first volume released in September 2020.",
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"plaintext": "A radio drama was broadcast on November 20, 1982, on NHK Radio 1 as part of an episode of the \"Radio Comics\" program. The segment was hosted by Yū Mizushima and Keiko Yokozawa, and featured manga artist Jun Ishiko as a guest. It also included an interview with Rumiko Takahashi by Mizushima. The music for the episode was composed by Ichirou Mizuki. It featured Mari Okamoto as Kyoko, Kazuhiko Inoue as Godai, Midori Katō as Hanae Ichinose, Yusaku Yara as Yotsuya, Eiko Hisamura as Akemi, and was narrated by Junpei Takiguchi.",
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"plaintext": "Maison Ikkoku was adapted into a ninety-six episode anime television series by Studio Deen and aired on Fuji TV from March 26, 1986, to March 2, 1988. The series was directed by Kazuo Yamazaki for the first 26 episodes, Takashi Anno from episode 27 until 52 and Naoyuki Yoshinaga for the remainder of the series. The production staff had previously worked on the anime adaption of Takahashi's previous work, Urusei Yatsura. After production of that series was completed, the team moved straight onto Maison Ikkoku and the series took over Urusei Yatsura'''s timeslot. A new HD remaster of the series has been created and released on two Blu-ray boxsets in Japan. The first box was released on December 25, 2013, and the second box followed on April 23, 2014.",
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"plaintext": "An animated theatrical film titled The Final Chapter was released on February 6, 1988, as a double feature with The Final Chapter. On September 25, 1988, an original video animation Through the Passing Seasons that summarizes the story was released. A video titled Karaoke Music Parade and collecting all the TV anime's opening and ending animations was released in November 1989. Shipwrecked on Ikkoku Island was released on January 31, 1991, and adapts a story of the manga, while Prelude Maison Ikkoku: When the Cherry Blossoms Return in the Spring utilizes all the flashbacks of Kyoko's life before she moved to Maison Ikkoku and was released on June 25, 1992.",
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"plaintext": "The anime was licensed for a North American release by Viz Media in 1994, and was put on two-episode VHS dub releases, but Viz dropped the English dub after 36 episodes. The remaining subtitled-only VHS releases went on until volume 32, without finishing the series. Viz released the series as 8 DVD boxsets from June 1, 2003, until June 4, 2006, with the latter episodes newly dubbed. In the newer episodes, Godai was given a new voice actor, as Jason Gray-Stanford was replaced by Brad Swaile. Other characters such as Kozue and Ikuko were also recast.",
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"plaintext": "A live-action film adaptation of Maison Ikkoku was released on October 10, 1986, by the Toei Company. Directed by Shinichirō Sawai and written by Yōzō Tanaka, the movie stars Mariko Ishihara as Kyoko Otonashi, Ken Ishiguro as Yusaku Godai and Masatō Ibu as Yotsuya",
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"plaintext": "A live-action TV special premiered on TV Asahi on May 12, 2007. It stars Taiki Nakabayashi as Yusaku and Misaki Ito as Kyoko. A finale to the show was aired on July 26, 2008, under the title Maison Ikkoku Kanketsuhen and features Akina Minami as Kozue Nanao and Ikki Sawamura as Shun Mitaka.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 1986, various collections of theme songs, incidental music, character albums, and music calendars were released on LP, cassette, CD, and VHS. Most of the albums were released through Kitty Records. A Maison Ikkoku Sound Theater series of 48 discs released the full soundtracks of all 96 episodes as audio dramas. An addition Sound Theater release contained audio from the Side Story: Ikkoku Island Flirtation Story and Prelude, When the Cherry Blossoms Return in the Spring OVAs.",
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"plaintext": "Two box sets, Maison Ikkoku CD Single Memorial File and Maison Ikkoku Complete Music Box, collected all of the theme songs and incidental music from the animated series.",
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"plaintext": "A couple video games based on Maison Ikkoku have been released, the first being developed by Microcabin, which was originally released in 1986 for the PC-9801 and PC Engine before being ported to the Famicom in 1988. Microcabin also created in 1988 for the PC-9801 and MSX2. Three pachislot video games were also released in 2006, 2009 and 2012.",
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"plaintext": "The series was featured in the music video \"I'm Alive\" of the American singer-songwriter Norah Jones, released in October 2020. The series was chosen due to the similarities of the female figure of the lyrics of the song to Kyoko Otonashi.",
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"plaintext": "Maison Ikkoku has over 25 million collected volumes in circulation. In 2002, Christopher Macdonald, co-editor-in-chief of Anime News Network, wrote that while far from her most popular, Maison Ikkoku is considered by many to be Rumiko Takahashi's best work. Although all her titles have a romantic angle, he said that with its lack of supernatural elements or aliens, Maison Ikkokus simple premise of a university student who falls in love with his landlady is mundane in comparison, but it is this excellently crafted romantic story that makes it her greatest work. Macdonald wrote that what it does have in common with most of Takahashi's other works is \"absolute, unadulterated hilarity,\" but this differs still in that it features hilarious situations that actually happen in the real world. Like Macdonald, Comics Beat's Morgana Santilli noted how Maison Ikkoku is an anomaly in Takahashi's bibliography as it contains no fantasy or magical elements, but does include her signature wacky romcom hijinks of \"jealous would-be lovers, plenty of pratfalls, and needlessly complicated misunderstandings,\" which makes it just as charming and fun as more popular works like Ranma ½.",
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"plaintext": "Jason Thompson claimed that while Maison Ikkoku was not the first men's love-com, it is \"almost certainly the best\" and definitely Takahashi's best work. He also stated that because the main character is a university student, Maison Ikkoku is \"slightly more sophisticated\" compared to Kimagure Orange Road. Anime News Network (ANN) gave the manga an \"A\" for its story and an \"A−\" for its art, stating that the series shows off Takahashi's skill; \"with a clear cut and rather simple plot, she is able to concentrate on the characters, using them to drive the story, while at the same time ensuring the proper reader reaction intended for each scene.\" They remarked that the story focuses on Yusaku and Kyoko's relationship, with the other characters used only \"to create conflicts, exposition, and comedic relief.\"",
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"plaintext": "Commenting on the 2020 English release of the manga, Daryl Surat of Otaku USA wrote \"After decades of Maison Ikkoku derivatives, the original hit manga remains as delightful as it was back in the 1980s.\" He also noted that unlike \"every other will-they-won't-they Rumiko Takahashi romantic comedy,\" this one actually has an ending. Caitlin Moore of ANN called Maison Ikkoku \"timeless and universal\" and the most grounded and straightforward romance in Takahashi's oeuvre, where, although it is clear from the start who the main couple is and that they will fall in love by the end, it is not clear how that will happen. With Kyoko a widow, she called the manga one of the best portrayals of the slow and messy nature of the grieving process. Although she noted the art as dated, Moore felt it still holds up well with its simple but expressive designs, and that the suburban Tokyo setting gives a timeless feeling. Calling Viz's older translation \"punchy, but not super faithful,\" she called the new one a good balance between faithful to the Japanese and natural-reading English. Moore finished her review with \"I have long considered Maison Ikkoku one of the greatest love stories of all time, but it's so much more than that. It's a romance, a comedy, a coming-of-age story, a story of loss and recovery.\" Right Stuf Inc. called Maison Ikkoku a classic rom-com that has many of the strengths of modern sitcoms and praised the back-and-forth between characters as always hilarious and the romance between Godai and Kyoko as both nuanced and sweet. They described the art as giving the characters \"a comedic whimsy,\" and opined that \"good art is never dated, because good art is timeless.\"",
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"plaintext": "ANN's Allen Divers wrote positive reviews of the anime, saying \"The beauty of Maison Ikkoku is the fact that the entire cast feels dynamic enough that each could be the center of an episode without pulling away from the main idea of the series.\" and called it a must-see for fans of romantic comedies. Melissa Sternenberg of THEM Anime Reviews gave the show a perfect five star rating, calling the development between the two main characters refreshing and praising the supporting cast for reacting to what happens around them. Although she did point out the music and sound effects might seem dated. She finished saying \"There may never be 'the greatest anime series of all time,' but I would bet a good amount of money that this series would be on most (respected) anime viewers' top five lists.\" TV Asahi released two Top 100 Anime lists in 2005; Maison Ikkoku came in 80 on the nationwide survey of multiple age-groups, and 89 on the web poll. A 2019 NHK poll of 210,061 people saw Maison Ikkoku'' named Takahashi's third best animated work.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti found himself increasingly chafing against the censorship limitations in Italy (and especially in Naples). From about 1836, he became interested in working in Paris, where he saw greater freedom to choose subject matter, in addition to receiving larger fees and greater prestige. From 1838, beginning with an offer from the Paris Opéra for two new works, he spent much of the following 10 years in that city, and set several operas to French texts as well as overseeing staging of his Italian works. The first opera was a French version of the then-unperformed Poliuto which, in April 1840, was revised to become Les martyrs. Two new operas were also given in Paris at that time. Throughout the 1840s Donizetti moved between Naples, Rome, Paris, and Vienna, continuing to compose and stage his own operas as well as those of other composers. From around 1843, severe illness began to limit his activities. By early 1846 he was obliged to be confined to an institution for the mentally ill and, by late 1847, friends had him moved back to Bergamo, where he died in April 1848 in a state of mental derangement due to neurosyphilis.",
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"plaintext": "The youngest of three sons, Donizetti was born in 1797 in Bergamo's Borgo Canale quarter, located just outside the city walls. His family was very poor and had no tradition of music, his father Andrea being the caretaker of the town pawnshop. Simone Mayr, a German composer of internationally successful operas, had become maestro di cappella at Bergamo's principal church in 1802. He founded the Lezioni Caritatevoli school in Bergamo in 1805 for the purpose of providing musical training, including classes in literature, beyond what choirboys ordinarily received up until the time that their voices broke. In 1807, Andrea Donizetti attempted to enroll both his sons, but the elder, Giuseppe (then 18), was considered too old. Gaetano (then 9) was accepted.",
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"plaintext": "While not especially successful as a choirboy during the first three trial months of 1807 (there being some concern about a difetto di gola, a throat defect), Mayr was soon reporting that Gaetano \"surpasses all the others in musical progress\" and he was able to persuade the authorities that the young boy's talents were worthy of keeping him in the school. He remained there for nine years, until 1815.",
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"plaintext": "However, as Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook notes, in 1809 he was threatened with having to leave because his voice was changing. In 1810 he applied for and was accepted by the local art school, the Academia Carrara, but it is not known whether he attended classes. Then, in 1811, Mayr once again intervened. Having written both libretto and music for a \"pasticcio-farsa\", Il piccolo compositore di musica, as the final concert of the academic year, Mayr cast five young students, among them his young pupil Donizetti as \"the little composer\". As Ashbrook states, this \"was nothing less than Mayr's argument that Donizetti be allowed to continue his musical studies\".",
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"plaintext": "The piece was performed on 13 September 1811 and included the composer character stating the following:",
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"plaintext": "In reply to the chiding which comes from the other four characters in the piece after the \"little composer\" 's boasts, in the drama the \"composer\" responds with:",
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"plaintext": "The performance also included a waltz which Donizetti played and for which he received credit in the libretto. In singing this piece, all five young men were given opportunities to show off their musical knowledge and talent.",
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"plaintext": "The following two years were somewhat precarious for the young Donizetti: the 16-year-old created quite a reputation for what he did do—which is regularly to fail to attend classes—and also for what he did instead, which as to make something of a spectacle of himself in the town.",
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"plaintext": "However, in spite of all this, Mayr not only persuaded Gaetano's parents to allow him to continue studies, but also secured funding from the Congregazione di Carità in Bergamo for two years of scholarships. In addition, he provided the young musician with letters of recommendation to both the publisher Giovanni Ricordi as well as to the Marchese Francesco Sampieri in Bologna (who would find him suitable lodging) and where, at the Liceo Musicale, he was given the opportunity to study musical structure under the renowned Padre Stanislao Mattei.",
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"plaintext": "In Bologna, he would justify the faith which Mayr had placed in him. Author John Stewart Allitt describes his 1816 \"initial exercises in operatic style\", the opera Il pigmalione, as well as his composition of portions of Olympiade and L'ira d'Achille in 1817, as no more than \"suggest[ing] the work of a student\". Encouraged by Mayr to return to Bergamo in 1817, he began his \"quartet years\" as well as composing piano pieces and, most likely, being a performing member of quartets where he would have also heard music of other composers. In addition, he began seeking employment.",
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"plaintext": "After extending his time in Bologna for as long as he could, Donizetti was forced to return to Bergamo since no other prospects appeared. Various small opportunities came his way and, at the same time, he made the acquaintance of several of the singers appearing during the 1817/18 Carnival season. Among them was the soprano Giuseppina Ronzi de Begnis and her husband, the bass Giuseppe de Begnis.",
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"plaintext": "A coincidental meeting around April 1818 with an old school friend, Bartolomeo Merelli (who was to go on to a distinguished career), led to an offer to compose the music from a libretto which became Enrico di Borgogna. Without a commission from any opera house, Donizetti decided to write the music first and then try to find a company to accept it. He was able to do so when Paolo Zancla, the impresario of the Teatro San Luca (an early theatre built in 1629, which later became the Teatro Goldoni) in Venice accepted it. Thus Enrico was presented on 14 November 1818, but with little success, the audience appearing to be more interested in the newly re-decorated opera house rather than the performances, which suffered from the last-minute withdrawal of the soprano Adelaide Catalani due to stage fright and the consequent omission of some her music. Musicologist and Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook provides a quotation from a review in the Nuovo osservatore veneziano of 17 November in which the reviewer notes some of these performance issues which faced the composer, but he adds: \"one cannot but recognize a regular handling and expressive quality in his style. For these the public wanted to salute Signor Donizetti on stage at the end of the opera.\"",
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"plaintext": "For Donizetti, the result was a further commission and, using another of Merelli's librettos, this became the one-act, Una follia which was presented a month later. However, with no other work forthcoming, the composer once again returned to Bergamo, where a cast of singers made up from the Venice production the month before, presented Enrico di Borgogna in his home town on 26 December. He spent the early months of 1819 working on some sacred and instrumental music, but little else came of his efforts until the latter part of the year when he wrote Il falegname di Livonia from a libretto by Gherardo Bevilacqua-Aldobrandini. The opera was given first at the Teatro San Samuele in Venice in December. Other work included expansion of Le nozze in villa, a project which he had started in mid-1819, but the opera was not presented until the carnival season of 1820/21 in Mantua. Little is known about it except its lack of success and the fact that the score has totally disappeared.",
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"plaintext": "After these minor compositions under the commission of Paolo Zancla, Donizetti retreated to Bergamo once again to examine how he could make his career move along. From the point of view of Donizetti's evolving style, Ashbrook states that, in order to please the opera-going public in the first quarter of the 19th century, it was necessary to cater to their tastes, to make a major impression at the first performance (otherwise there would be no others), and to emulate the preferred musical style of the day, that of Rossini whose music \"was the public's yardstick when they were assessing new scores\".",
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"plaintext": "Remaining in Bergamo until October 1821, the composer busied himself with a variety of instrumental and choral pieces, but during that year, he had been in negotiation with Giovanni Paterni, intendant of the Teatro Argentina in Rome, and by 17 June had received a contract to compose another opera from a libretto being prepared by Merelli. It is unclear as to how this connection came about: whether it had been at Merelli's suggestion or whether, as William Ashbrook speculates, it had been Mayr who had initially been approached by Paterni to write the opera but who, due to advancing age, had recommended his prize pupil. This new opera seria became Donizetti's Zoraida di Granata, his ninth work. The libretto had been started by August and, between then and 1 October, when Donizetti was provided with a letter of introduction from Mayr to Jacopo Ferretti, the Roman poet and librettist who was later to feature in the young composer's career, much of the music had been composed.",
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"plaintext": "The twenty-four-year-old composer arrived in Rome on 21 October, but plans for staging the opera were plagued with a major problem: the tenor cast in the major role died a few days before the opening night on 28 January 1822 and the role had to be re-written for a musico, a mezzo-soprano singing a male role, a not uncommon feature of the era and of Rossini's operas. Opening night was a triumph for Donizetti; as reported in the weekly Notizie del giorno:",
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"plaintext": "Soon after 19 February, Donizetti left Rome for Naples, where he was to settle for a large part of his life. It appears that he had asked Mayr for a letter of introduction, but his fame had preceded him for, on 28th, the announcement of the summer season at the Teatro Nuovo in the Giornale del Regno delle Due Sicilie stated that it would include a Donizetti opera, describing the composer as:",
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"plaintext": "News of this work impressed Domenico Barbaja, the prominent intendant of the Teatro San Carlo and other royal houses in the city such as the smaller Teatro Nuovo and the Teatro del Fondo. By late March Donizetti had been offered a contract not only to compose new operas, but also to be responsible for preparing performances of new productions by other composers whose work had been given elsewhere. On 12 May the first new opera, La zingara, was given at the Nuovo \"with hot enthusiasm\", as scholar Herbert Weinstock states.",
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"plaintext": "It ran for 28 consecutive evenings, followed by 20 more in July, receiving high praise in the Giornale. One of the later performances became the occasion for Donizetti to meet the then-21-year-old music student, Vincenzo Bellini, an event recounted by Francesco Florimo some sixty years later.",
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"plaintext": "The second new work, which appeared six weeks later on 29 June, was a one-act farsa, La lettera anonima. Ashbrook's comments—which reinforce those of the Giornali critic who reviewed the work on 1 July—recognize an important aspect of Donizetti's burgeoning musical style: [he shows that] \"his concern with the dramatic essence of opera rather than the mechanical working out of musical formulas was, even at this early stage, was already present and active.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 3 August for what would become Chiara e Serafina, ossia I pirati, Donizetti entered into a contract with librettist Felice Romani, but he was over-committed and unable to deliver anything until 3 October. The premiere had been scheduled for only about three weeks away and, due to the delays and illnesses among the cast members, it did not receive good reviews, although it did receive a respectable 12 performances.",
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"plaintext": "Returning north via Rome, Donizetti signed a contract for performances of Zoraida by the Teatro Argentina which included the requirement that the libretto to be revised by Ferretti, given Donizetti's low opinion of the work of the original Neapolitan librettist, Andrea Leone Tottola: he referred to it as \"a great barking\". In addition to the revision, he committed to write another new opera for the Rome's Teatro Valle which would also be set to a libretto written by Ferretti. Donizetti finally returned to Naples by late March.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately busy in the spring months of 1823 with a cantata, an opera seria for the San Carlo, and an opera buffa for the Nuovo, Donizetti also had to work on the revised Zoraide for Rome. Unfortunately however, the music set for the San Carlo premiere of Alfredo il grande on 2 July was described in the Giornali as \"...one could not recognize the composer of La zingara.\" It received only one performance, while his two-act farsa, Il fortunato inganno, given in September at the Teatro del Fondo, received only three performances.",
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"plaintext": "In October and for the remainder of the year, he was back in Rome, where he spent time adding five new pieces to Zoraida, which was performed at the Teatro Argentina on 7 January 1824. However, this version was less successful than the original. The second opera for Rome's Teatro Valle also had a libretto by Ferretti, one which has since been regarded as one of his best.",
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"plaintext": "It was the opera buffa L'ajo nell'imbarazzo (The Tutor Embarrassed), the premiere of which took place on 4 February 1824 and \"was greeted with wild enthusiasm [and] it was with this opera that [...] Donizetti had his first really lasting success.\" Allitt notes that with a good libretto to hand, \"Donizetti never failed its dramatic content\" and he adds that \"Donizetti had a far better sense of what would succeed on the stage than his librettists.\"",
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"plaintext": "Back in Naples, he embarked upon his first venture into English Romanticism with the opera semiseria, Emilia di Liverpool, which was given only seven performances in July 1824 at the Nuovo. The critical reaction in the Giornali some months later focused on the weaknesses of the semiseria genre itself, although it did describe Donizetti's music for Emilia as \"pretty\". The composer's activities in Naples became limited because 1825 was a Holy Year in Rome and the death of Ferdinand I in Naples caused little or no opera to be produced in either city for a considerable time.",
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"plaintext": "However, he did obtain a year-long position for the 1825/26 season at the Teatro Carolino in Palermo, where he became musical director (as well teaching at the Conservatory). There, he staged his 1824 version of L'ajo nell'imbarazzo as well as his new opera Alahor in Granata. But overall, his experience in Palermo does not appear to have been pleasant, mainly because of the poorly managed theatre, the continual indisposition of singers, or their failure to appear on time. These issues caused a delay until January 1827 for the premiere of Alahor, after which he went back in Naples in February, but with no specific commitments until midsummer.",
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"plaintext": "That summer was to see the successful presentations at the Teatro Nuovo of the adapted version of L'ajo nell'imbarazzo given as Don Gregorio and, a month later, a one-act melodramma or opera, Elvida, a pièce d'occasion for the birthday of Queen Maria of the Two Sicilies, which contained some florid music for the tenor Giovanni Battista Rubini; but it only received three performances.",
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"plaintext": "Writer John Stewart Allitt observes that, by 1827/28, three important elements in Donizetti's professional and personal life came together: Firstly, he met and began to work with the librettist Domenico Gilardoni, who wrote eleven librettos for him, beginning with Otto mesi in due ore in 1827 and continuing until 1833. Gilardoni shared with the composer a very good sense of what would work on stage. Next, the Naples impresario Barbaja engaged him to write twelve new operas during the following three years. In addition, he was to be appointed to the position of Director of the Royal Theatres of Naples beginning in 1829, a job that the composer accepted and held until 1838. Like Rossini, who had occupied this position before him, Donizetti was free to compose for other opera houses. Finally, in May 1827 he announced his engagement to Virginia Vasselli, the then 18-year-old daughter of the Roman family who had befriended him there.",
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"plaintext": "The couple were married in July 1828 and immediately settled in a new home in Naples. Within two months he had written another opera semiseria, Gianni di Calais, from a libretto by Gilardoni. It was their fourth collaboration, and became a success not only in Naples but also in Rome over the 1830/31 season. Writing about the Naples premiere, the correspondent of the Gazzetta privilegiata di Milano stated: \"The situations that the libretto offers are truly ingenious and do honour to the poet, Gilardoni. Maestro Donizetti has known how to take advantage of them...\", thus reaffirming the growing dramatic skills displayed by the young composer.",
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"plaintext": "In 1830, Donizetti scored his most acclaimed and his first international success with Anna Bolena, given at the Teatro Carcano in Milan on 26 December 1830 with Giuditta Pasta in the title role. Also, the acclaimed tenor Giovanni Battista Rubini appeared in the role of Percy.",
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"plaintext": "With this opera, Donizetti achieved instant fame throughout Europe. Performances were staged \"up and down the Italian peninsula\" between 1830 and 1834 and then throughout Europe's capitals well into the 1840s, with revivals being presented up to about 1881. London was the first European capital to see the work; it was given at the King's Theatre on 8 July 1831.",
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"plaintext": "In regard to which operatic form Donizetti was to have the greater success, when the semi-seria work of 1828, Gianni di Calais, was given in Rome very soon after Anna Bolena had appeared, the Gazzetta privilegiata di Milano described the relationship between the two forms of opera and concluded that \"in two classes—tragic and comic—very close together...the former wins incomparably over the latter\". This appears to have solidified Donizetti's reputation as a composer of successful serious opera, although other comedies were to appear quite quickly.",
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"plaintext": "With his commissions, the years from 1830 to 1835 saw a huge outpouring of work; L'elisir d'amore, a comedy produced in 1832, came soon after Anna Bolenas success and is deemed to be one of the masterpieces of 19th-century opera buffa.",
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"plaintext": "Then came a rapid series of operas from Naples including Francesca di Foix (May 1831); La romanziera e l'uomo nero (June 1831); and Fausta (January 1832). Two new operas were presented in Milan: Le convenienze ed inconvenienze teatrali (April 1831) and Ugo, conte di Parigi (March 1832). Rome presented Il furioso all'isola di San Domingo (January 1833) and Torquato Tasso (September 1833). Otto mesi in due ore (1833) was given in Livorno and Parisina (March 1833) was given in Florence.",
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"plaintext": "After the successful staging of Lucrezia Borgia in 1833, his reputation was further consolidated, and Donizetti followed the paths of both Rossini and Bellini by visiting Paris, where his Marin Faliero was given at the Théâtre-Italien in March 1835. However, it suffered by comparison to Bellini's I puritani which appeared at the same time.",
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"plaintext": "This dramma tragico appeared at a time when several factors were moving Donizetti's reputation as a composer of opera to greater heights: Gioachino Rossini had recently retired and Vincenzo Bellini had died shortly before the premiere of Lucia leaving Donizetti as \"the sole reigning genius of Italian opera\". Not only were conditions ripe for Donizetti to achieve greater fame as a composer, but there was also an interest across the continent of Europe in the history and culture of Scotland. The perceived romance of its violent wars and feuds, as well as its folklore and mythology, intrigued 19th century readers and audiences, and Scott made use of these stereotypes in his novel.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time, continental audiences of that time seemed to be fascinated by the Tudor period of 16th century English history, revolving as it does around the lives of King Henry VIII (and his six wives), Mary I of England (\"Bloody Mary\"), Queen Elizabeth I, as well as the doomed Mary, Queen of Scots. Many of these historical characters appear in Donizetti's dramas, operas which both preceded and followed Anna Bolena. They were Elisabetta al castello di Kenilworth, based on Scribe's Leicester and Hugo's Amy Robsart (given in Naples in July 1829 and revised in 1830). Then came Maria Stuarda (Mary Stuart), based on Schiller's play and given at La Scala in December 1835. It was followed by the third in the \"Three Donizetti Queens\" series, Roberto Devereux, which features the relationship between Elizabeth and the Earl of Essex. It was given at the San Carlo in Naples in October 1837.",
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"plaintext": "As Donizetti's fame grew, so did his engagements. He was offered commissions by both La Fenice in Venice—a house he had not visited for about seventeen years and to which he returned to present Belisario on 4 February 1836. Just as importantly, after the success of his Lucia at the Théâtre-Italien in Paris in December 1837, approaches came from the Paris Opéra. As musicologists Roger Parker and William Ashbrook have stated, \"negotiations with Charles Duponchel, the director of the Opéra, took on a positive note for the first time\" and \"the road to Paris lay open for him\", the first Italian to obtain a commission to write a real grand opera.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1838, Donizetti moved to Paris vowing never to have dealings with the San Carlo again after the King of Naples banned the production of Poliuto on the grounds that such a sacred subject was inappropriate for the stage. In Paris, he offered Poliuto to the Opéra and it was set to a new and expanded four-act French-language libretto by Eugène Scribe with the title, Les Martyrs. Performed in April 1840, it was his first grand opera in the French tradition and was quite successful. Before leaving that city in June 1840, he had time to oversee the translation of Lucia di Lammermoor into Lucie de Lammermoor as well as to write La fille du régiment, his first opera written specifically to a French libretto. This became another success.",
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"plaintext": "After leaving Paris in June 1840, Donizetti was to write ten new operas, although not all were performed in his lifetime. Before arriving in Milan by August 1840, he visited Switzerland and then his hometown of Bergamo, eventually reaching Milan where he was to prepare an Italian version of La fille du régiment. No sooner was that accomplished than he was back in Paris to adapt the never-performed 1839 libretto L'Ange de Nisida as the French-language La favorite, the premiere of which took place on 2 December 1840. Then he rushed back to Milan for Christmas, but returned almost immediately and by late February 1841 was preparing a new opera, Rita, ou Deux hommes et une femme. However, it was not staged until 1860.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti returned once more to Milan where he stayed with the accommodating Giuseppina Appiano Stringeli with whom he had a pleasant time. Unwilling to leave Milan, but encouraged to return to Paris by Michele Accursi (with whom the composer was to be involved in Paris in 1843), he oversaw the December production of Maria Padilla at La Scala, and began writing Linda di Chamounix in preparation for March 1842 travels to Vienna, in which city he had been engaged by the royal court.",
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"plaintext": "During this time and prior to leaving for Vienna, he was persuaded to conduct the premiere of Rossini's Stabat Mater in Bologna in March 1842. Friends—including his brother-in-law, Antonio Vasselli (known as Totò)—continually attempted to persuade him to take up an academic position in Bologna rather than the Vienna court engagement, if for no other reason that it would give the composer a base from which to work and teach and not be continually exhausting himself with travel between cities. But in a letter to Vasselli, he adamantly refused.",
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"plaintext": "When Donizetti went to Bologna for the Stabat Mater, Rossini attended the third performance, and the two men—each former students of the Bologna Conservatory—met for the first time, with Rossini declaring that Donizetti was \"the only maestro in Italy capable of conducting my Stabat as I would have it\".",
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"plaintext": "Arriving in Vienna in the Spring of 1842 with a letter of recommendation from Rossini, Donizetti became involved in rehearsals for Linda di Chamounix which was given its premiere in May and which was a huge success. In addition, he was appointed kapellmeister to the chapel of the royal court, the same post which had been held by Mozart.",
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"plaintext": "He left Vienna on 1 July 1842 after the Spring Italian season, travelling to Milan, Bergamo (in order to see the now-aging Mayr, but where the deterioration of his own health became more apparent), and then on to Naples in August, a city he had not visited since 1838. A contract with the San Carlo remained unresolved. Also, it appears that he wished to sell his Naples house, but could not bring himself to go through with it, such was the sorrow which remained after his wife's death in 1837.",
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"plaintext": "However, on 6 September he was on his way back to Genoa from where he would leave for a three-month planned stay in Paris to be followed by time in Vienna once again. He wrote that he would work on translations of Maria Padilla and Linda di Chamounix and \"God knows what else I'll do\". During the time in Naples, his poor health was again a problem causing him to remain in bed for days at a time.",
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"plaintext": "Arriving once again in Paris in late September 1842, he accomplished the revisions to the two Italian operas and he received a suggestion from Jules Janin, the newly appointed director of the Théâtre-Italien, that he might compose a new opera for that house. Janin's idea was that it should be a new opera buffa and tailored to the talents of some major singers including Giulia Grisi, Antonio Tamburini, and Luigi Lablache who had been hired. The result turned out to be the comic opera, Don Pasquale, planned for January 1843. While preparations were underway, other ideas came to Donizetti and, discovering Cammarano's libretto for Giuseppe Lillo's unsuccessful 1839 Il Conte di Chalais, he turned it into the first two acts of Maria di Rohan within twenty-four hours. Another opera with Scribe as librettist was in the works: it was to be Dom Sébastien, roi de Portugal planned for November 1843 in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "When Don Pasquale was presented on 3 January, it was an overwhelming success with performances continuing until late March. Writing in the Journal des débats on 6 January, the critic Étienne-Jean Delécluze proclaimed:",
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"plaintext": "By 1843, Donizetti was exhibiting symptoms of syphilis and probable bipolar disorder: \"the inner man was broken, sad, and incurably sick\", states Allitt. Ashbrook observes that the preoccupation with work which obsessed Donizetti in the last months of 1842 and throughout 1843 \"suggests that he recognised what was wrong with him and that he wanted to compose as much as he could while he was still able\". But after the success in Paris, he continued working and left once again for Vienna, arriving there by mid-January 1843.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly thereafter, he wrote to Antonio Vasselli outlining his plans for that year, concluding with the somewhat ominous: \"All of this with a new illness contracted in Paris, which has still not passed and for which I am awaiting your prescription\". But, in the body of the letter, he lays out what he will be aiming to accomplish in 1843: in Vienna, a French drama; in Naples, a planned Ruy-Blas [but it was never composed]; in Paris for the Opéra-Comique, \"a Flemish subject\", and for the Opéra, \"I am using a Portuguese subject in five acts\" (which was to be Dom Sébastien, Roi de Portugal, and actually given on 13 November.) Finally, he adds \"and first I am remounting Les Martyrs which is creating a furor in the provinces\".",
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"plaintext": "However, by early February, he is already writing via an intermediary to Vincenzo Flauto, then the impresario at the San Carlo in Naples, in an attempt to break his agreement to compose for that house in July. He was increasingly becoming aware of the limitations which his poor health is imposing upon him. As it turned out, he was able to revive a half-completed work which had been started for Vienna, but only after receiving a rejection to his request to be released from his Naples' obligations did he work on finishing Caterina Cornaro by May for a production in Naples in January 1844, but without the composer being present. When it did appear, it was not very successful. As far as the work for the Opéra-Comique was concerned—Ne m'oubliez moi it was to be called—it appears that he was able to break his contract with that house, although he had already composed and orchestrated seven numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti's obligations in Vienna included overseeing the annual Italian season at the Theater am Kärntnertor which began in May. Verdi's Nabucco (which Donizetti had seen in Milan at its premiere in March 1842 and with which he had been impressed) was featured as part of that season. However, his main preoccupation was to complete the orchestration of Maria di Rohan, which was accomplished by 13 February for planned performances in June. The season began with a very successful revival of Linda di Chamounix. Nabucco followed, the first production of a Verdi opera in Vienna. The season also included Don Pasquale in addition to The Barber of Seville. Finally, Maria di Rohan was given on 5 June. In reporting the reaction to this opera in a teasing letter to Antonio Vasselli in Rome, he tried to build suspense, stating that \"With the utmost sorrow, I must announce to you that last evening I have given my Maria di Rohan [and he names the singers]. All their talent was not enough to save me from \"a sea of [pause, space] – applause....Everything went well. Everything.\"",
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"plaintext": "Returning to Paris as quickly as possible, Donizetti left Vienna around 11 July 1843 in his newly purchased carriage and arrived on about 20th, immediately getting down to work on finishing Dom Sébastien, which he describes as a massive enterprise: \"what a staggering spectacle.....I am terribly wearied by this enormous opera in five acts which carries bags full of music for singing and dancing.\" It is his longest opera as well as the one on which he spent the most time.",
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"plaintext": "With rehearsals in progress at the Opéra for Dom Sébastien, the first performance being planned for 13 November, the composer was also working on readying Maria di Rohan for the Théâtre-Italien on the following evening, 14 November. Both were successful, although author Herbert Weinstock states that \"the older opera was an immediate, unquestioned success with both audience and critics\". However, Maria di Rohan continued for 33 performances in all, whereas Dom Sébastien remained in the repertory until 1845 with a total of 32 performances.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 December 1843, Donizetti was back in Vienna, having delayed leaving until the 20th because of illness. Ashbrook comments on how he was viewed in that city, with \"friends notic[ing] an alarming change in his physical condition\", and with his ability to concentrate and simply to remaining standing often being impaired.",
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"plaintext": "Having entered into a contract with Léon Pillet of the Opéra for a new work for the coming year, he found nothing to be suitable and immediately wrote to Pillet proposing that another composer take his place. While waiting to see if he could be relieved from writing a large-scale work if Giacomo Meyerbeer would allow Le Prophète to be staged instead that autumn, he looked forward to the arrival of his brother from Turkey in May and to the prospect of their traveling to Italy together that summer. Eventually, it was agreed that his commitment to the Opéra could be postponed until November 1845.",
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"plaintext": "While taking care of some of his obligations to the Viennese court, for the remainder of the month he awaited news on the outcome of the 12 January premiere of Caterina Cornaro in Naples. By the 31st (or 1 February), he learned the truth: it had been a failure. What was worse were the rumours that it was not in fact Donizetti's work, although a report from Guido Zavadini suggested that it was probably a combination of elements which caused the failure, including the singers' difficulty in finding the right tone in the absence of the maestro, plus the heavily censored libretto. Primarily, however, the opera's failure appears to have been due to the maestro's absence, because he was unable to be present to oversee and control the staging, normally one of Donizetti's strengths.",
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"plaintext": "The Italian season in Vienna, which included Bellini's Norma and revivals of Linda di Chamounix and of Don Pasquale, also included the first production there of Verdi's Ernani. Donizetti had made a promise to Giacomo Pedroni of the publishing house Casa Ricordi to oversee the production of the opera, which was given on 30 May with Donizetti conducting. The result was a very warm letter from Giuseppe Verdi entrusting the production to his care; it concluded: \"With the most profound esteem, your most devoted servant, G. Verdi\".",
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"plaintext": "Gaetano's brother Giuseppe, on leave from Constantinople, arrived in Vienna in early June. He had intended to leave by about 22nd, but Gaetano's bout of illness delayed his departure, and the brothers traveled together to Bergamo on about 12 or 13 July proceeding slowly but arriving around the 21st.",
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"plaintext": "William Ashbrook describes the second half of 1844 as a period of \"pathetic restlessness\". He continues: \"Donizetti went to Bergamo, Lovere on Lake Iseo [about 26 miles from Bergamo], back to Bergamo, to Milan [31 July], to Genoa [with his friend Antonio Dolci, on 3 August, where they stayed until 10 August because of illness], to Naples [by steamer, from which he wrote to Vasselli in Rome explaining that the upcoming visit may be last time he would see his brother], [then] to Rome [on 14 September to see Vasselli], back to Naples [on 2 October after being invited back to Naples for the first San Carlo performances of Maria di Rohan on 11 November, which was immensely successful], to Genoa [on 14 November by boat; arrived on the 19th] and on to Milan again [for two days]\" before reaching Bergamo on 23 November where his found his old friend Mayr to be very ill. He delayed his departure for as long as possible, but Mayr died on 2 December shortly after Donizetti had left Bergamo.",
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"plaintext": "By 5 December he was in Vienna writing a letter to his friend Guglielmo Cottrau on 6th and again on 12th, stating \"I am not well. I am in the hands of a doctor.\" While there were periods of relative calm, his health continued to fail him periodically and then there were relapses into depression, as expressed in a letter: \"I am half-destroyed, it's a miracle that I'm still on my feet\".",
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"plaintext": "Writing to unnamed Paris friends on 7 February, even after the very positive reaction received at the premiere of a specially-prepared Dom Sébastien on 6 February 1845 (which he had conducted for three performances of the total of 162 given over the following years until 1884), he grumbles about the reactions of the Parisian audiences and continues with a brief report on his health which, he says, \"if it is no better and this continues, I'll find myself forced to go to spend some months resting in Bergamo.\" At the same time, he rejected offers to compose, one offer coming from London and requiring an opera four months away; the objection of having limited time was given. Other appeals came from Paris, one directly from Vatel, the new impresario of the Théâtre-Italien, who traveled to Vienna to see the composer. As other biographers also note, there is an increasing sense that, during 1845, Donizetti became more and more aware of the real state of his health and the limitations it has begun to impose on his activities. Other letters into April and May reveal much of the same, and the fact that he did not attend the opening performance of Verdi's I due Foscari on 3 April, finally seeing it only at its fourth performance, confirms that.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of May, no decision as what to do or where to go had been made, but—finally—he decided on Paris where he would claim a forfeit from the Opéra for the non-production of Le duc d'Albe, his unfulfilled second commission from 1840 which, although still unfinished, had a completed libretto. He left Vienna for the last time on 10 July 1845.",
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"plaintext": "By the time he reached Paris, Donizetti had been suffering from malaises, headaches, and nausea for decades, but had never been formally treated. In early August, he initiated a lawsuit against the Opéra which dragged on until April 1846 and in which he prevailed.",
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"plaintext": "The culmination of the crisis in Donizetti's health came in August 1845 when he was diagnosed with cerebro-spinal syphilis and severe mental illness. Two doctors, including Dr. Philippe Ricord (a specialist in syphilis), recommended that, along with various remedies, he abandon work altogether and both agreed that the Italian climate would be better for his health. But letters to friends reveal two things: that he continued to work on Gemma di Vergy that autumn for its performance in Paris on 16 December, and that he revealed a lot about the progression of his illness.",
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"plaintext": "As his condition worsened, the composer's brother Giuseppe dispatched his son Andrea to Paris from Constantinople. Arriving there on 25 December, Andrea lodged at the Hôtel Manchester with his uncle, but immediately consulted Dr. Ricord on his uncle's condition. Ricord recorded his opinion in mid-January that, while it ultimately might be better for the composer's health for him to be in Italy, it was not advisable for him to travel until the spring. Consulting two additional doctors as well as Dr. Ricord, Andrea received their written opinion after an examination on 28 January 1846. In summary, it stated that the doctors \"believe that M. Donizetti no longer is capable of calculating sanely the significance of his decisions\".",
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"plaintext": "In February 1846, reluctant to consider going further towards institutionalization, he relied on the further advice of two of the doctors who had examined his uncle in late January. They stated:",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, Andrea agreed to allow his uncle to be taken to a facility which has been described as \"resemb[ling] that of a health spa.... with a central hospital more-or-less in the guise of a country house\" and Donizetti left Paris by coach with Andrea, believing that they were travelling to Vienna, where he was due by 12 February to fulfill his contract. Following behind in another coach was Dr. Ricord. After three hours they arrived at the Maison Esquirol in Ivry-sur-Seine, a suburb of Paris, where an explanation involving an accident was concocted to explain the need to spend the night at a \"comfortable inn\". Within a few days—realizing that he was being confined—Donizetti wrote urgent letters seeking help from friends, but they were never delivered. However, evidence provided from friends who visited Donizetti over the following months, states that he was being treated very well, the facility having a reputation for the care given to its patients. Various aggressive treatments were tried, and were described as having their \"successes, however fleeting\".",
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"plaintext": "By the end of May, Andrea had decided that his uncle would be better off in the Italian climate, and three outside physicians were called in for their opinions. Their report concluded with the advice that he leave for Italy without delay. But, as Andrea began to make plans for his uncle's journey to and upkeep in Bergamo, he was forced by the Paris Prefect of Police to have his uncle undergo another examination by other physicians appointed by the Prefect. Their conclusion was the opposite of that of the previous doctors: \"we are of the opinion that the trip should be forbidden formally as offering very real dangers and being far from allowing hope of any useful result.\" With that, the Prefect informed Andrea that Donizetti could not be moved from Ivry. Andrea saw little use in remaining in Paris. He sought a final opinion from the three doctors practicing at the clinic, and on 30 August, they provided a lengthy report outlining step-by-step the complete physical condition of their declining patient, concluding that the rigours of travel—the jolting of the carriage, for example—could bring on new symptoms or complications impossible to treat on such a journey. Andrea left for Bergamo on 7 (or 8) September 1846, taking with him a partial score of Le duc d'Albe, the completed score of Rita, and a variety of personal effects, including jewelry.",
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"plaintext": "In late December, early January 1847, visits from a friend from Vienna who lived in Paris—Baron Eduard von Lannoy—resulted in a letter from Lannoy to Giuseppe Donizetti in Constantinople outlining what he saw as a better solution: rather than have friends travel the five hours to see his brother, Lannoy recommended that Gaetano be moved to Paris where he could be taken care of by the same doctors. Giuseppe agreed and sent Andrea back to Paris, which he reached on 23 April. Visiting his uncle the following day, he found himself recognized. He was able to go on to convince the Paris Prefect, by threats of family action and general public concern, that the composer should be moved to an apartment in Paris. This took place on 23 June and, while there, he was able to take rides in his carriage and appeared to be much more aware of his surroundings. However, he was held under virtual house arrest by the police for several more months, although able to be visited by friends and even by Verdi while he was in Paris. Finally—on 16 August—in Constantinople, Giuseppe filed a formal complaint with the Austrian ambassador (given that the composer was an Austrian citizen).",
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"plaintext": "In Paris, the police insisted on a further medical examination. Six doctors were called in and, of the six, only four approved of the travel. Then the police sent in their own doctor (who opposed the move), posted gendarmes outside the apartment, and forbade the daily carriage rides. Now desperate, Andrea then consulted three lawyers and sent detailed reports to his father in Constantinople. Finally, action taken by Count Sturmer of the Austrian Embassy in Turkey caused action to be taken from Vienna which, via the Embassy in Paris, sent a formal complaint to the French government. Within a few days, Donizetti was given permission to leave and he set out from Paris on what was to be a seventeen-day trip to Bergamo.",
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"plaintext": "Arrangements had been made well ahead of time as to where Donizetti would live when he arrived in Bergamo. In fact, on his second visit to Paris, when it appeared that his uncle would return to Italy, Andrea had an agreement from the noble Scotti family for his uncle to be able to stay in their palace. The accompanying party of four consisted of Andrea, the composer's younger brother Francesco who had come specially from Bergamo for this purpose, Dr. Rendu, and nurse-custodian Antoine Pourcelot. They traveled by train to Amiens, then on to Brussels, after which they traveled in two coaches (one of which was Donizetti's, sent ahead to await the party). They crossed Belgium and Germany to Switzerland, crossing the Alps via the St Gotthard Pass, and came down into Italy arriving in Bergamo on the evening of 6 October, where they were welcomed by friends as well as the mayor.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the report of the accompanying doctor, Donizetti did not appear to have suffered from the journey. He was settled comfortably in a large chair, speaking very rarely or only in occasional monosyllables, and mostly remaining detached from everyone around him. However, when Giovannina Basoni (who eventually became Baroness Scotti) played and sang arias from the composer's operas, he did appear to pay some attention. On the other hand, when the tenor Rubini visited and, together with Giovannina, sang music from Lucia di Lammermoor, Antonio Vasselli reported that there was no sign of recognition at all. This condition continued well into 1848, more or less unchanged until a serious bout of apoplexy occurred on 1 April followed by further decline and the inability to take in food. Finally, after the intense night of 7 April, Gaetano Donizetti died on the afternoon of 8 April.",
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"plaintext": "Initially Donizetti was buried in the cemetery of Valtesse but in 1875 his body was transferred to Bergamo's Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore near the grave of his teacher Simon Mayr.",
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"plaintext": "During the months he spent in Rome for the production of Zoraida Donizetti met the Vasselli family, with Antonio initially becoming a good friend. Antonio's sister Virginia was at that point 13. She became Donizetti's wife in 1828. She gave birth to three children, none of whom survived and, within a year of his parents' deaths—on 30 July 1837—she also died from what is believed to be cholera or measles, but Ashbrook speculates that it was connected to what he describes as a \"severe syphilitic infection.\"",
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"plaintext": "By nine years, he was the younger brother of Giuseppe Donizetti, who had become, in 1828, Instructor General of the Imperial Ottoman Music at the court of Sultan Mahmud II (1808–1839). The youngest of the three brothers was Francesco whose life was spent entirely in Bergamo, except for a brief visit to Paris during his brother's decline. He survived him by only eight months.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Bellini, Donizetti was the most significant composer of Italian opera until Verdi. His reputation fluctuated, but since the 1940s and 1950s his work has been increasingly performed. His best known operas today are Lucia di Lammermoor, La fille du régiment, L'elisir d'amore and Don Pasquale.",
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"plaintext": "Donizetti, a prolific composer, is best known for his operatic works, but he also wrote music in a number of other forms, including some church music, a number of string quartets, and some orchestral pieces. Altogether, he composed about 75 operas, 16 symphonies, 19 string quartets, 193 songs, 45 duets, 3 oratorios, 28 cantatas, instrumental concertos, sonatas, and other chamber pieces.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "References",
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"plaintext": " Also see Allitt's website.",
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"plaintext": " Allitt, John Stewart (2003), Gaetano Donizetti – Pensiero, musica, opere scelte, Milano: Edizione Villadiseriane",
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"plaintext": " Ashbrook, William (with John Black); Julian Budden (1998), \"Gaetano Donizetti\" in Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Volume 1. London: Macmillan. ",
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"plaintext": " Bini, Annalisa and Jeremy Commons (1997), Le prime rappresentazioni delle opere di Donizetti nella stampa coeva, Milan: Skira.",
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"plaintext": " Cassaro, James P. (2000), Gaetano Donizetti – A Guide to Research, New York: Garland Publishing.",
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"plaintext": " Donati-Petténi, Giuliano (1928), L'Istituto Musicale Gaetano Donizetti. La Cappella Musicale di Santa Maria Maggiore. Il Museo Donizettiano, Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche. (In Italian)",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Donati-Petténi, Giuliano (1930), Donizetti, Milano: Fratelli Treves Editori. (In Italian)",
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"plaintext": " Donati-Petténi, Giuliano (1930), L'arte della musica in Bergamo, Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche. (In Italian)",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Engel, Louis (1886), From Mozart to Mario: Reminiscences of Half a Century vols. 1 & 2., London, Richard Bentley.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Gossett, Philip (1985), \"Anna Bolena\" and the Artistic Maturity of Gaetano Donizetti, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Kantner, Leopold M. (ed.), Donizetti in Wien, papers from a symposium in various languages. Primo Ottocento, available from Edition Praesens. ",
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"plaintext": " Keller, Marcello Sorce (1978), \"Gaetano Donizetti: un bergamasco compositore di canzoni napoletane\", Studi Donizettiani, vol. III, pp.100–107.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Keller, Marcello Sorce (1984), \"Io te voglio bene assaje: a Famous Neapolitan Song Traditionally Attributed to Gaetano Donizetti\", The Music Review, vol. XLV, no. 3–4, pp.251–264. Also published as: , 1985, no. 4, pp.642–653.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Minden, Pieter (ed.); Gaetano Donizetti (1999), Scarsa Mercè Saranno. Duett für Alt und Tenor mit Klavierbegleitung [Partitur]. Mit dem Faksimile des Autographs von 1815. Tübingen : Noûs-Verlag. 18 pp., [13] fol.; . [Caesar vs. Cleopatra.]",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Saracino, Egidio (ed.) (1993), Tutti I libretti di Donizetti, Garzanti Editore.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Donizetti Society (London) for further research. Online at donizettisociety.com",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Dotto, Gabriele; Roger Parker, (general editors), \"The Critical Edition of the Operas of Gaetano Donizetti published by Casa Ricordi, Milan, with the collaboration and contribution of Fondazione Donizetti, Bergamo\" online at ricordi.com.",
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"plaintext": " List of Donizetti operas compiled by Stanford University on opera.stanford.edu",
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"plaintext": " \"About the Composer: Gaetano Maria Donizetti\" on the Manitoba Opera's website",
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"plaintext": " Donizetti biography on Arizona Opera website",
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"plaintext": " Libretti: source for a large number of Donizetti's operas",
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"plaintext": " Gaetano Donizetti cylinder recordings, from the UCSB Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California, Santa Barbara, Library.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58 was originally developed during the early 1960s as the D-250 for the Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). While the rival Hughes OH-6 Cayuse was picked over Bell's submission in May 1965, the company refined its design to create the Model 206A, a variant of which it successfully submitted to the reopened LOH competition two years later. The initial model, designated by the service as the OH-58A, was introduced in May 1969. Successive models would follow, often with uprated engines, enhanced protection systems, and other improvements, cumulating in the OH-58F. Additional improvements, such as the OH-58X, were proposed but ultimately not pursued.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy approached 25 helicopter manufacturers to request on behalf of the Army the submission of proposals for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). Bell Helicopter was one of the manufacturers approached, and chose to enter the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co., Aircraft Division. Bell's design was internally referred to as the D-250, and would be officially designated as the YHO-4. On 19 May 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition.",
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"plaintext": "The Bell OH-58 Kiowa is a family of single-engine single-rotor military helicopters principally used for observation, utility, and direct fire support. The primary role of the original OH-58A was identify targets for other platforms, such as the Bell AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter and ground artillery; it lacked any armaments and weighed 1,451kg (3,200lb) when fully loaded, being able to carry a small amount of cargo or two passengers. While initial examples were reliant on the eyes of the crew to conduct observations, later models were furnished with sophisticated sensors to precisely determine a target's location. Payload capacity was also increased considerably on later-build rotorcraft, the OH-58D Kiowa was designed to carry a maximum load of 2,495kg, 72% more capacity than the original version.",
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"plaintext": "Early Kiowas were fitted with a flexible twin-bladed main rotor; starting with the OH-58D, a four-bladed rigid main rotor was used. This was entirely composed of composite materials, the OH-58D was the first US Army rotorcraft to incorporate an all-composite main rotor hub. Later models were outfitted as light gunships, being equipped with various armaments, such as Stinger air-to-air missiles, a .50-calibre machine gun, podded 70mm Hydra rockets and AGM-114 Hellfire air to ground missiles. Other areas of improvement were the avionics and the cockpit; new navigation and communication systems were installed along with new and larger flight instrumentation, while all light sources were redesigned for compatibility with Night Vision Goggles (NVG). Later versions were outfitted with a glass cockpit, which retained conventional instrumentation as a fallback measure.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58D introduced perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Kiowa family — the Mast Mounted Sight (MMS), which resembles a beach ball perched above the rotor system. The MMS by Ball Aerospace & Technologies has a gyro-stabilized platform containing a television system (TVS), a thermal imaging system (TIS), and a laser range finder/designator (LRF/D). These features gave the OH-58D the additional mission capability of target acquisition and laser designation in day or night, limited-visibility and adverse weather. In combination with the 1553 databus, the OH-58D being first US Army helicopter to be fielded with such equipment, target data from the sensors could be directly passed to precision-guided weapons.",
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"plaintext": "The MMS was developed by the McDonnell Douglas Corp. in Huntington Beach, CA. Production took place primarily at facilities in Monrovia, CA. As a result of a merger with Boeing, and a later sale of the business unit, the program is currently owned and managed by DRS Technologies, with engineering support based in Cypress, CA, and production support taking place in Melbourne, FL. On the OH-58F, the MMS was removed, its functions having been replaced by the AAS-53 Common Sensor Payload, which is mounted on the chin.",
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"plaintext": "One distinctive feature of operational OH-58s are the knife-like extensions above and below the cockpit which are part of the passive wire strike protection system; it protects 90% of the frontal area of the helicopter from wire strikes that can be encountered at low altitudes by directing wires to the upper or lower blades before they can entangle the rotor blade or landing skids. The OH-58 was the first helicopter to test this system, after which the system was adopted by the US Army for the OH-58 and most of their other helicopters. Various other defensive and survivability measures were incorporated, such as ballistic floor armor, a missile warning system, crashworthy seats, and infrared suppression systems for the engine exhaust.",
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"plaintext": "During May 1969, the first OH-58A Kiowa was officially received at a ceremony held at Bell Helicopter's Fort Worth plant, officiated by Major General John Norton, commanding general of the Army Aviation Materiel Command (AMCOM). Two months later, on 17 August 1969, production OH-58A helicopters arrived in South Vietnam for the first time; their deployment was accompanied by a New Equipment Training Team (NETT) comprising personnel from both the US Army and Bell Helicopters. Although the Kiowa production contract had replaced the LOH contract with Hughes, the OH-58A did not automatically replace the OH-6A in operations; subsequently, the Kiowa and the Cayuse would continue operating in the same theater until the end of the conflict.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 March 1970, an OH-58A Kiowa (s/n 68-16785) was shot down over South Vietnam, one of the first OH-58A losses of the war. The pilot, Warrant Officer Ralph Quick, Jr., was flying Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Benoski, Jr. as an artillery spotter. After completing a battle damage assessment for a previous fire mission, the aircraft was damaged by .51 inch (13mm) machine gun fire and crashed, killing both crew members. Approximately 45 OH-58A helicopters were destroyed during the Vietnam War due to combat losses and accidents. One of the last combat losses in the theatre was of an OH-58A (s/n 68-16888) from A Troop, 3-17th Cavalry, flown by First Lieutenant Thomas Knuckey. On 27 May 1971, Lieutenant Knuckey was also flying a battle damage assessment mission when his aircraft came under machine gun fire and exploded. Knuckey and his observer, Sergeant Philip Taylor, both died in the explosion.",
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"plaintext": "During early 1988, it was decided that armed OH-58D (AHIP) helicopters from the 118th Aviation Task Force would be phased in to replace the SEABAT (AH-6/MH-6) teams of Task Force 160th to carry out Operation Prime Chance, the escort of oil tankers during the Iran–Iraq War. On 24 February 1988, two AHIP helicopters reported to the Mobile Sea Base Wimbrown VII, and the helicopter team (\"SEABAT\" team after their callsign) stationed on the barge returned to the United States. For the next few months, the AHIP helicopters on the Wimbrown VII shared patrol duties with the SEABAT team on the Hercules. Coordination proved difficult, despite frequent requests from TF-160, the SEABAT team on the Hercules was not replaced by an AHIP detachment until June 1988. The OH-58D helicopter crews involved in the operation received deck landing and underwater survival training from the Navy.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1988, the number of OH-58D helicopters that supported Task Force 118 was reduced. However, the rotorcraft continued to operate from the Navy's Mobile Sea Base Hercules, the frigate Underwood, and the destroyer Conolly. OH-58D operations primarily entailed reconnaissance flights at night, and depending on maintenance requirements and ship scheduling, Army helicopters usually rotated from the mobile sea base and other combatant ships to a land base every seven to fourteen days. On 18 September 1989, an OH-58D crashed during night gunnery practice and sank, but with no loss of personnel. When the Mobile Sea Base Hercules was deactivated in September 1989, all but five OH-58D helicopters redeployed to the continental United States.",
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"plaintext": "During Operation Desert Storm, 115 deployed OH-58D helicopters participated in a wide variety of critical combat missions and were vital to the success of the ground forces mission. During Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the Kiowas collectively flew nearly 9,000 hours with a 92 percent fully mission capable rate. The Kiowa Warrior had the lowest ratio of maintenance hours to flight hours of any combat helicopter in the war.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, Congress mandated that the Army National Guard would take part in the country's War on Drugs, enabling them to aid federal, state and local law enforcement agencies with \"special congressional entitlements\". In response, the Army National Guard Bureau created the Reconnaissance and Aerial Interdiction Detachments (RAID) in 1992, consisting of aviation units in 31 states with 76 specially modified OH-58A helicopters to assume the reconnaissance/interdiction role in the fight against illegal drugs. During 1994, 24 states conducted more than 1,200 aerial counterdrug reconnaissance and interdiction missions, conducting many of these missions at night. Eventually, the program was expanded to cover 32 states and consisting of 116 aircraft, including dedicated training aircraft at the Western Army Aviation Training Site (WAATS) in Marana, Arizona.",
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"plaintext": "The RAID program's mission has now been expanded to include the war against terrorism and supporting U.S. Border Patrol activities in support of homeland defense. The National Guard RAID units' Area of Operation (AO) is the only one in the Department of Defense that is wholly contained within the borders of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "During Operation Just Cause in 1989, a team consisting of an OH-58 and an AH-1 were part of the Aviation Task Force during the securing of Fort Amador in Panama. The OH-58 was fired upon by Panama Defense Force soldiers and crashed away, in the Bay of Panama. The pilot was rescued, but the co-pilot died.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 December 1994, Army Chief Warrant Officers (CWO) David Hilemon and Bobby Hall left Camp Page, South Korea on a routine training mission along the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Their flight was intended to be to a point known as Checkpoint 84, south of the DMZ \"no-fly zone\", but the OH-58C Kiowa strayed nearly into the Kangwon Province, inside North Korean airspace, due to errors in navigating the snow-covered, rugged terrain. The helicopter was shot down by North Korean troops and CWO Hilemon was killed. CWO Hall was held captive and the North Korean government insisted that the crew had been spying. Five days of negotiations resulted in the North Koreans turning over Hilemon's body to U.S. authorities. The negotiations failed to secure Hall's immediate release. After 13 days in captivity, Hall was freed on 30 December, uninjured.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army employed the OH-58D during Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Between a combination of combat and accidents, over 35 airframes have been lost, resulting in the deaths of 35 pilots. Their presence was also anecdotally credited with saving lives, having been used to rescue wounded despite their small size. In Iraq, OH-58Ds reportedly flew 72 hours per month, while in Afghanistan, the type flew 80 hours per month. During April 2013, Bell stated that the OH-58 collectively accumulated 820,000 combat hours, and had achieved a 90% mission capable rate.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army's first attempt to replace the OH-58 was the RAH-66 Comanche of the Light Helicopter Experimental program, which was canceled in 2004. Airframe age and losses led to the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program and the Bell ARH-70, which was canceled in 2008 due to cost overruns. The third replacement effort was the Armed Aerial Scout program. Due to uncertainty in the AAS program and fiscal restraints, the OH-58F's planned retirement was extended from 2025 to 2036. The Kiowa's scout role was supplemented by tactical unmanned aerial vehicles, the two platforms often acting in conjunction to provide reconnaissance to expose crews to less risk. The OH-58F had the ability to control UAVs directly to safely perform scout missions. In 2011, the Kiowa was scheduled to be replaced by the light version of the Future Vertical Lift aircraft in the 2030s.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2013, the U.S. Army had 338 Kiowas in its active-duty force and 30 in the Army National Guard. The Army considered retiring the Kiowa as part of a wider restructuring to cut costs and reduce the variety of helicopters operated. The Analysis of Alternatives for the AAS program found that operating the Kiowa alongside RQ-7 Shadow UAVs was the most affordable and capable solution, while the AH-64E Apache Guardian was the most capable immediate solution. One proposal was to transfer all Army National Guard and Army Reserve AH-64s to the active Army for use as scouts to divest the OH-58. The Apache costs 50 percent more than the Kiowa to operate and maintain; studies note that had it been used in place of the Kiowa in Iraq and Afghanistan, total operating costs would have risen by $4 billion, but also saved $1 billion per year in operating and sustainment costs. UH-60 Black Hawks would transfer from the active Army to reserve and Guard units. The aim was to retire older helicopters and retain those with the best capabilities to save money. Retiring the Kiowa would fund Apache upgrades.",
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"plaintext": "The Army placed 26 out of 335 OH-58Ds in non-flyable storage during 2014. In anticipation of divestment, the Army looked to see if other military branches, government agencies, and foreign customers had interest in buying the type. The Kiowas were considered to be well priced for foreign countries with limited resources; Bell had not yet agreed to support them if sold overseas. Media expected OH-58s to go to foreign militaries rather than civil operators due to high operating cost. By 2015, the Army had divested 33 OH-58Ds. By January 2016, the Army had divested all but two OH-58D squadrons. In June 2016, members of 1st Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment, 82nd Combat Aviation Brigade, arrived in South Korea as part of the Kiowa's last deployment in U.S. Army service. In January 2017, the last Kiowa Warrior performed their last live fire maneuver before retirement.",
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"plaintext": "Ex-U.S. Army OH-58Ds were made available through Excess Defense Article and foreign military sales (FMS) programs. In November 2014, Croatia sent a letter of intent for the acquisition of 16 OH-58Ds. In 2016, Croatia and Tunisia became the first nations to request the helicopters, ordering 16 and 24, respectively. Croatia received the first batch of 5 OH-58Ds at the Zadar-Zemunik air base on 30 June 2016. In early 2018, Greece was granted 70 OH-58Ds via an FMS arrangement, the type has been initially stationed at Hellenic Army Aviation air base at Stefanovikio.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2020, the U.S. Army selected the Bell 360 Invictus and Sikorsky Raider X as part of the Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft (FARA) program to fill the capability gap left by the retirement of the OH-58. On 9 July 2020, the US Army retired its last OH-58Cs from active service at Fort Polk.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58A Kiowa is a four-place observation helicopter. It has two-place pilot seating, although the controls in the left seat are designed to be removed to carry a passenger up front. During its Vietnam development, it was fitted with the M134 Minigun, a 7.62mm electrically operated machine gun.",
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"plaintext": "The Australian Army leased eight OH-58As in 1971 in Vietnam for eight months. A total of 74 OH-58As were delivered to the Canadian Armed Forces as COH-58A and later redesignated CH-136 Kiowa. As many as 12 surplus Kiowas were sold to the Dominican Republic Air Force, and others sold privately in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, OH-58As began to be converted to the same engine and dynamic components as the OH-58C. In 1992, 76 OH-58A were modified with another engine upgrade, a thermal imaging system, a communications package for law enforcement, enhanced navigational equipment and high skid gear as part of the Army National Guard's (ARNG) Counter-Drug RAID program. The U.S. Army retired its last OH-58A in November 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58B was an export version for the Austrian Air Force. The Australian Government also procured the OH-58A for the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy as the CAC CA-32. Licensed produced in Australia by Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, the CA-32 was the equivalent of the 206B-1 (upgraded engine and longer rotor blades). The first twelve of 56 were built in the U.S. then partially disassembled and shipped to Australia, where they were reassembled. Helicopters in the naval fleet were retired in 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Equipped with a more robust engine, the OH-58C was supposed to solve issues regarding the Kiowa's power. In addition to the upgraded engine, it had unique IR suppression systems mounted on its exhaust. Early OH-58Cs had flat-panel windscreens as an attempt to reduce glint from the sun, which could reveal its location to enemies. The windscreens had a negative effect of limiting the crew's forward view, a previous strength of the original design.",
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"plaintext": "The aircraft was also equipped with a larger instrument panel, roughly a third bigger than the OH-58A panel, which held larger flight instruments. The panel was also equipped with Night Vision Goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit lighting. The OH-58C were also the first U.S. Army scout helicopter to be equipped with the AN/APR-39 radar detector, which alerted the crew to active anti-aircraft radar systems nearby. Some OH-58Cs were armed with two AIM-92 Stingers and are sometimes referred to as OH-58C/S, the \"S\" referring to the Stinger addition. Called Air-To-Air Stinger (ATAS), the weapon system was intended to provide an air defense capability.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58C was the final variant of the Kiowa in active service with the US Army, its final use with the service being as a training aircraft. On 9 July 2020, the US Army retired the last OH-58Cs from service.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58D (Bell Model 406) was the result of the Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP). An upgraded transmission and engine gave extra power, needed for nap-of-the-earth flight profiles, and a four-bladed main rotor made it quieter than the two-bladed OH-58C. The OH-58D introduced the distinctive Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) above the main rotor, and a mixed glass cockpit with traditional instruments as \"standby\" for emergencies.",
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"plaintext": "The Bell 406CS \"Combat Scout\" was based on the OH-58D (sometimes referred to as the MH-58D). Fifteen aircraft were sold to Saudi Arabia. A roof-mounted Saab HeliTOW sight system was opted for in place of the MMS. The 406CS also had detachable weapon hardpoints on each side.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-58D was an OH-58D version operated by Task Force 118 (4th Squadron, 17th Cavalry) and modified with armament in support of Operation Prime Chance. The weapons and fire control systems would become the basis for the Kiowa Warrior. AH-58D is not an official DOD aircraft designation, but is used by the Army in reference to these aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "The Kiowa Warrior, sometimes referred to by its acronym KW, is the armed version of the OH-58D. A key difference between the Kiowa Warrior and original AHIP aircraft is a universal weapons pylon found mounted on both sides of the fuselage, capable of carrying combinations of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, air-to-air Stinger (ATAS) missiles, 7-shot Hydra-70 rocket pods, and an M296 0.50 in (12.7 mm) caliber machine gun. The performance standard of aerial gunnery from an OH-58D is to achieve at least one hit out of 70 shots fired at a wheeled vehicle away. The Kiowa Warrior also includes improvements in available power, navigation, communication, survivability, and deployability.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58F is an OH-58D upgrade. The Cockpit and Sensor Upgrade Program (CASUP) adds a nose-mounted targeting and surveillance system alongside the MMS. The AAS-53 Common Sensor Payload has an infrared camera, color Electro-Optical camera, and image intensifier; via weight and drag reductions, flight performance increased by 1–2%. Cockpit upgrades include the Control and Display Subsystem version 5, with more storage and processing power, three color multi-function displays, and dual-independent advanced moving maps. It has Level 2 Manned-Unmanned (L2MUM) teaming, the Force Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) display screen, and can be updated to Blue Force Tracker 2. Survivability enhancements include ballistic floor armor and the Common Missile Warning System. It has greater situational awareness, digital inter-cockpit communications, HELLFIRE future upgrades, redesigned wiring harness, Health and Usage Monitoring (HUMS), and enhanced weapons functionality via 1760 digital interface. The OH-58F is powered by a Rolls-Royce 250-C30R3 engine rated at ; it has a dual-channel, full-authority digital engine-controller that operates at required power levels in all environments. Rolls-Royce proposed engine tweaks to raise output by 12%.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2012, the first OH-58F was finished. Unlike most military projects, the Army designed and built the new variant itself, which lowered development costs. It weighed , below the target weight and about lighter than the OH-58D. The weight savings are attributed to more efficient wiring and a lighter sensor. The first production aircraft started being built in January 2013 and was handed over to the Army by year end. Low rate production was to start in March 2015, with the first operational squadron being fully equipped by 2016. The Army was to buy 368 OH-58Fs, with older OH-58 variants to be remanufactured. Due to battle damage and combat attrition, total OH-58F numbers would be about 321 aircraft. The OH-58F's first flight occurred on 26 April 2013.",
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"plaintext": "The Army chose to retire the Kiowa and end the CASUP upgrades. CASUP and SLEP upgrades was costed at $3 billion and $7 billion respectively. The OH-58D could do 20 percent of armed aerial scout mission requirements, the OH-58F upgrade raised that to 50 percent. Replacing the Kiowa with Apaches and UAVs in scout roles met 80 percent of requirements. In early 2014, Bell received a stop-work order for the Kiowa CASUP program.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 April 2011, Bell performed the successful first flight of the OH-58F Block II variant. It was Bell's entry in the Armed Aerial Scout (AAS) program. It built on the improvements of the F-model, adding features such as the Honeywell HTS900 turboshaft engine, the transmission and main rotors of the Bell 407, and the tail and tail rotor of the Bell 427. Bell started flight demonstrations in October 2012. Bell hoped for the Army to go with their service life extension models instead of the AAS program. The OH-58F is an \"obsolescence upgrade\", while the Block II was seen as the performance upgrade. This gave the Army financial flexibility via the option of upgrading the Kiowa to the OH-58F and later continuing to the Block II when there were sufficient funds. In late 2012, the Army recommended that the AAS program proceed. The Army ended the AAS program in late 2013. In light of sequestration budget cuts in 2013, it was decided that the $16 billion cost to buy new armed scout helicopters was too great.",
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"plaintext": "The OH-58X was a modification of the fourth development OH-58D (s/n 69-16322) with partial stealth features and a chin-mounted McDonnell-Douglas Electronics Systems turret as a night piloting system; including a Kodak FLIR system with a 30-degree field of view. Avionics systems were consolidated and moved to the nose, making room for a passenger seat in the rear. No aircraft were produced.",
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{
"plaintext": "Austrian Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Croatian Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Dominican Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Hellenic Army",
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"plaintext": " Iraqi Army",
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"plaintext": " Royal Saudi Land Forces",
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"plaintext": " Republic of China Army",
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"plaintext": " Tunisian Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Turkish Army",
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"plaintext": " Pasco County Sheriff",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Army",
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"plaintext": " Canadian Armed Forces",
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"plaintext": " New Jersey State Police",
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"plaintext": " United States Army",
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"plaintext": " 68-16940 – International Airport in Palm Springs, California. Transformed into a sculpture.",
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"plaintext": " 69-16112 – Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona",
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"plaintext": " 69-16123 – Kansas Museum of Military History in Augusta, Kansas",
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"plaintext": " 69-16153 – MAPS Air Museum in North Canton, Ohio",
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"plaintext": " 69-16338 – Point Alpha Museum in Hesse, Germany",
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38412
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"plaintext": " 71-20475 – Veterans Memorial Museum, Huntsville, Alabama, United States",
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104854
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},
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"plaintext": "71-20869 – National Air Force Museum of Canada, Trenton, Ontario, Canada CH-136 ",
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248466
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11,
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},
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"plaintext": " 71-20920 – Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Poland – CH-136",
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16815,
22936
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12,
34
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},
{
"plaintext": " 72-21256 – The Aviation Museum of Kentucky in Lexington, Kentucky",
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7594756,
50352
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},
{
"plaintext": " Holley, Charles, and Mike Sloniker. Primer of the Helicopter War. Grapevine, Tex: Nissi Publ, 1997. .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Spenser, Jay P. \"Bell Helicopter\". Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " World Aircraft information files Brightstar publishing London File 424 sheet 2",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " OH-58 Kiowa Warrior and OH-58D fact sheets on Army.mil",
"section_idx": 10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " OH-58D armament systems page on Army.mil",
"section_idx": 10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kiowa Warrior Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) Sensor Suite on northropgrumman.com",
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}
] | [
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"1960s_United_States_military_reconnaissance_aircraft",
"1960s_United_States_helicopters",
"Single-turbine_helicopters",
"Aircraft_first_flown_in_1966"
] | 694,356 | 21,605 | 317 | 165 | 0 | 0 | Bell OH-58 Kiowa | 1967 scout helicopter series by Bell Helicopter | [
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"Bell OH-58",
"OH58",
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] |
37,937 | 1,076,545,924 | List_of_compositions_by_Giuseppe_Verdi | [
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"plaintext": "The following is a list of published compositions by the composer Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901).",
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"plaintext": " Revision of earlier opera, including translations with material musical changes.",
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"plaintext": "Re Lear (King Lear), 1856. Librettist Antonio Somma worked with Verdi on completing a libretto for an opera based on Shakespeare's King Lear. This libretto was based on an incomplete one written by librettist Salvatore Cammarano before he died in 1852. It was never set to music.",
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4451968
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},
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"plaintext": " Sei Romanze (1838)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Non t'accostar all'urna (Jacopo Vittorelli)",
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{
"plaintext": "More, Elisa, lo stanco poeta (Tommaso Bianchi)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In solitaria stanza (Jacopo Vittorelli)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Nell'orror di notte oscura (Carlo Angiolini)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Perduta ho la pace (trans. by Luigi Balestra from Goethe's Faust)",
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19242322,
554299
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"plaintext": "Deh, pietoso, o addolorata (trans. by Luigi Balestra from Goethe's Faust)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " L'esule (1839) (Temistocle Solera)",
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1704468
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},
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"plaintext": " La seduzione (1839) (Luigi Balestra)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Guarda che bianca luna: notturno (1839) (Jacopo Vittorelli) for soprano, tenor, bass and flute obbligato",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Album di Sei Romanze (1845)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Il tramonto (Andrea Maffei)",
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{
"plaintext": "La zingara (S. Manfredo Maggioni)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Ad una stella (Maffei)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Lo Spazzacamino (Felice Romani)",
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681652
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17,
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{
"plaintext": "Il Mistero (Felice Romani)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Brindisi (Maffei)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Songs",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Il poveretto (1847) (Maggioni)",
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"section_name": "Songs",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " L'Abandonée (1849) (Escudier)",
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43274152
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21,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stornello (1869) (anon.)",
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"section_name": "Songs",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pietà Signor (1894) (Verdi and Boito)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Songs",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Messa da Requiem (22 May 1874, San Marco, Milan): mass in memory of Alessandro Manzoni, for four solo voices, chorus, and orchestra",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [
254038,
12553493,
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1,
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69,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Libera me for Messa per Rossini (1869; premiered posthumously 11 September 1988, Stuttgart). Mass in memory of Gioachino Rossini. Verdi wrote the \"Libera me\", with contributions from twelve other composers.",
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1,
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15,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pater Noster (1873): for 5-part chorus",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ave Maria (1880): for soprano and strings",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Quattro pezzi sacri (7 April 1898, Grande Opéra, Paris):",
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"target_page_ids": [
11808183
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ave Maria (1889): for mixed solo voices",
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"target_page_ids": [
11808183
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Stabat Mater (1897): for mixed chorus and orchestra",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [
11808183
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Laudi alla Vergine Maria (1888): for female voices",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
11808183
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Te Deum (1896): for double chorus and orchestra",
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"section_name": "Sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tantum ergo in G major (1836)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tantum ergo in F major",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Other sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Messa in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 5,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Laudate pueri in D major",
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"section_name": "Other sacred works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Qui tollis in F major",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Other sacred works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Suona la tromba (1848) (Goffredo Mameli), a patriotic hymn",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Other vocal works (secular)",
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1,
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25,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inno delle nazioni (1862, London) (Arrigo Boito), cantata for tenor, chorus and orchestra. (See Hymn (or Anthem) of the Nations)",
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"section_name": "Other vocal works (secular)",
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1,
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36,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Piano",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Instrumental, orchestral, chamber works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Romanza senza parole (written 1844, published 1865)",
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"section_name": "Instrumental, orchestral, chamber works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Waltz in F Major (written 1859)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Valzer (written by Verdi for piano, but not published until 1963 when Nino Rota adapted it for orchestra in his score for Luchino Visconti's film The Leopard)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Orchestral",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sinfonia in B-flat major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sinfonia in C major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sinfonia del M. Verdi in D major ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " with Giacomo Mori, Canto di Virginia Con Variazioni per Oboe Composte con accomp.to d'Orchestra quintetto",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Chamber",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Instrumental, orchestral, chamber works",
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},
{
"plaintext": " String Quartet in E minor (1873)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Stramberia for violin and piano",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Notes",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Sources",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
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"plaintext": "Pitou, Spire (1990). The Paris Opéra: An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, and Performers. Growth and Grandeur, 18151914. New York: Greenwood Press. .",
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"plaintext": "Rizzo, Dino, Verdi filarmonico e Maestro dei filarmonici bussetani, Parma, Istituto nazionale di Studi verdiani, 2005, Premio Rotary Club \"Giuseppe Verdi\" - 6. ",
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] | [
"Compositions_by_Giuseppe_Verdi",
"Lists_of_compositions_by_composer"
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37,938 | 1,107,026,926 | Ruggero_Leoncavallo | [
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"plaintext": "Ruggero (or Ruggiero) Leoncavallo ( , , ; 23 April 18579 August 1919) was an Italian opera composer and librettist. Although he produced numerous operas and other songs throughout his career it is his opera Pagliacci (1892) that remained his lasting contribution, despite attempts to escape the shadow of his greatest success.",
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"plaintext": "In 1879, Leoncavallo's uncle Giuseppe, director of the press department at the Foreign Ministry in Egypt, suggested that his young nephew come to Cairo to showcase his pianistic abilities. Arriving shortly after the deposition of Khedive Ismail, Leoncavallo eventually secured work as a piano teacher and pianist to the brother of the new Khedive Tewfik Pasha. His time in Egypt concluded abruptly in 1882 after revolts in Alexandria and Cairo led by ‘Urabi in which the composer quickly departed for France. In Paris, Leoncavallo found lodging in Montmartre.",
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"plaintext": "An agent located in the Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis secured Leoncavallo employment as an accompanist and instructor for artists who performed in Sunday concerts mostly at cafés. It was during this time that he met Berthe Rambaud (1869–1926) a \"preferred student\", who became his wife in 1895. Increasingly inspired by the French romantics, particularly Alfred de Musset, Leoncavallo began work on a symphonic poem based on Musset's poetry entitled La nuit de mai. The work was completed in Paris in 1886 and premiered in April 1887 to critical acclaim. With this success and now with enough accumulated money Leoncavallo and Rambaud would return to Milan to begin his career as a composer of opera.",
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"plaintext": "Back in Italy, Leoncavallo spent some years teaching and attempting ineffectively to obtain the production of more than one opera, notably Chatterton. In 1890 he saw the enormous success of Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana and wasted no time in producing his own verismo work, Pagliacci. (According to Leoncavallo, the plot of this work had a real-life origin: he claimed it derived from a murder trial in Montalto Uffugo, over which his father had presided.)",
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"plaintext": "Pagliacci was performed in Milan in 1892 with immediate success; today it is the only work by Leoncavallo in the standard operatic repertory. Its most famous aria, \"Vesti la giubba\" (\"Put on the costume\" or, in the better-known older translation, \"On with the motley\"), was recorded by Enrico Caruso and laid claim to being the world's first record to sell a million copies (although this is probably a total of Caruso's various versions of it, made in 1902, 1904 and 1907).",
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"plaintext": "The next year his I Medici was also produced in Milan, but neither it nor Chatterton (belatedly produced in 1896)both early worksobtained much lasting favour. Much of Chatterton, however, was recorded by the Gramophone Company (later HMV) as early as 1908, and remastered on CD almost 100 years later by Marston Records. Leoncavallo himself conducts the performance or at very least supervises the production.",
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"plaintext": "It was not until Leoncavallo's La bohème was performed in 1897 in Venice that his talent obtained public confirmation. However, it was outshone by Puccini's opera of the same name and on the same subject, which was premiered in 1896. Two tenor arias from Leoncavallo's version are still occasionally performed, especially in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo in the 1900s were: Zazà (the opera of Geraldine Farrar's famous 1922 farewell performance at the Metropolitan Opera), and 1904's Der Roland von Berlin. In 1906 the composer brought singers and orchestral musicians from La Scala to perform concerts of his music in New York, as well as making an extensive tour of the United States. The tour was, all in all, a qualified success. He had a brief success with Zingari, which premiered in Italian in London in 1912, with a long run at the Hippodrome Theatre. Zingari also reached the United States but soon disappeared from the repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "After a series of operettas, Leoncavallo appeared to have tried for one last serious effort with . It had always been assumed that Leoncavallo had finished the work but had died before he could finish the orchestration, which was completed by . However, with the publication of Konrad Dryden's biography of Leoncavallo it was revealed that Leoncavallo may not have written the work at all (although it certainly contains themes by Leoncavallo). A review of Dryden's study notes: \"That fine Edipo re ... was not even composed by [Leoncavallo]. His widow paid another composer to concoct a new opera using the music of Der Roland von Berlin. Dryden didn't find one reference to the opera in Leoncavallo's correspondence nor is there a single note by him to be found in the handwritten score.\" Pennacchio may either have concocted the opera or may have had to do more to Leoncavallo's more or less complete work to \"fill in the gaps\" using Leoncavallo's earlier music.",
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"plaintext": "Leoncavallo died in Montecatini Terme, Tuscany, on 9 August 1919. His funeral was held two days later, with hundreds in attendance, including fellow composer Pietro Mascagni and longtime rival Giacomo Puccini. He was buried in the Cimitero delle Porte Sante in Florence.",
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"plaintext": "70 years after his death a campaign was launched to move the composer's remains to Brissago, Switzerland, after an alleged letter written by Leoncavallo claimed to show he had desired to be buried there originally, although no such letter was ever found. Leoncavallo became an honorary citizen of Brissago and owned a lavish summer residence, Villa Myriam, in the town; in 1904 the composer had mentioned in a speech that he would not mind having a resting place in the town's Madonna di Porte cemetery, but it was never a written request in his will. Regardless the campaign to move Leoncavallo's remains moved ahead and was granted official approval by Piera Leoncavallo-Grand, the last remaining descendant of the composer. The body was exhumed for transfer to Switzerland along with the remains of his wife Berthe, who died in 1926.",
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"plaintext": "The Museo Leoncavallo (Leoncavallo Museum) was established in 2002 in Brissago to commemorate the composer. It includes personal items and original manuscripts on display as well as statues representing characters from his operas Zazà and Der Roland von Berlin.",
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"plaintext": "Little from Leoncavallo's other operas is heard today, but the baritone arias from Zazà were great concert and recording favourites among baritones and Zazà as a whole is sometimes revived, as is his La bohème. The tenor arias from La bohème remain recording favorites.",
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"plaintext": "Leoncavallo also composed songs, most famously \"Mattinata\", which he wrote for the Gramophone Company (which became HMV) with Caruso's unique voice in mind. On 8 April 1904, Leoncavallo accompanied Caruso at the piano as they recorded the song. On 8 December 1905 he recorded five of his own pieces for the reproducing piano Welte-Mignon.",
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"plaintext": "Prestami tua moglie 2 September 1916, Casino delle Terme, Montecatini. (English title: Lend me your wife.)",
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"plaintext": " A chi la giarrettiera? 16 October 1919, Teatro Adriano, Rome. (English title: Whose Garter Is This?) Produced after the composer's death.",
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"plaintext": "La maschera nuda 26 June 1925 Teatro Politeama, Naples. Produced after the composer's death.",
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"plaintext": "La nuit de mai – poème symphonique for tenor and orchestra after Alfred de Musset, Paris 1886 (also performed and recorded in 1990 and – with Plácido Domingo – in 2010)",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder/Lorenza Guiot (eds.), Ruggero Leoncavallo nel suo tempo. Atti del I° Convegno Internazionale di Studi su Leoncavallo a Locarno 1991, Milan (Sonzogno) 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder/Lorenza Guiot (eds.), Letteratura, musica e teatro al tempo di Ruggero Leoncavallo. Atti del II° Convegno Internazionale di Studi su Leoncavallo a Locarno 1993, Milan (Sonzogno) 1995.",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder/Lorenza Guiot (eds.), Nazionalismo e cosmopolitismo nell'opera tra '800 e '900. Atti del III° Convegno Internazionale di Studi su Leoncavallo a Locarno 1995, Milan (Sonzogno) 1998.",
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"plaintext": " Jürgen Maehder/Lorenza Guiot (eds.), Tendenze della musica teatrale italiana all'inizio del Novecento. Atti del IV° Convegno Internazionale di Studi su Leoncavallo a Locarno 1998, Milan (Sonzogno) 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Rosenthal, H. and Warrack, J. (eds.) (1979). \"Leoncavallo, Ruggero\", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera, 2nd Edition, pp.278–279. Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Sadie, Stanley and Bashford, Christina (eds.) (1992). \"Leoncavallo, Ruggero [Ruggiero]\", The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, pp.1148–1149. Macmillan. ",
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"plaintext": "The UTTAS requirements for improved reliability, survivability and lower life-cycle costs resulted in features such as dual-engines with improved hot and high altitude performance, and a modular design (reduced maintenance footprint); run-dry gearboxes; ballistically tolerant, redundant subsystems (hydraulic, electrical and flight controls); crashworthy crew (armored) and troop seats; dual-stage oleo main landing gear; ballistically tolerant, crashworthy main structure; quieter, more robust main and tail rotor systems; and a ballistically tolerant, crashworthy fuel system.",
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"plaintext": "Four prototypes were constructed, with the first YUH-60A flying on 17 October 1974. Prior to delivery of the prototypes to the US Army, a preliminary evaluation was conducted in November 1975 to ensure the aircraft could be operated safely during all testing. Three of the prototypes were delivered to the Army in March 1976, for evaluation against the rival Boeing-Vertol design, the YUH-61A, and one was kept by Sikorsky for internal research. The Army selected the UH-60 for production in December 1976. Deliveries of the UH-60A to the Army began in October 1978 and the helicopter entered service in June 1979.",
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"plaintext": "After entering service, the helicopter was modified for new missions and roles, including mine laying and medical evacuation. An EH-60 variant was developed to conduct electronic warfare and special operations aviation developed the MH-60 variant to support its missions.",
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"plaintext": "Due to weight increases from the addition of mission equipment and other changes, the Army ordered the improved UH-60L in 1987. The new model incorporated all of the modifications made to the UH-60A fleet as standard design features. The UH-60L also featured more power and lifting capability with upgraded T700-GE-701C engines and an improved gearbox, both from the SH-60B Seahawk. Its external lift capacity increased by up to . The UH-60L also incorporated the SH-60B's automatic flight control system (AFCS) for better flight control with the more powerful engines. Production of the L-model began in 1989.",
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"plaintext": "Development of the next improved variant, the UH-60M, was approved in 2001, to extend the service life of the UH-60 design into the 2020s. The UH-60M incorporates upgraded T700-GE-701D engines, improved rotor blades, and state of the art electronic instrumentation, flight controls and aircraft navigation control. After the U.S. DoD approved low-rate initial production of the new variant, manufacturing began in 2006, with the first of 22 new UH-60Ms delivered in July 2006. After an initial operational evaluation, the Army approved full-rate production and a five-year contract for 1,227 helicopters in December 2007. By March 2009, 100 UH-60M helicopters had been delivered to the Army. In November 2014, US military ordered 102 aircraft of various H-60 types, worth $1.3 billion.",
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"plaintext": "Following their use in the operation to kill Osama bin Laden in May 2011, it emerged that the 160th SOAR used a secret version of the UH-60 modified with low-observable technology which enabled it to evade Pakistani radar. Analysis of the tail section, the only remaining part of the aircraft which crashed during the operation, revealed extra blades on the tail rotor and other noise reduction measures, making the craft much quieter than conventional UH-60s. The aircraft appeared to include features like special high-tech materials, harsh angles, and flat surfaces found only in stealth jets. Low observable versions of the Black Hawk have been studied as far back as the mid-1970s.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2012, Sikorsky was awarded a Combat Tempered Platform Demonstration (CTPD) contract to further improve the Black Hawk's durability and survivability. The company is to develop new technologies such as a zero-vibration system, adaptive flight control laws, advanced fire management, a more durable main rotor, full-spectrum crashworthiness, and damage tolerant airframe; then they are to transition them to the helicopter. Improvements to the Black Hawk are to continue until the Future Vertical Lift program is ready to replace it.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, the 101st Airborne Division began testing new resupply equipment called the Enhanced Speed Bag System (ESBS). Soldiers in the field requiring quick resupply have depended on speed bags, bags filled with items airdropped from a UH-60. However, all systems were ad hoc with bags not made to keep things secure from impacts, so up to half of the airdropped items would be damaged upon hitting the ground. Started in 2011, the ESBS sought to standardize the airdrop resupply method and keep up to 90 percent of supplies intact. The system includes a hands-free reusable linear brake and expendable speed line and multipurpose cargo bag; when the bag is deployed, the brake applies friction to the rope, slowing it down enough to keep the bag oriented down on the padded base, a honeycomb and foam kit inside to dissipate energy. The ESBS not only better protects helicopter-dropped supplies, it allows the Black Hawk to fly higher above the ground, up from 10 feet, while traveling , limiting exposure to ground fire. Each bag can weigh and up to six can be deployed at once, dropping at . Since supplies can be delivered more accurately and the system can be automatically released on its own, the ESBS can enable autonomous resupply from unmanned helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-60 features four-blade main and tail rotors, and is powered by two General Electric T700 turboshaft engines. The main rotor is fully articulated and has elastomeric bearings in the rotor head. The tail rotor is canted and features a rigid crossbeam. The helicopter has a long, low profile shape to meet the Army's requirement for transporting aboard a C-130 Hercules, with some disassembly. It can carry 11 troops with equipment, lift of cargo internally or of cargo (for UH-60L/M) externally by sling.",
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"plaintext": "The Black Hawk helicopter series can perform a wide array of missions, including the tactical transport of troops, electronic warfare, and aeromedical evacuation. A VIP version known as the VH-60N is used to transport important government officials (e.g., Congress, Executive departments) with the helicopter's call sign of \"Marine One\" when transporting the President of the United States. In air assault operations, it can move a squad of 11 combat troops or reposition a 105mm M119 howitzer with 30 rounds ammunition, and a four-man crew in a single lift. The Black Hawk is equipped with advanced avionics and electronics for increased survivability and capability, such as the Global Positioning System.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-60 can be equipped with stub wings at the top of fuselage to carry fuel tanks or various armaments. The initial stub wing system is called External Stores Support System (ESSS). It has two pylons on each wing to carry two and two tanks in total. The four fuel tanks and associated lines and valves form the external extended range fuel system (ERFS). U.S. Army UH-60s have had their ESSS modified into the crashworthy external fuel system (CEFS) configuration, replacing the older tanks with up to four total crashworthy tanks along with self-sealing fuel lines. The ESSS can also carry of armament such as rockets, missiles and gun pods. The ESSS entered service in 1986. However, it was found that the four fuel tanks obstruct the field of fire for the door guns; thus, the external tank system (ETS), carrying two fuel tanks on the stub wings, was developed.",
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"plaintext": "The unit cost of the H-60 models varies due to differences in specifications, equipment and quantities. For example, the unit cost of the Army's UH-60L Black Hawk is $5.9million while the unit cost of the Air Force HH-60G Pave Hawk is $10.2million.",
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"plaintext": "Australia ordered fourteen S-70A-9 Black Hawks in 1986 and an additional twenty-five Black Hawks in 1987. The first US produced Black Hawk was delivered in 1987 to the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). de Havilland Australia produced thirty-eight Black Hawks under license from Sikorsky in Australia delivering the first in 1988 and the last in 1991. In 1989, the RAAF's fleet of Black Hawks was transferred to the Australian Army. The Black Hawks saw operational service in Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, East Timor and Pakistan. In April 2009, the then-defence chief Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, told the government not to deploy Black Hawks to Afghanistan as at the time they “lacked armor and self-defense systems”, and despite an upgrade to address this underway, it was more practical to use allies’ helicopters. In 2004, the government selected the Multi-Role Helicopter (MRH-90) Taipan, a variant of the NHIndustries NH90, to replace the Black Hawk even though the Department of Defence had recommended the S‐70M Black Hawk. In January 2014, the Army commenced retiring the fleet of thirty-four Black Hawks from service (five had been lost in accidents) and had planned for this to be completed by June 2018. The Chief of Army delayed the retirement of 20 Black Hawks until 2021 to enable the Army to develop a special operations role capable MRH-90. On 10 December 2021, the S-70A-9 Black Hawks were retired from service. On the same day, amid issues with the performance of the MRH-90s the government announced that they would be replaced by up to 40 UH-60M Black Hawks. The government is yet to place an order. The Australian reported that is hoped that six UH-60Ms maybe delivered in 2023 with all deliveries completed by 2026.",
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"plaintext": "Brazil received four UH-60L helicopters in 1997, for the Brazilian Army peacekeeping forces. It received six UH-60Ls configured for special forces, and search and rescue uses in 2008. It ordered ten more UH-60Ls in 2009; deliveries began in March 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1983, examples of the Aerospatiale AS-332 Super Puma, Bell 214ST SuperTransport and Sikorsky S-70A-5 (N3124B) were airlifted to Lhasa for testing. These demonstrations included take-offs and landings at altitudes to and en route operations to . At the end of this testing, the People's Liberation Army Air Force purchased 24 S-70C-2s, equipped with more powerful GE T700-701A engines for improved high-altitude performance. While designated as civil variants of the S-70 for export purposes, they are operated by the People's Liberation Army Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "Colombia first received UH-60s from the United States in 1987. The Colombian National Police, Colombian Air Force, and Colombian Army use UH-60s to transport troops and supplies to places which are difficult to access by land for counter-insurgency (COIN) operations against drug and guerrilla organizations, for search and rescue, and for medical evacuation. Colombia also operates a militarized gunship version of the UH-60, with stub wings, locally known as Arpía ().",
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"plaintext": "The Colombian Army became the first worldwide operator of the S-70i with Terrain Awareness and Warning Capability (HTAWS) after taking delivery of the first two units on 13 August 2013.",
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"plaintext": "The Israeli Air Force (IAF) received 10 surplus UH-60A Black Hawks from the United States in August 1994. Named Yanshuf () by the IAF, the UH-60A began replacing Bell 212 utility helicopters. The IAF first used the UH-60s in combat during 1996 in southern Lebanon in Operation \"Grapes of Wrath\" against Hezbollah.",
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"plaintext": "The Mexican Air Force ordered its first two UH-60Ls in 1991, to transport special forces units, and another four in 1994. In July and August 2009, the Federal Police used UH-60s in attacks on drug traffickers. In August 2011, the Mexican Navy received three upgraded and navalized UH-60M. On 21 April 2014, the U.S. State Department approved the sale of 18 UH-60Ms to Mexico pending approval from Congress. In September 2014, Sikorsky received a $203.6 million firm-fixed-price contract modification for the 18 UH-60 designated for the Mexican Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2019, the Philippines' Department of National Defense (DND) signed a contract worth US$241.4 million with Lockheed Martin's Polish subsidiary PZL Mielec for 16 Sikorsky S-70i Black Hawks to the PAF. On 10 December 2020, the PAF commissioned their 1st batch of six S-70i Blackhawks, with the remaining 10 to be delivered in 2021. In 2021 June, the air service received a 2nd batch of 5 helicopters. In 2021 November 9, the 3rd & last batch of 5 arrived.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 February 2022, DND and PZL Mielec formally signed the contract for 32 additional S-70i Black Hawks.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019 January, Poland ordered 4 S-70i Black Hawks with 4 delivered to the Polish Special Forces in December that same year. Another 4 S-70i helicopters are on order with 2 scheduled for delivery in 2023 and 2 in 2024.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2015, the U.S. State Department approved a possible Foreign Military Sale of nine UH-60Ms with associated equipment and support to Slovakia and sent to Congress for its approval. In April 2015, Slovakia's government approved the procurement of nine UH-60Ms along with training and support. In September 2015, Slovakia ordered four UH-60Ms. The first two UH-60Ms were delivered in June 2017; the Slovak Air Force had received all nine UH-60Ms by January 2020. These are to replace its old Soviet Mil Mi-17s. In 2020, Slovak minister of defense announced Slovakia's interest in buying two more UH-60Ms.",
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"plaintext": "Slovak Training Academy from Košice, a private company, operates four older UH-60As for new pilot training.",
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"plaintext": "Sweden requested 15 UH-60M helicopters by Foreign Military Sale in September 2010. The UH-60Ms were ordered in May 2011, and deliveries began in January 2012. In March 2013, Swedish ISAF forces began using Black Hawks in Afghanistan for MEDEVAC purposes. The UH-60Ms are to be fully operational by 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Taiwan (Republic of China) operated S-70C-1/1A after the Republic of China Air Force received ten S-70C-1A and four S-70C-1 Bluehawk helicopters in June 1986 for Search and Rescue. Four more S-70C-6s were received in April 1998. The ROC Navy received the first of ten S-70C(M)-1s in July 1990. 11 S-70C(M)-2s were received beginning April 2000. In January 2010, the US announced approval for a Foreign Military Sale of 60 UH-60Ms to Taiwan with 30 designated for the Army, 15 for the National Airborne Service Corps (including the one that crashed off Orchid Island in 2018) and 15 for the Air Force Rescue Group (including the one that crashed 2 January 2020).",
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"plaintext": "Turkey has operated the UH-60 during NATO deployments to Afghanistan and the Balkans. The UH-60 has also been used in counter-terror/internal security operations.",
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"plaintext": "The Black Hawk competed against the AgustaWestland AW149 in the Turkish General Use Helicopter Tender, to order up to 115 helicopters and produce many of them indigenously, with Turkish Aerospace Industries responsible for final integration and assembly. On 21 April 2011, Turkey announced the selection of Sikorsky's T-70.",
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"plaintext": "In the course of the coup d'état attempt in Turkey on 15 July 2016, eight Turkish military personnel of various ranks landed in Greece's northeastern city of Alexandroupolis on board a Black Hawk helicopter and claimed political asylum in Greece. The helicopter was returned to Turkey shortly thereafter.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-60 entered service with the U.S. Army's 101st Combat Aviation Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division in June 1979. The U.S. military first used the UH-60 in combat during the invasion of Grenada in 1983, and again in the invasion of Panama in 1989. During the Gulf War in 1991, the UH-60 participated in the largest air assault mission in U.S. Army history with over 300 helicopters involved. Two UH-60s (89-26214 and 78–23015) were shot down, both on 27 February 1991, while performing Combat Search and Rescue of other downed aircrews, an F-16C pilot and the crew of a MEDEVAC UH-1H that were shot down earlier that day.",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, Black Hawks featured prominently in the Battle of Mogadishu in Somalia. Black Hawks also saw action in the Balkans and Haiti in the 1990s. U.S. Army UH-60s and other helicopters conducted many air assault and other support missions during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The UH-60 has continued to serve in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.",
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"plaintext": "Customs and Border Protection Office of Air and Marine (OAM) uses the UH-60 in its operations specifically along the southwest border. The Black Hawk has been used by OAM to interdict illegal entry into the U.S. Additionally, OAM regularly uses the UH-60 in search and rescue operations.",
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"plaintext": "Highly modified H-60s were employed during the U.S. Special Operations mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden during Operation Neptune Spear on 1 May 2011. One such MH-60 helicopter crash-landed during the operation, and was destroyed by the team before it departed in the other MH-60 and a backup MH-47 Chinook with bin Laden's remains. Two MH-47s were used for the mission to refuel the two MH-60s and as backups. News media reported that the Pakistani government granted the Chinese military access to the wreckage of the crashed 'stealth' UH-60 variant in Abbotabad; Pakistan and China denied the reports, and the U.S. Government has not confirmed Chinese access.",
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"plaintext": "The United Arab Emirates requested 14 UH-60M helicopters and associated equipment in September 2008, through Foreign Military Sale. It had received 20 UH-60Ls by November 2010. Bahrain ordered nine UH-60Ms in 2007.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2011, the Royal Brunei Air Force ordered twelve S-70i helicopters, which are similar to the UH-60M; four aircraft had been received by December 2013. On 12 June 2012, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress that Qatar requested the purchase of twelve UH-60Ms, engines, and associated equipment.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 February 2013, the Indonesian Army announced its interest in buying UH-60 Black Hawks as part of its effort to modernize its weaponry. The army wants them for combating terrorism, transnational crime, and insurgency to secure the archipelago.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 May 2014, Croatian Defence Minister Ante Kotromanović announced the beginning of negotiations for the purchase of 15 used Black Hawks. On 12 October 2018, the US via Ambassador Robert Kohorst announced donation of two UH-60M helicopters with associated equipment and crew training to Croatia's Ministry of Defence, to be delivered in 2020. In 2019 October 30, the US State Dept approved the sale of 2 brand-new UH-60M Blackhawks; this brings the total upcoming birds to four: 2 donations + 2 FMS. In 2022 February 3, the 1st 2 units (the donated ones brand-new) were finally delivered to Croatia.",
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{
"plaintext": "Tunisia requested 12 armed UH-60M helicopters in July 2014 through Foreign Military Sale. In August 2014, the U.S. ambassador stated that the U.S. \"will soon make available\" the UH-60Ms to Tunisia.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Operational history",
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"plaintext": "On 23 January 2015, the Malaysian Defence Minister Hishammuddin Hussein confirmed that Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) is receiving S-70A Blackhawks from the Brunei government. These helicopters, believed to be four in total, were expected to be transferred to Malaysia by September with M134D miniguns added. The four Blackhawks were delivered to Royal Brunei Air Force (RBAF) in 1999.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, Latvia requested to buy four UH-60M Black Hawks with associated equipment for an estimated cost of $200 million. On 3 August 2018, the State Department approved the possible Foreign Military Sale. The Defense Security Cooperation Agency delivered the required certification notifying Congress of the possible sale. In November 2018, Latvia signed for the purchase of four UH-60 helicopters. Deliveries are to be completed by 2021.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, Lithuania announced plans to buy six UH-60M helicopters before ordering four UH-60Ms in 2020. In 2019, Poland ordered four S-70i helicopters for its special forces.",
"section_idx": 3,
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{
"plaintext": "In 2022, the Royal Air Force and British Army expects to select a helicopter for the New Medium Helicopter program to replace several existing helicopters. Sikorsky has indicated it expects its S-70M to meet the requirement.",
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"section_name": "Operational history",
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"plaintext": "The UH-60 comes in many variants, and many different modifications. The U.S. Army variants can be fitted with the stub wings to carry additional fuel tanks or weapons. Variants may have different capabilities and equipment to fulfill different roles.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "YUH-60A: Initial test and evaluation version for U.S. Army. First flight on 17 October 1974; three built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60A Black Hawk: Original U.S. Army version, carrying a crew of four and up to 11 equipped troops. Equipped with T700-GE-700 engines. Produced 1977–1989. U.S. Army is equipping UH-60As with more powerful T700-GE-701D engines and also upgrading A-models to UH-60L standard.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60C Black Hawk: Modified version for command and control (C2) missions.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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40,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "CH-60E: Proposed troop transport variant for the U.S. Marine Corps.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60L Black Hawk: UH-60A with upgraded T700-GE-701C engines, improved durability gearbox, and updated flight control system. Produced 1989–2007. UH-60Ls are also being equipped with the GE T700-GE-701D engine. The U.S. Army Corpus Christi Army Depot is upgrading UH-60A helicopters to the UH-60L configuration. In July 2018, Sierra Nevada Corporation proposed upgrading some converted UH-60L helicopters for the U.S. Air Force's UH-1N replacement program.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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326,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60V Black Hawk: Upgraded version of the UH-60L with the electronic displays (glass cockpit) of the UH-60M. Upgrades performed by Northrop Grumman featuring a centralized processor with a partitioned, modular operational flight program enabling capabilities to be added as software-only modifications.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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132,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60M Black Hawk: Improved design wide chord rotor blades, T700-GE-701D engines (max each), improved durability gearbox, Integrated Vehicle Health Management System (IVHMS) computer, and new glass cockpit. Production began in 2006. Planned to replace older U.S. Army UH-60s.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60M Upgrade Black Hawk: UH-60M with fly-by-wire system and Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) cockpit suite. Flight testing began in August 2008.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "EH-60A Black Hawk: UH-60A with modified electrical system and stations for two electronic systems mission operators. All examples of type have been converted back to standard UH-60A configuration.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "YEH-60B Black Hawk: UH-60A modified for special radar and avionics installations, prototype for stand-off target acquisition system.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "EH-60C Black Hawk: UH-60A modified with special electronics equipment and external antenna. (All examples of type have been taken back to standard UH-60A configuration.)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "EUH-60L (no official name assigned): UH-60L modified with additional mission electronic equipment for Army Airborne C2.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "EH-60L Black Hawk: EH-60A with major mission equipment upgrade.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60Q Black Hawk: UH-60A modified for medical evacuation. The UH-60Q is named DUSTOFF for \"dedicated unhesitating service to our fighting forces\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "HH-60L (no official name assigned): UH-60L extensively modified with medical mission equipment. Components include an external rescue hoist, integrated patient configuration system, environmental control system, on-board oxygen system (OBOGS), and crashworthy ambulatory seats.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "HH-60M Black Hawk: UH-60M with medical mission equipment (medevac version) for U.S. Army.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "HH-60U: USAF UH-60M version modified with an electro-optical sensor and rescue hoist. Three in use by Air Force pilots and special mission aviators since 2011. Has 85% commonality with the HH-60W.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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45,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "HH-60W Jolly Green II: Modified version of the UH-60M for the U.S. Air Force as a Combat Rescue Helicopter to replace HH-60G Pave Hawks with greater fuel capacity and more internal cabin space, dubbed the \"60-Whiskey\". Deliveries to begin in 2019.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
118,
135
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60A Black Hawk: 30 UH-60As modified with additional avionics, night vision capable cockpit, FLIR, M134 door guns, internal auxiliary fuel tanks and other Special Operations mission equipment in early 1980s for U.S. Army. Equipped with T700-GE-701 engines. Variant was used by the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. The MH-60As were replaced by MH-60Ls beginning in the early 1990s and passed to Army Aviation units in the Army National Guard.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
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],
[
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325
],
[
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],
[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60K Black Hawk: Special operations modification first ordered in 1988 for use by the U.S. Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (\"Night Stalkers\"). Equipped with the in-flight refueling probe, and T700-GE-701C engines. More advanced than the MH-60L, the K-model also includes an integrated avionics system (glass cockpit), AN/APQ-174B terrain-following radar, color weather map, improved weapons capability, and various defensive systems.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60L Black Hawk: Special operations modification, used by the U.S. Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (\"Night Stalkers\"), based on the UH-60L with T700-701C engines. It was developed as an interim version in the late 1980s pending fielding of the MH-60K. Equipped with many of the systems used on MH-60K, including FLIR, color weather map, auxiliary fuel system, and laser rangefinder/designator. A total of 37 MH-60Ls were built and some 10 had received an in-flight refueling probe by 2003.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60L DAP: The Direct Action Penetrator (DAP) is a special operations modification of the baseline MH-60L, operated by the U.S. Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. The DAP is configured as a gunship, with no troop-carrying capacity. The DAP is equipped with ESSS or ETS stub wings, each capable of carrying configurations of the M230 Chain Gun 30mm automatic cannon, 19-shot Hydra 70 rocket pod, AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles, GAU-19 gun pods, and M134 minigun pods, M134D miniguns are used as door guns.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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475,
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],
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},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60M Black Hawk: Special operations version of UH-60M for U.S. Army. Features the Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) glass cockpit and more powerful YT706-GE-700 engines. All special operations Black Hawks to be modernized to MH-60M standard by 2015.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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176,
188
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "MH-60 Black Hawk stealth helicopter: One of two (known) specially modified MH-60s used in the raid on Osama bin Laden's compound in Pakistan on 1 May 2011 was damaged in a hard landing, and was subsequently destroyed by U.S. forces. Subsequent reports state that the Black Hawk destroyed was a previously unconfirmed, but rumored, modification of the design with reduced noise signature and stealth technology. The modifications are said to add several hundred pounds to the base helicopter including edge alignment panels, special coatings and anti-radar treatments for the windshields.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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17,
35
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[
94,
128
],
[
132,
140
],
[
391,
409
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60A RASCAL: NASA-modified version for the Rotorcraft-Aircrew Systems Concepts Airborne Laboratory; a US$25M program for the study of helicopter maneuverability in three programs, Superaugmented Controls for Agile Maneuvering Performance (SCAMP), Automated Nap-of-the-Earth (ANOE) and Rotorcraft Agility and Pilotage Improvement Demonstration (RAPID). The UH-60A RASCAL performed a fully autonomous flight on 5 November 2012. U.S. Army personnel were on board, but the flying was done by the helicopter. During a two-hour flight, the Black Hawk featured terrain sensing, trajectory generation, threat avoidance, and autonomous flight control. It was fitted with a 3D-LZ laser detection and ranging (LADAR) system. The autonomous flight was performed between 200 and 400 feet. Upon landing, the onboard technology was able to pinpoint a safe landing zone, hover, and safely bring itself down.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
41958
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "OPBH: On 11 March 2014, Sikorsky successfully conducted the first flight demonstration of their Optionally Piloted Black Hawk (OPBH), a milestone part of the company's Manned/Unmanned Resupply Aerial Lifter (MURAL) program to provide autonomous cargo delivery for the U.S. Army. The helicopter used the company's Matrix technology (software to improve features of autonomous, optionally-piloted VTOL aircraft) to perform autonomous hover and flight operations under the control of an operator using a man-portable Ground Control Station (GCS). The MURAL program is a cooperative effort between Sikorsky, the US Army Aviation Development Directorate (ADD), and the US Army Utility Helicopters Project Office (UH PO). The purpose of creating an optionally-manned Black Hawk is to make the aircraft autonomously carry out resupply missions and expeditionary operations while increasing sorties and maintaining crew rest requirements and leaving pilots to focus more on sensitive operations.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "VH-60D Night Hawk: VIP-configured HH-60D, used for presidential transport by USMC. T700-GE-401C engines. Variant was later redesignated VH-60N.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "VH-60N White Hawk \"White Top\": Modified UH-60A with some features from the SH-60B/F Seahawks. Is one of the VIP-configured USMC helicopter models that perform Presidential and VIP transport as Marine One. The VH-60N entered service in 1988 and nine helicopters were delivered.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
193,
203
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "VH-60M Black Hawk \"Gold Top\": Heavily modified UH-60M used for executive transport. Members of the Joint Chiefs, Congressional leadership, and other DoD personnel are flown on these exclusively by the 12th Aviation Battalion at Fort Belvoir, Virginia.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60J Black Hawk: Variant for the Japanese Air Self Defense Force and Maritime Self Defense Force produced under license by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Also known as the S-70-12.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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454305
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35,
66
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71,
98
],
[
125,
152
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60JA Black Hawk: Variant for the Japanese Ground Self Defense Force. It is license produced by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
20768403,
2978818
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
],
[
36,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "AH-60L Arpía: Export version for Colombia developed by Elbit Systems, Sikorsky, and the Colombian Air Force. It is Counter-insurgency (COIN) attack version with improved electronics, firing system, FLIR, radar, light rockets and machine guns.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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55,
68
],
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88,
107
],
[
115,
133
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "AH-60L Battle Hawk: Export armed version unsuccessfully tendered for Australian Army project AIR87, similar to AH-60L Arpía III. Sikorsky has also offered a Battlehawk armed version for export in the form of armament kits and upgrades. Sikorsky's Armed Black hawk demonstrator has tested a 20mm turreted cannon, and different guided missiles. The United Arab Emirates ordered Battlehawk kits in 2011.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
2795
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
69,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60P Black Hawk: Version for South Korea Army, based on UH-60L with some improvements. Around 150 were produced under license by Korean Air.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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315411
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"anchor_spans": [
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31,
47
],
[
131,
141
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A Black Hawk: Sikorsky's designation for Black Hawk. Designation is often used for exports.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-1 Desert Hawk: Export version for the Royal Saudi Land Forces.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
7247921
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
44,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-L1 Desert Hawk: Aeromedical evacuation version for the Royal Saudi Land Forces.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-5 Black Hawk: Export version for the Philippine Air Force.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
27918720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
43,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-6 Black Hawk: Export version for Thailand.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-9 Black Hawk: Export version for Australia, assembled under licence by Hawker de Havilland. First eight delivered to the Royal Australian Air Force, subsequently transferred to the Australian Army; remainder delivered straight to the Army after rotary-wing assets divested by the Air Force in 1989.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
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2795
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"anchor_spans": [
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77,
96
],
[
127,
153
],
[
187,
202
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-11 Black Hawk: Export version for the Royal Jordanian Air Force.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
377729
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
44,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-12 Black Hawk: Search and rescue model for the Japanese Air Self Defense Force and Maritime Self Defense Force. Also known as the UH-60J.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
2386953,
2370744,
20768403
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[
53,
84
],
[
89,
116
],
[
136,
142
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-14 Black Hawk: Export version for Brunei.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-16 Black Hawk: Engine test bed for the Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM 332.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-17 Black Hawk: Export version for Turkey.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-18 Black Hawk: UH-60P and HH-60P for Republic of Korea Armed Forces built under license.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
27027
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
43,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sikorsky/Westland S-70-19 Black Hawk: This version is built under license in the United Kingdom by Westland. Also known as the WS-70.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-20 Black Hawk: VIP transport version for Thailand.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-21 Black Hawk: Export version for Egypt.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-22 Black Hawk: VH-60P for South Korea built under license. Used for VIP transport by the Republic of Korea Air Force. Its fuselage is tipped with white to distinguish from normal HH-60P.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
27019,
2606974
],
"anchor_spans": [
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32,
43
],
[
95,
122
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-24 Black Hawk: Export version for Mexico.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
3966054
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-26 Black Hawk: Export version for Morocco.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
19291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-27 Black Hawk: Export version for Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force and Hong Kong Government Flying Service; three built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
1821809,
1083709
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
75
],
[
80,
115
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-28D Black Hawk: Export version for Turkish Army.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
1733276
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
41,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-30 Black Hawk: Export version for Argentine Air Force, used as a VIP transport helicopter by the Presidential fleet; one built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
5233760
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"anchor_spans": [
[
103,
121
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-33 Black Hawk: Export version for Royal Brunei Air Force.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
4950111
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-39 Black Hawk: VIP transport version for Chile; one built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-42 Black Hawk: Export version for Austria.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-43 Black Hawk: Export version for Royal Thai Army.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
1230371
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-50 Black Hawk: Export version for Israel; 15 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
9282173
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70C-2 Black Hawk: Export version for People's Republic of China; 24 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70i Black Hawk: International military version assembled by Sikorsky's subsidiary, PZL Mielec in Poland.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
942452
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
85,
95
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70M Black Hawk: Modified military version assembled by Sikorsky's subsidiary, PZL Mielec in Poland from 2021.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
942452
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
80,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " See: Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk, Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk, Piasecki X-49, and Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk for other Sikorsky S-70 variants.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [
202031,
38861,
1263926,
2013461,
2038611
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
28
],
[
30,
54
],
[
56,
69
],
[
75,
97
],
[
108,
121
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "See SH-60 Seahawk, HH-60 Pave Hawk, and HH-60 Jayhawk for operators of military H-60/S-70 variants; see Sikorsky S-70 for non-military operators of other H-60/S-70 family helicopters.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
202031,
38861,
2013461,
2038611
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
4,
17
],
[
19,
34
],
[
40,
53
],
[
104,
117
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Afghan Air Force (until Aug. 2021)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2130332
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Taliban (captured in Aug. 2021)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
30635
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Albanian Air Force (3 on order)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
907766
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Austrian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2931325
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Bahraini Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1268112
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Brazilian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1042168
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Brazilian Army",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1047559
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Brazilian Navy (see SH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
972693,
202031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
],
[
20,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Brunei Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
4950111
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Chilean Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
4533723
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "People's Liberation Army",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
66890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Colombian Air Force AH-60L Arpía (24)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
6719810
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Colombian Army S-70i (7 as of 2013)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2697243
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Croatian Air Force UH-60M (2; 2 orders left)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1386799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Egyptian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
377726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Israeli Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
177619
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Japan Air Self-Defence Force UH-60J",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2386953
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Japan Ground Self-Defence Force UH-60JA",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2978818
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force UH-60J (see also SH-60J/K/L)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2370744,
20768403
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
33
],
[
51,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Jordanian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
377729
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lithuanian Air Force UH-60M (4 on order; deliveries to begin in late 2024.)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
6299198
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Malaysian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1137609
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mexican Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1326920
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mexican Navy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1225277
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Moroccan Gendarmerie",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
9346768
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Philippine Air Force S-70i (16) (32 on order)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
27918720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Polish Special Forces S-70i (4) (4 on order)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
19414081
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Saudi Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
570367
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Saudi Land Forces",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
7247921
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Saudi Arabian National Guard",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1051682
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Saudi Navy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
4167347
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Air Force (see HH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2606974,
38861
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
],
[
33,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Army UH-60P",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1515574
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Navy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2284275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Slovak Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
11114687
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Swedish Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
367249
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of China Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1717030
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of China Army",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1713738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of China Navy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1715978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Thai Army UH-60L; UH-60M",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1230371
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Thai Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1778758
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Royal Thai Navy (see SH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1222633,
202031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
22,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tunisian Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
8340977
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Turkish Air Force (6 T-70s on order)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1799517,
2038611
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
],
[
21,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Turkish Army",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1733276
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United Arab Emirates Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
10815770
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United States Air Force (see HH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
32090,
38861
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
23
],
[
29,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United States Army",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
32087
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United States Navy (see SH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
20518076,
202031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
],
[
24,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United States Coast Guard (see MH-60)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
32223,
2013461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
],
[
31,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1821809
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Government Flying Service",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1083709
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "From 1981 to 1987, five Black Hawks crashed (killing or injuring all on board) while flying near radio broadcast towers because their electromagnetic emissions disrupted the helicopters' flight control systems. The Black Hawk helicopters were not hardened against high-intensity radiated field, contrarily to the SB-60 Seahawk Navy version. The pilots were instructed to fly away from emitters, and, in the long-term, shieldings were increased, and backup systems were installed.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
20586364,
202031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
264,
293
],
[
313,
326
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 3 March 1994, a UH-60 helicopter of the 15th Fighter Wing, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) exploded above Yongin, Gyeonggi-do, killing all of the six personnel on board, including General Cho Kun-hae, then Chief of the Air Staff of South Korea.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
2606974,
386377,
323103,
54577802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
63,
90
],
[
114,
120
],
[
122,
133
],
[
214,
251
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 14 April 1994, two U.S. Army UH-60 Black Hawks in northern Iraq were shot down by mistake by U.S. Air Force F-15s patrolling the northern no-fly zone that had been imposed after the 1991 Gulf War. Twenty-six crew and passengers were killed.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
9587389,
11715,
203230,
182000
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
73,
82
],
[
112,
117
],
[
133,
153
],
[
191,
199
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 12 June 1996, two Australian Army Black Hawks collided during an Army night-time special forces counter-terrorism exercise resulting in the death of eighteen soldiers - fifteen members of the SASR and three from the 5th Aviation Regiment.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
195077,
195077,
3674597
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
85,
99
],
[
196,
200
],
[
220,
241
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 10 March 2015, a UH-60 from Eglin Air Force Base crashed off the coast of the Florida Panhandle near the base. All eleven on board were killed.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
102510,
45645294,
902849
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
52
],
[
53,
60
],
[
82,
99
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 16 February 2018, UH-60M helicopter deployed by the Mexican Air Force to Oaxaca after an earthquake, crashed into a group of people while attempting to land.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
1326920,
56610487
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
56,
73
],
[
93,
103
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 2 January 2020, a UH-60M helicopter of the Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF) in Taiwan, crashed on a mountainside, killing eight people on board, including General Shen Yi-ming, chief of the general staff of Republic of China's armed forces.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
1717030,
25734,
62718970,
58962691,
57413926
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
47,
74
],
[
86,
92
],
[
94,
119
],
[
170,
182
],
[
184,
246
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "On 23 June 2021, a Philippine Air Force S-70i crashed in Capaz town in Tarlac during a night flight training, killing all 6 crew members. The unit was newly delivered on November the previous year or only almost 8 months old.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
27918720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "On 22 February 2022, two Utah National Guard Black Hawk helicopters crashed at the Snowbird, Utah ski resort during a training exercise. One Black Hawk was overcome by whiteout conditions caused by the downdraft in the snow, and crashed, causing parts of the rotor blades to strike the other helicopter, forcing a hard landing. There were no major injuries of crew or skiers.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
4562260,
748746,
2240066
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
25,
44
],
[
83,
97
],
[
203,
212
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "On July 16, 2022, one Mexican Navy Black Hawk crashed at Sinaloa, killing 14 marines onboard.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
1225277,
222251
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
22,
34
],
[
57,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2008. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World Class Helicopter. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2003. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH/HH-60 Black Hawk U.S. Army page",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Lockheed Martin's BLACK HAWK page",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "YUH-60A cutaway image on flightglobal.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
21511838
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
25,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "UTTAS program, origin of the Black Hawk on helis.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60A, H-60, AH-60L and Sikorsky S-70 GlobalSecurity.org",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60 Blackhawk medium size utility helicopter(Air recognition)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "S-70A-42 Black Hawk of the Austrian Army",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Military.com with data on range extending devices",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "UH-60 Black Hawk on kamov.net",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
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37,943 | 1,098,493,081 | Domenico_Cimarosa | [
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"plaintext": "Domenico Cimarosa (; 17 December 1749 – 11 January 1801) was an Italian composer of the Neapolitan school and of the Classical period. He wrote more than eighty operas, the best known of which is Il matrimonio segreto (1792); most of his operas are comedies. He also wrote instrumental works and church music.",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa was principally based in Naples, but spent some of his career in various other parts of Italy, composing for the opera houses of Rome, Venice, Florence and elsewhere. He was engaged by the empress of Russia Catherine the Great as her court composer and conductor between 1787 and 1791. In his later years, returning to Naples, he backed the losing side in the struggle to overthrow the monarchy there, and was imprisoned and then exiled. He died in Venice at the age of 51.",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa was born in Aversa, a town near Naples. His family name was Cimmarosa, which is how he is recorded on his baptismal record. He appears to have been an only child. His father, Gennaro, was a stonemason, and within days of Domenico's birth the family moved to Naples where Gennaro found employment on the construction of the Palace of Capodimonte. When Domenico was seven, Gennaro fell from scaffolding and was killed. His widow, Anna, was taken on as a laundress by the monastic order of the Church of San Severo, and Cimarosa received a good education—including musical training—from the monks and clergy of the church. The organist of the monastery, Padre Polcano, took a particular interest in his education and Cimarosa progressed so well in his musical studies that he was admitted to Naples's leading college of music, the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, in 1761, when he was twelve. His teachers were Gennaro Manna and Fedele Fenaroli for composition and Saverio Carcais, the maestro de violino. He was a capable keyboard player, violinist and singer, but composition was his primary concern as a student; 1770 he, Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli and Giuseppe Giordani were senior students in the composition class.",
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"plaintext": "As a student Cimarosa wrote sacred motets and masses, but he first came to public notice with the premiere in 1772 of his first commedia per musica, Le stravaganze del conte, performed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini in Naples. The work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by Le pazzie di Stelladaura e di Zoroastro. This work was also successful, and the fame of the young composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774, he was invited to Rome to write an opera for the stagione of that year; and there he produced another comic opera called L'italiana in Londra. In 1777 he married Constanza Suffi, who died the following year.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1770s and 1780s Cimarosa wrote numerous operas for the theatres of Italy. He was best known for his comedies, but wrote serious works from time to time, including Caio Mario (1780) and Alessandro nell'Indie (1781).",
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"plaintext": "As well as stage works he wrote church music. He was appointed supernumerary organist of the Neapolitan royal court in November 1779, and by the early 1780s he was a visiting maestro at the Ospedaletto di Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice.",
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"plaintext": "For Rome, he composed operas for three different theatres in the late 1780s and early 1780s; these works included Il ritorno di Don Calandrino, L'italiana in Londra, Le donne rivali, Il pittore parigino and for La Scala, Milan, following the success there of a revival of L'impresario in angustie, he composed La Circe, a dramma per musica in three acts, with a story loosely based on the Odyssey. At some point in the 1780s Cimarosa married for the second time; his wife, Gaetana, née Pallante, was Constanza's step-sister; she and Cimarosa had two sons. She died in 1796.",
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"plaintext": "In 1787, Cimarosa went to St Petersburg at the invitation of Empress Catherine II. He was one of a succession of Italian composers engaged by the Russian court over the years; others were Vincenzo Manfredini (from 1762 to 1769), Baldassare Galuppi (1765–1768), Tommaso Traetta (1768–1775), Giovanni Paisiello (1776–1784), and Giuseppe Sarti (1785–1801). He composed a serious opera, Cleopatra, and revised two of his existing comic pieces Le donne rivali and I due baroni di Rocca Azzurra. Other compositions for Catherine's court included a Requiem, in G minor (1787). Cimarosa was less successful in St Petersburg than some of his compatriots; the works of his subordinate, Martin y Soler, gained more favour with the empress, and this, combined with economies that meant losing most of the Italian singers, and Cimarosa's dislike of the severe Russian winters, led him to leave Russia in June 1791.",
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"plaintext": "After spending three months in Warsaw, Cimarosa arrived in Vienna. His music was already popular there, and the emperor, Leopold II, appointed him Kapellmeister to the court, and commissioned a new opera. The result was Il matrimonio segreto, to a text by Giovanni Bertati, based on the 1766 play, The Clandestine Marriage, by George Colman the Elder and David Garrick. The opera, performed at the Burgtheater on 7 February 1792, was so successful that Leopold had it played again the same evening in his private chambers – \"the longest encore in operatic history\" as one critic put it. Cimarosa did not consider the work his best, but it has a better libretto than some of his other comic operas, the plot clear, the characters well drawn and elaborate disguises and coincidences dispensed with. The composer's own favourite of his operas was Artemisia, regina di Caria, a serious work, composed for Naples five years later.",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa's success was international. He was, together with Paisiello, the most popular opera composer in the late 18th century. He composed 60 opere buffe and 20 opere serie, many of which quickly entered the repertoire of opera houses throughout Europe. They were performed in Berlin, Copenhagen, Hamburg, London, Prague and Stockholm, as well as St Petersburg, Vienna and all the main Italian cities. Between 1783 and 1790 Haydn conducted performances of thirteen Cimarosa operas for his employers at Schloss Esterházy and many of the pieces were given several times. Cimarosa's La ballerina amante, a commedia per musica first performed in Naples was chosen as the inaugural work at the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos, Lisbon, in June 1793.",
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"plaintext": "Three weeks after the premiere of Il matrimonio segreto the emperor Leopold died suddenly. His successor, Francis II, was less interested in music than Leopold had been, and in 1793, Cimarosa returned to Naples. In 1796 he was appointed principal organist of the royal chapel, and he continued to produce new operas and revise older ones. He reworked L'italiana in Londra and I due baroni, adapting them for local taste by adding sections in Neapolitan dialect. The most important new works from this last phase of his career were Le astuzie femminili (1794) and two serious operas, Penelope (1794) and Gli Orazi ed i Curiazi (1796); the first two of these were composed for Naples, and the last for La Fenice in Venice.",
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"plaintext": "During the occupation of Naples by the troops of the French Republic, in 1799 Cimarosa joined the liberal party, but the monarchy was soon restored, and took strong measures against those with liberal or revolutionary connections. Cimarosa was imprisoned along with many of his political friends, and escaped the death sentence only through the intercession of influential admirers, including Cardinals Consalvi and Ruffo and Lady Hamilton. He was exiled from Naples, and went to Venice. He was terminally ill by this time, probably with stomach cancer, and he died on 11 January 1801, aged 51, composing until almost the end. His last opera, Artemisia was left unfinished. A rumour spread that he had been poisoned by agents of the Bourbons, but an inquest showed it to be unfounded.",
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"plaintext": "Although Cimarosa wrote a considerable quantity of instrumental and church music, he was, and remains, best known for his operas. He was famous for his facility as a composer, although he frequently reused material, as was usual in his day, and employed assistants for routine tasks such as composing recitatives. In the article on Cimarosa in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2001), Jennifer E. Johnson and Gordana Lazarevich write that he rose above the mediocrity of some the librettos he set and produced music \"suffused with lightness, elegance and finesse\".",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa avoided the rigidity of the traditional da capo aria, and wrote solo numbers consisting of more flexible divisions, with changes of tempo, metre and key to reflect the words of his librettists. Johnson and Lazarevich comment that this freedom of form conveys spontaneity and flexibility. Cimarosa's arias often speed up for the closing section, in the style of cabalettas. Providing contrast to the vocal display pieces, he often wrote quite simple arias in the manner of cavatinas. A feature of his scores is the sustained writing for concerted voices. In the words of the Grove article:",
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"plaintext": "Harmonically, Cimarosa was not innovative, remaining content with traditional diatonic conventions. In the view of Johnson and Lazarevich his musical strengths are to be found in \"the richness of his melodic invention, the brilliance and energy of his rhythmic and melodic motifs and his constantly lively accompaniments\".",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa's approach to orchestration developed over his career. His earlier works are generally written for strings, oboes, horns and trumpets, and occasionally bassoons and flutes. In these pieces the function of the orchestra is to provide a discreet support for the voices. During his four years in St Petersburg he began to use clarinets, and to orchestrate more fully and richly. Johnson and Lazarevich instance Il matrimonio segreto, in which a large orchestra \"provides colour and exhibits independent motivic and rhythmic material that serves as commentary on the action\".",
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"plaintext": "Cimarosa wrote a number of piano sonatas, which were discovered in manuscript in the 1920s; the quantity has been asserted as over 80 single-movement works, but it is thought that many of these may in fact belong with each other as three movement works. The work sometimes referred to as Cimarosa's \"Concerto for oboe\" is in fact a 1949 confection by Arthur Benjamin, consisting of arrangements of movements from the sonatas.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson and Lazarevich write that Cimarosa's reputation during his lifetime reached a height unsurpassed until Rossini's heyday, and he continued to be highly regarded into the 19th century. Eugène Delacroix preferred Cimarosa's music to Mozart's. He wrote of Il matrimonio segreto, \"It is perfection itself. No other musician has this symmetry, this expressiveness and sense of the appropriate, this gaiety and tenderness, and above all … incomparable elegance\". Stendhal wrote that Cimarosa, Mozart and Shakespeare were the only passions of his life. To Stendhal, Cimarosa was \"the Molière of composers\", and he claimed to have seen Il matrimonio segreto more than 100 times.",
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"plaintext": "Hector Berlioz, who hated Italian opera, was not an admirer: \"I should throw to the devil the unique and interminable Matrimonio Segreto, which is nearly as tiresome as The Marriage of Figaro without being anything like so musical.\" Robert Schumann was impressed by Cimarosa's \"absolutely masterful\" orchestration, but by little else. Eduard Hanslick praised Cimarosa's wonderful facility, masterly compositional strokes and good taste. \"Full of sunshine – that is the right expression for Cimarosa's music\".",
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37,944 | 1,086,248,203 | Giovanni_Pacini | [
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"plaintext": "His first 25 or so operas were written when Gioachino Rossini dominated the Italian operatic stage. But Pacini's operas were \"rather superficial\", a fact which, later, he candidly admitted in his Memoirs. For some years he held the post of \"director of the Teatro San Carlo in Naples.\" Later, retiring to Viareggio to found a school of music, Pacini took time to assess the state of opera in Italy and, during a five-year period during which he stopped composing, laid out his ideas in his Memoirs. Like Saverio Mercadante, who also reassessed the strength and weaknesses of this period in opera, Pacini's style did change, but he quickly became eclipsed by the rising influence of Giuseppe Verdi on the Italian operatic scene, and many of his operas appeared to be old fashioned and rarely, if ever, appeared outside of Italy.\" Pacini's work is largely forgotten today, although some recordings do exist.",
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"plaintext": "During his lifetime, Pacini wrote some 74 operas. This is less than earlier estimates, which ranged from 80 to 90, since it has now been ascertained that many were just alternate titles for other works. It has been noted that he \"bothered little about harmony and instrumentation\", a fact supported by Rossini who once said: \"God help us if he knew music. No one could resist him\". Certainly, Pacini recognized Rossini's strengths and his dominance during this period: \"Everyone followed the same school, the same fashions, and as a result they were all imitators of the great luminary .... If I was a follower of the great man from Pesaro, so was everyone else\"",
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"plaintext": "After Rossini moved to Paris in 1824, Pacini and his contemporaries (Giacomo Meyerbeer, Nicola Vaccai, Michele Carafa, Carlo Coccia, Vincenzo Bellini, Gaetano Donizetti, the brothers Federico and Luigi Ricci, and Saverio Mercadante) collectively began to change the nature of Italian opera and took bel canto singing in a new direction. Orchestration became heavier, coloratura was reduced, especially for men's voices, and more importance was placed on lyrical pathos. While there were exceptions, romantic leads were assigned to tenors (in Rossini's time, they were frequently sung by alto or mezzo-soprano women). Villains became basses or later baritones (while they often were tenors for Rossini). Over time, far more emphasis was placed on the drama.",
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"plaintext": "The role that Pacini played in instituting these changes is only now beginning to be recognized. There is little doubt that Pacini and his contemporary Nicola Vaccai exerted a stronger influence on Bellini than has been credited before. This change in attitude can be credited to the revival of two key works: Vaccai's Giulietta e Romeo and Pacini's L'ultimo giorno di Pompei, both composed in 1825 within a few weeks of each other.",
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"plaintext": "The success of many of Pacini's lighter operas especially Il Barone di Dolsheim, La sposa fedele, and La schiava in Bagdad (all composed between 1818 and 1820) made Pacini one of the most prominent composers in Italy. His position was greatly enhanced by the rapid-fire successes of Alessandro nelle Indie (Naples, 1824, revised, Milan, 1826; given and recorded in London in November 2006), Amazilia (Naples 1824, revised, Vienna, 1827), and the previously mentioned L'Ultimo giorno di Pompei (Naples, 1825).",
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"plaintext": "In Alessandro nelle Indie, the title role of Alessandro was created by a baritonal tenor, Andrea Nozzari, but it was sung by the much lighter-voiced Giovanni David at the Milan revival, indicating Pacini's desire to go in a new direction. Arabi nelle Gallie (Milan, 1827) reached many of the world's most important stages and was the first Pacini opera to be given in the United States. It was staged frequently in Italy, and it was not until 1830 that Bellini's first success, Il pirata (also Milan, 1827) passed Gli arabi nelle Gallie in number of performances at the Teatro alla Scala. While this is not generally recognized, it was Pacini, rather than Donizetti, Mercadante or Bellini, who gave Rossini the stiffest competition in Italy during the 1820s.",
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"plaintext": "Many operas followed that are almost completely forgotten. However, one of these, Il corsaro (Rome, 1831) was revived 173 years later, in 2004, albeit only with piano accompaniment. This work is different in many ways from Verdi's later opera by the same name. The title role, Corrado, is a musico role for an alto, and the villainous Seid is a tenor.",
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"plaintext": "However, first Bellini and then Donizetti outstripped Pacini in fame. Many of his later operas, such as Carlo di Borgogna of 1835, were failures, but this is one of the few Pacini operas currently available on CD, and it has received many warm reviews. Pacini himself was the first to recognize his apparent defeat noted in memoirs: \"I began to realize that I must withdraw from the field. Bellini, the divine Bellini, has surpassed me.\" Some years later, he resumed composing, and, after one more setback, enjoyed his greatest triumph with Saffo (Naples, 1840).",
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"plaintext": "After Saffo, Pacini entered into another period of prominence. Donizetti had departed for Paris, Bellini had died, and Mercadante's major successes were behind him, thus Verdi offered the only important competition. Pacini's successes during this time period include La fidanzata corsa (Naples, 1842), Maria, regina d'Inghilterra (Palermo, 1843), Medea (Palermo, 1843 with several later revisions, the last of which was in Naples in 1853), Lorenzino de' Medici (Venice, 1845), Bondelmonte (Florence, 1845), Stella di Napoli (Naples,1845) and La regina di Cipro (Turin, 1846). Allan Cameron (Venice, 1848) is noteworthy because it deals with the youth of King Charles II, before he was crowned King of England. In contrast—by 1844—Verdi had written Nabucco, I Lombardi, and Ernani, thus outstripping Pacini.",
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"plaintext": "This period of accomplishments was followed by a long but slow decline, marked only by the moderate successes of La punizione (Venice, 1854), Il saltimbanco (Rome, 1858), and Niccolò de' Lapi (Florence,1873).",
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"plaintext": "Pacini died in Pescia, Tuscany in 1867. During his lifetime, he produced much music of high caliber. His output of more than 70 stage works is staggering even compared to Rossini (41 operas) and Handel (43operas), and he will always be remembered, with Donizetti, as one of the most prolific composers in the history of opera.",
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"plaintext": "Balthazar, Scott L.; Michael Rose (1998), \"Pacini, Giovanni\", in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp.808–812. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc. ",
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"plaintext": "Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam. . pp.649–650",
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37,945 | 1,101,880,432 | Giovanni_Paisiello | [
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"plaintext": "Paisiello was born in Taranto in the Apulia region and educated by the Jesuits there. He became known for his beautiful singing voice and in 1754 was sent to the Conservatorio di S. Onofrio at Naples, where he studied under Francesco Durante, and eventually became assistant master. For the theatre of the Conservatorio, which he left in 1763, he wrote some intermezzi, one of which attracted so much notice that he was invited to write two operas, La Pupilla and Il Mondo al Rovescio, for Bologna, and a third, Il Marchese di Tidipano, for Rome.",
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"plaintext": "His reputation now firmly established, he settled for some years at Naples, where, despite the popularity of Niccolò Piccinni, Domenico Cimarosa and Pietro Guglielmi, of whose triumphs he was bitterly jealous, he produced a series of highly successful operas, one of which, L'ldolo cinese, made a deep impression upon the Neapolitan public. The young Mozart and his father met him in Bologna in 1771.",
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"plaintext": "In 1772 Paisiello began to write church music, and composed a requiem for Gennara di Borbone, of the reigning dynasty. In the same year he married Cecilia Pallini, and the marriage was a happy one. In 1776 Paisiello was invited by the empress Catherine the Great of Russia to Saint Petersburg, where he remained for eight years, producing, among other charming works, his masterpiece, Il barbiere di Siviglia, which soon attained a European reputation. The fate of this opera marks an epoch in the history of Italian art; for with it the gentle suavity cultivated by the masters of the 18th century died out to make room for the dazzling brilliance of a later period.",
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"plaintext": "Paisiello left Russia in 1784, and, after producing Il Re Teodoro at Vienna, entered the service of Ferdinand IV of Naples, where he composed many of his best operas, including Nina and La Molinara. The Irish tenor Michael Kelly witnessed another meeting between Paisiello and Mozart when he visited Vienna later that year. Mozart had just finished a string of piano concertos, K. 449 and 453, written for his pupil Barbara Ployer. When Ployer’s father arranged a performance at his summer estate in Döbling, Mozart wrote to his father, “Fräulein Babette will play her new concerto in G and I shall play the Quintet and then we’ll perform together the grand sonata for two pianos. I shall fetch Paisiello with my carriage for I want him to hear my compositions as well as my pupil.” After many vicissitudes, resulting from political and dynastic changes, he was invited to Paris (1802) by Napoleon, whose favor he had won five years previously by composing a march for the funeral of General Hoche. Napoleon treated him munificently, while cruelly neglecting two more famous composers, Luigi Cherubini and Étienne Méhul, to whom the new favorite transferred the hatred he had formerly borne to Cimarosa, Guglielmi and Piccinni.",
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"plaintext": "Paisiello is known to have composed 94 operas, which are known for their gracefully beautiful melodies. Perhaps the best-known tune he ever wrote is \"Nel cor più non mi sento\" from La Molinara, immortalized when Beethoven composed variations based on it. Another favourite vocal piece is \"Chi vuol la zingarella\" from I zingari in fiera, that vividly portrays the scene of an attractive gypsy girl with its dramatic music. Paisiello also wrote a great deal of church music, including eight masses; as well as fifty-one instrumental compositions and many stand-alone songs. He also composed the Inno al Re, the national anthem of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Manuscript scores of many of his operas were presented to the library of the British Museum by Domenico Dragonetti.",
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"plaintext": "The library of the Gerolamini at Naples possesses an interesting manuscript compilation recording Paisiello's opinions on contemporary composers, and exhibiting him as a somewhat severe critic, especially of the work of Pergolesi.",
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"plaintext": "The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music notes that \"Paisiello was one of the most successful and influential opera composers of his time. Most of his over 80 operas are comic and use a simple, direct and spirited style, latterly with sharper characterization, more colorful scoring and warmer melodies (features that influenced Mozart). His serious operas have less than the conventional amount of virtuoso vocal writing; those for Russia are the closest to Gluck's 'reform' approach.\"",
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"plaintext": " R 1.02 I francesi brillanti (24.6.1764, Bologna)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.03 Madama l'umorista, o Gli stravaganti (26.1.1765, Modena) – lost",
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"plaintext": " R 1.05 La mascherata delle nozze di Bacco e d'Arianna (11.2.1765, Modena)",
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"plaintext": " Il negligente (1765, Parma)",
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"plaintext": " Pulcinella vendicato nel ritorno di marechiaro (1765, Naples, Teatro Bellini)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.05a Le virtuose ridicole (1765, Parma)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.07 Le finte contesse (2.1766, Rome Valle) [Il Marchese di Tulissano?]",
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"plaintext": " R 1.08 La vedova di bel genio (spring 1766, Naples, Teatro Nuovo)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.09 Le 'mbroglie de le Bajasse (carnival 1767, Naples) – lost",
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"plaintext": " R 1.11 Licenza to L'idolo cinese",
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"plaintext": " R 1.15 Le nozze di Peleo e Tetide (31.5.1768, Naples PR) [Festa teatrale in musica]",
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"plaintext": " R 1.20 La Claudia vendicata (performed as act III of L'osteria 1770, Naples)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.21 Don Chisciotte della Mancia (summer 1769, Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.22 L'arabo cortese (winter 1769 Naples, Teatro Nuovo)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.23 La Zelmira, o sia La marina del Granatello (summer 1770 Naples, Teatro Nuovo)",
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"plaintext": " R 1.24 Le trame per amore (7.10.1770 Naples, Teatro Nuovo)",
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"plaintext": " Don Anchise Campanone (1773 Venice) [rev. Gli amante comici]",
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"plaintext": " R 1.56 Achille in Sciro (6.2.1778 St. Petersburg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.57 Lo sposo burlato (24.7.1778 St. Petersburg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.58 Gli astrologi immaginari (14.2.1779 St. Petersburg, Hermitage) [I filosofi immaginari], [Le philosophe imaginaire]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.59 Demetrio (13.6.1779, Tsarskoye Selo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.60 Il matrimonio inaspettato (1779 Kammenïy Ostrov) [La contadina di spirito]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
5348105
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.61 La finta amante (5.6.1780 Mogilev) [Camiletta]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.62 Alcide al bivio (6.12.1780 St. Petersburg, Hermitage)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.63 La serva padrona (10?.9.1781 Tsarskoye Selo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
4544971
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
37,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Il duello comico (1782 Tsarskoye Selo) [rev. Il duello]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.64 Il barbiere di Siviglia, ovvero La precauzione inutile (26.9.1782 St. Petersburg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
8968941
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.65 Il mondo della luna (1782 Kammenïy Ostrov)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.66 Il re Teodoro in Venezia (23.8.1784 Vienna, Burg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
55303779
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.67 Antigono (12.10.1785 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.68 L'amor ingegnoso, o sia La giovane scaltra (carnival 1785 Padua)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.69 La grotta di Trofonio (12.1785 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.70 Olimpiade (20.1.1786 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
2666861
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.71 Le gare generose (spring 1786 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini) [Gli schiavi per amore; Le bon maître, ou L'esclave par amour]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.72 Pirro (12.1.1787 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Il barbiere di Siviglia, ovvero La precauzione inutile [rev] (1787 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.73 Giunone e Lucina (8.9.1787 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.74 La modista raggiratrice (autumn 1787 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini) [La scuffiara amante, o sia Il maestro di scuola napolitano; La scuffiara raggiratrice]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.75 Fedra (1.1.1788 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.76 L'amor contrastato (carnival 1789 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini) [L'amor contrastato o sia La molinarella]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.77 Catone in Utica (5.2.1789 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.78 Nina, o sia La pazza per amore (25.6.1789 Caserta)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
2037611
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.79 I zingari in fiera (21.11.1789 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.80 Le vane gelosie (spring 1790 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.81 Zenobia in Palmira (30.5.1790 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " La molinara (1790 Vienna) [rev. L'amor contrastato]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nina, o sia La pazza per amore [rev] (1790 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.82 Ipermestra (6.1791 Padua)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.83 La locanda (16.6.1791 London Pantheon) [La locanda di falcone; Lo stambo in Berlina]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.84 I giuochi d'Agrigento (16.5.1792 Venice, Fenice)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Il fanatico in Berlina (1792 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini) [rev. La locanda]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.85 Il ritorno d'Idomeneo in Creta (autumn 1792 Perugia) – lost",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.86 Elfrida (4.11.1792 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo) [Adevolto]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.87 Elvira (12.1.1794 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.88 Didone abbandonata (4.11.1794 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nina, o sia La pazza per amore [rev 2] (1795 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chi la dura la vince (9.6.1797 Milan S)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.89 La Daunia felice (26.6.1797 Foggia, Palazzo Dogana)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.90 Andromaca (4.11.1797 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.91 L'inganno felice (1798 Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.92 L'isola disabitata (3.7.1799, Lisbon) – lost",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.93 La Pace",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.94 Proserpine (28.3.1803 Paris, Opéra)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.95 Elisa (19.3.1807 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo) [+ Mayr]",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 1.96 I pittagorici (19.3.1808 Naples, Teatro di S Carlo)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.01 – L'Ebone (lost)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.02 – La sorpresa delli Dei (lost)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.03 – 2 Notturni",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.04 – La Partenza",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.05 – La Libertà e Palinodia a Nice",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.06 – Il Ritorno di Perseo",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.07 – Amor vendicato",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.08 – Il Genio Poetico Appagato",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.09 – Cantata epitalamica (lost)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.10 – Canone a 4 voci",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.11 – Le nozze di Silvio e Clori",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.12 – La Volontaria",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.13 – Il mio bene, il mio tesoro",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.14 – Birthday Cantata for Prince Felice of Lucca",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.15 – Tirsi a Fille",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.16 – Fille a Tirsi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.17 – La Lontananza di Tirsi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.18 – La scusa",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.19 – Riede omai la nuova aurora",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 2.20 – 3 Notturni for 2 sopranos",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.01 – Jephte sacrificium (lost)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.02 – La Passione di Nostro Signor Gesù Cristo",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [
30269656
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"anchor_spans": [
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10,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.03 – Passio secundum Mattheum",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.04 – Passio di San Giovanni",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.05 – Il transito di San Luigi Gansaga",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.06 – Cantata fatta in occasione della transalazione del sangue di S. Gennaro",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.07 – Baldassare",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.08 – Cantata per la Sollenit‡ del SS. Corpo di Cristo",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.09 – Cantata per la transalazione del sangue del glorioso martire S. Gennaro",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.10 – Il fonte prodigioso di Orebre (lost)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.11 – Passio per la domenica delle Palme",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 3.12 – Passio per il venerdi Santo",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Works composed for Napoleon's or King Joseph's chapels.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.01 – Virgam virtutis tuae in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.02 – Mass in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.03 – Absit sonitus tubae in D major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.04 – Mass in A major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.05 – Veni ferox, veni in G minor",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.06 – Mass in C major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.07 – Splendete o coeli in G major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.08 – Mass in G major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.09 – Coeli stella amica in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.10 – Mass in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.11 – Non est in vita amara in C major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.12 – Mass in B-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.13 – Messa in Pastorale per il Natale in G major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.14 – Mass for Passion and Palm Sundays in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.15 – Veni sancte spiritus in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.16 – Mass for the coronation of Napoleon I in B-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.17 – Deh resplende o clara stella in D major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.18 – Gratiae sint Deo devotae in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.19 – Splendete o coeli in G major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.20 – Sitibundi desolati in D minor",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.21 – Alma fax et casti in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.22 – Mass in D major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.23 – Ne lucem Bene in B-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.24 – Altas Olympi fores in A major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.25 – Rosae lux e coelo in A major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.26 – Mass in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.27 – Vivat Deus in C major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.28 – Si mare ferox murmurat in F major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.29 – Coeli stella amica in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.30 – Non est in vita amara in C major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.31 – Heu nos jam velum in E-flat major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " R 4.32 – Quis est? in C major",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Works",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " R 4.34 – Absit sonitus tubae in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.35 – In tuo beato ardore in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.36 – O mortales summo ardore in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.37 – Mass in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.38 – Mass for the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in G major (1809)",
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"plaintext": " R 4.39 – Sagro trattenimento musicale in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.40 – Sagro componimento musicale in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.41 – Sagro componimento musicale in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.42 – Mass for the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in G major (1811)",
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"plaintext": " R 4.43 – Mass in E-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.44 – Mass for the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.45 – Mass in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.46 – Te Deum breve in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 4.47 – Laudate pueri in E minor",
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"plaintext": " R 4.48 – Salvum fac Domine in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.01 – Missa Defunctorum in C minor",
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"plaintext": " R 5.02 – Mass in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.03 – Mass in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.04 – Mass in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.05 – Mass in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.06 – Mass in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.07 – Agnus Dei in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.08 – Mass in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.09 – Mass in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.10 – Mass in F major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 5.11 – Mass in C major (doubtful)",
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"plaintext": " R 5.51 – Introit, offertory and communion for the mass in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.52 – Introit, kyrie and offertory",
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"plaintext": " R 5.53 – Introit, gradual, offertory, post-communion and responsory",
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"plaintext": " R 5.54 – Gradual: Omnes de Saba venient in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.55 – Offertory: Te gloriosus chorus in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.56 – Veni sancte spiritus in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.57 – Exsulta jam cor meum in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.58 – Stabat Mater del Pergolese in C minor",
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"plaintext": " R 5.59 – Libera me Domine in D minor",
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"plaintext": " R 5.60 – Caro mea vere est cibus in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 5.61 – Benedictus Rex in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.01 – Te Deum in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.02 – Te Deum in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.03 – Hymn: O salutaris hostia in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.04 – Dixit Dominus in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.05 – Antiphon: Domine ad adjuvandum in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.06 – Dixit Dominus in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.07 – Antiphon: Domine ad adjuvandum in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.08 – Dixit Dominus in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.09 – Dixit Dominus in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.10 – Dixit Dominus in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.11 – Dixit Dominus in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.12 – Dixit Dominus in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.13 – Psalm: Confitebor tibi in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.14 – Psalm: Laudate pueri in E-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.15 – Psalm: Laudate pueri in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.16 – Psalm: Laudate pueri in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.17 – Psalm: Laetatus sum in D minor",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.18 – Psalm: Magnificat in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.19 – Psalm: Magnificat in G major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R 6.20 – Litany in G major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.21 – Responsoria Nativitatis Domini in E minor",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.22 – Responsori per la settimana santa",
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"plaintext": " R 6.23 – Responsori per Giovedi Santo",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.24 – Responsori per Venerdi Santo",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.25 – Lamentazione prima in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.26 – Lamentazione seconda in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.26 – Lamentazione terza in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.28 – Lezione per la sera del Giovedi Santo",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.29 – Christus factus est in A minor",
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{
"plaintext": " R 6.30 – Miserere a 5 in D minor",
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"plaintext": " R 6.31 – Hymn: Pange lingua in C minor",
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"plaintext": " R 6.32 – Hymn: Tantum ergo in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.33 – 3 Tantum ergo for soprano",
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"plaintext": " R 6.34 – Hymn: Tantum ergo in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.35 – Antiphon: Benedicat in F major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.36 – Antiphon: Regina coeli in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.37 – Antiphon: Salve Regina in E-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 6.38 – Antiphon: Ave maris stella in F major",
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{
"plaintext": "(to be completed)",
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"plaintext": " R 7.01 – Motet: Astra coeli in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 7.02 – Motet: O luminosa aurora in G major",
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"plaintext": " R 7.03 – Motet: In corde intrepido in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 7.04 – Motet: Mille furis in C major",
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"plaintext": " R 7.05 – Motet: Absit sonitus in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.01 – String Quartet No.1 in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.02 – String Quartet No.2 in A major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.03 – String Quartet No.3 in D major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.04 – String Quartet No.4 in E-flat major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.05 – String Quartet No.5 in E flat major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.06 – String Quartet No.6 in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.07 – String Quartet No.7 in E-flat major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.08 – String Quartet No.8 in G major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.09 – String Quartet No.9 in A major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.10 – Keyboard Concerto No.1 in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.11 – Keyboard Concerto No.2 in F major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.12 – 4 Divertimenti for winds in E-flat major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.13 – 12 Divertimenti for winds",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.14 – Collection of rondos and capriccios for keyboard",
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"plaintext": " R 8.15 – Keyboard Concerto No.3 in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.16 – Keyboard Concerto No.4 in G minor",
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"plaintext": " R 8.17 – Keyboard Concerto No.5 in D major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.18 – Keyboard Concerto No.6 in B-flat major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.19 – Keyboard Concerto No.7 in A major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.20 – Keyboard Concerto No.8 in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.21 – Violin Sonata in E major",
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"plaintext": " R 8.22 – Marche funèbre pour le Général Hoche in C minor",
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"plaintext": " R 8.23 – Andante for horn and harp in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R 8.24 – 3 Pieces for Military Band",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R 8.25 – Symphony in C major",
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{
"plaintext": " R E.02 – Sinfonia in E-flat major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.06 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.2 in D major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.07 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.5 in G major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.08 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.4 in G major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.09 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.1 in C major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.10 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.3 in E minor",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R E.11 – Flute Quartet Op. 23 No.6 in G major",
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{
"plaintext": " R E.13 – Marche du Premier Consul in B-flat major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R 8.14 – Mandolin concerto in E-flat major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R 8.15 – Mandolin concerto in C major",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R 8.16 – Mandolin concerto in G major",
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{
"plaintext": " Regole per bene accompagnare il partimento o sia il basso fondamentale sopra il Cembalo",
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{
"plaintext": " 298 Disposizione over partimenti by Giovanni Paisiello, in two large handwritten volumes. Presumably written by his student in composition Auguste Louis de Talleyrand. The name 'Taleyrand' appears on the inside of the cover of volume 2. Besides the 45 partimenti from Paisiello's Regole per bene accompagnare, the Taleyrand dispositions contain 41 partimenti that had not been previously known. These volumes are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (F-Pn Rés Vmb Ms. 10/1 and 10/2).",
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"plaintext": " Stefano Faglia, Franca Saini (ed.): Il Mondo della Luna, Saint Petersburg, 1783. Monza, Accademia Musicale IAMR, 2006. Parma, L'oca del Cairo Edizioni Musicali, 2006.",
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37,947 | 1,105,928,735 | Violet_(color) | [
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"plaintext": "Violet is the color of light at the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, between blue and invisible ultraviolet. It is one of the seven colors that Isaac Newton labeled when dividing the spectrum of visible light in 1672. Violet light has a wavelength between approximately 380 and 435 nanometers. The color's name is derived from the violet flower.",
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"plaintext": "In the RGB color model used in computer and television screens, violet is produced by mixing red and blue light, with more blue than red. In the RYB color model historically used by painters, violet is created with a combination of red and blue pigments and is located between blue and purple on the color wheel. In the CMYK color model used in printing, violet is created with a combination of magenta and cyan pigments, with more magenta than cyan.",
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"plaintext": "Violet is closely associated with purple. In optics, violet is a spectral color (referring to the color of different single wavelengths of light), whereas purple is the color of various combinations of red and blue (or violet) light, some of which humans perceive as similar to violet. In common usage, both terms are used to refer to a variety of colors between blue and red in hue.",
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"plaintext": "Violet has a long history of association with royalty, originally because Tyrian purple dye was extremely expensive in antiquity. The emperors of Rome wore purple togas, as did the Byzantine emperors. During the Middle Ages, violet was worn by bishops and university professors and was often used in art as the color of the robes of the Virgin Mary. In Chinese painting, the color violet represents the \"unity transcending the duality of Yin and yang\" and \"the ultimate harmony of the universe\". In Hinduism and Buddhism purple and/or violet is associated with the Crown Chakra. One European study suggests violet is the color people most often associate with extravagance, individualism, vanity and ambiguity.",
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"plaintext": "The word violet as a color name derives from the Middle English and Old French violete, in turn from the Latin viola, names of the violet flower. The first recorded use as a color name in English was in 1370.",
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"plaintext": "Violet is closely associated with purple. In optics, violet is a spectral color: It refers to the color of any different single wavelength of light on the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum (between approximately 380 and 435 nanometers), whereas purple is the color of various combinations of red, blue and violet light, some of which humans perceive as similar to violet. In common usage, both terms are used to refer to a variety of colors between blue and red in hue. Historically, violet has tended to be used for bluer hues and purple for redder hues. In the traditional color wheel used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue, with violet being closer to blue.",
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"plaintext": "Violet is at one end of the spectrum of visible light, between blue light, which has a longer wavelength, and ultraviolet light, which has a shorter wavelength and is not visible to humans. Violet encompasses light with a wavelength of approximately 380 to 435 nanometers. Violet objects often appear dark, because human vision is relatively insensitive to those wavelengths. The reason that to (typical trichromat) humans violet light appears a bit reddish compared to spectral blue (despite spectral red being at the other end of the visible spectrum) is because the S-cone type (i.e. the one most sensitive to short wavelengths) contributes a bit of red to the red-versus-green opponent channel (which at the longer blue wavelengths gets counteracted by the M-cone type). Computer and television screens, using the RGB color model, cannot produce actual violet light and instead mimic it with a shade of purple, combining blue light at high intensity with red light at less intensity.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest violet pigments used by humans, found in prehistoric cave paintings, were made from the minerals manganese and hematite. Manganese is still used today by the Aranda people, a group of indigenous Australians, as a traditional pigment for coloring the skin during rituals. It is also used by the Hopi Indians of Arizona to color ritual objects.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous violet-purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea snail called the murex, found around the Mediterranean.",
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"plaintext": "In western Polynesia, residents of the islands made a violet dye similar to Tyrian purple from the sea urchin. In Central America, the inhabitants made a dye from a different sea snail, the purpura, found on the coasts of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Mayans used this color to dye fabric for religious ceremonies, and the Aztecs used it for paintings of ideograms, where it symbolized royalty.",
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"plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, most artists made purple or violet on their paintings by combining red and blue pigments; usually blue azurite or lapis-lazuli with red ochre, cinnabar or minium. They also combined lake colors by mixing dye with powder; woad or indigo dye for blue and cochineal dye for red.",
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"plaintext": "Orcein, or purple moss, was another common violet dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became the color of demi-mourning, worn after a widow or widower had worn black for a certain time, before he or she returned to wearing ordinary colors.",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century, chemists in England, France and Germany began to create the first synthetic dyes. Two synthetic purple dyes were invented at about the same time. Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant. Cudbear was developed by Dr. Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-foot high wall built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy.",
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"plaintext": "French purple was developed in France at about the same time. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia. Then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated with calcium chloride; the resulting dye was more solid and stable than other purples.",
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"plaintext": "Cobalt violet is a synthetic pigment that was invented in the second half of the 19th century, and is made by a similar process as cobalt blue, cerulean blue and cobalt green. It is the violet pigment most commonly used today by artists, along with manganese violet.",
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"plaintext": "Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic chemical dye, discovered serendipitously in 1856. Its chemical name is 3-amino-2,±9-dimethyl-5-phenyl-7-(p-tolylamino) phenazinium acetate.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1950s, a new family of violet synthetic organic pigments called quinacridones came onto the market. They had originally been discovered in 1896, synthetized in 1936 and manufactured in the 1950s. The colors in the group range from deep red to violet in color, and have the molecular formula C20H12N2O2. They have strong resistance to sunlight and washing, and are used in oil paints, water colors and acrylics, as well as in automobile coatings and other industrial coatings.",
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"plaintext": "Violet is one of the oldest colors used by humans. Traces of very dark violet, made by grinding the mineral manganese, mixed with water or animal fat and then brushed on the cave wall or applied with the fingers, are found in the prehistoric cave art in Pech Merle, in France, dating back about 25,000 years. It has also been found in the cave of Altamira and Lascaux. It was sometimes used as an alternative to black charcoal. Sticks of manganese, used for drawing, have been found at sites occupied by Neanderthals in France and Israel. From the grinding tools at various sites, it appears it may also have been used to color the body and to decorate animal skins.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, the earliest dates on cave paintings have been pushed back farther than 35,000 years. Hand paintings on rock walls in Australia may be even older, dating back as far as 50,000 years.",
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"plaintext": "Berries of the genus rubus, such as blackberries, were a common source of dyes in antiquity. The ancient Egyptians made a kind of violet dye by combining the juice of the mulberry with crushed green grapes. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls used a violet dye made from bilberry to color the clothing of slaves. These dyes made a satisfactory purple, but it faded quickly in sunlight and when washed.",
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"plaintext": "Violet and purple retained their status as the color of emperors and princes of the church throughout the long rule of the Byzantine Empire.",
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"plaintext": "While violet was worn less frequently by Medieval and Renaissance kings and princes, it was worn by the professors of many of Europe's new universities. Their robes were modeled after those of the clergy, and they often wore square violet caps and violet robes, or black robes with violet trim.",
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"plaintext": "Violet also played an important part in the religious paintings of the Renaissance. Angels and the Virgin Mary were often portrayed wearing violet robes. The 15th-century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini advised artists: \"If you want to make a lovely violet colour, take fine lacca, ultramarine blue (the same amount of the one as of the other)...\" For fresco painters, he advised a less-expensive version, made of a mixture of blue indigo and red hematite.",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century, purple was a color worn by royalty, aristocrats and other wealthy people. Good-quality purple fabric was too expensive for ordinary people.",
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"plaintext": "The first cobalt violet, the intensely red-violet cobalt arsenate, was highly toxic. Although it persisted in some paint lines into the 20th century, it was displaced by less toxic cobalt compounds such as cobalt phosphate. Cobalt violet appeared in the second half of the 19th century, broadening the palette of artists with its range of purple colors. Cobalt violet was used by Paul Signac (1863–1935), Claude Monet (1840–1926) and Georges Seurat (1859–1891). Today, cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt lithium phosphate and cobalt phosphate are available for use by artists. Cobalt ammonium phosphate is the most reddish of the three. Cobalt phosphate is available in two varieties — a deep less saturated blueish type and a lighter and brighter somewhat more reddish type. Cobalt lithium phosphate is a saturated lighter-valued bluish violet. A color similar to cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt magnesium borate, was introduced in the later 20th century but was not deemed sufficiently lightfast for artistic use. Cobalt violet is the only truly lightfast purple pigment with relatively strong color saturation. All other light-stable purple pigments are dull by comparison. The high price of the pigment and the toxicity of cobalt have limited its use.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1860s, the popularity of using violet colors suddenly rose among painters and other artists. For example, Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was an avid student of color theory. He used violet in many of his paintings of the 1880s, including his paintings of irises and the swirling and mysterious skies of his starry night paintings, and often combined it with its complementary color, yellow. In his painting of his bedroom in Arles (1888), he used several sets of complementary colors; violet and yellow, red and green and orange and blue. In a letter about the painting to his brother Theo, he wrote, \"The color here...should be suggestive of sleep and repose in general....The walls are a pale violet. The floor is of red tiles. The wood of the bed and the chairs are fresh butter yellow, the sheet and the pillows light lemon green. The bedspread bright scarlet. The window green. The bed table orange. The bowl blue. The doors lilac....The painting should rest the head or the imagination.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1856, a young British chemist named William Henry Perkin was trying to make a synthetic quinine. His experiments produced instead an unexpected residue, which turned out to be the first synthetic aniline dye, a deep purple color called mauveine, or abbreviated simply to mauve (the dye being named after the lighter color of the mallow [mauve] flower). Used to dye clothes, it became extremely fashionable among the nobility and upper classes in Europe, particularly after Queen Victoria wore a silk gown dyed with mauveine to the Royal Exhibition of 1862. Prior to Perkin's discovery, mauve was a color which only the aristocracy and rich could afford to wear. Perkin developed an industrial process, built a factory, and produced the dye by the ton so almost anyone could wear mauve. It was the first of a series of modern industrial dyes which completely transformed both the chemical industry and fashion.",
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"plaintext": "Violet or purple neckties became popular at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, particularly among political and business leaders.",
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"plaintext": "In a European survey, three percent of respondents said violet is their favorite color, ranking it behind blue, green, red, black and yellow (in that order), and tied with orange. Ten percent called it their least favorite color; brown, pink and gray were more unpopular.",
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"plaintext": "Because of its status as the color of Roman emperors, monarchs and princes, purple and violet are often associated with luxury. Certain luxury goods, such as watches and jewelry, are often placed in boxes lined with violet velvet, since violet is the complementary color of yellow and shows gold to best advantage.",
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"plaintext": "While violet is the color of humility in the symbolism of the Catholic Church, it has exactly the opposite meaning in general society. A European poll in 2000 showed it was the color most commonly associated with vanity. As a color that rarely exists in nature and so attracts attention, it is seen as a color of individualism and extravagance.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, violet was a popular color introduced into dress during the Heian Period (794–1185). The dye was made from the root of the alkanet plant (Anchusa officinalis), known as murasaki in Japanese. At about the same time, Japanese painters began to use a pigment made from the same plant.",
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"plaintext": "The \"New Age Prophetess\", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the \"seventh ray\" of \"Ceremonial Order\" is represented by the color violet. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be \"on the Violet Ray\".",
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"plaintext": "In the Ascended Master Teachings, the color violet is used to represent the Ascended Master St. Germain.",
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"plaintext": "The Invocation of the Violet Flame is a system of meditation practice used in the \"I AM\" Activity and by the Church Universal and Triumphant (both Ascended Master Teaching religions).",
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"plaintext": "In the Roman Catholic church, violet is worn by bishops and archbishops, red by cardinals and white by the Pope. Ordinary priests wear black. As in many other Western churches, violet is the liturgical color of Advent and Lent, which respectively celebrate the expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Crucifixion of Jesus and the time for penance and/or mourning.",
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"plaintext": "A stained glass window installed in the early 1920s in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles depicts God the Father wearing a violet robe.",
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"plaintext": "After the Vatican II Council, which modified many of the rules of the Catholic church, priests began to wear violet robes when celebrating masses for the dead. Black was no longer used, since it was the color of mourning outside the church and deemed inappropriate in a religious ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "In Hinduism, violet is used to symbolically represent the seventh, crown chakra (Sahasrara).",
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"plaintext": "In the early 20th century, violet, white and gold were the colors of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, seeking the right to vote for women. The colors were said to represent liberty and dignity. For this reason, the postage stamp issued in 1936 to honor Susan B. Anthony, a prominent leader of the suffrage movement in the United States, was colored the reddish tone of violet sometimes known as red-violet.",
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"plaintext": "In 1908, Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence, co-editor of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) newspaper, designed the color scheme for the suffragette movement in Britain and Ireland, with violet for loyalty and dignity, white for purity and green for hope.",
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"plaintext": "The pan-European movement Volt Europa and its national subsidiary parties use violet in their uniforms.",
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"plaintext": "A small New Age political party in Germany with about 1,150 members is called The Violet Party. It believes in direct democracy, a guaranteed minimum income and politics based on spirituality. It was founded in Dortmund in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Violet flowers and their color became symbolically associated with lesbian love. It was used as a special code by lesbians and bisexual women for self-identification and also to communicate support for the sexual preference. This connection originates from the poet Sappho and fragments of her poems. In one poem, she describes a lost love wearing a garland of \"violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around\" her neck. In another fragment, she recalls her lover as having \"put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses.\"",
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"plaintext": "List of colors",
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"Secondary_colors",
"Tertiary_colors",
"Rainbow_colors",
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37,948 | 1,105,678,967 | Purple | [
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"plaintext": "Purple is any of a variety of colors with hue between red and blue. In the RGB color model used in computer and television screens, purples are produced by mixing red and blue light. In the RYB color model historically used by painters, purples are created with a combination of red and blue pigments. In the CMYK color model used in printing, purples are made by combining magenta pigment with either cyan pigment, black pigment, or both.",
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"plaintext": "Purple has long been associated with royalty, originally because Tyrian purple dye, made from the mucus secretion of a species of snail, was extremely expensive in antiquity. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates; it became the imperial color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, and later by Roman Catholic bishops. Similarly in Japan, the color is traditionally associated with the emperor and aristocracy.",
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"plaintext": "According to contemporary surveys in Europe and the United States, purple is the color most often associated with rarity, royalty, magic, mystery and piety. When combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity, and seduction.",
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"plaintext": "The modern English word purple comes from the Old English purpul, which derives from Latin purpura, which, in turn, derives from the Greek (porphura), the name of the Tyrian purple dye manufactured in classical antiquity from a mucus secreted by the spiny dye-murex snail. The first recorded use of the word purple dates to the late 900s AD.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is closely associated with violet. In common usage, both refer to a variety of colors between blue and red in hue. Historically, purple has tended to be used for redder hues and violet for bluer hues. In optics, violet is a spectral color: It refers to the color of any different single wavelength of light on the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, between approximately 380 and 450 nanometers, whereas purple is the color of various combinations of red, blue, and violet light, some of which humans perceive as similar to violet.",
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"plaintext": "Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. The artists of Pech Merle cave and other Neolithic sites in France used sticks of manganese and hematite powder to draw and paint animals and the outlines of their own hands on the walls of their caves. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC.",
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"plaintext": "As early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, (present day Lebanon), were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex. Clothing colored with the Tyrian dye was mentioned in both the Iliad of Homer and the Aeneid of Virgil. The deep, rich purple dye made from this snail became known as Tyrian purple.",
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"plaintext": "The process of making the dye was long, difficult and expensive. Thousands of the tiny snails had to be found, their shells cracked, the snail removed. Mountains of empty shells have been found at the ancient sites of Sidon and Tyre. The snails were left to soak, then a tiny gland was removed and the juice extracted and put in a basin, which was placed in the sunlight. There, a remarkable transformation took place. In the sunlight the juice turned white, then yellow-green, then green, then violet, then a red which turned darker and darker. The process had to be stopped at exactly the right time to obtain the desired color, which could range from a bright crimson to a dark purple, the color of dried blood. Then either wool, linen or silk would be dyed. The exact hue varied between crimson and violet, but it was always rich, bright and lasting.",
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"plaintext": "Tyrian purple became the color of kings, nobles, priests and magistrates all around the Mediterranean. It was mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament); in the Book of Exodus, God instructs Moses to have the Israelites bring him an offering including cloth \"of blue, and purple, and scarlet,\" to be used in the curtains of the Tabernacle and the garments of priests. The term used for purple in the 4th-century Latin Vulgate version of the Bible passage is purpura or Tyrian purple. In the Iliad of Homer, the belt of Ajax is purple, and the tails of the horses of Trojan warriors are dipped in purple. In the Odyssey, the blankets on the wedding bed of Odysseus are purple. In the poems of Sappho (6th century BC) she celebrates the skill of the dyers of the Greek kingdom of Lydia who made purple footwear, and in the play of Aeschylus (525–456 BC), Queen Clytemnestra welcomes back her husband Agamemnon by decorating the palace with purple carpets. In 950 BC, King Solomon was reported to have brought artisans from Tyre to provide purple fabrics to decorate the Temple of Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "Alexander the Great (when giving imperial audiences as the basileus of the Macedonian Empire), the basileus of the Seleucid Empire, and the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt all wore Tyrian purple.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman custom of wearing purple togas may have come from the Etruscans; an Etruscan tomb painting from the 4th century BC shows a nobleman wearing a deep purple and embroidered toga.",
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"plaintext": "In Ancient Rome, the Toga praetexta was an ordinary white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border. It was worn by freeborn Roman boys who had not yet come of age, curule magistrates,",
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"plaintext": "certain categories of priests, and a few other categories of citizens.",
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"plaintext": "The Toga picta was solid purple, embroidered with gold. During the Roman Republic, it was worn by generals in their triumphs, and by the Praetor Urbanus when he rode in the chariot of the gods into the circus at the Ludi Apollinares. During the Empire, the toga picta was worn by magistrates giving public gladiatorial games, and by the consuls, as well as by the emperor on special occasions.",
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"plaintext": "During the Roman Republic, when a triumph was held, the general being honored wore an entirely purple toga bordered in gold, and Roman Senators wore a toga with a purple stripe. However, during the Roman Empire, purple was more and more associated exclusively with the emperors and their officers. Suetonius claims that the early emperor Caligula had the King of Mauretania murdered for the splendour of his purple cloak, and that Nero forbade the use of certain purple dyes. In the late empire the sale of purple cloth became a state monopoly protected by the death penalty.",
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"plaintext": "According to the New Testament, Jesus Christ, in the hours leading up to his crucifixion, was dressed in purple (πορφύρα: porphura) by the Roman garrison to mock his claim to be 'King of the Jews'.",
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"plaintext": "The actual color of Tyrian purple seems to have varied from a reddish to a bluish purple. According to the Roman writer Vitruvius, (1st century BC), the murex shells coming from northern waters, probably Bolinus brandaris, produced a more bluish color than those of the south, probably Hexaplex trunculus. The most valued shades were said to be those closer to the color of dried blood, as seen in the mosaics of the robes of the Emperor Justinian in Ravenna. The chemical composition of the dye from the murex is close to that of the dye from indigo, and indigo was sometimes used to make a counterfeit Tyrian purple, a crime which was severely punished. What seems to have mattered about Tyrian purple was not its color, but its luster, richness, its resistance to weather and light, and its high price.",
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"plaintext": "In modern times, Tyrian purple has been recreated, at great expense. When the German chemist Paul Friedander tried to recreate Tyrian purple in 2008, he needed twelve thousand mollusks to create 1.4 ounces of dye, enough to color a handkerchief. In the year 2000, a gram of Tyrian purple made from ten thousand mollusks according to the original formula cost two thousand euros.",
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"plaintext": "In ancient China, purple was obtained not through the Mediterranean mollusc, but purple gromwell. The dye obtained did not easily adhere to fabrics, making purple fabrics expensive. Purple became a fashionable color in the state of Qi (齊, 1046 BC–221 BC) because its ruler developed a preference for it. As a result, the price of a purple spoke of fabric was in excess of five times that of a plain spoke. His minister, Guan Zhong (管仲), eventually convinced him to relinquish this preference.",
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"plaintext": "China was the first culture to develop a synthetic purple color.",
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"plaintext": "Old hypothesis suggested links between Chinese purple and blue with Egyptian blue, however, molecular structure analysis and evidences such as the absence of lead in Egyptian blue and the lack of examples of Egyptian blue in China, argued against the early hypothesis. The use of quartz, barium, and lead components in ancient Chinese glass and Han purple and Han blue has been used to suggest a connection between glassmaking and the manufacture of pigments, and to prove for the independent Chinese invention. Taoist alchemists may have developed Han purple from their knowledge of glassmaking.",
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"plaintext": "The lead is used by pigment maker to lower the melting point of the barium in Han Purple.",
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"plaintext": "Purple was regarded as a secondary color in ancient China. In classical times, secondary colors were not as highly prized as the five primary colors of the Chinese spectrum, and purple was used to allude to impropriety, compared to crimson, which was deemed a primary color and thus symbolized legitimacy. Nevertheless, by the 6th Century, purple was ranked above crimson. Several changes to the ranks of colors occurred after that time.",
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"plaintext": "Through the early Christian era, the rulers of the Byzantine Empire continued the use of purple as the imperial color, for diplomatic gifts, and even for imperial documents and the pages of the Bible. Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian purple.",
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"plaintext": "Empresses gave birth in the Purple Chamber, and the emperors born there were known as \"born to the purple,\" to separate them from emperors who won or seized the title through political intrigue or military force. Bishops of the Byzantine church wore white robes with stripes of purple, while government officials wore squares of purple fabric to show their rank.",
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"plaintext": "In western Europe, the Emperor Charlemagne was crowned in 800 wearing a mantle of Tyrian purple, and was buried in 814 in a shroud of the same color, which still exists (see below). However, after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the color lost its imperial status. The great dye works of Constantinople were destroyed, and gradually scarlet, made with dye from the cochineal insect, became the royal color in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In 1464, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should no longer wear Tyrian purple, and instead wear scarlet, from kermes and alum, since the dye from Byzantium was no longer available. Bishops and archbishops, of a lower status than cardinals, were assigned the color purple, but not the rich Tyrian purple. They wore cloth dyed first with the less expensive indigo blue, then overlaid with red made from kermes dye.",
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"plaintext": "While purple was worn less frequently by Medieval and Renaissance kings and princes, it was worn by the professors of many of Europe's new universities. Their robes were modeled after those of the clergy, and they often wore square/violet or purple/violet caps and robes, or black robes with purple/violet trim. Purple/violet robes were particularly worn by students of divinity.",
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"plaintext": "Purple and/or violet also played an important part in the religious paintings of the Renaissance. Angels and the Virgin Mary were often portrayed wearing purple or violet robes.",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century, purple was still worn on occasion by Catherine the Great and other rulers, by bishops and, in lighter shades, by members of the aristocracy, but rarely by ordinary people, because of its high cost. But in the 19th century, that changed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1856, an eighteen-year-old British chemistry student named William Henry Perkin was trying to make a synthetic quinine. His experiments produced instead the first synthetic aniline dye, a purple shade called mauveine, shortened simply to mauve. It took its name from the mallow flower, which is the same color. The new color quickly became fashionable, particularly after Queen Victoria wore a silk gown dyed with mauveine to the Royal Exhibition of 1862. Prior to Perkin's discovery, mauve was a color which only the aristocracy and rich could afford to wear. Perkin developed an industrial process, built a factory, and produced the dye by the ton, so almost anyone could wear mauve. It was the first of a series of modern industrial dyes which completely transformed both the chemical industry and fashion.",
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"plaintext": "Purple was popular with the pre-Raphaelite painters in Britain, including Arthur Hughes, who loved bright colors and romantic scenes.",
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"plaintext": "At the turn of the century, purple was a favorite color of the Austrian painter Gustav Klimt, who flooded his pictures with sensual purples and violets.",
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century, purple retained its historic connection with royalty; George VI (1896–1952), wore purple in his official portrait, and it was prominent in every feature of the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953, from the invitations to the stage design inside Westminster Abbey. But at the same time, it was becoming associated with social change; with the Women's Suffrage movement for the right to vote for women in the early decades of the century, with Feminism in the 1970s, and with the psychedelic drug culture of the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 20th century, purple, green, and white were the colors of the Women's Suffrage movement, which fought to win the right to vote for women, finally succeeding with the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Later, in the 1970s, in a tribute to the Suffragettes, it became the color of the women's liberation movement.",
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"plaintext": "In the concentration camps of Nazi Germany, prisoners who were members of non-conformist religious groups, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, were required to wear a purple triangle.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1960s and early 1970s, it was also associated with counterculture, psychedelics, and musicians like Jimi Hendrix with his 1967 song \"Purple Haze\", or the English rock band of Deep Purple which formed in 1968. Later, in the 1980s, it was featured in the song and album Purple Rain (1984) by the American musician Prince.",
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"plaintext": "The Purple Rain Protest was a protest against apartheid that took place in Cape Town, South Africa on 2 September 1989, in which a police water cannon with purple dye sprayed thousands of demonstrators. This led to the slogan The Purple Shall Govern.",
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"plaintext": "The violet or purple necktie became very popular at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, particularly among political and business leaders. It combined the assertiveness and confidence of a red necktie with the sense of peace and cooperation of a blue necktie, and it went well with the blue business suit worn by most national and corporate leaders.",
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"plaintext": "The meanings of the color terms violet and purple varies even among native speakers of English, for example between United Kingdom and United States Since this Wikipedia page contains contributions from authors from different countries and different native languages, it is likely to be not consistent in the use of the color terms violet and purple.",
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"plaintext": "According to some speakers/authors of English, purple, unlike violet, is not one of the colors of the visible spectrum. It was not one of the colors of the rainbow identified by Isaac Newton, although in earlier versions of Newton's work the word purple was used where violet was used in the final version. According to some authors, purple does not have its own wavelength of light. For this reason, it is sometimes called a non-spectral color. It exists in culture and art, but not, in the same way that violet does, in optics. According to some speakers of English, purple is simply a combination, in various proportions, of two primary colors, red and blue. According to other speakers of English, the same range of colors is called violet.",
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"plaintext": "In some textbooks of color theory, and depending on the geographical-cultural origin of the author, a \"purple\" is defined as any non-spectral color between violet and red (excluding violet and red themselves). The spectral colors violet and indigo would in that case not be purples. For other speakers of English, these colors are purples.",
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"plaintext": "In the traditional color wheel long used by painters, purple is placed between crimson and violet. However, also here there is much variation in color terminology depending on cultural background of the painters and authors, and sometimes the term violet is used and placed in between red and blue on the traditional color wheel. In a slightly different variation, on the color wheel, purple is placed between magenta and violet. This shade is sometimes called electric purple (See shades of purple).",
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"plaintext": "In the RGB color model, named for the colors red, green, and blue, used to create all the colors on a computer screen or television, the range of purples is created by mixing red and blue light of different intensities on a black screen. The standard HTML color purple is created by red and blue light of equal intensity, at a brightness that is halfway between full power and darkness.",
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"plaintext": "In color printing, purple is sometimes represented by the color magenta, or sometimes by mixing magenta with red or blue. It can also be created by mixing just red and blue alone, but in that case the purple is less bright, with lower",
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"plaintext": "saturation or intensity. A less bright purple can also be created with light or paint by adding a certain quantity of the third primary color (green for light or yellow for pigment).",
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"plaintext": "On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term \"purple\" with a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color \"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below.",
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"plaintext": "On the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line.",
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"plaintext": "Hematite and manganese are the oldest pigments used for the color purple. They were used by Neolithic artists in the form of sticks, like charcoal, or ground and powdered and mixed with fat, and used as a paint. Hematite is a reddish iron oxide which, when ground coarsely, makes a purple pigment. One such pigment is caput mortuum, whose name is also used in reference to mummy brown. The latter is another pigment containing hematite and historically produced with the use of mummified corpses. Some of its compositions produce a purple color and may be called \"mummy violet\". Manganese was also used in Roman times to color glass purple.",
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"plaintext": "Han purple was the first synthetic purple pigment, invented in China in about 700 BC. It was used in wall paintings and pottery and other applications. In color, it was very close to indigo, which had a similar chemical structure. Han purple was very unstable, and sometimes was the result of the chemical breakdown of Han blue.",
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"plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, artists usually made purple by combining red and blue pigments; most often blue azurite or lapis-lazuli with red ochre, cinnabar, or minium. They also combined lake colors made by mixing dye with powder; using woad or indigo dye for the blue, and dye made from cochineal for the red.",
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"plaintext": "Cobalt violet was the first modern synthetic color in the purple family, manufactured in 1859. It was found, along with cobalt blue, in the palette of Claude Monet, Paul Signac, and Georges Seurat. It was stable, but had low tinting power and was expensive, so quickly went out of use.",
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"plaintext": "Manganese violet was a stronger color than cobalt violet, and replaced it on the market.",
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"plaintext": "Quinacridone violet, one of a modern synthetic organic family of colors, was discovered in 1896 but not marketed until 1955. It is sold today under a number of brand names.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea snail called the murex, found around the Mediterranean. (See history section above).",
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"plaintext": "In western Polynesia, residents of the islands made a purple dye similar to Tyrian purple from the sea urchin. In Central America, the inhabitants made a dye from a different sea snail, the purpura, found on the coasts of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Mayans used this color to dye fabric for religious ceremonies, while the Aztecs used it for paintings of ideograms, where it symbolized royalty.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, those who worked with blue and black dyes belonged to separate guilds from those who worked with red and yellow dyes, and were often forbidden to dye any other colors than those of their own guild. Most purple fabric was made by the dyers who worked with red, and who used dye from madder or cochineal, so Medieval violet colors were inclined toward red.",
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"plaintext": "Orcein, or purple moss, was another common purple dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, and was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became the color of demi-mourning, worn after a widow or widower had worn black for a certain time, before he or she returned to wearing ordinary colors.",
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"plaintext": "From the Middle Ages onward, purple dyes for the clothing of common people were often made from the blackberry or other red fruit of the genus rubus, or from the mulberry. All of these dyes were more reddish than bluish, and faded easily with washing and exposure to sunlight.",
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"plaintext": "A popular new dye which arrived in Europe from the New World during the Renaissance was made from the wood of the logwood tree (Haematoxylum campechianum), which grew in Spanish Mexico. Depending on the different minerals added to the dye, it produced a blue, red, black or, with the addition of alum, a purple color, It made a good color, but, like earlier dyes, it did not resist sunlight or washing.",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century, chemists in England, France and Germany began to create the first synthetic dyes. Two synthetic purple dyes were invented at about the same time. Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant. Cudbear was developed by Dr Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-feet high wall being built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy.",
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"plaintext": "French purple was developed in France at about the same time. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia. Then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated with calcium chloride; the resulting dye was more solid and stable than other purples.",
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"plaintext": "Cobalt violet is a synthetic pigment that was invented in the second half of the 19th century, and is made by a similar process as cobalt blue, cerulean blue and cobalt green. It is the violet pigment most commonly used today by artists. In spite of its name, this pigment produces a purple rather than violet color ",
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"plaintext": "Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic chemical dye, discovered serendipitously in 1856.",
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"plaintext": "Its chemical name is",
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"plaintext": "3-amino-2,±9-dimethyl-5-phenyl-7-(p-tolylamino)phenazinium acetate.",
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"plaintext": "Fuchsine was another synthetic dye made shortly after mauveine. It produced a brilliant fuchsia color.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1950s, a new family of purple and violet synthetic organic pigments called quinacridone came onto the market. It had originally been discovered in 1896, but were not synthetized until 1936, and not manufactured until the 1950s. The colors in the group range from deep red to bluish purple in color, and have the molecular formula C20H12N2O2. They have strong resistance to sunlight and washing, and are widely used today in oil paints, water colors, and acrylics, as well as in automobile coatings and other industrial coatings.",
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"plaintext": "Certain grapes, eggplants, pansies and other fruits, vegetables and flowers may appear purple due to the presence of natural pigments called anthocyanins. These pigments are found in the leaves, roots, stems, vegetables, fruits and flowers of all plants. They aid photosynthesis by blocking harmful wavelengths of light that would damage the leaves. In flowers, the purple anthocyanins help attract insects who pollinate the flowers. Not all anthocyanins are purple; they vary in color from red to purple to blue, green, or yellow, depending upon the level of their pH.",
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"plaintext": "Purple needlegrass is the state grass of California.",
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"plaintext": "Purple bacteria are bacteria that are phototrophic, that is, capable of producing energy through photosynthesis.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2007 it was suggested that early archaea may have used retinal, a purple pigment, instead of chlorophyll, to extract energy from the sun. If so, large areas of the ocean and shoreline would have been colored purple; this is called the Purple Earth hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": " One of the stars in the Pleiades, called Pleione, is sometimes called Purple Pleione because, being a fast spinning star, it has a purple hue caused by its blue-white color being obscured by a spinning ring of electrically excited red hydrogen gas.",
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"plaintext": "The Purple Forbidden enclosure is a name used in traditional Chinese astronomy for those Chinese constellations that surround the North Celestial Pole.",
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"plaintext": "Purple Mountain in Wyoming (el. ) is a mountain peak in the southern section of the Gallatin Range in Yellowstone National Park.",
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"plaintext": "It has been observed that the greater the distance between a viewers eyes and mountains, the lighter and more blue or purple they will appear. This phenomenon, long recognized by Leonardo da Vinci and other painters, is called aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective. The more distant the mountains are, the less contrast the eye sees between the mountains and the sky.",
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"plaintext": "The bluish color is caused by an optical effect called Rayleigh scattering. The sunlit sky is blue because air scatters short-wavelength light more than longer wavelengths. Since blue light is at the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, it is more strongly scattered in the atmosphere than long wavelength red light. The result is that the human eye perceives blue when looking toward parts of the sky other than the sun.",
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"plaintext": "At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple.",
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"plaintext": "The phenomenon is referenced in the song \"America the Beautiful\", where the lyrics refer to \"purple mountains' majesty\" among other features of the United States landscape. A Crayola crayon called Purple Mountain Majesty in reference to the lyric was first formulated in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "Julius Pollux, a Greek grammarian who lived in the second century AD, attributed the discovery of purple to the Phoenician god and guardian of the city of Tyre, Heracles. According to his account, while walking along the shore with the nymph Tyrus, the god's dog bit into a murex shell, causing his mouth to turn purple. The nymph subsequently requested that Heracles create a garment for her of that same color, with Heracles obliging her demands giving birth to Tyrian purple.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, since the time that the Roman emperors wore a Tyrian purple (purpura) toga praetexta, purple has been the color most associated with power and royalty. The British Royal Family and other European royalty still use it as a ceremonial color on special occasions. In Japan, purple is associated with the emperor and Japanese aristocracy.",
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"plaintext": "In the West, purple or violet is the color most associated with piety and religious faith. In AD 1464, shortly after the Muslim conquest of Constantinople, which terminated the supply of Tyrian purple to Roman Catholic Europe, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should henceforth wear scarlet instead of purple, the scarlet being dyed with expensive cochineal. Bishops were assigned the color amaranth, being a pale and pinkish purple made then from a less-expensive mixture of indigo and cochineal.",
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"plaintext": "In the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic liturgy, purple symbolizes penitence; Anglican and Catholic priests wear a purple stole when they hear confession and a purple stole and chasuble during Advent and Lent. Since the Second Vatican Council of 1962–5, priests may wear purple vestments, but may still wear black ones, when officiating at funerals. The Roman Missal permits black, purple (violet), or white vestments for the funeral Mass. White is worn when a child dies before the age of reason. Students and faculty of theology also wear purple academic dress for graduations and other university ceremonies.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is also often worn by senior pastors of Protestant churches and bishops of the Anglican Communion.",
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"plaintext": "The color purple is also associated with royalty in Christianity, being one of the three traditional offices of Jesus Christ, i. e. king, although such a symbolism was assumed from the earlier Roman association or at least also employed by the ancient Romans.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe and America, purple is the color most associated with vanity, extravagance, and individualism. Among the seven deadly sins, it represents pride. It is a color which is used to attract attention.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is the color most often associated with the artificial and the unconventional. It is the major color that occurs the least frequently in nature, and was the first color to be synthesized.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is the color most associated with ambiguity. Like other colors made by combining two primary colors, it is seen as uncertain and equivocal.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain, purple is sometimes associated with mourning. In Victorian times, close relatives wore black for the first year following a death (\"deep mourning\"), and then replaced it with purple or dark green trimmed with black. This is rarely practised today.",
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"plaintext": " The Chinese word for purple, zi, is connected with the North Star, Polaris, or zi Wei in Chinese. In Chinese astrology, the North Star was the home of the Celestial Emperor, the ruler of the heavens. The area around the North Star is called the Purple Forbidden Enclosure in Chinese astronomy. For that reason the Forbidden City in Beijing was also known as the Purple Forbidden City (zi Jin cheng).",
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"plaintext": "Purple was a popular color introduced into Japanese dress during the Heian period (794–1185). The dye was made from the root of the alkanet plant (Anchusa officinalis), also known as murasaki in Japanese. At about the same time, Japanese painters began to use a pigment made from the same plant.",
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"plaintext": "In Thailand, widows in mourning wear the color purple. Purple is also associated with Saturday on the Thai solar calendar.",
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"plaintext": "The color purple plays a significant role in the traditions of engineering schools across Canada. Purple is also the color of the Engineering Corp in the British Military.",
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"plaintext": "Purple prose refers to pretentious or overly embellished writing. For example, a paragraph containing an excessive number of long and unusual words is called a purple passage.",
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"plaintext": "Born to the purple means someone who is born into a life of wealth and privilege. It originally was used to describe the rulers of the Byzantine Empire.",
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"plaintext": "A purple patch is a period of exceptional success or good luck. The origins are obscure, but it may refer to the symbol of success of the Byzantine Court. Bishops in Byzantium wore a purple patch on their costume as a symbol of rank.",
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"plaintext": "Purple haze refers to a state of mind induced by psychedelic drugs, particularly LSD.",
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"plaintext": "Wearing purple is a military slang expression in the U.S., Canada and the U.K. for an officer who is serving in a joint assignment with another service, such as an Army officer on assignment to the Navy. The officer is symbolically putting aside his or her traditional uniform color and exclusive loyalty to their service during the joint assignment, though in fact they continue to wear their own service's uniform.",
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"plaintext": "Purple squirrel is a term used by employment recruiters to describe a job candidate with precisely the right education, experience, and qualifications that perfectly fits a job's multifaceted requirements. The assumption is that the perfect candidate is as rare as a real-life purple squirrel.",
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"plaintext": "The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those who have been wounded or killed during their service.",
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"plaintext": "In United States politics, a purple state is a state roughly balanced between Republicans (generally symbolized by red in the 21st century) and Democrats (symbolized by blue).",
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"plaintext": "In the politics of the Netherlands, Purple () means a coalition government consisting of liberals and social democrats (symbolized by the colors blue and red, respectively), as opposed to the more common coalitions of the Christian Democrats with one of the other two. Between 1994 and 2002 there were two Purple cabinets, both led by Prime Minister Wim Kok.",
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"plaintext": "In the politics of Belgium, as with the Netherlands, a purple government includes liberal and social-democratic parties in coalition. Belgium was governed by Purple governments from 1999 to 2007 under the leadership of Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is the primary color used by many European and American political parties, including Volt Europa, the UK Independence Party, the Social Democrats in the Republic of Ireland, the Liberal People's Party in Norway, and the United States Pirate Party. The Left party in Germany, whose primary color is red, is traditionally portrayed in purple on election maps to distinguish it from the Social Democratic Party of Germany.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the color scheme for the suffragette movement in Britain and Ireland was designed with purple for loyalty and dignity, white for purity, and green for hope.",
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"plaintext": "In the English language, the word \"purple\" has only one perfect rhyme, curple. Others are obscure perfect rhymes, such as hirple.",
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"plaintext": "Robert Burns rhymes purple with curple in his Epistle to Mrs. Scott.",
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"plaintext": "Examples of imperfect rhymes or non-word rhymes with purple:",
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"plaintext": " In the song Grace Kelly by Mika the word purple is rhymed with \"hurtful\".",
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"plaintext": " In his hit song \"Dang Me\", Roger Miller sings these lines:",
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"plaintext": "Purple is sometimes associated with the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. It is the symbolic color worn on Spirit Day, a commemoration that began in 2010 to show support for young people who are bullied because of their sexual orientation. Purple is closely associated with bisexuality, largely in part to the bisexual pride flag which combines pink – representing homosexuality – and blue – representing heterosexuality – to create the bisexual purple. The purple hand is another symbol sometimes used by the LGBT community during parades and demonstrations.",
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"plaintext": "The National Basketball Association's Los Angeles Lakers, Phoenix Suns and Sacramento Kings use purple as their primary color.",
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"plaintext": "In the National Football League, the Minnesota Vikings and Baltimore Ravens use purple as main colors.",
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"plaintext": "In tennis, the official colors of the Wimbledon championships are deep green and purple (traditionally called mauve).",
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"plaintext": "In American college athletics, Louisiana State University, Kansas State University, Texas Christian University, the University of Central Arkansas, Northwestern University, the University of Washington, and East Carolina University all have purple as one of their main team colors.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Western Ontario in London, Canada, and Bishop's University in Sherbrooke, Canada, have purple as one of its main team colors.",
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"plaintext": "Purple is the color of the ball in Snooker Plus with a 10-point value.",
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"plaintext": "In the game of pool, purple is the color of the 4-solid and the 12-striped balls.",
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"plaintext": "The British chocolate company Cadbury chose purple as it was Queen Victoria's favourite color. The company trademarked the color purple for chocolates with registrations in 1995 and 2004. However, the validity of these trademarks is the matter of an ongoing legal dispute following objections by Nestlé.",
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"plaintext": " Purple or violet appear in the flags of only two modern sovereign nations, and are merely ancillary colors in both cases. The Flag of Dominica features a sisserou parrot, a national symbol, while the Flag of Nicaragua displays a rainbow in the center, as part of the coat of arms of Nicaragua.",
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"plaintext": " The lower band of the flag of the second Spanish republic (1931–39) was colored a tone of purple, to represent the common people as opposed to the red of the Spanish monarchy, unlike other nations of Europe where purple represented royalty and red represented the common people.",
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"plaintext": " In Japan, the prefecture of Tokyo's flag is purple, as is the flag of Ichikawa.",
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"plaintext": " Porpora, or purpure, a shade of purple, was added late to the list of colors of European heraldry. A purple lion was the symbol of the old Spanish Kingdom of León (910–1230), and it later appeared on the flag of Spain, when the Kingdom of Castile and Kingdom of León merged.",
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"plaintext": " Byzantium (color)",
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"plaintext": " Carmine (color)",
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"plaintext": " Cerise (color)",
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1184066
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"plaintext": " Lavender (color)",
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"plaintext": " List of colors",
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"plaintext": " Orchid (color)",
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1181985
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"plaintext": " Purple (cipher machine)",
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50373
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"plaintext": " Purple Francis",
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"plaintext": " Purple Mark",
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37962668
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Raspberry (color)",
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"target_page_ids": [
2796765
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rose (color)",
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2796768
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
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"plaintext": " Ruby (color)",
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14878257
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"plaintext": " Shades of magenta",
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20512820
],
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1,
18
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"plaintext": " Shades of purple",
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32975438
],
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ultramarine",
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"section_name": "See also",
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44633
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1,
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]
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},
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"plaintext": " Violet (color)",
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37947
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " \"The perception of color\", from Schiffman, H.R. (1990). Sensation and perception: An integrated approach (3rd edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons.",
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"section_name": "Further references",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Secondary_colors",
"Quaternary_colors",
"Shades_of_violet",
"Web_colors"
] | 3,257,809 | 33,749 | 405 | 436 | 0 | 0 | purple | range of colors with the hues between blue and red | [
"color purple",
"purple color",
"colour purple",
"purple colour",
"Purpule"
] |
37,954 | 1,100,018,623 | Unexpected_hanging_paradox | [
{
"plaintext": "The unexpected hanging paradox or surprise test paradox is a paradox about a person's expectations about the timing of a future event which they are told will occur at an unexpected time. The paradox is variously applied to a prisoner's hanging or a surprise school test. It was first introduced to the public in Martin Gardner's March 1963 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American magazine.",
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"plaintext": "There is no consensus on its precise nature and consequently a canonical resolution has not been agreed on. Logical analyses focus on \"truth values\", for example by identifying it as paradox of self-reference. Epistemological studies of the paradox instead focus on issues relating to knowledge; for example, one interpretation reduces it to Moore's paradox. Some regard it as a \"significant problem\" for philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "The paradox has been described as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Other versions of the paradox replace the death sentence with a surprise fire drill, examination, pop quiz, A/B test launch, a lion behind a door, or a marriage proposal before moving to Seattle.",
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"plaintext": "Formulation of the judge's announcement into formal logic is made difficult by the vague meaning of the word \"surprise\". An attempt at formulation might be:",
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"plaintext": "The prisoner will be hanged next week and the date (of the hanging) will not be deducible the night before from the assumption that the hanging will occur during the week (A).",
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"plaintext": "Given this announcement the prisoner can deduce that the hanging will not occur on the last day of the week. However, in order to reproduce the next stage of the argument, which eliminates the penultimate day of the week, the prisoner must argue that his ability to deduce, from statement (A), that the hanging will not occur on the last day, implies that a second-to-last-day hanging would not be surprising. But since the meaning of \"surprising\" has been restricted to not deducible from the assumption that the hanging will occur during the week instead of not deducible from statement (A), the argument is blocked.",
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"plaintext": "This suggests that a better formulation would in fact be:",
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},
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"plaintext": "The prisoner will be hanged next week and its date will not be deducible the night before using this statement as an axiom (B).",
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"plaintext": "Fitch has shown that this statement can still be expressed in formal logic. Using an equivalent form of the paradox which reduces the length of the week to just two days, he proved that although self-reference is not illegitimate in all circumstances, it is in this case because the statement is self-contradictory.",
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"plaintext": "Various epistemological formulations have been proposed that show that the prisoner's tacit assumptions about what he will know in the future, together with several plausible assumptions about knowledge, are inconsistent.",
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"plaintext": "Chow (1998) provides a detailed analysis of a version of the paradox in which a surprise hanging is to take place on one of two days. Applying Chow's analysis to the case of the unexpected hanging (again with the week shortened to two days for simplicity), we start with the observation that the judge's announcement seems to affirm three things:",
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{
"plaintext": " S1: The hanging will occur on Monday or Tuesday.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " S2: If the hanging occurs on Monday, then the prisoner will not know on Sunday evening that it will occur on Monday.",
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"section_name": "Epistemological school",
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"plaintext": " S3: If the hanging occurs on Tuesday, then the prisoner will not know on Monday evening that it will occur on Tuesday.",
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"plaintext": "As a first step, the prisoner reasons that a scenario in which the hanging occurs on Tuesday is impossible because it leads to a contradiction: on the one hand, by S3, the prisoner would not be able to predict the Tuesday hanging on Monday evening; but on the other hand, by S1 and process of elimination, the prisoner would be able to predict the Tuesday hanging on Monday evening.",
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"plaintext": "Chow's analysis points to a subtle flaw in the prisoner's reasoning. What is impossible is not a Tuesday hanging. Rather, what is impossible is a situation in which the hanging occurs on Tuesday despite the prisoner knowing on Monday evening that the judge's assertions S1, S2, and S3 are all true.",
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"plaintext": "The prisoner's reasoning, which gives rise to the paradox, is able to get off the ground because the prisoner tacitly assumes that on Monday evening, he will (if he is still alive) know S1, S2, and S3 to be true. This assumption seems unwarranted on several different grounds. It may be argued that the judge's pronouncement that something is true can never be sufficient grounds for the prisoner knowing that it is true. Further, even if the prisoner knows something to be true in the present moment, unknown psychological factors may erase this knowledge in the future. Finally, Chow suggests that because the statement which the prisoner is supposed to \"know\" to be true is a statement about his inability to \"know\" certain things, there is reason to believe that the unexpected hanging paradox is simply a more intricate version of Moore's paradox. A suitable analogy can be reached by reducing the length of the week to just one day. Then the judge's sentence becomes: You will be hanged tomorrow, but you do not know that.",
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"plaintext": "The paradox also appears in the children's novel More Sideways Arithmetic From Wayside School by Louis Sachar. In one of the stories, the teacher, Mrs. Jewls, plans on having a pop quiz the following week, but will not let the class know in advance. Unlike in the classic paradox, the students eliminating the days one by one causes Mrs. Jewls to abandon the idea.",
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"plaintext": " Bottle Imp paradox",
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2164610
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{
"plaintext": " Centipede game, the Nash equilibrium of which uses a similar mechanism as its proof.",
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1214667,
45337
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"plaintext": " Crocodile dilemma",
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24231314
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1,
18
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"plaintext": " Interesting number paradox",
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506692
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
27
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"plaintext": " List of paradoxes",
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"plaintext": " English translation.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "\"The Surprise Examination Paradox and the Second Incompleteness Theorem\" by Shira Kritchman and Ran Raz, at ams.org",
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21565753,
198822
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"plaintext": "\"The Surprise Examination Paradox: A review of two so-called solutions in dynamic epistemic logic\" by Alexandru Marcoci, at University of Amsterdam",
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"plaintext": "\"Jethro On Death Row\": a song based on this paradox, composed and performed by Simon Beck",
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}
] | [
"Logical_paradoxes",
"Works_about_prisons",
"Hanging",
"1963_introductions"
] | 1,142,663 | 5,164 | 19 | 22 | 0 | 0 | unexpected hanging paradox | paradox about a person's expectations about the timing of a future event which they are told will occur at an unexpected time | [] |
37,955 | 1,107,564,121 | Feldspar | [
{
"plaintext": "Feldspars are a group of rock-forming aluminium tectosilicate minerals, containing also other cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium, or barium. The most common members of the feldspar group are the plagioclase (sodium-calcium) feldspars and the alkali (potassium-sodium) feldspars. Feldspars make up about 60% of the Earth's crust, and 41% of the Earth's continental crust by weight.",
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"plaintext": "Feldspars crystallize from magma as both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of calcic plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in many types of sedimentary rocks.",
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"plaintext": "The feldspar group of minerals consists of tectosilicates, silicate minerals in which silicon ions are linked by shared oxygen ions to form a three-dimensional network. Compositions of major elements in common feldspars can be expressed in terms of three endmembers:",
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"plaintext": " potassium feldspar (K-spar) endmember KAlSiO",
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"plaintext": " albite endmember NaAlSiO",
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"plaintext": " anorthite endmember CaAlSiO",
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"plaintext": "Solid solutions between K-feldspar and albite are called alkali feldspar. Solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called plagioclase, or, more properly, plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two other solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the Earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar.",
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"plaintext": "The ratio of alkali feldspar to plagioclase feldspar, together with the proportion of quartz, is the basis for the QAPF classification of igneous rock. Calcium-rich plagioclase is the first feldspar to crystallize from a cooling magma, but the plagioclase becomes increasingly sodium-rich as crystallization continues. This defines the continuous Bowen's reaction series. K-feldspar is the final feldspar to crystallize from the magma.",
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"plaintext": "Alkali feldspars are grouped into two types: those containing potassium in combination with sodium, aluminium, or silicon; and those where potassium is replaced by barium. The first of these include:",
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"plaintext": " sanidine (monoclinic) ",
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"plaintext": " microcline (triclinic) ",
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"plaintext": " anorthoclase (triclinic) ",
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"plaintext": "Potassium and sodium feldspars are not perfectly miscible in the melt at low temperatures, therefore intermediate compositions of the alkali feldspars occur only in higher temperature environments. Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye. Microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope.",
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"plaintext": "Buddingtonite is an ammonium feldspar with the chemical formula: NH4AlSi3O8. It is a mineral associated with hydrothermal alteration of the primary feldspar minerals. ",
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"plaintext": "Barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for potassium in the mineral structure. Barium feldspars are sometimes classified as a separate group of feldspars, and sometimes they are classified as a sub-group of alkali feldspars.",
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"plaintext": "The barium feldspars are monoclinic and include the following:",
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"plaintext": " celsian ",
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"plaintext": " hyalophane ",
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"plaintext": "The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic. The plagioclase series follows (with percent anorthite in parentheses):",
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"plaintext": " albite (0 to 10) ",
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"plaintext": " oligoclase (10 to 30) ",
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"plaintext": " andesine (30 to 50) ",
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"plaintext": " labradorite (50 to 70) ",
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"plaintext": " bytownite (70 to 90) ",
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"plaintext": " anorthite (90 to 100) ",
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"plaintext": "Intermediate compositions of plagioclase feldspar also may exsolve to two feldspars of contrasting composition during cooling, but diffusion is much slower than in alkali feldspar, and the resulting two-feldspar intergrowths typically are too fine-grained to be visible with optical microscopes. The immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colors visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae known as Bøggild intergrowth. The specific gravity in the plagioclase series increases from albite (2.62) to anorthite (2.72–2.75).",
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"plaintext": "The structure of a feldspar crystal is based on aluminosilicate tetrahedra. Each tetrahedron consists of an aluminium or silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions. Each oxygen ion, in turn, is shared by a neighbouring tetrahedron to form a three-dimensional network. The structure can be visualized as long chains of aluminosilicate tetrahedra, sometimes described as crankshaft chains because their shape is kinked. Each crankshaft chain links to neighbouring crankshaft chains to form a three-dimensional network of fused four-member rings. The structure is open enough for cations (typically sodium, potassium, or calcium) to fit into the structure and provide charge balance. ",
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"plaintext": "The name feldspar derives from the German Feldspat, a compound of the words Feld (\"field\") and Spat (\"flake\"). Spat had long been used as the word for \"a rock easily cleaved into flakes\"; Feldspat was introduced in the 18th century as a more specific term, referring perhaps to its common occurrence in rocks found in fields (Urban Brückmann, 1783) or to its occurrence as \"fields\" within granite and other minerals (René-Just Haüy, 1804).",
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"plaintext": "The change from Spat to -spar was influenced by the English word spar, meaning a non-opaque mineral with good cleavage. Feldspathic refers to materials that contain feldspar. The alternate spelling, felspar, has fallen out of use. The term 'felsic', meaning light coloured minerals such as quartz and feldspars, is an acronymic word derived from feldspar and silica, unrelated to the obsolete spelling 'felspar'.",
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"plaintext": "Chemical weathering of feldspars happens by hydrolysis and produces clay minerals, including illite, smectite, and kaolinite. Hydrolysis of feldspars begins with the feldspar dissolving in water, which happens best in acidic or basic solutions and less well in neutral ones. The speed at which feldspars are weathered is controlled by how quickly they are dissolved. Dissolved feldspar reacts with H+ or OH− ions and precipitates clays. The reaction also produces new ions in solution, with the variety of ion controlled by the type of feldspar reacting.",
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"plaintext": "The abundance of feldspars in the Earth's crust means that clays are very abundant weathering products. About 40% of minerals in sedimentary rocks are clays, and clays are the dominant minerals in the most common sedimentary rocks, mudrocks. They are also an important component of soils. Feldspar that has been replaced by clay looks chalky compared to more crystalline and glassy unweathered feldspar grains.",
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"plaintext": "Feldspars, especially plagioclase feldspars, are not very stable at the earth's surface due to their high formation temperature. This lack of stability is why feldspars are easily weathered to clays. Because of this tendency to weather easily, feldspars are usually not prevalent in sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks that contain large amounts of feldspar indicate that the sediment did not undergo much chemical weathering before being buried. This means it was probably transported a short distance in cold and/or dry conditions that didn't promote weathering, and that it was quickly buried by other sediment. Sandstones with large amounts of feldspar are called arkoses.",
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"plaintext": "About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries: Italy (4.7 Mt), Turkey (4.5 Mt), and China (2 Mt).Italy Feldspar Market was valued at USD 201.56 million in 2021 and is anticipated to rise with a CAGR of 7.3% from 2022- 2028 during the forecast period.",
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"plaintext": "Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, and resistance to chemical corrosion. In ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium oxide, potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at an early stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of the system together. In the US, about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers and glass fibre. Ceramics (including electrical insulators, sanitary ware, pottery, tableware, and tile) and other uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder.",
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"plaintext": "Bon Ami, which had a mine near Little Switzerland, North Carolina, used feldspar as an abrasive in its cleaners. The Little Switzerland Business Association says the McKinney Mine was the largest feldspar mine in the world, and North Carolina was the largest producer. Feldspar had been discarded in the process of mining mica until William Dibbell sent a premium quality product to the Ohio company Golding and Sons around 1910.",
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"plaintext": "In earth sciences and archaeology, feldspars are used for potassium-argon dating, argon-argon dating, and luminescence dating.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2012, the Mars Curiosity rover analysed a rock that turned out to have a high feldspar content.",
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"plaintext": "Rainbow lattice sunstone",
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"plaintext": " Bonewitz, Ronald Louis (2005). Rock and Gem. New York: DK Publishing. .",
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] | [
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37,956 | 1,094,202,227 | Best,_worst_and_average_case | [
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"plaintext": "In computer science, best, worst, and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is at least, at most and on average, respectively. Usually the resource being considered is running time, i.e. time complexity, but could also be memory or other resource.",
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"plaintext": "Best case is the function which performs the minimum number of steps on input data of n elements. Worst case is the function which performs the maximum number of steps on input data of size n. Average case is the function which performs an average number of steps on input data of n elements.",
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"plaintext": "In real-time computing, the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed in the worst case to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time.",
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"plaintext": "Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis. Less widely found is best-case performance, but it does have uses: for example, where the best cases of individual tasks are known, they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis. Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques, especially expected value, to determine expected running times.",
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"plaintext": "The terms are used in other contexts; for example the worst- and best-case outcome of an epidemic, worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed, etc. Where components of specified tolerance are used, devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions.",
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"plaintext": "The term best-case performance is used in computer science to describe an algorithm's behavior under optimal conditions. For example, the best case for a simple linear search on a list occurs when the desired element is the first element of the list.",
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"plaintext": "Development and choice of algorithms is rarely based on best-case performance: most academic and commercial enterprises are more interested in improving Average-case complexity and worst-case performance. Algorithms may also be trivially modified to have good best-case running time by hard-coding solutions to a finite set of inputs, making the measure almost meaningless.",
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"plaintext": "Worst-case performance analysis and average-case performance analysis have some similarities, but in practice usually require different tools and approaches.",
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"plaintext": "Determining what typical input means is difficult, and often that average input has properties which make it difficult to characterise mathematically (consider, for instance, algorithms that are designed to operate on strings of text). Similarly, even when a sensible description of a particular \"average case\" (which will probably only be applicable for some uses of the algorithm) is possible, they tend to result in more difficult analysis of equations.",
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"plaintext": "Worst-case analysis gives a safe analysis (the worst case is never underestimated), but one which can be overly pessimistic, since there may be no (realistic) input that would take this many steps.",
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"plaintext": "In some situations it may be necessary to use a pessimistic analysis in order to guarantee safety. Often however, a pessimistic analysis may be too pessimistic, so an analysis that gets closer to the real value but may be optimistic (perhaps with some known low probability of failure) can be a much more practical approach. One modern approach in academic theory to bridge the gap between worst-case and average-case analysis is called smoothed analysis.",
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"plaintext": "When analyzing algorithms which often take a small time to complete, but periodically require a much larger time, amortized analysis can be used to determine the worst-case running time over a (possibly infinite) series of operations. This amortized cost can be much closer to the average cost, while still providing a guaranteed upper limit on the running time. So e.g. online algorithms are frequently based on amortized analysis.",
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"plaintext": "The worst-case analysis is related to the worst-case complexity.",
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"plaintext": "Many algorithms with bad worst-case performance have good average-case performance. For problems we want to solve, this is a good thing: we can hope that the particular instances we care about are average. For cryptography, this is very bad: we want typical instances of a cryptographic problem to be hard. Here methods like random self-reducibility can be used for some specific problems to show that the worst case is no harder than the average case, or, equivalently, that the average case is no easier than the worst case.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, some data structures like hash tables have very poor worst-case behaviors, but a well written hash table of sufficient size will statistically never give the worst case; the average number of operations performed follows an exponential decay curve, and so the run time of an operation is statistically bounded.",
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"plaintext": " Insertion sort applied to a list of n elements, assumed to be all different and initially in random order. On average, half the elements in a list A1 ... Aj are less than element Aj+1, and half are greater. Therefore, the algorithm compares the (j+1)th element to be inserted on the average with half the already sorted sub-list, so tj = j/2. Working out the resulting average-case running time yields a quadratic function of the input size, just like the worst-case running time.",
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"plaintext": " Quicksort applied to a list of n elements, again assumed to be all different and initially in random order. This popular sorting algorithm has an average-case performance of O(nlog(n)), which contributes to making it a very fast algorithm in practice. But given a worst-case input, its performance degrades to O(n2). Also, when implemented with the \"shortest first\" policy, the worst-case space complexity is instead bounded byO(log(n)).",
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"plaintext": " Heapsort has O(n) time when all elements are the same. Heapify takes O(n) time and then removing elements from the heap is O(1) time for each of the n elements. The run time grows to O(nlog(n)) if all elements must be distinct.",
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"plaintext": " Bogosort has O(n) time when the elements are sorted on the first iteration. In each iteration all elements are checked if in order. There are n! possible permutations; with a balanced random number generator, almost each permutation of the array is yielded in n! iterations. Computers have limited memory, so the generated numbers cycle; it might not be possible to reach each permutation. In the worst case this leads to O(∞) time, an infinite loop.",
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"plaintext": " Linear search on a list of n elements. In the absolute worst case, the search must visit every element once. This happens when the value being searched for is either the last element in the list, or is not in the list. However, on average, assuming the value searched for is in the list and each list element is equally likely to be the value searched for, the search visits only n/2 elements.",
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"plaintext": " Sorting algorithm an area where there is a great deal of performance analysis of various algorithms.",
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"plaintext": " Search data structure any data structure that allows the efficient retrieval of specific items",
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"plaintext": " Worst-case circuit analysis",
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"plaintext": " Interval finite element",
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37,958 | 1,105,283,060 | Newcastle_Brown_Ale | [
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"plaintext": "Launched in 1927 by Colonel Jim Porter after three years of development, the 1960 merger of Newcastle Breweries with Scottish Brewers afforded the beer national distribution and sales peaked in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s. The beer underwent a resurgence in the late 1980s and early 1990s with student unions selling it. By the late 1990s, the beer was the most widely distributed alcoholic product in the UK. By the 2000s, the majority of sales were in the United States, although it still sells 100 million bottles annually in the UK. Brewing moved in 2005 from Newcastle to Dunston, Tyne and Wear, in 2010 to Tadcaster, and in 2017 to the Heineken Brewery in Zoeterwoude, the Netherlands. As of 2019, it is also brewed by Lagunitas Brewing Company in Petaluma, California, and Chicago, Illinois, for the American market.",
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"plaintext": "Newcastle Brown Ale is perceived in the UK as a working-man's beer, with a long association with heavy industry, the traditional economic staple of the North East of England. In export markets, it is seen as a trendy, premium import and is predominantly drunk by the young. It was one of the first beers to be distributed in a clear glass bottle and is most readily associated with this form of dispense in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Newcastle Brown Ale was originally created by Lieutenant Colonel James ('Jim') Herbert Porter (b. 1892, Burton upon Trent), a third-generation brewer at Newcastle Breweries, in 1927. Porter had served in the North Staffordshire Regiment in the First World War, earning his DSO with Bar before moving to Newcastle. Porter had refined the recipe for Newcastle Brown Ale alongside chemist Archie Jones over a period of three years. When Porter actually completed the beer, he believed it to be a failure, as he had actually been attempting to recreate Bass ale. The original beer had an original gravity of 1060º and was 6.25 ABV, and it sold at a premium price of 9 shillings for a dozen pint bottles.",
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"plaintext": "The blue star logo was introduced to the Newcastle Brown Ale bottle in 1928, the year after the beer was launched. The five points of the star represent the five founding breweries of Newcastle.",
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"plaintext": "After the merger of Scottish Brewers with Newcastle Breweries in 1960, Newcastle Brown Ale became a flagship brand of Scottish & Newcastle alongside McEwan's Export and Younger's Tartan Special.",
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"plaintext": "Despite investing £16.6 million in a new bottling plant at the Tyne Brewery in 1999, Scottish and Newcastle announced its closure on 22 April 2004, in order to consolidate the brewing of beer and ale in the Federation Brewery site in Dunston, Gateshead, which was to pass to them with their £7.2m purchase of the Federation Brewery. The purchase and consolidation at Dunston created the new brewing company, Newcastle Federation Breweries.",
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"plaintext": "The Tyne Brewery site was bought by a consortium of Newcastle University, Newcastle City Council, and the regional development agency One NorthEast, as part of the wider Newcastle Science City project. Demolition of the former brewery began on 8 March 2007. The triggering of the controlled demolition of the former Barrack Road bottling plant opposite St James' Park was ceremonially performed by Sir Bobby Robson on 22 June 2008.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Scottish and Newcastle closed the Dunston brewery, moving production of Brown Ale to the John Smiths Brewery in Tadcaster. The company cited the general fall in the market for beer, over-capacity in its plants in general, and the fact that the Dunston site was operating at just 60% capacity — despite the fact that sales of Newcastle Brown Ale had never been higher — as reasons for the closure.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the caramel colouring, which has been used since the beer was launched, was removed for health reasons. Instead, roasted malt was used to darken the beer.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Heineken moved some production from the John Smith's Brewery, Tadcaster, to the Zoeterwoude Brewery in the Netherlands. The company claimed this would allow for shorter order lead times and faster transportation to the U.S. and allow distributors to purchase by the pallet rather than the container. In 2019, the company started making a different version in America and ceased importing Brown Ale from Europe. Newcastle Brown Ale is still brewed in Tadcaster, Yorkshire for the UK and some EU markets, and also in the Netherlands for the export market.",
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"plaintext": "Newcastle Brown Ale is brewed with pale malt and crystal malt. It has a lower hopping rate than traditional English bitters.",
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"plaintext": "The beer is one of the United Kingdom's leading bottled ales and is in the top 20 highest-selling ales overall, selling around annually. At the time of brewing moving to Dunston in 2005, Newcastle Brown was being exported to 41 countries. At times, over half of the brewery's output is directed overseas to the U.S. In 2010, more than of the beer were sold in the United States, more than double the 2001 total. Newcastle Brown Ale is no longer available in the United States. A product labelled “Newcastle Brown Ale” is still sold but it is produced by Lagunitas Brewing Company and has little in common with the original product.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada and France (Brittany), the beer is available in short and tall bottles and in cans. The beer is also available in British-themed pubs as a draught beer in Australia and New Zealand, brewed in the UK and imported by World Brands Australia Pty Ltd. The UK-brewed bottled, kegs, and cans are widely available in Australian liquor outlets as part of their international range. It is also popular in Canada, available on draught at many British-themed pubs.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, the beer was renamed \"Newcastle Brown\" with the \"Ale\" being removed from the front label. This change, only in the UK, was due to market research claiming that the term \"ale\" was outdated and costing the company sales in the youth drinking markets. The older name was reinstated with no fanfare in 2004, when it was realised that the change had made no difference to sales.",
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"plaintext": "In the North East, Newcastle Brown Ale is often given the nickname \"Dog\", alluding to the British euphemism of seeing a man about a dog. It is also known as Broon, \"brown\" pronounced in the Geordie dialect. Elsewhere in the UK, it is known as Newkie Brown.",
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"plaintext": "Newcastle Brown Ale is traditionally sold in Britain in and, more recently, bottles. Typically, the ale is consumed from a Wellington glass. This allows the drinker to regularly top-up the beer and thereby maintain a frothy \"head\". In the United States, it is sold in servings. In April 2010, Heineken USA introduced the Wellington glass, branded as the \"Geordie Schooner,\" for Newcastle Brown Ale consumers in America. The glass features a nucleated base.",
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"plaintext": "Like many British breweries, Newcastle Brown is strongly associated with its local area, in this case north east England. While the name provides a lot of this, the sponsorship of Newcastle United and the depiction of the River Tyne in the blue star has helped ensure its association. Its local provenance gave the brand an association with \"hardy, working class traditions and values\".",
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"plaintext": "Under European Union Protected Geographical Status laws introduced in 1992, the name Newcastle Brown Ale was granted protected brand status in 2000. In 2007, this was removed when brewing of the beer moved away from its place of origin to Tadcaster in Yorkshire. The company was obliged to make a formal application to cancel it.",
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"plaintext": "When the Australian brewer Elders IXL launched a takeover bid for Scottish and Newcastle, locals of Newcastle began the \"Keep Us on Top!\" campaign. As a sign of solidarity, the Newcastle Brown label was inverted until the takeover was quashed.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the last 3,000 bottles produced in Newcastle were given commemorative labels \"121 years of brewing history, last bottles produced at Tyne Brewery April 2005.\" and given to the brewery staff.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, a special production run of 2.5 million bottles celebrated the career of Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer, who had recently broken the club's scoring record and was about to retire from football. The brewery produced the special editions featuring Newcastle United's black and white stripes and Shearer's portrait, in exchange for a donation to Shearer's testimonial match, and they went on sale from 17 April that year.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, a special edition was released to celebrate local rock band Maxïmo Park. The label was designed by the band and the beer released to coincide with the band's concert at Newcastle Metro Radio Arena on 15 December. Also in 2007, a special 80th anniversary themed bottle was distributed.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, Newcastle partnered with Taxi Magic to brew a Black Ale called Newcastle Cabbie as part of an Anti-Drunk Driving campaign.",
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"plaintext": "Newcastle Amber Ale (1032 OG) was a light ale available until the 1980s. It was a diluted version of Exhibition. Amber Ale and a much stronger aged stock beer were formerly blended to create Newcastle Brown Ale. This method was discontinued sometime before the brand was moved to Dunston.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Heineken USA launched Newcastle Summer Ale in bottles. In 2011, Heineken USA launched Newcastle Werewolf (fall ale) and Winter IPA. In 2012, Heineken USA will introduce Newcastle Founders ale (an Extra Special Bitter style) as their spring seasonal.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, Summer Ale (4.4%) and Founder's Ale (4.8%) were launched in Tesco across the UK.",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Mirow: July 2008 – July 2012",
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"plaintext": " Suma Chakrabarti: July 2012 – July 2020",
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"plaintext": " : 2020 – present",
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"plaintext": "To become a member of the bank, a country needs to fit the EBRD's Articles of Agreement. These Articles stipulate that a country can only become a Member State if it is a state in Europe or a non-European member of the IMF. Institutions like the European Union and the EIB also participate in the bank operations. Since its fondation the EBRD has almost doubled in membership size. The latest accessions to the bank are countries located in Africa.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD is a public bank, meaning that public institutions such as states are shareholders in those institutions. More precisely, public financial institutions are controlled major predominantly by public authorities (more than 50%) whereas in institutions with public participations, public authorities aren’t majority shareholders. Public banks were particularly involved in the economic transition of the former Soviet Republics and Central and Eastern European countries as private banks and other sources of financing didn’t want to invest for reasons such as those countries’ macroeconomic difficulties as well as political reasons regarding the country’s stability for instance.",
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"plaintext": "In the context of the EU’s investment banking, the EBRD and the EIB have been involved in a rivalry regarding the status of the “EU’s premier development bank”. Major criticism about the EBRD in this situation is related to the fact that non-EU countries are also important shareholders whereas the EIB is completely owned by the EU. More recently, another source of rivalry was about becoming the new “European Climate and Sustainable Development Bank (ECSDB).",
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"plaintext": "More recently, since the start of the Covid-19 pandemic, public banks have had their influence and role increased as they have become important actors of the economic recovery response. As for the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, it has committed €21 billion between 2020 and 2021 of activities. More precisely, its own package was established within the scope of the Resilience Framework, the Trade Facilitation Programme and the Vital Infrastructure Support Programme etc. In 2020 alone, it has invested €11 billion as part of 411 projects which corresponds to a 10% raison compared to 2019. 72% of its investments were received by the private sector. Moreover, because of this specific context, the EBRD focused some of its operations in sectors other than green investment meaning that it only focused 29% of its investment in this domain (compared to 46% in 2019).",
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"plaintext": "According to the EBRD 2020 Sustainability Report, donors provided €589 million to support EBRD activities, taking the form of grants, loans and risk-mitigating instruments.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD funds come mainly from bilateral donors, from the Climate Investment Funds (CIF), the European Union (EU), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the Green Climate Fund (GCF).",
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"plaintext": "According to the EBRD, the bank provides different direct financial instruments such as loans, equity investments and guarantees. It also works on the assistance of SMEs through the intermediary of other banks or investment and venture capital funds which are linked to the EBRD’s investments.",
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"plaintext": "Each project is analysed, first by the EBRD management with the negotiations and the subsequent signing of a mandate letter drafting the important information about the project plan, the expected expenses as well as the responsibilities. Secondly, the project is to be finally reviewed by the management. Later on, it is submitted to the Board of Directors for approval. After being signed for both parties, it becomes legally binding. It leads to the transfer of funds from the EBRD to the client which will in the future start to repay the Bank’s loan.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Not only involving the European institutions, the EBRD financed projects also implicate private actors such as firms as well as foreign investors in the process. As part of its lending policies, the EBRD mostly lends capital to the private sector as lending to the public sector is capped at 40% maximum.",
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"plaintext": "As a neoliberal institution, the EBRD participates in policy debates by publishing macroeconomic analysis but also economic forecasts that are used by governements as well as international financial institutions.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, other than its original lending role, the EBRD has played a mediating role in Europe, for instance in Moldova in 2013 and even in the Central Asian region (most notably in countries such as the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan for instance) by intervening as a third party in commercial disputes which has become one of its major areas of activities. As a mediating actor, the EBRD has managed to involve other actors such as businesses and Chambers of Commerce among others. Moreover, a regional forum on commercial mediation was established by the bank as part of its work, which has managed to involve various representatives from countries in Europe and Asia, such as judges and experts for instance.",
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"plaintext": "It is notable that one of the main objectives of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development was to become a link between the European Union, its institutions and the countries it would focus on. As the recipients were previously centrally planned economies, the ERBD centered through its operations on working with the private sector, which was the principal target of central planning. Focusing on the integration and modernisation process, as part of its projects, the EBRD has notably invested in important sectors such as telecommunications in the Central and Eastern European countries.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 90s, recipients of EBRD financing have diversified, in fact, from mainly targeting EEC countries, the bank has moved to the Asian continent and increasingly focused on other countries such as China. More generally, Suma Chakrabarti, the EBRD president from 2012 to 2020, has pushed in the beginning of the 2010s for modernizing the Bank. Reforms encompassed the Bank's structure in itself, for instance by changing the management team, and its processes (for instance about policy dialogue or methodology regarding the concept of transition) in order for them to be more efficient.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 2000s, the focus has shifted towards the issue over sustainable market economies, notably in the context of the financial crisis of 2007 which harshly impacted population and their trust in the financial institution, democracy and free market. As a result, a rethinking of the concept of transition has taken place within the EBRD and has impacted the activities of the Bank. Furthermore, the concept of transition was reviewed in 2015. In fact, it led to the idea that the ideal market economy is made of a greatly competitive, resilient and integrated market and is complemented by a good governance system conducted by a well-functioning state which has to be environmental friendly and inclusive.",
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"plaintext": "Gradually, climate change and sustainable development became the focus point of the European Union, then consequently found its importance as one of the main challenges that the EBRD has to tackle. It became linked to the objective of forming sustainable market economies. In 2021, Anastassia Obydenkova research has indicated that positive evolutions have been made, for instance that carbon emission from some of the states benefiting from EBRD loans have decreased.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD agreed a new green economy approach for 2021-2025 and adopted a target of becoming a majority green bank by 2025. It invested €3.2 billion in climate mitigation, climate adaptation and other activities related to environmental issues in 2020. Moreover, the EBRD signed up to the Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles which represent the world’s first global guiding framework for banks, insurers, and investors to invest in the ocean economy in a sustainable way.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD also aim to support the corporate transition to decarbonisation, for instance in Poland (EV battery performance), in Turkey (elimination of plastics in single-use hygiene products), and in Ukraine (green supermarkets); and support green infrastructures.",
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"plaintext": "Linked to its objective of contributing to political transformation in the EBRD's country targets in which projects are financed, this institution contributes to political transformation in these same states. From the beginning of the negotiations that led to the creation of the EBRD, the question of democracy and human rights were included in the matter discussed. Those issues are clearly stated in the agreement.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD is devoted to strengthen its approach to human-rights and also to gender-based issues. For instance, it posted a 14.8 percent year-on-year increase in the number of projects it supports that promote gender inclusion. Moreover, the EBRD established a cross-departmental Human Rights Working Group and has developed internal human rights guidance.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD provided €802 million of support under the Vital Infrastructure Support Programme launched in April 2020, an emergency support programme for infrastructure providers which is part of its overall Solidarity Package response to Covid-19 adopted on 13 March 2020. The package delivered emergency liquidity and the EBRD invested more than €10 billion, both in 2019 and 2020.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD has signed partnership agreements with Oxfam and Save the Children.",
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"plaintext": "In the 90s, the start of the EBRD actions have been considered as slow as the amount of money loaned was rather modest compared to what was available.",
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"plaintext": "There have been criticism regarding potential conflict of interest as it appeared that instead of focusing on public interests, some bankers' operations were influenced by their clients' needs, contrary to the objective of the EBRD.",
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"plaintext": "According to an economist named Branko Milanović, the analysis of global distribution of incomes has shown that the positive globalisation impact has mainly favoured the super-rich part of the population, thus deepening the inequalities of wealth concentration within the population. Furthermore, this uneven concentration is notably visible in the countries benefiting from the EBRD activities. This has led to a reflection over the idea of winners and loosers regarding globalisation.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to the highlighted inclusion objective, concerns regarding inclusion, which notably involves gender equality, have been rather absent from the Bank's attributions until recently. For instance, a Strategic Gender Initiative was validated by the EBRD President in 2013 as well as various projects involving gender equality related objectives.",
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"plaintext": "NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”",
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"plaintext": "Inequality of the lending : most projects were related to the Visegrad countries that were the ones with the most developed private sectors meaning that the ERBD was underinvesting in the countries that were the most supposed to receive its participation. For instance, those countries (Cezch Republic, Hungary, Poland) were involved in 46% of the projects signed during the 1991-1993 period.",
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"plaintext": "Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the completed or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch The Dam Truth campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to \"stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the \"conditions for disbursement were not met.\"",
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"plaintext": "Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.",
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"plaintext": "Even though, its major objectives is to push for democracy and respect of human rights, the EBRD has been accused of not working towards those goals by not applying enough pressure and even « holding its annual meetings in dictator-run countries ». Furthermore, reports have highlighted the fact that an important part of the loans provided by the EBRD go to countries with authoritarian leaders as of the beginning of 2022, including states such as Belarus or Egypt among others, and this despite its major objective of promoting democracy.",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. As of 2014 Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.",
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"plaintext": "Building Southern Gas Corridor, European countries and companies support gas export from Azerbaijan and contribute to finance Azerbaijan's government. The Aliyev regime is considered by many NGOs and watchdogs organizations as repressive and activists and journalists are regularly arrested on false charges and imprisoned. The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) wrote in 2015, that \"for more than a decade Azerbaijan has made shameless use of caviar diplomacy to charm European governments, its most important oil and gas clients\". The EEC BankWatch warns that \"Developing Shah Deniz stage 2 and the Southern Gas Corridor is likely to cement further the oppressive structures of the Aliyev government\".",
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"plaintext": "The EBRD has invested over 3 billion euros ($3.5 billion) in 177 projects in Azerbaijan. The EBRD approved three loans for the Shah Deniz gas field (US$200 million, US$250 million and US$100 million) as well as a US$500 million loan for the Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline (TANAP), and stated its financial support to the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) could amount to EUR 1.2 billion.",
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"plaintext": "Yucatán (, , , ; ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Yucatán, is one of the 31 states which comprise the federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 106 separate municipalities, and its capital city is Mérida.",
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"plaintext": "It is located on the northern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is bordered by the states of Campeche to the southwest and Quintana Roo to the southeast, with the Gulf of Mexico off its northern coast.",
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"plaintext": "Before the arrival of Spaniards in the Yucatán Peninsula, the name of this region was Mayab. In the Yucatec Maya language, mayab means \"flat\", and is the source of the word \"Maya\" itself. The peninsula was a very important region for the Maya civilization, which reached the peak of its development here, where the Mayans founded the cities of Chichen Itza, Izamal, Motul, Mayapan, Ek' Balam and Ichcaanzihóo (also called T'ho), now Mérida.",
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"plaintext": "After the Spanish conquest of Yucatán (early 16th to late 17th centuries), the Yucatán peninsula became a single administrative and political entity, the Captaincy General of Yucatán. Following Mexican independence in 1821 the local Governor proclaimed independence. Yucatán became part of the Mexican Empire in December 1821. After the collapse of the first Mexican Empire in March 1823, the first Republic of Yucatán (founded in May 1823) voluntarily negotiated annexation to the Federal Republic of United Mexican States on December 21, 1823. On March 16, 1841, as a result of cultural and political conflicts around the federal pact, Yucatán declared its independence from Mexico. forming a second Republic of Yucatán. Eventually on July 14, 1848, Yucatán was forced to rejoin Mexico. In 1858, in the middle of the Caste War of Yucatán, the state of Yucatán was divided for the first time, establishing Campeche as a separate state (officially in 1863). During the Porfiriato, in 1902, the state of Yucatán was divided again to form the Federal territory that later became the present state of Quintana Roo.",
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"plaintext": " the Mexican National Public Security System ranked Yucatán as \"one of the safest states in Mexico\".",
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"plaintext": "Mérida was awarded City of Peace in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The name Yucatán, also assigned to the peninsula, came from early explorations of the Conquistadors from Europe. Three different explanations for the origin of the name have been proposed.",
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"plaintext": "The first is that the name resulted from confusion between the Mayan inhabitants and the first Spanish explorers around 1517:",
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"plaintext": " According to one of them, Spaniards gave the name of Yucatán to the region, because the Mayan answered their questions with the phrase uh yu ka t'ann, which in the Maya language means hear how they talk.",
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"plaintext": " It is also said that it came from the answer of an indigenous Mayan to the question of a Spanish explorer, who wanted to know the name of the region. The Mayan probably replied Ma'anaatik ka t'ann which means in the Maya language I do not understand your speech or I do not understand you.",
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"plaintext": "Probably the first person to propose the \"I do not understand\" version was the friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia. In his book Historia de los indios de la Nueva España (History of the Indians of New Spain) he says",
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"plaintext": "because talking with those Indians of the coast, whatever the Spanish asked the Indians responded: Tectetán, Tectetán which means I don't understand you, I don't understand you; they corrupted the word, and not understanding what the Indians said, they said: Yucatán is the name of this land; and the same happened in a place, a cape, which they also called Cape Cotoch; and Cotoch in that language means house.",
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"plaintext": "The second proposed explanation comes from Bernal Díaz del Castillo. In his book Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (True History of the Conquest of New Spain), he says Yucatá means \"land of yucas\", a plant that was cultivated by the Maya and was an important food source for them.",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the first settlements has not been scientifically confirmed, although the presence of first humans in the area dates from the late Pleistocene or ice age (about 10,000–12,000 years), according to the findings in the Loltún caves and caverns of Tulum (Women of the Palms).",
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"plaintext": "The first Maya moved to the Peninsula circa 250 CE, from the Petén (today northern Guatemala), to settle the southeastern peninsula in the modern Bacalar, Quintana Roo. In 525, the Chanés (Mayan tribe that preceded the Itza), moved to the east of the peninsula, founding Chichén Itzá, Izamal, Motul, Ek' Balam, Ichcaanzihó (modern Mérida) and Champotón. Later, Tutul xiúes, Toltec descent, who came from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, settled in the region causing displacement of the Itza and Cocomes—a diversified branch of Itzá—and finally, after years and many battles, was formed Mayapán League (composed of the Itza, the Xiús and Cocomes), that eventually disintegrated circa 1194, giving way to a period of anarchy and fragmentation into small domains which the Spanish conquistadors found in the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1513, Juan Ponce de León had already conquered the island of Borinquén (now Puerto Rico) and had discovered Florida. Antón de Alaminos, who was with Ponce de León on this latest discovery, suspected that west of Cuba they could find new land. Under their influence, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, supported by the governor of Cuba, organized an expedition commanded by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba to explore the seas west of the island.",
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"plaintext": "This expedition sailed from port of Ajaruco on February 8, 1517, to La Habana and after circling the island and sailing southwest by what is now known as the Yucatán Channel, the expedition made landfall at the Yucatán Peninsula on March 1. There are discrepancies about where the first explorers arrived. Some say it was in Isla Mujeres. Bernal Díaz del Castillo places it at Cabo Catoche where they saw a great city which they named the «Gran Cairo».",
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"plaintext": "The conquest of Yucatán was completed two decades after the conquest of Mexico; by Francisco de Montejo \"el Adelantado\", his son Francisco de Montejo y León \"el Mozo\" and his nephew, Francisco de Montejo \"el Sobrino\". El Adelantado was in the expedition of Juan de Grijalva and was with Hernán Cortés in the third expedition that eventually became the Conquest of Mexico. He was subsequently appointed for the conquest of the Maya of Yucatán, but failed in his first attempt in 1527–28. In 1529 he was appointed Governor of Tabasco, with the order to pacify Tabasco and conquer Yucatán and Cozumel.",
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"plaintext": "From Tabasco, Montejo led a new campaign to Yucatán from the west (1531–35) and failed again in his attempt. Circa 1535, after many bloody battles with the natives, he reached the complete pacification of the Province of Tabasco and began planning his new foray to Yucatán.",
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"plaintext": "El Adelantado was appointed governor of Honduras and then of Chiapas. Therefore, he gave his son \"El Mozo\", the mission to consummate the conquest of Yucatán. Francisco de Montejo y León \"el Mozo\" founded the cities of San Francisco de Campeche on October 4, 1540, and Mérida on January 6, 1542 (in honor of Mérida, Extremadura). The city of Mérida was founded over the ruins of the Mayan city of Ichkanzihóo (T'ho) and the stones of old Mayan pyramids were used for the new buildings. Later, government powers were changed from Santa María de la Victoria, Tabasco, to Mérida on June 11, 1542. The newly founded Mérida was besieged by the Mayan troops of Nachi Cocom (overlord or 'Halach uinik' in Mayan language). It was a definitive battle for the Conquest of Yucatán. With that victory, the Spaniards consolidated their control of the western part of the peninsula.",
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"plaintext": "Francisco de Montejo \"El Adelantado\" appointed his nephew, Francisco de Montejo \"el Sobrino\", to head the conquest of the eastern Yucatán, which was achieved after many bloody battles, ending with the foundation of the city of Valladolid on May 28, 1543.",
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"plaintext": "Oppressive policies of inequality and prejudice were imposed on the native Mayans by the Spanish colonial government. In November 1761, Jacinto Canek, a Mayan from the town of Cisteil (now located in Yaxcabá Municipality), led an armed uprising against the government, which was quickly put down. Captured insurgents were taken to Mérida, where they were tried and tortured. As a warning to the population against rebellion, Cisteil was burned and covered with salt.",
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"plaintext": "This abortive rebellion was not of great consequence to the colonial regime, but it marked the history of the peninsula and clearly delineated anti-colonial tensions in the region. The uprising was a precursor to the social upheaval that would explode less than a century later, as the Caste War. The Canek rebellion is remembered today as a symbol of the racial and social conflict that predominated for centuries in the Spanish colonies.",
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"plaintext": "Because of its geographical remoteness from the center of New Spain, especially from Mexico City, Yucatán was not militarily affected by the Mexican War of Independence, though the influence was felt in other ways. In 1820 Lorenzo de Zavala, member of Sanjuanistas (a group of creoles who met at the church of San Juan in downtown Mérida), created the Patriotic Confederation, which eventually divided into two groups: the supporters of the Spanish government under the Cádiz Constitution and another led by Zavala, which sought outright independence from Spain. Mariano Carrillo Albornoz then Governor of Yucatán, sent Zavala and Manuel García Sosa as deputies of the Cortes of Cádiz to Madrid, while the other liberals were imprisoned. While this was happening in Yucatán, the Plan of Iguala was proclaimed in the current state of Guerrero (at that time part of the Intendency of Mexico).",
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"plaintext": "On September 15, 1821, in the Hall of Councils of the City of Mérida, Yucatán declared its independence from Spain. Almost immediately, Governor Juan María Echeverri sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation of Yucatán into the Mexican Empire. The incorporation into the Mexican Empire took place on November 2, 1821.",
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"plaintext": "The Mexican Empire was quickly overthrown (1823) under the Plan of Casa Mata, and the provinces of the erstwhile empire became independent states. The first Republic of Yucatán, declared on May 29, 1823, joined the Federal Republic of the United Mexican States as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823.",
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"plaintext": "The second Republic of Yucatán emerged when the federal pact signed by Yucatán and endorsed in the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825 was broken by the centralist government of Mexico from 1835. In 1841 the state of Tabasco decreed its separation from Mexico and Miguel Barbachano, then governor of Yucatán, sent a commission headed by Justo Sierra O'Reilly to meet with Tabasco authorities to propose the creation of an independent federal republic from Mexico formed by the two states. The idea failed when Tabasco rejoined Mexico in 1842.",
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"plaintext": "On August 22, 1846, Mexican interim president José Mariano Salas restored the 1824 constitution and federalism. Two years later, during the government of president José Joaquín de Herrera, Miguel Barbachano ordered the reinstatement of Yucatán to Mexico under the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825. A decisive factor for the reinstatement was the Caste War, which forced Yucatán to seek outside help. In 1852 due to internal struggles between opposing political factions, the Territory of Campeche was created. On April 29, 1863, during the government of Mexican President Benito Juárez, Campeche gained its current status as an independent state.",
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"plaintext": "The flag of Yucatán was raised on March 16, 1841. The period of the Republic of Yucatán was the only one in which the banner was officially used by the authorities of Yucatán.",
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"plaintext": "Rodolfo Menéndez de la Peña, historian, describes the flag of Yucatán: \"The flag of Yucatán was divided into two parts: green on left, the right, with three divisions, red up and down and white in the middle. In the green field highlighted, five stars, symbolizing the five departments that Yucatan was divided by decree of November 30, 1840: Mérida, Izamal, Valladolid, Tekax and Campeche.\"",
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"plaintext": "The flag does not have official recognition in the state, however, it has a strong recognition among the people of the state. De facto state flag, in any case, according to a convention led by former president Ernesto Zedillo, is a white flag with the shield of the state in the middle.",
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"plaintext": "The Caste War of Yucatán was a conflict that lasted from 1847 to 1901. It began with the revolt of native Maya people led by Maya chiefs Jacinto Pat and Cecilio Chi, against the population of European descent called \"Yucatecos\", who had political and economic control. A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces in the north-west of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the south-east. It officially ended with the occupation of the Maya capital of Chan Santa Cruz by the Mexican army in 1901, although skirmishes with villages and small settlements that refused to acknowledge Mexican control continued for over another decade.",
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"plaintext": "Adam Jones wrote: \"This ferocious race war featured genocidal atrocities on both sides, with up to 200,000 killed.\"",
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"plaintext": "Because of the conflict, on November 24, 1902, Yucatán had a second territorial division when Porfirio Díaz decreed the creation of the Federal Territory of Quintana Roo, with capital in the port of Payo Obispo (today Chetumal). In little more than half a century, Yucatán lost more than two thirds of its original territory.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 19th century, the henequen industry grew to unprecedented power in the Yucatan. The henequen grown in the Yucatan was used around the world for rope and twine, and became known as sisal rope, named after the seaside town of Sisal, from where the rope was shipped. Today Sisal is a sleepy fishing village, being rediscovered by locals and visitors as a beach location for vacation homes. The henequen industry provided financial autonomy to the isolated Yucatán. The fiber of Henequén plant (known as sosquil (maya: sos kí)) was manufactured into twine and rope, used in riggings, string, sacks, rugs, and many other items. It became the chief export item of the Yucatán, making many local families very wealthy. That wealth is today evident in the architecture of the colonial city of Mérida, as well as in the more than 150 haciendas that are spread throughout the Yucatán Peninsula.",
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"plaintext": "Korean immigration to Mexico began in 1905. The first Korean migrants settled in Yucatán as workers in henequen plantations. Labour brokers began advertising in newspapers in the Korean port city of Incheon in 1904 for workers willing to go to Mexico to work on henequen plantations for four- or five-year contracts. A total of more than one thousand were recruited and departed from Incheon on board a British cargo ship on 4 April 1905, despite efforts by the Korean government to block their departure. Once their contracts were up, most settled in Mexico, either continuing to work on henequen plantations or moving to various cities in the country.",
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"plaintext": "Hundreds of prosperous haciendas abounded in the state until the advent of synthetic products after World War II, the cultivation of Henequén in other parts of the world and the self-serving actions of some of the leading henequen-growing families led to the gradual decline of the Yucatan's monopoly on the industry.",
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"plaintext": "The incredible influx of wealth during that period from the henequen industry focused mainly on Mérida, the capital of Yucatán State. It allowed the city of Mérida to install street lights and a tram system even before Mexico City. It is said that in the early 20th century, the city had the largest number of millionaires per capita in the world. Today, Paseo de Montejo (inspired by the Parisian avenue Champs-Élysées), is lined with the elegant houses built during that time. These houses are mostly now renovated and serve as everything from private homes to banks, hotels and restaurants. Many of the haciendas today have also been renovated and now serve as private homes, event venues and upscale luxury hotels.",
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"plaintext": "Until the mid-20th century most of Yucatán's contact with the outside world was by sea; trade with the US and Cuba, as well as Europe and other Caribbean islands, was more significant than that with the rest of Mexico. In the 1950s Yucatán was linked to the rest of Mexico by railway, followed by highway in the 1960s, ending the region's comparative isolation. Today Yucatán still demonstrates a unique culture from the rest of Mexico, including its own style of food.",
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"plaintext": "Commercial jet airplanes began arriving in Mérida in the 1960s, and additional international airports were built first in Cozumel and then in the new planned resort community of Cancún in the 1980s, making tourism a major force in the economy of the Yucatán Peninsula.",
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"plaintext": "The first Maya governor of Yucatán, Francisco Luna Kan, was elected in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Today, the Yucatán Peninsula is a major tourism destination, as well as home to one of the largest indigenous populations in Mexico, the Maya people.",
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"plaintext": "The State of Yucatán is located on the Yucatán Peninsula. It borders the states of Campeche to the southwest, Quintana Roo to the east and southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west. As a whole, the state is extremely flat with little or no topographic variation, with the exception of the Puuc hills, located in the southern portion of the state.",
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"plaintext": "In 1905, 1,003 Korean immigrants, which included 802 men and 231 women and children, departed from the port of Chemulpo, Incheon aboard the ship Ilford to Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, Mexico. The journey took 45 days, after which they took a train to Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz. In the Veracruz port, another boat was taken to the port of Progreso with the final destination being the capital city of Mérida, Yucatan. They arrived in May 1905, with previously signed contracts for four years' work as indentured laborers on the Yucatán henequen haciendas. Many of these Koreans were distributed throughout the Yucatán in 32 henequen haciendas. The town of Motul, Yucatan, located in the heart of the henequen zone, was a destination for many of the Korean immigrants. Subsequently, in 1909, at the end of their contracts, they began a new stage in which they scattered even further. Thus, the majority of those who came were single men who made or remade their family lives with Yucatecan especially Maya women. While Korean girls were much more subject to marriages arranged by Korean parents, males had greater freedom when it came to making a family. This rapid intermarriage by Koreans, coupled with geographic dispersal, prevented the establishment of close social networks among these migrants and therefore provided the basis for Korean descendants among the Yucatan Peninsula. After that 1905 ship, no further entries of Koreans into Mexico were recorded until many years later, leading to a new community of Koreans with completely different characteristics from those who entered in 1905.",
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"plaintext": "Newspapers of Yucatán include: Artículo 7, De Peso (Mérida), Diario de Yucatán, La I Noticias para Mí Mérida, Milenio Novedades (Antes El Mundo al Día), and Por Esto! (Yucatán).",
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"plaintext": "Yucatecan food is its own unique style and is very different from what most people would consider Mexican food. It includes influences from the local Mayan culture, as well as Caribbean, European (Spanish), (North) African, and Middle Eastern cultures, as well as influence from the cuisine of other parts of Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "Poc Chuc, a Mayan/Yucatecan version of barbecued pork.",
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"plaintext": "Salbutes and Panuchos. Salbutes are soft, cooked tortillas with lettuce, tomato, turkey, and avocado on top. Panuchos feature fried tortillas filled with black beans and topped with turkey or chicken, lettuce, avocado and pickled onions. Habanero chiles accompany most dishes, either in solid or puréed form, along with fresh limes and corn tortillas.",
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"plaintext": "Pavo en Relleno Negro, a turkey meat stew cooked with a black paste made from roasted chiles, a local version of the mole de guajalote found throughout Mexico. The meat soaked in the black soup is also served in tacos, sandwiches and even in panuchos or salbutes and is usually referred to as \"Relleno negro\".",
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"plaintext": "Pavo en Relleno Blanco (or simply \"Relleno Blanco\"), a turkey stew almost like Pavo en Relleno Negro.",
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37,965 | 1,086,135,634 | Pliny | [
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"plaintext": "In the far east of Nepal, the Himalayas rise to the Kangchenjunga massif on the border with India, the third highest mountain in the world, the most easterly summit and the highest point of India. The eastern side of Kangchenjunga is in the Indian state of Sikkim. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to Lhasa, Tibet, which passes over the Nathu La pass into Tibet. East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of Bhutan. The highest mountain in Bhutan is Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged with heavily forested steep valleys. The Himalayas continue, turning slightly northeast, through the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of Namche Barwa, situated in Tibet inside the great bend of the Yarlang Tsangpo river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the Kangri Garpo mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo including Gyala Peri, however, are also sometimes included in the Himalayas.",
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"plaintext": "Going west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal is somewhat remote and lacks major high mountains, but is home to Rara Lake, the largest lake in Nepal. The Karnali River rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region. Further west, the border with India follows the Sarda River and provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of Gurla Mandhata. Just across Lake Manasarovar from this lies the sacred Mount Kailash in the Kailash Ranges, which stands close to the source of the four main rivers of Himalayas and is revered in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sufism, Jainism, and Bonpo. In Uttarakhand, the Himalayas rise again as the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas with the high peaks of Nanda Devi and Kamet. The state is also home to the important pilgrimage destinations of Chaar Dhaam, with Gangotri, the source of the holy river Ganges, Yamunotri, the source of the river Yamuna, and the temples at Badrinath and Kedarnath. Uttarakhand Himalayas are regionally divided into two, namely, Kumaon hills in Kumaon division and Garhwal hills in Garhwal division.",
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"plaintext": "The next Himalayan Indian state, Himachal Pradesh, is noted for its hill stations, particularly Shimla, the summer capital of the British Raj, and Dharamsala, the centre of the Tibetan community and government in exile in India. This area marks the start of the Punjab Himalaya and the Sutlej river, the most easterly of the five tributaries of the Indus, cuts through the range here. Further west, the Himalayas form much of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir where lies the renowned Kashmir Valley and the town and lakes of Srinagar. The Himalayas form most of the south-west portion of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh. The twin peaks of Nun Kun are the only mountains over in this part of the Himalayas. Finally, the Himalayas reach their western end in the dramatic 8000m peak of Nanga Parbat, which rises over above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000m summits. The western end terminates at a magnificent point near Nanga Parbat where the Himalayas intersect with the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, in the disputed Pakistani-administered territory of Gilgit-Baltistan. Some portion of the Himalayas, such as the Kaghan valley, Margalla hills and Galyat tract, extend into the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab.",
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"plaintext": "The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, its formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary (Main Himalayan Thrust) between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision.",
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"plaintext": "During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate (which has subsequently broken into the Indian Plate and the Australian Plate) was moving at about per year. About 50million years ago this fast-moving Indo-Australian Plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust faulted and folded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an oceanic trench. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.",
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"plaintext": "Today, the Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indian plate is still moving at 67mm per year, and over the next 10million years it will travel about into Asia. About 20mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.",
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"plaintext": "During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west. In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, they joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of . While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most in length, several of the main valley glaciers were long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least colder than it is today.",
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"plaintext": "Despite their scale, the Himalayas do not form a major watershed, and a number of rivers cut through the range, particularly in the eastern part of the range. As a result, the main ridge of the Himalayas is not clearly defined, and mountain passes are not as significant for traversing the range as with other mountain ranges. The rivers of the Himalayas drain into two large river systems:",
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"plaintext": " The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin. The Indus itself forms the northern and western boundaries of the Himalayas. It begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows north-west through India into Pakistan before turning south-west to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by several major tributaries draining the southern slopes of the Himalayas, including the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rivers, the five rivers of the Punjab.",
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"plaintext": " The other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. Its main rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Yamuna, as well as other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's largest river delta, the Sunderbans.",
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"plaintext": "The northern slopes of Gyala Peri and the peaks beyond the Tsangpo, sometimes included in the Himalayas, drain into the Irrawaddy River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea. The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Yellow River all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers.",
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"plaintext": "The great ranges of central Asia, including the Himalayas, contain the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic. The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about of fresh water. Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), Langtang glacier (Langtang region) and Zemu (Sikkim).",
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"plaintext": "Owing to the mountains' latitude near the Tropic of Cancer, the permanent snow line is among the highest in the world at typically around . In contrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris and Colombia have a snow line some lower. The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change. For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons. The global climate change will affect the water resources and livelihoods of the Greater Himalayan region.",
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"plaintext": "The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and China, at far western end of Tibet, is among the largest with surface areas of .",
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"plaintext": "South of the main range, the lakes are smaller. Tilicho Lake in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. Other notable lakes include Rara Lake in western Nepal, She-Phoksundo Lake in the Shey Phoksundo National Park of Nepal, Gurudongmar Lake, in North Sikkim, Gokyo Lakes in Solukhumbu district of Nepal and Lake Tsongmo, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rowaling Valley, in the Dolakha District of Nepal, is rated as the most dangerous. The lake, which is located at an altitude of has grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting. The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above .",
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"plaintext": "Temperate Himalayan wetlands provide important habitat and layover sites for migratory birds. Many mid and low altitude lakes remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity, like Khecheopalri in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas.",
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"plaintext": "The physical factors determining the climate in any location in the Himalayas include latitude, altitude, and the relative motion of the Southwest monsoon. From south to north, the mountains cover more than eight degrees of latitude, spanning temperate to subtropical zones. The colder air of Central Asia is prevented from blowing down into South Asia by the physical configuration of the Himalayas. This causes the tropical zone to extend farther north in South Asia than anywhere else in the world. The evidence is unmistakeable in the Brahmaputra valley as the warm air from the Bay of Bengal bottlenecks and rushes up past Namcha Barwa, the eastern anchor of the Himalayas, and into southeastern Tibet. Temperatures in the Himalayas cool by for every increase of altitude. ",
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"plaintext": "As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. Temperature at a location on a mountain depends on the season of the year, the bearing of the sun with respect to the face on which the location lies, and the mass of the mountain, i.e. the amount of matter in the mountain. As the temperature is directly proportional to received radiation from the sun, the faces that receive more direct sunlight also have a greater heat buildup. In narrow valleyslying between steep mountain facesthere can be dramatically different weather along their two margins. The side to the north with a mountain above facing south can have an extra month of the growing season. The mass of the mountain also influences the temperature, as it acts as a heat island, in which more heat is absorbed and retained than the surroundings, and therefore influences the heat budget or the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature from the winter minimum winter to the summer maximum.",
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"plaintext": "The immense scale of the Himalayas means that many summits can create their own weather, the temperature fluctuating from one summit to another, from one face to another, and all may be quite different from the weather in nearby plateaus or valleys.",
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"plaintext": "A critical influence on the Himalayan climate is the Southwest Monsoon. This is not so much the rain of the summer months as the wind that carries the rain. Different rates of heating and cooling between the Central Asian continent and the South Asian ocean create large differences in the atmospheric pressure prevailing above each. In the winter, a high-pressure system forms and remains suspended above Central Asia, forcing air to flow in the southerly direction over the Himalayas. But in Central Asia as there is no substantial source for water to be diffused as vapour, the winter winds blowing across South Asia are dry. ",
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"plaintext": "In the summer months the Central Asian plateau heats up more than the ocean waters to its south. As a result, the air above it rises higher and higher, creating a zone of low pressure. Off-shore high-pressure systems in the Indian ocean push the moist summer air inland toward the low-pressure system. When the moist air meets mountains, it rises and upon subsequent cooling, its moisture condenses and is released as rain, typically heavy rain. The wet summer monsoon winds cause precipitation in India and all along the layered southern slopes of the Himalayas. This forced lifting of air is called the orographic effect.",
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"plaintext": "The vast size, huge altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas mean they experience a wide range of climates, from humid subtropical in the foothills to cold and dry desert conditions on the Tibetan side of the range. For much of the Himalayas—in the areas to the south of the high mountains, the monsoon is the most characteristic feature of the climate and causes most of the precipitation, while the western disturbance brings winter precipitation, especially in the west. Heavy rain arrives on the southwest monsoon in June and persists until September. The monsoon can seriously impact transport and cause major landslides. It restricts tourism – the trekking and mountaineering season is limited to either before the monsoon in April/May or after the monsoon in October/November (autumn). In Nepal and Sikkim, there are often considered to be five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, (or post-monsoon), winter, and spring.",
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"plaintext": "Using the Köppen climate classification, the lower elevations of the Himalayas, reaching in mid-elevations in central Nepal (including the Kathmandu valley), are classified as Cwa, Humid subtropical climate with dry winters. Higher up, most of the Himalayas have a subtropical highland climate (Cwb).",
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"plaintext": "The intensity of the southwest monsoon diminishes as it moves westward along the range, with as much as of rainfall in the monsoon season in Darjeeling in the east, compared to only during the same period in Shimla in the west.",
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"plaintext": "The northern side of the Himalayas, also known as the Tibetan Himalaya, is dry, cold and, generally, windswept particularly in the west where it has a cold desert climate. The vegetation is sparse and stunted and the winters are severely cold. Most of the precipitation in the region is in the form of snow during the late winter and spring months.",
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"plaintext": "Local impacts on climate are significant throughout the Himalayas. Temperatures fall by 0.2 to 1.2°C for every rise in altitude. This gives rise to a variety of climates from a nearly tropical climate in the foothills, to tundra and permanent snow and ice at higher elevations. Local climate is also affected by the topography: The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well exposed slopes get heavy rainfall and the rain shadow of large mountains can be significant, for example leading to near desert conditions in the Upper Mustang which is sheltered from the monsoon rains by the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri massifs and has annual precipitation of around , while Pokhara on the southern side of the massifs has substantial rainfall ( a year). Thus although annual precipitation is generally higher in east than the west, local variations are often more important.",
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"plaintext": "The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau. They prevent frigid, dry winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan and Gobi.",
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"plaintext": "An acceleration of ice loss across the Himalayas over the past 40 years has been proven with satellite photos. ",
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"plaintext": "Even if the ambitious 1.5 °C target would be reached, the Himalaya glaciers would expectedly lose one third of their surfaces.",
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"plaintext": "The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall, and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. The extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms.",
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"plaintext": "At high altitudes, the elusive and previously endangered snow leopard is the main predator. Its prey includes members of the goat family grazing on the alpine pastures and living on the rocky terrain, notably the endemic bharal or Himalayan blue sheep. The Himalayan musk deer is also found at high altitudes. Hunted for its musk, it is now rare and endangered. Other endemic or near-endemic herbivores include the Himalayan tahr, the takin, the Himalayan serow, and the Himalayan goral. The critically endangered Himalayan subspecies of the brown bear is found sporadically across the range as is the Asian black bear. In the mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the eastern Himalayas, Red panda feed in the dense understories of bamboo. Lower down the forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered Gee's golden langur and the Kashmir gray langur, with highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. Hydrangea hirta is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially rhododendron, apple and box myrtle. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at in Southeastern Tibet.",
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"plaintext": "There are many cultural and mythological aspects associated with the Himalayas. In Jainism, Mount Ashtapad of the Himalayan mountain range, is a sacred place where the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabhdeva attained moksha. It is believed that after Rishabhdeva attained nirvana, his son, Emperor Bharata Chakravartin, had constructed three stupas and twenty four shrines of the 24 Tirthankaras with their idols studded with precious stones over there and named it Sinhnishdha. For the Hindus, the Himalayas are personified as Himavat, king of all mountains and the father of the goddess Parvati. The Himalayas are also considered to be the father of Ganga (the personification of river Ganges). Two of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for the Hindus are the temple complex in Pashupatinath and Muktinath, also known as Saligrama because of the presence of the sacred black rocks called saligrams.",
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"plaintext": "The Buddhists also lay a great deal of importance on the Himalayas. Paro Taktsang is the holy place where Buddhism started in Bhutan. The Muktinath is also a place of pilgrimage for the Tibetan Buddhists. They believe that the trees in the poplar grove came from the walking sticks of eighty-four ancient Indian Buddhist magicians or mahasiddhas. They consider the saligrams to be representatives of the Tibetan serpent deity known as Gawo Jagpa.",
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"plaintext": "The Himalayan people's diversity shows in many different ways. It shows through their architecture, their languages, and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, as well as their clothing. The shapes and materials of the people's homes reflect their practical needs and beliefs. Another example of the diversity amongst the Himalayan peoples is that handwoven textiles display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Finally, some people place great importance on jewelry. The Rai and Limbu women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewelry.",
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"plaintext": "Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. A notable example of a religious site is Paro Taktsang, where Padmasambhava is said to have founded Buddhism in Bhutan.",
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"plaintext": "A number of Vajrayana Buddhist sites are situated in the Himalayas, in Tibet, Bhutan and in the Indian regions of Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Spiti and Darjeeling. There were over 6,000 monasteries in Tibet, including the residence of the Dalai Lama. Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh are also dotted with numerous monasteries.",
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"plaintext": "The Himalayas are home to a diversity of medicinal resources. Plants from the forests have been used for millennia to treat conditions ranging from simple coughs to snake bites. Different parts of the plants – root, flower, stem, leaves, and bark – are used as remedies for different ailments. For example, a bark extract from an Abies pindrow tree is used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Leaf and stem paste from an Andrachne cordifolia is used for wounds and as an antidote for snake bites. The bark of a Callicarpa arborea is used for skin ailments. Nearly a fifth of the gymnosperms, angiosperms and pteridophytes in the Himalayas are found to have medicinal properties, and more are likely to be discovered.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the population in some Asian and African countries depends on medicinal plants rather than prescriptions and such. Since so many people use medicinal plants as their only source of healing in the Himalayas, the plants are an important source of income. This contributes to economic and modern industrial development both inside and outside the region. The only problem is that locals are rapidly clearing the forests on the Himalayas for wood, often illegally.",
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"plaintext": " Eastern and Western Himalaya",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Indian Himalayan Region",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " List of Himalayan peaks and passes",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " List of Himalayan topics",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " List of mountains in India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and China",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " List of Ultras of the Himalayas",
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},
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"plaintext": " Trekking peak",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aitken, Bill, Footloose in the Himalaya, Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003. ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2206731
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Berreman, Gerald Duane, Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change, 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Edmundson, Henry, Tales from the Himalaya, Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Everest, the IMAX movie (1998). ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fisher, James F., Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal, 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gansser, Augusto, Gruschke, Andreas, Olschak, Blanche C., Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples, New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987. and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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1,
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19,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gupta, Raj Kumar, Bibliography of the Himalayas, Gurgaon, Indian Documentation Service, 1981",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hunt, John, Ascent of Everest, London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956. ",
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"target_page_ids": [
918085
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Isserman, Maurice and Weaver, Stewart, Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes. Yale University Press, 2008. ",
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"target_page_ids": [
18986913
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., The Himalaya, Aspects of Change. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya, Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Swami Sundaranand, Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu. Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (2001). ",
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"target_page_ids": [
12923118
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Swami Tapovan Maharaj, Wanderings in the Himalayas, English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Tilman, H. W., Mount Everest, 1938, Cambridge University Press, 1948.",
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"plaintext": " Turner, Bethan, et al. Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale (archived)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Geology of the Himalayan mountains",
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},
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"plaintext": " Birth of the Himalaya",
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},
{
"plaintext": " South Asia's Troubled Waters Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting (archived)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Biological diversity in the Himalayas Encyclopedia of Earth",
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] | [
"Himalayas",
"Mountain_ranges",
"Mountain_ranges_of_the_Himalayas",
"Mountain_ranges_of_China",
"Geography_of_East_Asia",
"Geography_of_South_Asia",
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"Landforms_of_South_Asia",
"Physiographic_divisions",
"Tibetan_Plateau"
] | 5,451 | 100,954 | 5,921 | 328 | 0 | 0 | Himalayas | mountain range in Asia | [
"Himalaya",
"Himalayan Mountains",
"Himalaya Mountains",
"The Himalayas"
] |
37,968 | 1,074,408,947 | Stimson_Doctrine | [
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"plaintext": "The Stimson Doctrine is the policy of nonrecognition of states created as a result of aggression. The policy was implemented by the United States federal government, enunciated in a note of January 7, 1932, to the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China, of non-recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force. The doctrine was an application of the principle of ex injuria jus non oritur. While some analysts have applied the doctrine in opposition to governments established by revolution, this usage is not widespread, and its invocation usually involves treaty violations.",
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"plaintext": "Named after Henry L. Stimson, United States Secretary of State in the Hoover administration (1929–1933), the policy followed Japan's unilateral seizure of Manchuria in northeastern China following action by Japanese soldiers at Mukden (now Shenyang), on September 18, 1931. The doctrine was also invoked by US Under-Secretary of State Sumner Welles in the Welles Declaration on July 23, 1940, which announced non-recognition of the Soviet annexation and incorporation of the three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. This remained the official US position until the Baltic states regained independence in 1991.",
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"plaintext": "It was not the first time that the US had used nonrecognition as a political tool or symbolic statement. President Woodrow Wilson had refused to recognize the Mexican Revolutionary governments in 1913 and Japan's 21 Demands upon China in 1915.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in late 1931 placed Stimson in a difficult position. It was evident that appeals to the spirit of the Kellogg–Briand Pact had no impact on either the Chinese or the Japanese, and Stimson was further hampered by President Herbert Hoover's clear indication that he would not support economic sanctions as a means to bring peace in the Far East.",
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"plaintext": "On January 7, 1932, Stimson sent similar notes to China and Japan that incorporated a diplomatic approach that had been used by earlier secretaries facing crises in the Far East. Later known as the Stimson Doctrine or sometimes the Hoover-Stimson Doctrine the notes read in part as follows:",
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"plaintext": "...the American Government deems it to be its duty to notify both the Imperial Japanese Government and the Government of the Chinese Republic that it cannot admit the legality of any situation de facto nor does it intend to recognize any treaty or agreement entered into between those Governments, or agents thereof, which may impair the treaty rights of the United States or its citizens in China, including those that relate to the sovereignty, the independence, or the territorial and administrative integrity of the Republic of China, or to the international policy relative to China, commonly known as the open door policy....",
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"plaintext": "Stimson had stated that the United States would not recognize any changes made in China that would curtail American treaty rights in the area and that the \"open door\" must be maintained. The declaration had few material effects on the Western world, which was burdened by the Great Depression, and Japan went on to establish a puppet state in Manchuria and later bomb Shanghai.",
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"plaintext": "The doctrine was criticized on the grounds that its only effect was to alienate the Japanese.",
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"plaintext": " Clauss, Errol MacGregor. \"The Roosevelt Administration and Manchukuo, 1933–1941,\" Historian (Aug. 1970) Volume 32, Issue 4, pages 595–611 online",
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"plaintext": " Current, Richard N. \"The Stimson Doctrine and the Hoover Doctrine,\" American Historical Review Vol. 59, No. 3 (Apr., 1954), pp.513–542 in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": "Findling, J. E. (1980). Dictionary of American Diplomatic History, Westport: Greenwood Press, pp.457–458.",
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"plaintext": "Meiertöns, Heiko (2010): The Doctrines of US Security Policy - An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, .",
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"plaintext": " Wright, Quincy. \"The Legal Foundation of the Stimson Doctrine,\" Pacific Affairs Vol. 8, No. 4 (Dec., 1935), pp.439–446 in JSTOR",
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] | [
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37,969 | 1,106,099,497 | Ramen | [
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"plaintext": " is a Japanese noodle dish. It consists of served in a broth; common flavors are soy sauce and miso, with typical toppings including , nori (dried seaweed), menma (bamboo shoots), and scallions. Ramen has its roots in Chinese noodle dishes. Nearly every region in Japan has its own variation of ramen, such as the tonkotsu (pork bone broth) ramen of Kyushu and the miso ramen of Hokkaido. ",
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"plaintext": "The word ramen is a Japanese borrowing of the Mandarin Chinese lāmiàn (, \"pulled noodles\"). However, historian Barak Kushner argues that this borrowing occurred retroactively and that various independent Japanese corruptions of Chinese words had already led to Japanese people calling this Chinese noodle dish \"ramen\". One theory suggests that the Japanese mistook the Chinese particles \"le\" (了) or \"la\" (啦, a contraction of 了啊) for a \"ra\" sound when Chinese cooks would announce \"hăo le\" (好了) to communicate that a dish was complete. The Japanese then appended the word \"men\" (麵, meaning 'noodle') to the \"ra\" to create the word \"ramen\". Early ramen or ramen-like dishes went by different names, such as Nankin soba (南京そば, literally \"Nanjing soba\", named after the city which was the then capital of China), Shina soba (支那そば, literally \"Chinese soba\"), or Chūka soba (中華そば, also meaning \"Chinese soba\"). Until the 1950s, ramen was most commonly called Shina soba, but today Chūka soba or just ramen (ラーメン) are more common, as the word \"支那\" (Shina, meaning \"China\") has acquired a pejorative connotation through its association with Japanese imperialism. ",
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"plaintext": "Ramen is a Japanese adaptation of Chinese wheat noodle soups and was first recorded to have appeared in Yokohama Chinatown. Although the ramen takes its name from lāmiàn, it does not actually evolve from the northern Chinese dish of lamian. The noodles used in ramen known as \"chūkamen\" are cut rather than hand-pulled. The ramen is derived from southern Chinese noodle dishes such as the char siu tangmian of Guangdong and the rousi tangmian of Jiangnan. This is reflective of Yokohama Chinatown's demographics, as most Chinese settlers in the district came from the cities of Guangzhou and Shanghai. ",
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"plaintext": "One theory says that ramen was introduced to Japan during the 1660s by the Chinese neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Shunsui who served as an advisor to Tokugawa Mitsukuni after he became a refugee in Japan to escape Manchu rule and Mitsukuni became the first Japanese person to eat ramen. Most historians reject this theory as a myth created by the Japanese to embellish the origins of ramen. ",
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"plaintext": "According to historians, the more plausible theory is that ramen was introduced to Japan in the late 19th or early 20th centuries by Chinese immigrants living in Yokohama Chinatown. In 1910, the first ramen shop named (来々軒) opened in Asakusa, Tokyo, where the Japanese owner employed twelve Cantonese cooks from Yokohama's Chinatown and served the ramen arranged for Japanese customers. Early versions were wheat noodles in broth topped with char siu.",
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"plaintext": "By 1900, restaurants serving Chinese cuisine from Guangzhou and Shanghai offered a simple dish of noodles, a few toppings, and a broth flavored with salt and pork bones. Many Chinese living in Japan also pulled portable food stalls, selling ramen and gyōza dumplings to workers. By the mid-1900s, these stalls used a type of a musical horn called a charumera (チャルメラ, from the Portuguese charamela) to advertise their presence, a practice some vendors still retain via a loudspeaker and a looped recording. By the early Shōwa period, ramen had become a popular dish when eating out. According to ramen expert Hiroshi Osaki, the first specialized ramen shop opened in Yokohama in 1910.",
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"plaintext": "After Japan's defeat in World War II, the American military occupied the country from 1945 to 1952. In December 1945, Japan recorded its worst rice harvest in 42 years, which caused food shortages as Japan had drastically reduced rice production during the war as production shifted to colonies in China and Formosa island. The US flooded the market with cheap wheat flour to deal with food shortages. From 1948 to 1951, bread consumption in Japan increased from 262,121 tons to 611,784 tons, but wheat also found its way into ramen, which most Japanese ate at black market food vendors to survive as the government food distribution system ran about 20 days behind schedule. Although the Americans maintained Japan's wartime ban on outdoor food vending, flour was secretly diverted from commercial mills into the black markets, where nearly 90 percent of stalls were under the control of gangsters related to the yakuza who extorted vendors for protection money. Thousands of ramen vendors were arrested during the occupation. ",
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"plaintext": "In the same period, millions of Japanese troops returned from China and continental East Asia from their posts in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Some of them would have been familiar with wheat noodles. By 1950 wheat flour exchange controls were removed and restrictions on food vending loosened, which further boosted the number of ramen vendors: private companies even rented out yatai starter kits consisting of noodles, toppings, bowls, and chopsticks. Ramen yatai provided a rare opportunity for small scale postwar entrepreneurship. The Americans also aggressively advertised the nutritional benefits of wheat and animal protein. The combination of these factors caused wheat noodles to gain prominence in Japan's rice-based culture. Gradually, ramen became associated with urban life.",
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"plaintext": "In 1958, instant noodles were invented by Momofuku Ando, the Taiwanese-Japanese founder and chairman of Nissin Foods. Named the greatest Japanese invention of the 20th century in a Japanese poll, instant ramen allowed anyone to make an approximation of this dish simply by adding boiling water.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the 1980s, ramen became a Japanese cultural icon and was studied around the world. At the same time, local varieties of ramen were hitting the national market and could even be ordered by their regional names. A ramen museum opened in Yokohama in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Today ramen is one of Japan's most popular foods, with Tokyo alone containing around 5,000 ramen shops, and more than 24,000 ramen shops across Japan. Tsuta, a ramen restaurant in Tokyo's Sugamo district, received a Michelin star in December 2015.",
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"plaintext": "A wide variety of ramen exists in Japan, with geographical and vendor-specific differences even in varieties that share the same name. Although ramen usually has toppings, ramen can be broadly categorized by its two main ingredients: noodles and broth.",
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"plaintext": "Most noodles are made from four basic ingredients: wheat flour, salt, water, and derived from the Chinese jiǎnshuǐ (鹼水) a type of alkaline mineral water, containing sodium carbonate and usually potassium carbonate, as well as sometimes a small amount of phosphoric acid. Although ramen noodles and Udon noodles are both made with wheat and are similar, they are different kinds of noodle.",
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"plaintext": "The kansui is the distinguishing ingredient in ramen noodles, and originated in Inner Mongolia, where some lakes contain large amounts of these minerals and whose water is said to be perfect for making these noodles. Making noodles with kansui lends them a yellowish hue as well as a firm texture. Eggs may also be substituted for kansui. Some noodles are made with neither eggs nor kansui and should only be used for yakisoba, as they have a weaker structure and are more prone to soaking up moisture and becoming extremely soft when served in soup.",
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"plaintext": "Ramen comes in various shapes and lengths. It may be thick, thin, or even ribbon-like, as well as straight or wrinkled.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, ramen noodles were made by hand, but with growing popularity many ramen restaurants prefer to use noodle-making machines to meet the increased demand and improve quality. Automatic ramen-making machines imitating manual production methods have been available since the mid. 20th century produced by such Japanese manufacturers as Yamato MFG. and others.",
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"plaintext": "Ramen soup is generally made from stock based on chicken or pork, combined with a variety of ingredients such as pork bones, katsuobushi (skipjack tuna flakes), niboshi (dried baby sardines), beef bones, shiitake, onions, and kombu (kelp). Some modern ramen broths can also be vegetable-based. Tare is often added to broth to make the soup.",
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"plaintext": "Tonkotsu (豚骨, \"pork bone\"; not to be confused with tonkatsu) soup is broth with a typically translucent white colored appearance. Similar to the Chinese baitang (白湯), it has a thick broth made from boiling pork bones, fat, and collagen over high heat for many hours, which suffuses the broth with a hearty pork flavor and a creamy consistency that rivals milk, melted butter or gravy (depending on the shop). Although Tonkotsu is merely a kind of broth, some people consider tonkotsu ramen (specialty of Kyushu, its birthplace) a distinct flavor category. ",
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"plaintext": "Torigara (鶏がら, \"Chicken bone\") soup based on chicken bone broth originated mainly in Tokyo. It is often used as a base for salt and shoyu ramen.",
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"plaintext": "The resulting combination is generally divided into several categories. Although newer and older variations often make this categorization less clear-cut, a description of said old variations is as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Shio (塩, \"salt\") ramen is the oldest of the four types. It has a pale, clear, yellowish broth made with plenty of salt and any combination of chicken, vegetables, fish, and seaweed. Occasionally pork bones are also used, but they are not boiled as long as they are for tonkotsu ramen, so the soup remains light and clear. Chāshū is sometimes swapped for lean chicken meatballs, and pickled plums and kamaboko (a slice of processed fish roll sometimes served as a frilly white circle with a pink or red spiral called narutomaki) are popular toppings as well. Noodle texture and thickness varies among shio ramen, but they are usually straight rather than curly. \"Hakodate Ramen\" is a well-known version of shio ramen in Japan.",
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"plaintext": "Shōyu (醤油, \"soy sauce\") ramen has a clear brown broth, based on a chicken and vegetable (or sometimes fish or beef) stock with plenty of soy sauce added resulting in a soup that is tangy, salty, and savory yet still fairly light on the palate. Shōyu ramen usually has curly noodles rather than straight ones, although this is not always the case. It is often adorned with marinated bamboo shoots or menma, scallions, ninjin (carrot), kamaboko (fish cakes), nori (seaweed), boiled eggs, bean sprouts or black pepper; occasionally the soup will also contain chili oil or Chinese spices, and some shops serve sliced beef instead of the usual chāshū.",
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"plaintext": "Miso (味噌) ramen have reached national prominence around 1965. This uniquely Japanese ramen, which was developed in Sapporo Hokkaido, features a broth that combines copious miso and is blended with oily chicken or fish broth – and sometimes with tonkotsu or lard – to create a thick, nutty, slightly sweet and very hearty soup. Miso ramen broth tends to have a robust, tangy flavor, so it stands up to a variety of flavorful toppings: spicy bean paste or tōbanjan (豆瓣醤), butter and corn, leeks, onions, bean sprouts, ground pork, cabbage, sesame seeds, white pepper, chilli and chopped garlic are common. The noodles are typically thick, curly, and slightly chewy.",
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"plaintext": "Karē (カレー, \"curry\") ramen is a relative newcomer, cooked with curry soup. In Japan, several cities claim to be its place of origin. The city of Muroran claims it originated there in 1965 (see also Muroran curry ramen), while the city of Sanjō city claims to have had kare ramen for over 80 years, and the city of Katori also claims to have been the site of its origin. Curry soup is mainly made with pork bones and vegetables and is seasoned with curry. The noodles are thick and curly. Toppings include chāshū, wakame, and bean sprouts.",
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"plaintext": "After basic preparation, ramen can be seasoned and flavored with any number of toppings, including but not limited to:",
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"plaintext": " Chāshū (sliced barbecued or braised pork)",
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"plaintext": " Negi (green onion)",
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"plaintext": " Takana-zuke (Pickled and seasoned mustard leaves)",
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"plaintext": " Seasoned (usually salted) boiled egg (Soy egg (\"Ajitsuke Tamago\"))",
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"plaintext": " Kakuni (braised pork cubes or squares)",
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"plaintext": " Kamaboko (formed fish paste, often in a pink and white spiral called narutomaki)",
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"plaintext": " Squid",
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"plaintext": " Umeboshi (pickled plum)",
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"plaintext": " Corn",
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"plaintext": " Butter",
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"plaintext": " Wakame (a type of seaweed)",
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"plaintext": " Olive oil",
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"plaintext": " Sesame oil",
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"plaintext": " Soy sauce",
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"plaintext": " Other types of vegetables",
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"plaintext": "Seasonings commonly added to ramen are white pepper, black pepper, butter, chili pepper, sesame seeds, and crushed garlic. Soup recipes and methods of preparation tend to be closely guarded secrets.",
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"plaintext": "Most tonkotsu ramen restaurants offer a system known as kae-dama (替え玉), where customers who have finished their noodles can request a \"refill\" (for a few hundred yen more) to be put into their remaining soup.",
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"plaintext": "While standard versions of ramen are available throughout Japan since the Taishō period, the last few decades have shown a proliferation of regional variations, commonly referred to as gotouchi ramen (ご当地ラーメン). Some of these which have gone on to national prominence are:",
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"plaintext": " Sapporo, the capital of Hokkaido, is especially famous for its ramen. Most people in Japan associate Sapporo with its rich miso ramen, which was invented there and which is ideal for Hokkaido's harsh, snowy winters. Sapporo miso ramen is typically topped with sweetcorn, butter, bean sprouts, finely chopped pork, and garlic, and sometimes local seafood such as scallop, squid, and crab. Hakodate, another city of Hokkaido, is famous for its salt flavored ramen, while Asahikawa in the north of the island offers a soy sauce-flavored variation. In Muroran, many ramen restaurants offer Muroran curry ramen.",
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"plaintext": " Kitakata ramen is known for its rather thick, flat, curly noodles served in a pork-and-niboshi broth. The area within the former city limits has the highest per-capita number of ramen establishments. Ramen has such prominence in the region that locally, the word soba usually refers to ramen, and not to actual soba which is referred to as nihon soba (\"Japanese soba\").",
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"plaintext": " Tokyo-style ramen consists of slightly thin, curly noodles served in a soy-flavored chicken broth. The Tokyo style broth typically has a touch of dashi, as old ramen establishments in Tokyo often originate from soba eateries. Standard toppings are chopped scallion, menma, sliced pork, kamaboko, egg, nori, and spinach. Ikebukuro, Ogikubo and Ebisu are three areas in Tokyo known for their ramen.",
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"plaintext": " Yokohama ramen specialty is called Ie-kei (家系). It consists of thick, straight noodles served in a soy flavored pork broth similar to tonkotsu, sometimes referred to as, tonkotsu-shoyu. The standard toppings are roasted pork (chāshū), boiled spinach, sheets of nori, often with shredded Welsh onion (negi) and a soft or hard boiled egg. It is traditional for customers to customize the softness of the noodles, the richness of the broth and the amount of oil they want.",
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"plaintext": " Wakayama ramen in the Kansai region has a broth made from soy sauce and pork bones.",
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"plaintext": " Hakata ramen originates from Hakata district of Fukuoka city in Kyushu. It has a rich, milky, pork-bone tonkotsu broth and rather thin, non-curly and resilient noodles. Often, distinctive toppings such as crushed garlic, beni shōga (pickled ginger), sesame seeds, and spicy pickled mustard greens (karashi takana) are left on tables for customers to serve themselves. Ramen stalls in Hakata and Tenjin are well known within Japan. Recent trends have made Hakataramen one of the most popular types in Japan, and several chain restaurants specializing in Hakata ramen can be found all over the country.",
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"plaintext": "Tofu ramen is a specialty of Iwatsuki ward in Saitama City.",
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"plaintext": "There are many related, Chinese-influenced noodle dishes in Japan. The following are often served alongside ramen in ramen establishments. They do not include noodle dishes considered traditionally Japanese, such as soba or udon, which are almost never served in the same establishments as ramen.",
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"plaintext": " Nagasaki champon. The noodles are thicker than ramen but thinner than udon. Champon is topped with a variety of ingredients, mostly seafood, stir-fried and dressed in a starchy sauce. The stir-fried ingredients are poured directly over the cooked noodles, with the sauce acting as a soup.",
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"plaintext": " Tan-men is a mild, usually salty soup, served with a mix of sautéed vegetables and seafood/pork. Not to be confused with the tantan-men (see after).",
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"plaintext": " Wantan-men has long straight noodles and wonton, served in a mild, usually salty soup.",
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"plaintext": " Tsukemen (\"dipping noodles\"). The noodles and soup are served in separate bowls. The diner dips the noodles in the soup before eating. Can be served hot or chilled.",
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"plaintext": " Tantan-men (担担麺). Japanese version of dan dan noodles, itself a Szechuan specialty. Ramen in a reddish, spicy chili and sesame soup, usually containing minced pork, garnished with chopped scallion and chili and occasionally topped with spinach or Bok Choi (chingensai).",
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"plaintext": " Sūrātanmen or sanrātanmen (酸辣湯麺, \"noodles in hot and sour soup\") is very similar to Szechuan hot and sour soup, but served with long noodles. The topping ingredients are sautéed and a thickener is added before the mix is poured on the soup and the noodles.",
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"plaintext": " Abura soba (\"oil-noodles\"). Ramen and toppings served without the soup, but with a small quantity of oily soy-based sauce instead.",
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"plaintext": " Hiyashi-chūka (冷やし中華, \"chilled Chinese\"). Also known as reimen, esp. in western Japan. A summer dish of chilled ramen on a plate with various toppings (typically thin strips of omelet, ham, cucumber and tomato) and served with a vinegary soy dressing and karashi (Japanese mustard). It was first produced at the Ryutei, a Chinese restaurant in Sendai.",
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"plaintext": "Ramen is offered in various types of restaurants and locations including ramen shops, izakaya drinking establishments, lunch cafeterias, karaoke halls, and amusement parks. Many ramen restaurants only have a counter and a chef. In these shops, the meals are paid for in advance at a ticket machine to streamline the process.",
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"plaintext": "However, the best quality ramen is usually only available in specialist ramen-ya restaurants. Some restaurants also provide Halalramen (using chicken) in Osaka and Kyoto. As ramen-ya restaurants offer mainly ramen dishes, they tend to lack variety in the menu. Besides ramen, some of the dishes generally available in a ramen-ya restaurant include other dishes from Japanese Chinese cuisine such as fried rice (called Chahan or Yakimeshi), gyoza (Chinese dumplings), and beer. Ramen-ya interiors are often filled with Chinese-inspired decorations.",
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"plaintext": "During the COVID-19 pandemic, many ramen restaurants were temporarily closed, with 34 chains filing for bankruptcy by September 2020. Ramen restaurants are typically narrow and seat customers closely, making social distancing difficult.",
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"plaintext": "Ramen became popular in China where it is known as rìshì lāmiàn (, lit. \"Japanese-style lamian\"). Restaurant chains serve ramen alongside distinctly Japanese dishes, such as tempura and yakitori. Interestingly, in Japan, these dishes are not traditionally served with ramen, but gyoza, kara-age and others from Japanese Chinese cuisine.",
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"plaintext": "In Korea, ramen is called ramyeon (). There are different varieties, such as kimchi-flavored ramyeon. While usually served with egg or vegetables such as carrots and scallions some restaurants serve variations of ramyeon containing additional ingredients such as dumplings, tteok, or cheese as toppings.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of Asia, particularly in areas with a large demand for Asian cuisine, there are restaurants specializing in Japanese-style foods such as ramen noodles. For example, Wagamama, a UK-based restaurant chain serving pan-Asian food, serves a ramen noodle soup and in the United States and Canada, Jinya Ramen Bar serves tonkotsu ramen.",
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"plaintext": "Instant ramen noodles were exported from Japan by Nissin Foods starting in 1971, bearing the name \"Oodles of Noodles\". One year later, it was re-branded \"Nissin Cup Noodles\", packaged in a foam food container (It is referred to as Cup Ramen in Japan), and subsequently saw a growth in international sales. Over time, the term \"ramen\" became used in North America to refer to other instant noodles. While some research has claimed that consuming instant ramen two or more times a week increases the likelihood of developing heart disease and other conditions, including diabetes and stroke, especially in women, those claims have not been reproduced and no study has isolated instant ramen consumption as an aggravating factor. However, instant ramen noodles, known to have a serving of 43 g, consist of very high sodium. At least 1,760 mg of sodium are found in one packet alone. It consists of 385k calories, 55.7 g of carbohydrates, 14.5 g of total fat, 6.5 g of saturated fat, 7.9 g of protein, and 0.6 mg of thiamine.",
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"plaintext": "In Akihabara, vending machines distribute warm ramen in a steel can known as . It is produced by a popular local ramen restaurant in flavors such as tonkotsu and curry, and contains noodles, soup, menma, and pork. It is intended as a quick snack, and includes a small folded plastic fork. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 1985 film Tampopo, a truck driver, Goro, helps a woman called Tampopo create the perfect ramen restaurant.",
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"plaintext": "Ramen and how it is made was the subject of the 2008 feature film The Ramen Girl, starring Brittany Murphy.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2010, an emoji was approved for Unicode 6.0 for \"Steaming Bowl\", that depicts Japanese ramen noodles in a bowl of steaming broth with chopsticks. In 2015, the icon was added to Emoji 1.0.",
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"plaintext": "The Shin-Yokohama Rāmen Museum is a unique museum about ramen, in the Shin-Yokohama district of Kōhoku-ku, Yokohama.",
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"plaintext": " List of Japanese soups and stews",
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"plaintext": " List of noodle dishes",
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"plaintext": " List of ramen dishes",
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"plaintext": " List of soups",
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"plaintext": " Laghman",
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"plaintext": " Lo mein",
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"plaintext": " Pot Noodle",
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"plaintext": " Hawaiian saimin",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
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"plaintext": " Shirataki noodles",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
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"plaintext": " Tare sauce",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
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"plaintext": " Laksa (Southeast Asia)",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": "Beef noodles",
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{
"plaintext": " Interview with the author.",
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"plaintext": "How to Customize your Ramen - Toppings and Japanese Vocabulary",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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] | [
"Ramen",
"Chinese_inventions",
"Japanese_cuisine_terms",
"Japanese_inventions",
"Japanese_noodle_dishes",
"Japanese_soups_and_stews",
"Japanese_Chinese_cuisine",
"National_dishes",
"Noodle_soups"
] | 234,646 | 53,341 | 358 | 220 | 0 | 0 | ramen | Japanese noodle soup | [] |
37,971 | 1,087,282,758 | Pike | [
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"plaintext": "Pike, Pikes or The Pike may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " Blue pike or blue walleye, an extinct freshwater fish",
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"plaintext": " Ctenoluciidae, the \"pike characins\", some species of which are commonly known as pikes",
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"plaintext": " Esox, genus of pikes",
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"plaintext": " Northern pike, common northern hemisphere pike",
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"plaintext": " Mackerel pike or Pacific saury, a fish popular in east Asian cuisine",
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"plaintext": " Walleyed pike or walleye, Sander vitreus, not actually a pike, but regionally referred to as such",
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"plaintext": " Pike, Indiana, an unincorporated community",
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"plaintext": " Pike, Texas, an unincorporated community",
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"plaintext": " Pike National Forest, Colorado",
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"plaintext": " Pike Road, Alabama",
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"plaintext": " The Pike, an amusement park in California",
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"plaintext": " Pike County, Alabama",
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"plaintext": " Pike County, Arkansas",
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"plaintext": " HMS Pike, the name of five ships of the Royal Navy",
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"plaintext": " USS Pike (SS-6), an American Plunger-class submarine",
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"plaintext": " USS Pike (SS-173), the first all-welded submarine",
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"plaintext": " Pikes (album), released by Buckethead in 2013",
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"plaintext": " The Northern Pikes, a Canadian rock band, from Saskatoon",
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"plaintext": " Gabriele D'Annunzio, Poet, Seducer and Preacher of War, 2009 biography",
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"plaintext": " WWFX, branded as \"100 FM The Pike\"",
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] | [] | 250,238 | 2,300 | 16 | 82 | 0 | 0 | Pike | Wikimedia disambiguation page | [] |
37,973 | 1,107,073,655 | John_Maynard_Keynes | [
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"plaintext": "John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes, ( ; 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946) was an English economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. Originally trained in mathematics, he built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles. One of the most influential economists of the 20th century, he produced writings that are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, and its various offshoots. His ideas, reformulated as New Keynesianism, are fundamental to mainstream macroeconomics.",
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"plaintext": "During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, challenging the ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. He argued that aggregate demand (total spending in the economy) determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment, and since wages and labour costs are rigid downwards the economy will not automatically rebound to full employment. Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He detailed these ideas in his magnum opus, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in late 1936. By the late 1930s, leading Western economies had begun adopting Keynes's policy recommendations. Almost all capitalist governments had done so by the end of the two decades following Keynes's death in 1946. As a leader of the British delegation, Keynes participated in the design of the international economic institutions established after the end of World War II but was overruled by the American delegation on several aspects.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's influence started to wane in the 1970s, partly as a result of the stagflation that plagued the Anglo-American economies during that decade, and partly because of criticism of Keynesian policies by Milton Friedman and other monetarists, who disputed the ability of government to favourably regulate the business cycle with fiscal policy. However, the advent of the global financial crisis of 2007–2008 sparked a resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics provided the theoretical underpinning for economic policies undertaken in response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 by President Barack Obama of the United States, Prime Minister Gordon Brown of the United Kingdom, and other heads of governments.",
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"plaintext": "When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, it stated that \"his radical idea that governments should spend money they don't have may have saved capitalism.\" The Economist has described Keynes as \"Britain's most famous 20th-century economist.\" In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a civil servant, a director of the Bank of England, and a part of the Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals.",
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"plaintext": "John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, to an upper-middle-class family. His father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother, Florence Ada Keynes, a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887. Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Archibald Hill, although she had many affairs with women, notably Eglantyne Jebb.",
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"plaintext": "According to the economic historian and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keynes's parents were loving and attentive. They attended a Congregational Church and remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keynes received considerable support from his father, including expert coaching to help him pass his scholarship exams and financial help both as a young man and when his assets were nearly wiped out at the onset of Great Depression in 1929. Keynes's mother made her children's interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, \"because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home\".",
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"plaintext": "In January 1889 at the age of five and a half, Keynes started at the kindergarten of the Perse School for Girls for five mornings a week. He quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, and his mother. In January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faith's preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics. In 1896, St Faith's headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was \"head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school\" and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton.",
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"plaintext": "In 1897, Keynes won a King's Scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a wide range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics and history: in 1901, he was awarded the Tomline Prize for mathematics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first \"love of his life\" in Dan Macmillan, older brother of the future Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. Despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils.",
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"plaintext": "In 1902 Keynes left Eton for King's College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics. Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist,",
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"plaintext": "although Keynes's own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes was elected to the University Pitt Club and was an active member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society, a debating club largely reserved for the brightest students. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating and continued to attend occasional meetings throughout his life. Before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club. He was said to be an atheist.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1904, he received a first-class BA in mathematics. Aside from a few months spent on holidays with family and friends, Keynes continued to involve himself with the university over the next two years. He took part in debates, further studied philosophy and attended economics lectures informally as a graduate student for one term, which constituted his only formal education in the subject. He took civil service exams in 1906.",
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"plaintext": "The economist Harry Johnson wrote that the optimism imparted by Keynes's early life is a key to understanding his later thinking.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was always confident he could find a solution to whatever problem he turned his attention to and retained a lasting faith in the ability of government officials to do good.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's optimism was also cultural, in two senses: he was of the last generation raised by an empire still at the height of its power and was also of the last generation who felt entitled to govern by culture, rather than by expertise. According to Skidelsky, the sense of cultural unity current in Britain from the 19th century to the end of World War I provided a framework with which the well-educated could set various spheres of knowledge in relation to each other and life, enabling them to confidently draw from different fields when addressing practical problems.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1906 Keynes began his Civil Service career as a clerk in the India Office. He enjoyed his work at first, but by 1908 had become bored and resigned his position to return to Cambridge and work on probability theory, through a lectureship in economics at first funded personally by economists Alfred Marshall and Arthur Pigou; he became a fellow of King's College in 1909.",
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"plaintext": "By 1909 Keynes had also published his first professional economics article in The Economic Journal, about the effect of a recent global economic downturn on India. He founded the Political Economy Club, a weekly discussion group. Keynes's earnings rose further as he began to take on pupils for private tuition.",
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"plaintext": "In 1911 Keynes was made the editor of The Economic Journal. By 1913 he had published his first book, Indian Currency and Finance. He was then appointed to the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance – the same topic as his book – where Keynes showed considerable talent at applying economic theory to practical problems. His written work was published under the name \"J M Keynes\", though to his family and friends he was known as Maynard. (His father, John Neville Keynes, was also always known by his middle name).",
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"plaintext": "The British Government called on Keynes's expertise during the First World War. While he did not formally re-join the civil service in 1914, Keynes travelled to London at the government's request a few days before hostilities started. Bankers had been pushing for the suspension of specie payments the gold equivalent of banknotes but with Keynes's help the Chancellor of the Exchequer (then Lloyd George) was persuaded that this would be a bad idea, as it would hurt the future reputation of the city if payments were suspended before it was necessary.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1915 Keynes took up an official government position at the Treasury. Among his responsibilities were the design of terms of credit between Britain and its continental allies during the war and the acquisition of scarce currencies. According to economist Robert Lekachman, Keynes's \"nerve and mastery became legendary\" because of his performance of these duties, as in the case where he managed to assemble – with difficulty – a small supply of Spanish pesetas.",
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"plaintext": "The secretary of the Treasury was delighted to hear Keynes had amassed enough to provide a temporary solution for the British Government. But Keynes did not hand the pesetas over, choosing instead to sell them all to break the market: his boldness paid off, as pesetas then became much less scarce and expensive.",
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"plaintext": "On the introduction of military conscription in 1916, he applied for exemption as a conscientious objector, which was effectively granted conditional upon continuing his government work.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1917 King's Birthday Honours, Keynes was appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath for his wartime work, and his success led to the appointment that had a huge effect on Keynes's life and career; Keynes was appointed financial representative for the Treasury to the 1919 Versailles peace conference. He was also appointed Officer of the Belgian Order of Leopold.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's experience at Versailles was influential in shaping his future outlook, yet it was not a successful one. Keynes's main interest had been in trying to prevent Germany's compensation payments being set so high it would traumatize innocent German people, damage the nation's ability to pay and sharply limit its ability to buy exports from other countries – thus hurting not just Germany's economy but that of the wider world.",
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"plaintext": "Unfortunately for Keynes, conservative powers in the coalition that emerged from the 1918 coupon election were able to ensure that both Keynes himself and the Treasury were largely excluded from formal high-level talks concerning reparations. Their place was taken by the Heavenly Twins – the judge Lord Sumner and the banker Lord Cunliffe whose nickname derived from the \"astronomically\" high war compensation they wanted to demand from Germany. Keynes was forced to try to exert influence mostly from behind the scenes.",
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"plaintext": "The three principal players at Versailles were Britain's Lloyd George, France's Clemenceau and America's President Wilson.",
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"plaintext": "It was only Lloyd George to whom Keynes had much direct access; until the 1918 election he had some sympathy with Keynes's view but while campaigning had found his speeches were well received by the public only if he promised to harshly punish Germany, and had therefore committed his delegation to extracting high payments.",
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"plaintext": "Lloyd George did, however, win some loyalty from Keynes with his actions at the Paris conference by intervening against the French to ensure the dispatch of much-needed food supplies to German civilians. Clemenceau also pushed for substantial reparations, though not as high as those proposed by the British, while on security grounds, France argued for an even more severe settlement than Britain.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson initially favoured relatively lenient treatment of Germany – he feared too harsh conditions could foment the rise of extremism and wanted Germany to be left sufficient capital to pay for imports. To Keynes's dismay, Lloyd George and Clemenceau were able to pressure Wilson to agree to include pensions in the reparations bill.",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of the conference, Keynes came up with a plan that he argued would not only help Germany and other impoverished central European powers but also be good for the world economy as a whole. It involved the radical writing down of war debts, which would have had the possible effect of increasing international trade all round, but at the same time thrown over two thirds of the cost of European reconstruction on the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Lloyd George agreed it might be acceptable to the British electorate. However, America was against the plan; the US was then the largest creditor, and by this time Wilson had started to believe in the merits of a harsh peace and thought that his country had already made excessive sacrifices. Hence despite his best efforts, the result of the conference was a treaty which disgusted Keynes both on moral and economic grounds and led to his resignation from the Treasury.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1919 he turned down an offer to become chairman of the British Bank of Northern Commerce, a job that promised a salary of £2000 in return for a morning per week of work.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's analysis on the predicted damaging effects of the treaty appeared in the highly influential book, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, published in 1919. This work has been described as Keynes's best book, where he was able to bring all his gifts to bear – his passion as well as his skill as an economist. In addition to economic analysis, the book contained appeals to the reader's sense of compassion:",
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"plaintext": "Also present was striking imagery such as \"year by year Germany must be kept impoverished and her children starved and crippled\" along with bold predictions which were later justified by events:",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's followers assert that his predictions of disaster were borne out when the German economy suffered the hyperinflation of 1923, and again by the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the outbreak of the Second World War. However, historian Ruth Henig claims that \"most historians of the Paris peace conference now take the view that, in economic terms, the treaty was not unduly harsh on Germany and that, while obligations and damages were inevitably much stressed in the debates at Paris to satisfy electors reading the daily newspapers, the intention was quietly to give Germany substantial help towards paying her bills, and to meet many of the German objections by amendments to the way the reparations schedule was in practice carried out\".",
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"plaintext": "Only a small fraction of reparations was ever paid. In fact, historian Stephen A. Schuker demonstrates in American 'Reparations' to Germany, 1919–33, that the capital inflow from American loans substantially exceeded German out payments so that, on a net basis, Germany received support equal to four times the amount of the post-Second World War Marshall Plan.",
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"plaintext": "Schuker also shows that, in the years after Versailles, Keynes became an informal reparations adviser to the German government, wrote one of the major German reparation notes, and supported the hyperinflation on political grounds. Nevertheless, The Economic Consequences of the Peace gained Keynes international fame, even though it also caused him to be regarded as anti-establishment – it was not until after the outbreak of the Second World War that Keynes was offered a directorship of a major British Bank, or an acceptable offer to return to government with a formal job. However, Keynes was still able to influence government policy making through his network of contacts, his published works and by serving on government committees; this included attending high-level policy meetings as a consultant.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes had completed his A Treatise on Probability before the war but published it in 1921. The work was a notable contribution to the philosophical and mathematical underpinnings of probability theory, championing the important view that probabilities were no more or less than truth values intermediate between simple truth and falsity. Keynes developed the first upper-lower probabilistic interval approach to probability in chapters 15 and 17 of this book, as well as having developed the first decision weight approach with his conventional coefficient of risk and weight, c, in chapter 26. In addition to his academic work, the 1920s saw Keynes active as a journalist selling his work internationally and working in London as a financial consultant. In 1924 Keynes wrote an obituary for his former tutor",
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"plaintext": "Alfred Marshall which Joseph Schumpeter called \"the most brilliant life of a man of science I have ever read.\"",
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"plaintext": "Mary Paley Marshall was \"entranced\" by the memorial, while Lytton Strachey rated it as one of Keynes's \"best works\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1922 Keynes continued to advocate reduction of German reparations with A Revision of the Treaty. He attacked the post-World War I deflation policies with A Tract on Monetary Reform in 1923 – a trenchant argument that countries should target stability of domestic prices, avoiding deflation even at the cost of allowing their currency to depreciate. Britain suffered from high unemployment through most of the 1920s, leading Keynes to recommend the depreciation of sterling to boost jobs by making British exports more affordable. From 1924 he was also advocating a fiscal response, where the government could create jobs by spending on public works. During the 1920s Keynes's pro stimulus views had only limited effect on policy makers and mainstream academic opinion – according to Hyman Minsky one reason was that at this time his theoretical justification was \"muddled\". The Tract had also called for an end to the gold standard. Keynes advised it was no longer a net benefit for countries such as Britain to participate in the gold standard, as it ran counter to the need for domestic policy autonomy. It could force countries to pursue deflationary policies at exactly the time when expansionary measures were called for to address rising unemployment. The Treasury and Bank of England were still in favour of the gold standard and in 1925 they were able to convince the then Chancellor Winston Churchill to re-establish it, which had a depressing effect on British industry. Keynes responded by writing The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill and continued to argue against the gold standard until Britain finally abandoned it in 1931.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes had begun a theoretical work to examine the relationship between unemployment, money, and prices back in the 1920s. The work, Treatise on Money, was published in 1930 in two volumes. A central idea of the work was that if the amount of money being saved exceeds the amount being invested – which can happen if interest rates are too high – then unemployment will rise. This is in part a result of people not wanting to spend too high a proportion of what employers pay out, making it difficult, in aggregate, for employers to make a profit. Another key theme of the book is the unreliability of financial indices for representing an accurate – or indeed meaningful – indication of general shifts in purchasing power of currencies over time. In particular, he criticised the justification of Britain's return to the gold standard in 1925 at pre-war valuation by reference to the wholesale price index. He argued that the index understated the effects of changes in the costs of services and labour.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was deeply critical of the British government's austerity measures during the Great Depression. He believed that budget deficits during recessions were a good thing and a natural product of an economic slump. He wrote, \"For Government borrowing of one kind or another is nature's remedy, so to speak, for preventing business losses from being, in so severe a slump as the present one, so great as to bring production altogether to a standstill.\"",
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"plaintext": "At the height of the Great Depression, in 1933, Keynes published The Means to Prosperity, which contained specific policy recommendations for tackling unemployment in a global recession, chiefly counter-cyclical public spending. The Means to Prosperity contains one of the first mentions of the multiplier effect. While it was addressed chiefly to the British Government, it also contained advice for other nations affected by the global recession. A copy was sent to the newly elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt and other world leaders. The work was taken seriously by both the American and British governments, and according to Robert Skidelsky, helped pave the way for the later acceptance of Keynesian ideas, though it had little immediate practical influence. In the 1933 London Economic Conference opinions remained too diverse for a unified course of action to be agreed upon.",
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"plaintext": "Keynesian-like policies were adopted by Sweden and Germany, but Sweden was seen as too small to command much attention, and Keynes was deliberately silent about the successful efforts of Germany as he was dismayed by its imperialist ambitions and its treatment of Jews. Apart from Great Britain, Keynes's attention was primarily focused on the United States. In 1931, he received considerable support for his views on counter-cyclical public spending in Chicago, then America's foremost center for economic views alternative to the mainstream. However, orthodox economic opinion remained generally hostile regarding fiscal intervention to mitigate the depression, until just before the outbreak of war. In late 1933 Keynes was persuaded by Felix Frankfurter to address President Roosevelt directly, which he did by letters and face to face in 1934, after which the two men spoke highly of each other. However, according to Skidelsky, the consensus is that Keynes's efforts began to have a more than marginal influence on US economic policy only after 1939.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's magnum opus, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money was published in 1936. It was researched and indexed by one of Keynes's favourite students, later the economist David Bensusan-Butt. The work served as a theoretical justification for the interventionist policies Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. Although Keynes stated in his preface that his General Theory was only secondarily concerned with the \"applications of this theory to practice,\" the circumstances of its publication were such that his suggestions shaped the course of the 1930s. In addition, Keynes introduced the world to a new interpretation of taxation: since the legal tender is now defined by the state, inflation becomes \"taxation by currency depreciation\". This hidden tax meant a) that the standard of value should be governed by deliberate decision; and (b) that it was possible to maintain a middle course between deflation and inflation. This novel interpretation was inspired by the desperate search for control over the economy which permeated the academic world after the Depression. The General Theory challenged the earlier neoclassical economic paradigm, which had held that provided it was unfettered by government interference, the market would naturally establish full employment equilibrium. In doing so Keynes was partly setting himself against his former teachers Marshall and Pigou. Keynes believed the classical theory was a \"special case\" that applied only to the particular conditions present in the 19th century, his theory being the general one. Classical economists had believed in Say's law, which, simply put, states that \"supply creates its demand\", and that in a free market workers would always be willing to lower their wages to a level where employers could profitably offer them jobs. An innovation from Keynes was the concept of price stickiness – the recognition that in reality workers often refuse to lower their wage demands even in cases where a classical economist might argue that it is rational for them to do so. Due in part to price stickiness, it was established that the interaction of \"aggregate demand\" and \"aggregate supply\" may lead to stable unemployment equilibria – and in those cases, it is on the state, not the market, that economies must depend for their salvation. In contrast, Keynes argued that demand is what creates supply and not the other way around. He questioned Say's Law by asking what would happen if the money that is being given to individuals is not finding its way back into the economy and is saved instead? He suggested the result would be a recession. To tackle the fear of a recession Say's Law suggests government intervention. This government intervention can be used to prevent any further increase in savings in the form of a decreased interest rate. Decreasing the interest rate will encourage people to start spending and investing again, or so it is stated by Say's Law. The reason behind this is that when there is little investing, savings start to accumulate and reach a stopping point in the flow of money. During the normal economic activity, it would be justified to have savings because they can be given out as loans but in this case, there is little demand for them, so they are doing no good for the economy. The supply of savings then exceeds the demand for loans and the result is lower prices or lower interest rates. Thus, the idea is that the money that was once saved is now re-invested or spent, assuming lower interest rates appeal to consumers. To Keynes, however, this was not always the case, and it couldn't be assumed that lower interest rates would automatically encourage investment and spending again since there is no proven link between the two.",
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"plaintext": "The General Theory argues that demand, not supply, is the key variable governing the overall level of economic activity. Aggregate demand, which equals total un-hoarded income in a society, is defined by the sum of consumption and investment. In a state of unemployment and unused production capacity, one can enhance employment and total income only by first increasing expenditures for either consumption or investment. Without government intervention to increase expenditure, an economy can remain trapped in a low-employment equilibrium. The demonstration of this possibility has been described as the revolutionary formal achievement of the work.",
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"plaintext": "The book advocated activist economic policy by government to stimulate demand in times of high unemployment, for example by spending on public works. \"Let us be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our wealth,\" he wrote in 1928. \"With men and plants unemployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these new developments. It is precisely with these plants and these men that we shall afford them.\"",
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"plaintext": "The General Theory is often viewed as the foundation of modern macroeconomics. Few senior American economists agreed with Keynes through most of the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Yet his ideas were soon to achieve widespread acceptance, with eminent American professors such as Alvin Hansen agreeing with the General Theory before the outbreak of World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes himself had only limited participation in the theoretical debates that followed the publication of the General Theory as he suffered a heart attack in 1937, requiring him to take long periods of rest. Among others, Hyman Minsky and Post-Keynesian economists have argued that as result, Keynes's ideas were diluted by those keen to compromise with classical economists or to render his concepts with mathematical models like the IS–LM model (which, they argue, distort Keynes's ideas). Keynes began to recover in 1939, but for the rest of his life his professional energies were directed largely towards the practical side of economics: the problems of ensuring optimum allocation of resources for the war efforts, post-war negotiations with America, and the new international financial order that was presented at the Bretton Woods Conference.",
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"plaintext": "In the General Theory and later, Keynes responded to the socialists who argued, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s, that capitalism caused war. He argued that if capitalism were managed domestically and internationally (with coordinated international Keynesian policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against one another, and a high degree of freedom of trade), then this system of managed capitalism could promote peace rather than conflict between countries. His plans during World War II for post-war international economic institutions and policies (which contributed to the creation at Bretton Woods of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and later to the creation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and eventually the World Trade Organization) were aimed to give effect to this vision.",
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"plaintext": "Although Keynes has been widely criticised – especially by members of the Chicago school of economics – for advocating irresponsible government spending financed by borrowing, in fact he was a firm believer in balanced budgets and regarded the proposals for programs of public works during the Great Depression as an exceptional measure to meet the needs of exceptional circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "During the Second World War, Keynes argued in How to Pay for the War, published in 1940, that the war effort should be largely financed by higher taxation and especially by compulsory saving (essentially workers lending money to the government), rather than deficit spending, in order to avoid inflation. Compulsory saving would act to dampen domestic demand, assist in channelling additional output towards the war efforts, would be fairer than punitive taxation and would have the advantage of helping to avoid a post-war slump by boosting demand once workers were allowed to withdraw their savings. In September 1941 he was proposed to fill a vacancy in the Court of Directors of the Bank of England, and subsequently carried out a full term from the following April. In June 1942, Keynes was rewarded for his service with a hereditary peerage in the King's Birthday Honours. On 7 July his title was gazetted as \"Baron Keynes, of Tilton, in the County of Sussex\" and he took his seat in the House of Lords on the Liberal Party benches.",
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"plaintext": "As the Allied victory began to look certain, Keynes was heavily involved, as leader of the British delegation and chairman of the World Bank commission, in the mid-1944 negotiations that established the Bretton Woods system. The Keynes plan, concerning an international clearing-union, argued for a radical system for the management of currencies. He proposed the creation of a common world unit of currency, the bancor, and new global institutions – a world central bank and the International Clearing Union. Keynes envisaged these institutions managing an international trade and payments system with strong incentives for countries to avoid substantial trade deficits or surpluses. The USA's greater negotiating strength, however, meant that the outcomes accorded more closely to the more conservative plans of Harry Dexter White. According to US economist J. Bradford DeLong, on almost every point where he was overruled by the Americans, Keynes was later proven correct by events.",
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"plaintext": "The two new institutions, later known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), were founded as a compromise that primarily reflected the American vision. There would be no incentives for states to avoid a large trade surplus; instead, the burden for correcting a trade imbalance would continue to fall only on the deficit countries, which Keynes had argued were least able to address the problem without inflicting economic hardship on their populations. Yet, Keynes was still pleased when accepting the final agreement, saying that if the institutions stayed true to their founding principles, \"the brotherhood of man will have become more than a phrase.\"",
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"plaintext": "After the war, Keynes continued to represent the United Kingdom in international negotiations despite his deteriorating health. He succeeded in obtaining preferential terms from the United States for new and outstanding debts to facilitate the rebuilding of the British economy.",
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"plaintext": "Just before his death in 1946, Keynes told Henry Clay, a professor of social economics and advisor to the Bank of England, of his hopes that Adam Smith's \"invisible hand\" could help Britain out of the economic hole it was in: \"I find myself more and more relying for a solution of our problems on the invisible hand which I tried to eject from economic thinking twenty years ago.\"",
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"plaintext": "From the end of the Great Depression to the mid-1970s, Keynes provided the main inspiration for economic policymakers in Europe, America and much of the rest of the world. While economists and policymakers had become increasingly won over to Keynes's way of thinking in the mid and late 1930s, it was only after the outbreak of World War II that governments started to borrow money for spending on a scale sufficient to eliminate unemployment. According to the economist John Kenneth Galbraith (then a US government official charged with controlling inflation), in the rebound of the economy from wartime spending, \"one could not have had a better demonstration of the Keynesian ideas.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Keynesian Revolution was associated with the rise of modern liberalism in the West during the post-war period. Keynesian ideas became so popular that some scholars point to Keynes as representing the ideals of modern liberalism, as Adam Smith represented the ideals of classical liberalism. After the war, Winston Churchill attempted to check the rise of Keynesian policy-making in the United Kingdom and used rhetoric critical of the mixed economy in his 1945 election campaign. Despite his popularity as a war hero, Churchill suffered a landslide defeat to Clement Attlee, whose government's economic policy continued to be influenced by Keynes's ideas.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1930s and 1940s, economists (notably John Hicks, Franco Modigliani, and Paul Samuelson) attempted to interpret and formalise Keynes's writings in terms of formal mathematical models. In what had become known as the neoclassical synthesis, they combined Keynesian analysis with neoclassical economics to produce neo-Keynesian economics, which came to dominate mainstream macroeconomic thought for the next 40 years.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1950s, Keynesian policies were adopted by almost the entire developed world and similar measures for a mixed economy were used by many developing nations. By then, Keynes's views on the economy had become mainstream in the world's universities. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the developed and emerging free capitalist economies enjoyed exceptionally high growth and low unemployment. Professor Gordon Fletcher has written that the 1950s and 1960s, when Keynes's influence was at its peak, appear in retrospect as a golden age of capitalism.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1965 Time magazine ran a cover article with a title comment from Milton Friedman (later echoed by U.S. President Richard Nixon), \"We are all Keynesians now\". The article described the exceptionally favourable economic conditions then prevailing, and reported that \"Washington's economic managers scaled these heights by their adherence to Keynes's central theme: the modern capitalist economy does not automatically work at top efficiency, but can be raised to that level by the intervention and influence of the government.\" The article also states that Keynes was one of the three most important economists who ever lived, and that his General Theory was more influential than the magna opera of other famous economists, like Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations.",
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"plaintext": "The concept of multiplier was first developed by R. F. Kahn in his article \"The relation of home investment to unemployment\" In the economic journal of June 1931. Kahn multiplier was the employment multiplier while as Keynes took the idea from Kahn and formulated the investment multiplier.",
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"plaintext": "Keynesian economics were officially discarded by the British Government in 1979, but forces had begun to gather against Keynes's ideas over 30 years earlier. Friedrich Hayek had formed the Mont Pelerin Society in 1947, with the explicit intention of nurturing intellectual currents to one day displace Keynesianism and other similar influences. Its members included the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises along with the then young Milton Friedman. Initially the society had little impact on the wider world – according to Hayek it was as if Keynes had been raised to sainthood after his death and that people refused to allow his work to be questioned.",
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"plaintext": "Friedman however began to emerge as a formidable critic of Keynesian economics from the mid-1950s, and especially after his 1963 publication of A Monetary History of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "On the practical side of economic life, \"big government\" had appeared to be firmly entrenched in the 1950s, but the balance began to shift towards the power of private interests in the 1960s. Keynes had written against the folly of allowing \"decadent and selfish\" speculators and financiers the kind of influence they had enjoyed after World War I. For two decades after World War II the public opinion was strongly against private speculators, the disparaging label \"Gnomes of Zürich\" being typical of how they were described during this period. International speculation was severely restricted by the capital controls in place after Bretton Woods. According to the journalists Larry Elliott and Dan Atkinson, 1968 was the pivotal year when power shifted in favour of private agents such as currency speculators. As the key 1968 event Elliott and Atkinson picked out America's suspension of the conversion of the dollar into gold except on request of foreign governments, which they identified as the beginning of the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system.",
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"plaintext": "Criticisms of Keynes's ideas had begun to gain significant acceptance by the early 1970s, as they were then able to make a credible case that Keynesian models no longer reflected economic reality. Keynes himself included few formulas and no explicit mathematical models in his General Theory. For economists such as Hyman Minsky, Keynes's limited use of mathematics was partly the result of his scepticism about whether phenomena as inherently uncertain as economic activity could ever be adequately captured by mathematical models. Nevertheless, many models were developed by Keynesian economists, with a famous example being the Phillips curve which predicted an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation. It implied that unemployment could be reduced by government stimulus with a calculable cost to inflation. In 1968, Milton Friedman published a paper arguing that the fixed relationship implied by the Philips curve did not exist.",
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"plaintext": "Friedman suggested that sustained Keynesian policies could lead to both unemployment and inflation rising at once – a phenomenon that soon became known as stagflation. In the early 1970s stagflation appeared in both the US and Britain just as Friedman had predicted, with economic conditions deteriorating further after the 1973 oil crisis. Aided by the prestige gained from his successful forecast, Friedman led increasingly successful criticisms against the Keynesian consensus, convincing not only academics and politicians but also much of the general public with his radio and television broadcasts. The academic credibility of Keynesian economics was further undermined by additional criticism from other monetarists trained in the Chicago school of economics, by the Lucas critique and by criticisms from Hayek's Austrian School. So successful were these criticisms that by 1980 Robert Lucas claimed economists would often take offence if described as Keynesians.",
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"plaintext": "Keynesian principles fared increasingly poorly on the practical side of economics – by 1979 they had been displaced by monetarism as the primary influence on Anglo-American economic policy. However, many officials on both sides of the Atlantic retained a preference for Keynes, and in 1984 the Federal Reserve officially discarded monetarism, after which Keynesian principles made a partial comeback as an influence on policy making.",
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"plaintext": "Not all academics accepted the criticism against Keynes – Minsky has argued that Keynesian economics had been debased by excessive mixing with neoclassical ideas from the 1950s, and that it was unfortunate that this branch of economics had even continued to be called \"Keynesian\". Writing in The American Prospect, Robert Kuttner argued it was not so much excessive Keynesian activism that caused the economic problems of the 1970s but the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system of capital controls, which allowed capital flight from regulated economies into unregulated economies in a fashion similar to Gresham's law phenomenon (where weak currencies undermine strong currencies).",
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"plaintext": "Historian Peter Pugh has stated that a key cause of the economic problems afflicting America in the 1970s was the refusal to raise taxes to finance the Vietnam War, which was against Keynesian advice.",
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"plaintext": "A more typical response was to accept some elements of the criticisms while refining Keynesian economic theories to defend them against arguments that would invalidate the whole Keynesian framework – the resulting body of work largely composing New Keynesian economics. In 1992 Alan Blinder wrote about a \"Keynesian Restoration\", as work based on Keynes's ideas had to some extent become fashionable once again in academia, though in the mainstream it was highly synthesised with monetarism and other neoclassical thinking. In the world of policy making, free market influences broadly sympathetic to monetarism have remained very strong at government level – in powerful normative institutions like the World Bank, the IMF and US Treasury, and in prominent opinion-forming media such as the Financial Times and The Economist.",
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"plaintext": "The global financial crisis of 2007–08 led to public skepticism about the free market consensus even from some on the economic right. In March 2008, Martin Wolf, chief economics commentator at the Financial Times, announced the death of the dream of global free-market capitalism. In the same month macroeconomist James K. Galbraith used the 25th Annual Milton Friedman Distinguished Lecture to launch a sweeping attack against the consensus for monetarist economics and argued that Keynesian economics were far more relevant for tackling the emerging crises.",
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"plaintext": "Economist Robert J. Shiller had begun advocating robust government intervention to tackle the financial crises, specifically citing Keynes.",
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"plaintext": "Nobel laureate Paul Krugman also actively argued the case for vigorous Keynesian intervention in the economy in his columns for The New York Times.",
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"plaintext": "Other prominent economic commentators who have argued for Keynesian government intervention to mitigate the financial crisis include George Akerlof, J. Bradford DeLong,",
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"plaintext": "and Joseph Stiglitz.",
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"plaintext": "Newspapers and other media have also cited work relating to Keynes by Hyman Minsky, Robert Skidelsky, Donald Markwell",
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"plaintext": "and Axel Leijonhufvud.",
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"plaintext": "A series of major bailouts were pursued during the financial crisis, starting on 7 September with the announcement that the U.S. Government was to nationalise the two government-sponsored enterprises which oversaw most of the U.S. subprime mortgage market – Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. In October, Alistair Darling, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, referred to Keynes as he announced plans for substantial fiscal stimulus to head off the worst effects of recession, in accordance with Keynesian economic thought. Similar policies have been adopted by other governments worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "This is in stark contrast to the action imposed on Indonesia during the Asian financial crisis of 1997, when it was forced by the IMF to close 16 banks at the same time, prompting a bank run.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the post-crisis discussion reflected Keynes's advocacy of international coordination of fiscal or monetary stimulus, and of international economic institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, which many had argued should be reformed as a \"new Bretton Woods\", and should have been even before the crises broke out.",
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"plaintext": "The IMF and United Nations economists advocated a coordinated international approach to fiscal stimulus.",
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"plaintext": "Donald Markwell argued that in the absence of such an international approach, there would be a risk of worsening international relations and possibly even world war arising from economic factors similar to those present during the depression of the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of December 2008, the Financial Times reported that \"the sudden resurgence of Keynesian policy is a stunning reversal of the orthodoxy of the past several decades.\"",
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"plaintext": "In December 2008, Paul Krugman released his book The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008, arguing that economic conditions similar to those that existed during the earlier part of the 20th century had returned, making Keynesian policy prescriptions more relevant than ever. In February 2009 Robert J. Shiller and George Akerlof published Animal Spirits, a book where they argue the current US stimulus package is too small as it does not take into account Keynes's insight on the importance of confidence and expectations in determining the future behaviour of businesspeople and other economic agents.",
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"plaintext": "In the March 2009 speech entitled Reform the International Monetary System, Zhou Xiaochuan, the governor of the People's Bank of China, came out in favour of Keynes's idea of a centrally managed global reserve currency. Zhou argued that it was unfortunate that part of the reason for the Bretton Woods system breaking down was the failure to adopt Keynes's bancor. Zhou proposed a gradual move towards increased use of IMF special drawing rights (SDRs).",
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"plaintext": "Although Zhou's ideas had not been broadly accepted, leaders meeting in April at the 2009 G-20 London summit agreed to allow $250 billion of special drawing rights to be created by the IMF, to be distributed globally. Stimulus plans were credited for contributing to a better than expected economic outlook by both the OECD",
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"plaintext": "and the IMF, in reports published in June and July 2009. Both organisations warned global leaders that recovery was likely to be slow, so counter recessionary measures ought not be rolled back too early.",
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"plaintext": "While the need for stimulus measures was broadly accepted among policy makers, there had been much debate over how to fund the spending. Some leaders and institutions, such as Angela Merkel",
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"plaintext": "and the European Central Bank,",
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"plaintext": "expressed concern over the potential impact on inflation, national debt and the risk that a too large stimulus will create an unsustainable recovery.",
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"plaintext": "Among professional economists the revival of Keynesian economics has been even more divisive. Although many economists, such as George Akerlof, Paul Krugman, Robert Shiller, and Joseph Stiglitz, supported Keynesian stimulus, others did not believe higher government spending would help the United States economy recover from the Great Recession. Some economists, such as Robert Lucas, questioned the theoretical basis for stimulus packages. Others, like Robert Barro and Gary Becker, say that empirical evidence for beneficial effects from Keynesian stimulus does not exist. However, there is a growing academic literature that shows that fiscal expansion helps an economy grow in the near term, and that certain types of fiscal stimulus are particularly effective.",
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"plaintext": "New Keynesian economics developed in the 1990s and early 2000s as a response to the critique that macroeconomics lacked microeconomic foundations. New Keynesianism developed models to provide microfoundations for Keynesian economics. It incorporated parts of new classical macroeconomics to develop the new neoclassical synthesis, which forms the basis for mainstream macroeconomics today.",
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"plaintext": "Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have rational expectations. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is imperfect competition in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become \"sticky\", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Wage and price stickiness, and the other market failures present in New Keynesian models, imply that the economy may fail to attain full employment. Therefore, New Keynesians argue that macroeconomic stabilization by the government (using fiscal policy) and the central bank (using monetary policy) can lead to a more efficient macroeconomic outcome than a laissez faire policy would.",
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"plaintext": "John Maynard Keynes had a drastically different upbringing and motives for his philosophical and economic contributions. Rather than writing with the mindset of being upset at the current system, Keynes instead produced his most famous work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, with the intention of solving the then current issue which was plaguing the whole world, The Great Depression. When he wrote this, one theme that occurs numerous times is his view on how individuals should save during a time of economic downturn or recession. His answer was that people tend to save more in these times, which he thought could be very harmful if there is no government intervention because individuals and businesses are too scared or have the inability to invest in new ideas and jobs due to the state of the economy. This issue was especially prevalent during The Great Depression because individuals were saving their money and businesses were not investing which was keeping that particular recession around as long as it did and made the unemployment rate go from around 4 percent all the way to around twenty five percent. The individuals were saving with the hopes that the recession would not be very long, which then caused it to get worse due to lack of stimulation in the economy. In order to get out of this cycle, Keynes argued that it was the government alone that would be able to solve this problem and break the United States particularly and the whole world out of The Great Depression. Keynes, normally an endorser of free market capitalism realised that this recession was a special case in that it had potential to be inescapable. The government did eventually do this with president Franklin Roosevelt introducing The New Deal, which was a relief program set up where the federal budget was increased with the purpose of getting the economy out of the recession by injecting money manually from these government aid programs. \"The difficulty lies, not in the new ideas, but in escaping from the old ones, which ramify, for those brought up as most of us have been, into every corner of our minds\" (Keynes). Keynes is highlighting the fact that people are used to making certain decisions during different times of the business cycle, and also that individuals and businesses needed to change the way they were viewing saving money so that the country could get out of the recession. It is clear that Keynes had a different approach to economic thought from Marx because he was writing with the intention of solving the current world problem, The Great Depression, rather than critiquing the unfairness in the current system.",
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"plaintext": "On a personal level, Keynes's charm was such that he was generally well received wherever he went – even those who found themselves on the wrong side of his occasionally sharp tongue rarely bore a grudge. Keynes's speech at the closing of the Bretton Woods negotiations was received with a lasting standing ovation, rare in international relations, as the delegates acknowledged the scale of his achievements made despite poor health.",
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"plaintext": "Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek was Keynes's most prominent contemporary critic, with sharply opposing views on the economy. Yet after Keynes's death, he wrote: \"He was the one really great man I ever knew, and for whom I had unbounded admiration. The world will be a very much poorer place without him.\" A colleague Nicholas Davenport recalled, \"There were deep emotional forces about Maynard ... One could sense his humanity. There was nothing of the cold intellectual about him.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lionel Robbins, former head of the economics department at the London School of Economics, who engaged in many heated debates with Keynes in the 1930s, had this to say after observing Keynes in early negotiations with the Americans while drawing up plans for Bretton Woods:",
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"plaintext": "Douglas LePan, an official from the Canadian High Commission, wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Bertrand Russell named Keynes one of the most intelligent people he had ever known, commenting:",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's obituary in The Times included the comment: \"There is the man himself – radiant, brilliant, effervescent, gay, full of impish jokes ... He was a humane man genuinely devoted to the cause of the common good.\"",
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"plaintext": "As a man of the centre described by some as having the greatest impact of any 20th-century economist, Keynes attracted considerable criticism from both sides of the political spectrum. In the 1920s, Keynes was seen as anti-establishment and was mainly attacked from the right. In the \"red 1930s\", many young economists favoured Marxist views, even in Cambridge, and while Keynes was engaging principally with the right to try to persuade them of the merits of more progressive policy, the most vociferous criticism against him came from the left, who saw him as a supporter of capitalism. From the 1950s and onwards, most of the attacks against Keynes have again been from the right.",
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"plaintext": "In 1931 Friedrich Hayek extensively critiqued Keynes's 1930 Treatise on Money. After reading Hayek's The Road to Serfdom, Keynes wrote to Hayek \"Morally and philosophically I find myself in agreement with virtually the whole of it\", but concluded the letter with the recommendation: On the pressing issue of the time, whether deficit spending could lift a country from depression, Keynes replied to Hayek's criticism in the following way:",
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"plaintext": "Asked why Keynes expressed \"moral and philosophical\" agreement with Hayek's Road to Serfdom, Hayek stated:",
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"plaintext": "According to some observers, Hayek felt that the post-World War II \"Keynesian orthodoxy\" gave too much power to the state, and that such policies would lead toward socialism.",
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"plaintext": "While Milton Friedman described The General Theory as \"a great book\", he argues that its implicit separation of nominal from real magnitudes is neither possible nor desirable. Macroeconomic policy, Friedman argues, can reliably influence only the nominal. He and other monetarists have consequently argued that Keynesian economics can result in stagflation, the combination of low growth and high inflation that developed economies suffered in the early 1970s. More to Friedman's taste was the Tract on Monetary Reform (1923), which he regarded as Keynes's best work because of its focus on maintaining domestic price stability.",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Schumpeter was an economist of the same age as Keynes and one of his main rivals. He was among the first reviewers to argue that Keynes's General Theory was not a general theory, but a special case. He said the work expressed \"the attitude of a decaying civilisation\". After Keynes's death Schumpeter wrote a brief biographical piece Keynes the Economist – on a personal level he was very positive about Keynes as a man, praising his pleasant nature, courtesy and kindness. He assessed some of Keynes's biographical and editorial work as among the best he'd ever seen. Yet Schumpeter remained critical about Keynes's economics, linking Keynes's childlessness to what Schumpeter saw as an essentially short-term view. He considered Keynes to have a kind of unconscious patriotism that caused him to fail to understand the problems of other nations. For Schumpeter \"Practical Keynesianism is a seedling which cannot be transplanted into foreign soil: it dies there and becomes poisonous as it dies.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Schumpeter admired and envied Keynes, but when Keynes died in 1946, Schumpeter's obituary gave Keynes this same off-key, perfunctory treatment he would later give Adam Smith in the History of Economic Analysis, the \"discredit of not adding a single innovation to the techniques of economic analysis\".",
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"plaintext": "President Harry S. Truman was sceptical of Keynesian theorizing: \"Nobody can ever convince me that government can spend a dollar that it's not got,\" he told Leon Keyserling, a Keynesian economist who chaired Truman's Council of Economic Advisers.",
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"plaintext": "Some critics have sought to show that Keynes had sympathies towards Nazism, and a number of writers have described him as antisemitic. Keynes's private letters contain portraits and descriptions, some of which can be characterized as antisemitic, while others as philosemitic.",
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"plaintext": "Scholars have suggested that these reflect clichés current at the time that he accepted uncritically, rather than any racism. On several occasions Keynes used his influence to help his Jewish friends, most notably when he successfully lobbied for Ludwig Wittgenstein to be allowed residency in the United Kingdom, explicitly in order to rescue him from being deported to Nazi-occupied Austria. Keynes was a supporter of Zionism, serving on committees supporting the cause.",
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"plaintext": "Allegations that he was racist or had totalitarian beliefs have been rejected by Robert Skidelsky and other biographers. Professor Gordon Fletcher wrote that \"the suggestion of a link between Keynes and any support of totalitarianism cannot be sustained\". Once the aggressive tendencies of the Nazis towards Jews and other minorities had become apparent, Keynes made clear his loathing of Nazism. As a lifelong pacifist he had initially favoured peaceful containment of Nazi Germany, yet he began to advocate a forceful resolution while many conservatives were still arguing for appeasement. After the war started, he roundly criticised the Left for losing their nerve to confront Adolf Hitler, saying:",
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"plaintext": "Keynes has been characterised as being indifferent or even positive about mild inflation. He had indeed expressed a preference for inflation over deflation, saying that if one has to choose between the two evils, it is \"better to disappoint the rentier\" than to inflict pain on working class families. Keynes was also aware of the dangers of inflation. In The Economic Consequences of the Peace, he wrote: ",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of his career, Keynes was an economist close to Alfred Marshall, deeply convinced of the benefits of free trade. From the crisis of 1929 onwards, noting the commitment of the British authorities to defend the gold parity of the pound sterling and the rigidity of nominal wages, he gradually adhered to protectionist measures.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 November 1929, when heard by the Macmillan Committee to bring the British economy out of the crisis, Keynes indicated that the introduction of tariffs on imports would help to rebalance the trade balance. The committee's report states in a section entitled \"import control and export aid\", that in an economy where there is not full employment, the introduction of tariffs can improve production and employment. Thus the reduction of the trade deficit favours the country's growth.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1930, in the Economic Advisory Council, Keynes proposed the introduction of a system of protection to reduce imports. In the autumn of 1930, he proposed a uniform tariff of 10% on all imports and subsidies of the same rate for all exports. In the Treatise on Money, published in the autumn of 1930, he took up the idea of tariffs or other trade restrictions with the aim of reducing the volume of imports and rebalancing the balance of trade.",
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"plaintext": "On 7 March 1931, in the New Statesman and Nation, he wrote an article entitled Proposal for a Tariff Revenue. He pointed out that the reduction of wages led to a reduction in national demand which constrained markets. Instead, he proposes the idea of an expansionary policy combined with a tariff system to neutralise the effects on the balance of trade. The application of customs tariffs seemed to him \"unavoidable, whoever the Chancellor of the Exchequer might be\".Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated. He proposed a 15% tax on manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and 5% on certain foodstuffs and raw materials, with others needed for exports exempted (wool, cotton).",
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"plaintext": "In 1932, in an article entitled The Pro- and Anti-Tariffs, published in The Listener, he envisaged the protection of farmers and certain sectors such as the automobile and iron and steel industries, considering them indispensable to Britain.",
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"plaintext": "In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the free trade model unrealistic. He criticised, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1930, in a note to the Economic Advisory Council, he doubted the intensity of the gain from specialisation in the case of manufactured goods. While participating in the MacMillan Committee, he admitted that he no longer \"believed in a very high degree of national specialisation\" and refused to \"abandon any industry which is unable, for the moment, to survive\". He also criticised the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which, in his view, by fixing comparative advantages definitively, led in practice to a waste of national resources.",
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"plaintext": "In the Daily Mail of 13 March 1931, he called the assumption of perfect sectoral labour mobility \"nonsense\" since it states that a person made unemployed contributes to a reduction in the wage rate until he finds a job. But for Keynes, this change of job may involve costs (job search, training) and is not always possible. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredit the theory of comparative advantage.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1933, he published an article in the New Statesman and Nation entitled National Self-Sufficiency, in which he criticised the argument of the specialisation of economies, which is the basis of free trade. He thus proposed the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialisation of economies advocated by the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for nations. In it he refutes the principle of peacemaking trade. His vision of trade became that of a system where foreign capitalists compete for new markets. He defends the idea of producing on national soil when possible and reasonable and expresses sympathy for the advocates of protectionism. ",
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"plaintext": "Later, Keynes had a written correspondence with James Meade centred on the issue of import restrictions. Keynes and Meade discussed the best choice between quota and tariff. In March 1944 Keynes began a discussion with Marcus Fleming after the latter had written an article entitled Quotas versus depreciation. On this occasion, we see that he has definitely taken a protectionist stance after the Great Depression. He considered that quotas could be more effective than currency depreciation in dealing with external imbalances. Thus, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient and protectionist measures became necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises due to a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade).",
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"plaintext": "He points out that countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When the trade deficit increases, unemployment rises and GDP slows down. And surplus countries exert a \"negative externality\" on their trading partners. They get richer at the expense of others and destroy the output of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that the products of surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances. Thus he no longer believes in the theory of comparative advantage (on which free trade is based) which states that the trade deficit does not matter, since trade is mutually beneficial.",
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"plaintext": "This also explains his desire to replace the liberalisation of international trade (Free Trade) with a regulatory system aimed at eliminating trade imbalances in his proposals for the Bretton Woods Agreement.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by \"creating\" additional \"international money\", and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because \"American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships\".",
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"plaintext": "The new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have an incentive to reduce it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits. He proposed a global bank that would issue its currency – the bancor – which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a \"negative externality\" on trading partners, and posed, far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1933 Yale Review article \"National Self-Sufficiency,\" he already highlighted the problems created by free trade. His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, \"If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos.\"",
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"plaintext": "These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.",
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"plaintext": "Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, An Outline of Money, devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the \"problem of balance\". However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes's insights have slipped from view. They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–08.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's early romantic and sexual relationships were exclusively with men. Keynes had been in relationships while at Eton and Cambridge; significant among these early partners were Dilly Knox and Daniel Macmillan. Keynes was open about his affairs, and from 1901 to 1915 kept separate diaries in which he tabulated his many sexual encounters. Keynes's relationship and later close friendship with Macmillan was to be fortunate, as Macmillan's company first published his tract Economic Consequences of the Peace.",
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"plaintext": "Attitudes in the Bloomsbury Group, in which Keynes was avidly involved, were relaxed about homosexuality. Keynes, together with writer Lytton Strachey, had reshaped the Victorian attitudes of the Cambridge Apostles: \"since [their] time, homosexual relations among the members were for a time common\", wrote Bertrand Russell. The artist Duncan Grant, whom he met in 1908, was one of Keynes's great loves. Keynes was also involved with Lytton Strachey, though they were for the most part love rivals, not lovers. Keynes had won the affections of Arthur Hobhouse, and as with Grant, fell out with a jealous Strachey for it. Strachey had previously found himself put off by Keynes, not least because of his manner of \"treat[ing] his love affairs statistically\".",
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"plaintext": "Political opponents have used Keynes's sexuality to attack his academic work. One line of attack held that he was uninterested in the long-term ramifications of his theories because he had no children.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's friends in the Bloomsbury Group were initially surprised when, in his later years, he began pursuing affairs with women, demonstrating himself to be bisexual. Ray Costelloe (who later married Oliver Strachey) was an early heterosexual interest of Keynes. In 1906, Keynes had written of this infatuation that, \"I seem to have fallen in love with Ray a little bit, but as she isn't male I haven't [been] able to think of any suitable steps to take.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1921, Keynes wrote that he had fallen \"very much in love\" with Lydia Lopokova, a well-known Russian ballerina and one of the stars of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. In the early years of his courtship, he maintained an affair with a younger man, Sebastian Sprott, in tandem with Lopokova, but eventually chose Lopokova exclusively. They were married in 1925, with Keynes's former lover Duncan Grant as best man. \"What a marriage of beauty and brains, the fair Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes\" was said at the time. Keynes later commented to Strachey that beauty and intelligence were rarely found in the same person, and that only in Duncan Grant had he found the combination. The union was happy, with biographer Peter Clarke writing that the marriage gave Keynes \"a new focus, a new emotional stability and a sheer delight of which he never wearied\".",
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"plaintext": "Among Keynes's Bloomsbury friends, Lopokova was, at least initially, subjected to criticism for her manners, mode of conversation, and supposedly humble social origins – the last of the ostensible causes being particularly noted in the letters of Vanessa and Clive Bell, and Virginia Woolf. In her novel Mrs Dalloway (1925), Woolf bases the character of Rezia Warren Smith on Lopokova. E. M. Forster later wrote in contrition about \"Lydia Keynes, every whose word should be recorded\": \"How we all used to underestimate her\".",
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"plaintext": "Keynes thought that the pursuit of money for its own sake was a pathological condition, and that the proper aim of work is to provide leisure. He wanted shorter working hours and longer holidays for all.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was interested in literature in general and drama in particular and supported the Cambridge Arts Theatre financially, which allowed the institution to become one of the major British stages outside London.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes's interest in classical opera and dance led him to support the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden and the Ballet Company at Sadler's Wells. During the war, as a member of CEMA (Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts), Keynes helped secure government funds to maintain both companies while their venues were shut. Following the war, Keynes was instrumental in establishing the Arts Council of Great Britain and was its founding chairman in 1946. From the start, the two organisations that received the largest grants from the new body were the Royal Opera House and Sadler's Wells.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes built up a substantial collection of fine art, including works by Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Amedeo Modigliani, Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, and Georges Seurat (some of which can now be seen at the Fitzwilliam Museum). He enjoyed collecting books; he collected and protected many of Isaac Newton's papers. In part on the basis of these papers, Keynes wrote of Newton as \"the last of the magicians.\"",
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"plaintext": "Keynes, like other members of the Bloomsbury Group, was greatly influenced by the philosophy of G. E. Moore, which in 1938 he described as \"still my religion under the surface\". According to Moore, states of mind were the only valuable things in themselves, the most important being \"the pleasures of human intercourse and the enjoyment of beautiful objects\". Virginia Woolf's biographer tells an anecdote of how Virginia Woolf, Keynes, and T. S. Eliot discussed religion at a dinner party, in the context of their struggle against Victorian era morality.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes may have been confirmed, but according to Cambridge University he was clearly an agnostic, which he remained until his death. According to one biographer, \"he was never able to take religion seriously, regarding it as a strange aberration of the human mind\" but also added that he came to \"value it for social and moral reasons\" later in life. Another biographer writes that he \"broke the family faith and became a 'ferocious agnostic during his time at Eton. One Cambridge acquaintance remembered him as \"an atheist with a devotion to King's chapel\". At Cambridge, he was strongly associated with the Cambridge Heretics Society, an avowed atheist group which promoted secularism and humanism.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was ultimately a successful investor, building up a private fortune. His assets were nearly wiped out following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which he did not foresee, but he soon recouped. At Keynes's death, in 1946, his net worth stood just short of £500,000 – equivalent to about £20.5 million ($27.1 million) in 2018. The sum had been amassed despite lavish support for various charities and philanthropies, and his ethic which made him reluctant to sell on a falling market, in cases where he saw such behaviour as likely to deepen a slump.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes managed the endowment of King's College, Cambridge starting in the 1920s, initially with an unsuccessful strategy based on market timing but later shifting to focus in the publicly traded stock of small and medium size companies that paid large dividends. This was a controversial decision at the time, as stocks were considered high-risk and the centuries-old endowment had traditionally been invested in agricultural land and fixed income assets like bonds. Keynes was granted permission to invest a small minority of assets in stocks, and his adroit management resulted this portion of the endowment growing to become the majority of the endowment's assets. The active component of his portfolio outperformed a British equity index by an average of 6% to 8% a year over a quarter century, earning him favourable mention by later investors such as Warren Buffett and George Soros. Joel Tillinghast of Fidelity Investments describes Keynes as an early practitioner of value investing, a school of thought formalized in the U.S. by Benjamin Graham and David Dodd at Columbia Business School during the 1920s and '30s. However, Keynes is believed to have developed his ideas independently. Keynes also regarded as a pioneer of financial diversification as he recognized the importance of holding assets with \"opposed risks\" as he wrote \"since they are likely to move in opposite directions when there are general fluctuations\"; and also as an early international investor who avoided home country bias by investing substantially in stocks outside the United Kingdom. Ken Fisher characterized Keynes as an exception to the rule that economists usually make horrible investors.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was a lifelong member of the Liberal Party, which until the 1920s had been one of the two main political parties in the United Kingdom, and as late as 1916 had often been the dominant power in government. Keynes had helped campaign for the Liberals at elections from about 1906, yet he always refused to run for office himself, despite being asked to do so on three separate occasions in 1920. From 1926, when Lloyd George became leader of the Liberals, Keynes took a major role in defining the party's economic policy, but by then the Liberals had been displaced into third-party status by the growing workers-oriented Labour Party.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939 Keynes had the option to enter Parliament as an independent MP with the University of Cambridge seat. A by-election for the seat was to be held due to the illness of an elderly Tory, and the master of Magdalene College had obtained agreement that none of the major parties would field a candidate if Keynes chose to stand. Keynes declined the invitation as he felt he would wield greater influence on events if he remained a free agent.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was a proponent of eugenics. He served as director of the British Eugenics Society from 1937 to 1944. As late as 1946, shortly before his death, Keynes declared eugenics to be \"the most important, significant and, I would add, genuine branch of sociology which exists.\"",
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"plaintext": "Keynes once remarked that \"the youth had no religion save communism and this was worse than nothing.\" Marxism \"was founded upon nothing better than a misunderstanding of Ricardo\", and, given time, he (Keynes) \"would deal thoroughly with the Marxists\" and other economists to solve the economic problems their theories \"threaten to cause\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1931 Keynes had the following to say on Leninism:",
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"plaintext": "Keynes was a firm supporter of women's rights and in 1932 became vice-chairman of the Marie Stopes Society which provided birth control education. He also campaigned against job discrimination against women and unequal pay. He was an outspoken campaigner for reform of the laws against homosexuality.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout his life, Keynes worked energetically for the benefit both of the public and his friends; even when his health was poor, he laboured to sort out the finances of his old college. Helping to set up the Bretton Woods system, he worked to institute an international monetary system that would be beneficial for the world economy. In 1946, Keynes suffered a series of heart attacks, which ultimately proved fatal. They began during negotiations for the Anglo-American loan in Savannah, Georgia, where he was trying to secure favourable terms for the United Kingdom from the United States, a process he described as \"absolute hell\". A few weeks after returning from the United States, Keynes died of a heart attack at Tilton, his farmhouse home near Firle, East Sussex, England, on 21 April 1946, at the age of 62. Against his wishes (he wanted his ashes to be deposited in the crypt at King's), his ashes were scattered on the Downs above Tilton.",
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"plaintext": "Both of Keynes's parents outlived him: his father John Neville Keynes (1852–1949) by three years, and his mother Florence Ada Keynes (1861–1958) by twelve. Keynes's brother Sir Geoffrey Keynes (1887–1982) was a distinguished surgeon, scholar, and bibliophile. His nephews include Richard Keynes (1919–2010), a physiologist, and Quentin Keynes (1921–2003), an adventurer and bibliophile. Keynes had no children; his widow, Lydia Lopokova, died in 1981.",
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"plaintext": "In John Buchan's novel Island of Sheep (1936) the character of the financier Barralty is based on Keynes.",
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"plaintext": "The novel Mr Keynes' Revolution (2020) by E. J. Barnes is about Keynes' life in the 1920s.",
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"plaintext": "Love Letters, based on the correspondence of Keynes and Lydia Lopokova, was performed by Tobias Menzies and Helena Bonham-Carter at Charleston in 2021.",
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"plaintext": " Этнаграфія беларусаў: гістарыяграфія, этнагенез, этнічная гісторыя / В. К. Бандарчык [і інш]. — Мінск : Навука і тэхніка, 1985. — 215 с.",
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"plaintext": " Этнаграфія Беларусі : энцыклапедыя / рэдкал. І.П. Шамякін [і інш.]. — Мінск : БелСЭ, 1989. — 575 с.",
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"plaintext": " Ethnographic Map (New York, 1953)",
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"plaintext": " CIA World Fact Book 2005",
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] | [
"Belarusian_people",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Kazakhstan",
"Slavic_ethnic_groups",
"History_of_the_Rus'_people"
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"Belarusian people",
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"Byelorussians",
"White Russians"
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37,977 | 1,106,805,206 | Millet | [
{
"plaintext": "Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets also belong to various other taxa.",
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"plaintext": "Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger), with 97% of millet production in developing countries. This crop is favored due to its productivity and short growing season under dry, high-temperature conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Millets are indigenous to many parts of the world. The most widely grown millets are sorghum and pearl millets, which are important crops in India and parts of Africa. Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are also important crop species.",
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"plaintext": "Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had \"a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies.\"",
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"plaintext": "Generally, millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.",
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"plaintext": "The different species of millets are not necessarily closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses) but can belong to different tribes or even subfamilies.",
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"plaintext": "The most commonly cultivated millets are in bold italic.",
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"plaintext": "Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae:",
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"plaintext": " Eleusine coracana: Finger millet (also known as ragi in Hindi, Kannada, రాగులు in Telugu and கேழ்வரகு in Tamil)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eragrostis tef: Teff; often not considered to be a millet",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Panicum:",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Panicum miliaceum: Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Panicum sumatrense: Little millet (also known as Saamey in Kannada Samalu in Telugu and Sāmai in Tamil )",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
39202,
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],
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Panicum sonorum: Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
25399400
],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pennisetum glaucum: Pearl millet (known as Bajra in Hindi, also known as sajjey in Kannada and 'Kambu' in Tamil)",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Setaria italica: Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic (also known as navaney in Kannada and 'thinai' in Tamil)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Digitaria: of minor importance as crops",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2005663
],
"anchor_spans": [
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7,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Digitaria exilis: known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2190527
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Digitaria iburua: Black fonio",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
45319222
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Digitaria compacta: Raishan, cultivated in the Khasi Hills of northeast India",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
45319148,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Digitaria sanguinalis: Polish millet",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
15094111
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Echinochloa: collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets; other common names to identify these seeds include Jhangora, Samo seeds or Morio / Mario / Moraiaya seeds",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Echinochloa esculenta: Japanese barnyard millet",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2423764
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Echinochloa frumentacea: Indian barnyard millet, also known as Sawa millet, Kodisama in Telugu and Kuthirai vaali in Tamil and Bhagar or Varai in Marathi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2423763
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Echinochloa oryzoides",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
15221334
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Echinochloa stagnina: Burgu millet",
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"target_page_ids": [
4872641
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Echinochloa crus-galli: Common barnyard grass (or Cockspur grass)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2423785
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paspalum scrobiculatum: Kodo millet (also known as Arikelu in Telugu, Varagu in Tamil and Haraka in Kannada)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brachiaria deflexa: Guinea millet",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brachiaria ramosa: Browntop millet (also known as Korle in Kannada)",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
68722207
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spodiopogon formosanus: Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan",
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"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Andropogoneae tribe, also in the subfamily Panicoideae:",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sorghum bicolor: Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as great millet",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coix lacryma-jobi: Job's tears, also known as adlay millet",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Millet species",
"target_page_ids": [
2052205
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The various species called millet were initially domesticated in different parts of the world most notably East Asia, South Asia, West Africa, and East Africa. However, the domesticated varieties have often spread well beyond their initial area.",
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"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea. Millets also formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Indian, Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies.",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago. The oldest evidence of noodles in China were made from these two varieties of millet in a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles found at the Lajia archaeological site in north China.",
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"plaintext": "Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BCE). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BCE) in Korea. Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period some time after 4000 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary Emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.",
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"plaintext": "Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 before present in India subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 before present, also in Indian subcontinent. Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (priyaṅgu), Barnyard millet (aṇu) and black finger millet (śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BCE in India.",
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"plaintext": "Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was definitely domesticated in Africa by 3500 before present, though 8000 before present is thought likely. Early evidence includes finds at Birimi in West Africa with the earliest at Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania.",
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"plaintext": "Pearl millet was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa, where its wild ancestors are found. Evidence for the cultivation of pearl millet in Mali dates back to 2500 BCE, and pearl millet is found in the Indian subcontinent by 2300 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "Finger millet is originally native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before the third millennium BCE. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought, and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.",
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"plaintext": "Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BCE, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece. Hesiod describes that \"the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer.\" And millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BCE by Theophrastus in his \"Enquiry into Plants\".",
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"plaintext": "Research on millets is carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research in Telangana, India, and by the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service at Tifton, Georgia, United States.",
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"plaintext": "Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular, particularly in countries surrounding the Sahara in western Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2–4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as mahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, global production of millet was 30.5 million tonnes, led by India with 41% of the world total (table). Niger also had significant production.",
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"plaintext": "In India, various alcoholic beverages are produced from millets. Millet is also the base ingredient for the distilled liquor rakshi.",
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"plaintext": "Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India, sorghum (called jowar, jola, jonnalu, jwaarie, or jondhahlaa in Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi and Marathi languages, respectively; mutthaari, kora, or panjappullu in Malayalam; or cholam in Tamil) has been commonly used with millet flour (called jowari in western India) for hundreds of years to make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (rotla in Gujarati, bhakri in Marathi, or roti in other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form of roti. Other millets such as ragi (finger millet) in Karnataka, naachanie in Maharashtra, or kezhvaragu in Tamil, \"ragulu\" in Telugu, with the popular ragi rotti and Ragi mudde is a popular meal in Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture.",
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"plaintext": "Millet is also the main ingredient in a Vietnamese sweet snack called bánh đa kê. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced dried coconut meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake. It is a specialty of Hanoi.",
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"plaintext": "Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa. In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent (see mahangu). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea.",
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"plaintext": "The use of millets as food fell between the 1970s and the 2000s, both in urban and rural areas, as developing countries such as India have experienced rapid economic growth and witnessed a significant increase in per capita consumption of other cereals.",
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"plaintext": "People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet. Nevertheless, while millet does not contain gluten, its grains and flour may be contaminated with gluten-containing cereals.",
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"plaintext": "It is a common ingredient in seeded bread.",
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"plaintext": "Millets are also used as bird and animal feed.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used for sheep and cattle.",
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"plaintext": "Millet is a C4 plant, which means that it has good water-use efficiency and utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme in photosynthesis from C3 plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency.",
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"plaintext": "In southern Australia millet is used as a summer quality pasture, utilizing warm temperatures and summer storms. Millet is frost-sensitive and is sown after the frost period, once soil temperature has stabilised at 14°C or higher. It is sown at a shallow depth.",
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"plaintext": "Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when it is 20–30cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant matures, the value and palatability of feed reduces.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese millets (Echinochloa esculenta) are considered the best for grazing and in particular Shirohie, a new variety of Japanese millet, is the best suited variety for grazing. This is due to a number of factors: it gives better regrowth and is later to mature compared to other Japanese millets; it is cheap – cost of seed is $2–$3 per kg, and sowing rates are around 10kg per hectare for dryland production; it is quick to establish, can be grazed early, and is suitable for both sheep and cattle.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage, animals gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared to sorghum. Millet does not contain prussic acid, which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals by inhibiting oxygen utilisation by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body — ultimately the animal will die from asphyxia. There is no need for additional feed supplements such as Sulphur or salt blocks with millet.",
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"plaintext": "The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.",
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"plaintext": "A reference serving of raw millet (Panicum miliaceum or proso millet) provides of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese at 76% DV (USDA nutrient table). Raw millet is 9% water, 73% carbohydrates, 4% fat and 11% protein (table).",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form. Raw forms, however, are not edible and cannot be fully digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and antinutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw forms reported in this table. The nutritional value in the cooked form depends on the cooking method.",
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"plaintext": " Brukina – a Ghanaian name for a drink made of millet and milk",
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"plaintext": " List of insect pests of millets",
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"Cereals",
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"Millet",
"millets"
] |
37,978 | 1,104,890,076 | Totnes | [
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"plaintext": "Totnes ( or ) is a market town and civil parish at the head of the estuary of the River Dart in Devon, England, within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is about west of Paignton, about west-southwest of Torquay and about east-northeast of Plymouth. It is the administrative centre of the South Hams District Council.",
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"plaintext": "Totnes has a long recorded history, dating back to 907, when its first castle was built. By the twelfth century it was already an important market town, and its former wealth and importance may be seen from the number of merchants' houses built in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Today, the town has a sizeable alternative and \"New Age\" community, and is known as a place where one can live a bohemian lifestyle. Two electoral wards mention Totnes (Bridgetown and Town). Their combined populations at the 2011 UK Census was 8,076.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Historia Regum Britanniae written by Geoffrey of Monmouth in around 1136, \"the coast of Totnes\" was where Brutus of Troy, the mythical founder of Britain, first came ashore on the island. Set into the pavement of Fore Street is the 'Brutus Stone', a small granite boulder onto which, according to local legend, Brutus first stepped from his ship. As he did so, he was supposed to have declaimed:Here I stand and here I rest. And this town shall be called Totnes.",
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"plaintext": "The stone is far above the highest tides and the tradition is not likely to be of great antiquity, being first mentioned in John Prince's Worthies of Devon in 1697. It is possible that the stone was originally the one from which the town crier, or bruiter called his bruit or news; or it may be le Brodestone, a boundary stone mentioned in several 15th century disputes: its last-known position in 1471 was below the East Gate.",
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"plaintext": "The Middle English prose Brut () places the fight between Brutus' general Corineus, and the British giant Gogmagog \"at Totttenes\", while Cornish antiquary Richard Carew suggested that the fight may have begun near the town, but ended at Plymouth Hoe. The Historia has several other landings at the Totness coast: the Roman general Vespasian, Constantine of Brittany at the port of Totnes, Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther Pendragon attempting to win back the throne of Britain from the usurper Vortigern, the Saxons at war with King Arthur, and in one version Cadwallo fighting against the Mercians. The Historia also mentions the town in a prophecy of Merlin: \"after [the dragon of Worcester] shall succeed the boar of Totness, and oppress the people with grievous tyranny. Gloucester shall send forth a lion, and shall disturb him in his cruelty, in several battles. He shall trample him under his feet, and terrify him with open jaws.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite this legendary history, the first authenticated history of Totnes is in AD907, when it was fortified by King Edward the Elder as part of the defensive ring of burhs built around Devon, replacing one built a few years earlier at nearby Halwell. The site was chosen because it was on an ancient trackway which forded the river at low tide. Between the reigns of Edgar and William II (959–1100) Totnes intermittently minted coins. Some time between the Norman Conquest and the compilation of the Domesday Book, William the Conqueror granted the burh to Juhel of Totnes, who was probably responsible for the first construction of the castle. Juhel did not retain his lordship for long, however, as he was deprived of his lands in 1088 or 1089, for rebelling against William II.",
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"plaintext": "The name Totnes (first recorded in AD979) comes from the Old English personal name Totta and ness or headland. Before reclamation and development, the low-lying areas around this hill were largely marsh or tidal wetland, giving the hill much more the appearance of a \"ness\" than today.",
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"plaintext": "By the 12th century, Totnes was already an important market town, due to its position on one of the main roads of the South West, in conjunction with its easy access to its hinterland and the easy navigation of the River Dart.",
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"plaintext": "By 1523, according to a tax assessment, Totnes was the second-richest town in Devon, and the sixteenth-richest in England, ahead of Worcester, Gloucester and Lincoln.",
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"plaintext": "In 1553, King Edward VI granted Totnes a charter allowing a former Benedictine priory building that had been founded in 1088 to be used as Totnes Guildhall and a school. In 1624, the Guildhall was converted to be a magistrates' court. Soldiers were billeted here during the English Civil War and Oliver Cromwell visited for discussions with the general and parliamentary commander-in-chief Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron in 1646. Until 1887, the Guildhall was also used as the town prison with the addition of prison cells. It remained a magistrates' court until 1974.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006 Totnes become the first transition town of the transition initiative.",
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"plaintext": "Permaculture designer Rob Hopkins developed this idea with his students and later with Naresh Giangrande developed the transition model in his home town of Totnes, which has since featured in many articles and films showing this concept. Totnes has adopted an Energy Descent Plan, as a response in answer to the twin problems of greenhouse gas emissions and peak oil. As a result of a series of large, well attended public gatherings with key experts from around the world, and the organisation of a number of special interest groups, the community has come together with lecturers and trainers shared with Schumacher College, through a process of participative strategic planning, to hone their skills in project development. As a result of the initiatives in Totnes, a large number of other communities have started \"Transition Town\" projects, and there are now more than 400 around the world, ranging from small communities to whole cities (e.g. Berlin). Totnes hosts the Sea Change Festival that has been running in the town and neighbouring Dartington since 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Totnes' borough charter was granted by King John, probably around 1206; at any rate, the 800th anniversary of the charter was celebrated in 2006, although Totnes lost its borough status in local government reorganisation in 1974. Totnes was served by Totnes electoral borough from 1295 until the reform act of 1867, but was restored by the 1884 Franchise Act. The constituency of Totnes was abolished a second time in 1983, and formed part of the South Hams constituency until 1997, when it was restored as the Totnes county constituency: as such it returns one Member of Parliament (MP) to Parliament.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2009, Totnes became the first constituency to select the Conservative's Prospective Parliamentary Candidate through an open primary that was organised by the local Conservative Association. Dr Sarah Wollaston won the Totnes primary in August 2009, and went on to be elected to Parliament at the 2010 general election. In 2019, she moved to Change UK, and then to the Liberal Democrats, for whom she contested Totnes in the 2019 general election, coming second when the seat reverted to the Conservatives.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Totnes Rural was the only county division in Devon to elect a Green councillor.",
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"plaintext": "Totnes has a mayor who is elected by the sixteen town councillors each year. Follaton House, on the outskirts of the town, is the headquarters of the South Hams District Council. The town is twinned with the French town of Vire, after which Vire Island on the River Dart near the \"Plains\" is named. There is also a local longstanding joke that Totnes is twinned with the fantasy land of Narnia.",
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"plaintext": "The town is built on a hill rising from the west bank of the River Dart, which separates Totnes from the suburb of Bridgetown. It is at the lowest bridging point of the river which here is tidal and forms a winding estuary down to the sea at Dartmouth. The river continues to be tidal for about above the town, until it meets Totnes Weir, built in the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "Emphasising the town's continuing history of boatbuilding, between 1998 and 2001 Pete Goss built his revolutionary but ill-fated 120-foot Team Philips catamaran there.",
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"plaintext": " James Brooke, the first Rajah of Sarawak, spent his final years in nearby Burrator, and Brooke's biographer claims \"there is little doubt ... he was carnally involved with the rough trade of Totnes.\"",
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"plaintext": " Actor and dancer Emrhys Cooper grew up in Totnes.",
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"plaintext": " Historian James Anthony Froude, author of History of England From the fall of cardinal Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, was born in Totnes.",
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"plaintext": " Folk singer-songwriter Ben Howard was brought up and lives in Totnes.",
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"plaintext": " Comic-book artists Jock and Dom Reardon live and work in Totnes.",
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"plaintext": " Keith Law, Songwriter for Velvett Fogg lives in Totnes",
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"plaintext": " Linguist Edward Lye, who wrote the first dictionary of Anglo-Saxon, was born in Totnes.",
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"plaintext": " Rik Mayall previously lived in Totnes, buried on family estate, Hutcherleigh.",
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"plaintext": " Admiral Sir Frederick Thomas Michell KCB (1788–1873) mayor of Totnes 1855 to 1858.",
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"plaintext": " Mike Edwards, former cellist with the Electric Light Orchestra from 1972 to 1975, lived in Totnes in the later years of his life until his death in 2010.",
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"plaintext": " Joseph Mount, a musician who records under the name Metronomy, lived in Totnes for a while.",
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"plaintext": " Playwright Seán O'Casey lived in the town from 1938 to 1954.",
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"plaintext": " John Prince was vicar of Totnes in the late 17th century, was author of The Worthies of Devon, a major biographical work. He was also involved in a scandal, the court records of which were made into a book and stage play in the early 2000s.",
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"plaintext": " Oliver St John represented the town in both the Short and the Long parliaments. One of the outstanding political leaders of the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War. His reputation was made when he acted as lead counsel for John Hampden in the Ship Money case.",
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"plaintext": " William Stumbels, a clockmaker lived and worked in Totnes in the 18th century. (His workshop was possibly at No. 4 Castle Street, within the town walls.) Two of his clocks, a longcase (grandfather) and a turret clock, are displayed in Totnes Museum.",
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"plaintext": " The explorer William John Wills of Burke and Wills expedition fame was born in Totnes. A memorial to Wills was erected using money from public subscriptions in 1864. It can still be seen on the Plains. There were originally two gas lamps attached to the monument, but both have since been removed.",
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37,981 | 1,107,899,156 | La_Liga | [
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"plaintext": "La Liga is one of the most popular professional sports leagues globally, with an average attendance of 26,933 for league matches in the 2018–19 season. This is the eighth-highest of any domestic professional sports league in the world and the third-highest of any professional association football league in the world, behind the Bundesliga and the Premier League, and above the other two so-called \"Big Five\" European leagues, Serie A and Ligue 1. La Liga is also the sixth wealthiest professional sports league in the world by revenue, after the NFL, MLB, the NBA, the Premier League, and the NHL.",
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"plaintext": "The competition format follows the usual double round-robin format. During the course of a season, which lasts from August to May, each club plays every other club twice, once at home and once away, for 38 matches. Teams receive three points for a win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, with the highest-ranked club crowned champion at the end of the season.",
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"plaintext": "A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Primera División and the Segunda División. The three lowest placed teams in La Liga are relegated to the Segunda División, and the top two teams from the Segunda División promoted to La Liga, with an additional club promoted after a series of play-offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. Below is a complete record of how many teams played in each season throughout the league's history;",
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"plaintext": "If points are equal between two or more clubs, the rules are:",
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"plaintext": " If all clubs involved have played each other twice:",
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"plaintext": " If the tie is between two clubs, then the tie is broken using the head-to-head goal difference for those clubs (without away goals rule).",
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"plaintext": " If the tie is between more than two clubs, then the tie is broken using the games the clubs have played against each other:",
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"plaintext": " a) head-to-head points",
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"plaintext": " b) head-to-head goal difference",
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"plaintext": " If two legged games between all clubs involved have not been played, or the tie is not broken by the rules above, it is broken using:",
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"plaintext": " a) total goal difference",
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"plaintext": " b) total goals scored",
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"plaintext": " If the tie is still not broken, the winner will be determined by Fair Play scales. These are:",
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"plaintext": " yellow card, 1 point",
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"plaintext": " doubled yellow card/ejection, 2 points",
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"plaintext": " direct red card, 3 points",
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"plaintext": " suspension or disqualification of coach, executive or other club personnel (outside referees' decisions), 5 points",
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"plaintext": " misconduct of the supporters: mild 5 points, serious 6 points, very serious 7 points",
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"plaintext": " stadium closure, 10 points",
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"plaintext": " if the Competition Committee removes a penalty, the points are also removed",
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"plaintext": " If the tie is still not broken, it will be resolved with a tie-break match in a neutral stadium.",
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"plaintext": "The top four teams in La Liga qualify for the subsequent season's UEFA Champions League group stage. The winners of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League also qualify for the subsequent season's UEFA Champions League group stage. If this means 6 La Liga teams qualify, then the 4th place team in La Liga instead plays in the UEFA Europa League, as any single nation is limited to a maximum of 5 teams.",
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"plaintext": "The 5th place team in La Liga qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Europa League group stage. The winner of the Copa del Rey also qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Europa League group stage, but if the winner also finished in the top 5 places in La Liga, then this place reverts to the team that finished 6th in La Liga. Furthermore, the 6th place (or 7th if 6th already qualifies due to the Copa del Rey) team qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Conference League play-off round.",
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"plaintext": "The number of places allocated to Spanish clubs in UEFA competitions is dependent upon the position a country holds in the UEFA country coefficients, which are calculated based upon the performance of teams in UEFA competitions in the previous five years. As of the end of season 2020–21, the ranking of Spain (and de facto La Liga) is second.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1928, José María Acha, a director at Getxo, first proposed the idea of a national league in Spain. After much debate about the size of the league and who would take part, the Real Federación Española de Fútbol eventually agreed on the ten teams who would form the first Primera División in 1929. Barcelona, Real Madrid, Athletic Club, Real Sociedad, Getxo, and Real Unión were all selected as previous winners of the Copa del Rey. Atlético Madrid, Espanyol, and Europa qualified as Copa del Rey runners-up and Racing de Santander qualified through a knockout competition. Only three of the founding clubs (Real Madrid, Barcelona, and Athletic Club) have never been relegated from the Primera División.",
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"plaintext": "Although Barcelona won the very first Liga in 1929 and Real Madrid won their first titles in 1932 and 1933, it was Athletic Club that set the early pace winning Primera División in 1930, 1931, 1934 and 1936. They were also runners-up in 1932 and 1933. In 1935, Real Betis, then known as Betis Balompié, won their only title to date. Primera División was suspended during the Spanish Civil War.",
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"plaintext": "In 1937, the teams in the Republican area of Spain, with the notable exception of the two Madrid clubs, competed in the Mediterranean League and Barcelona emerged as champions. Seventy years later, on 28 September 2007, Barcelona requested the Royal Spanish Football Federation (Spanish acronym RFEF) to recognise that title as a Liga title. This action was taken after RFEF was asked to recognise Levante FC's Copa de la España Libre win as equivalent to Copa del Rey trophy. Nevertheless, the governing body of Spanish football has not made an outright decision yet.",
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"plaintext": "When the Primera División resumed after the Spanish Civil War, it was Atlético Aviación (nowadays Atlético Madrid), Valencia, and FC Barcelona that emerged as the strongest clubs. Atlético were only awarded a place during the 1939–40 season as a replacement for Real Oviedo, whose ground had been damaged during the war. The club subsequently won its first Liga title and retained it in 1941. While other clubs lost players to exile, execution, and as casualties of the war, the Atlético team was reinforced by a merger. The young, pre-war squad of Valencia had also remained intact and in the post-war years matured into champions, gaining three Liga titles in 1942, 1944, and 1947. They were also runners-up in 1948 and 1949. Sevilla also enjoyed a brief golden era, finishing as runners-up in 1940 and 1942 before winning their only title to date in 1946.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, on the other side of Spain, FC Barcelona began to emerge as a force under the legendary Josep Samitier. A Spanish footballer for both Barcelona and Real Madrid, Samitier cemented his legacy with Barcelona. During his playing career with them, he scored 333 goals, won the inaugural La Liga title and five Copa Del Rey. In 1944, Samitier returned to Barcelona as a coach and guided them in winning their second La Liga title in 1945. Under Samitier and legendary players César Rodríguez, Josep Escolà, Estanislau Basora and Mariano Gonzalvo, Barcelona dominated La Liga in the late 1940s, winning back to back La Liga titles in 1948 and 1949. The 1940s proved to be a successful season for Barcelona, winning three La Liga titles and one Copa Del Rey, but the 1950s proved to be a decade of dominance, not just from Barcelona, but from Real Madrid.",
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"plaintext": "Although Atlético Madrid, previously known as Atlético Aviación, were champions in 1950 and 1951 under catenaccio mastermind Helenio Herrera, the 1950s continued the success FC Barcelona had during the late 1940s after they had won back to back La Liga titles. During this decade, Barcelona's first golden era emerged. Under coach Ferdinand Daučík, FC Barcelona won back-to-back doubles, winning La Liga and Copa Del Rey in 1952 and 1953. In 1952, FC Barcelona made history yet again by winning five distinctive trophies in one year. This team, composed of László Kubala, Mariano Gonzalvo, César Rodríguez and Joan Segarra won La Liga, Copa Del Rey, Copa Eva Duarte (predecessor of Spanish Super Cup), Latin Cup and Copa Martini & Rossi. Their success in winning five trophies in one year earned them the name 'L’equip de les cinc Copes' or The Team of The Five Cups. In the latter parts of the 1950s, coached by Helenio Herrera and featuring Luis Suárez, Barcelona won yet again their third set of back to back La Liga, winning them in 1959 and 1960. In 1959, FC Barcelona also won another double of La Liga / Copa Del Rey, conquering three doubles in the 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "The 1950s also saw the beginning of the Real Madrid dominance. During the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, there were strict limits imposed on foreign players. In most cases, clubs could have only three foreign players in their squads, meaning that at least eight local players had to play in every game. During the 1950s, however, these rules were circumvented by Real Madrid who naturalized Alfredo Di Stéfano and Ferenc Puskás. Di Stéfano, Puskás, Raymond Kopa and Francisco Gento formed the nucleus of the Real Madrid team that dominated the second half of the 1950s. Real Madrid won their third La Liga in 1954 — their first since 1933 — and retained their title in 1955. In 1956, Athletic Club won their sixth La Liga title, but Real Madrid won La Liga again in 1957 and 1958. In addition to their domestic success, Real Madrid dominated the newly created European Cup, sweeping the first five editions and assuming the title of the world's best football club. All in all, Barcelona and Real Madrid won 4 La Liga titles each in the 50s, with Atlético Madrid winning two Liga and Athletic Club winning one during this decade.",
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"plaintext": "Real Madrid dominated La Liga between 1960 and 1980, being crowned champions 14 times. Real Madrid won five La Liga titles in a row from 1961 to 1965 as well as winning three doubles between 1960 and 1980. During the 1960s and 1970s, only Atlético Madrid offered Real Madrid any serious challenge. Atlético Madrid were crowned La Liga champions four times in 1966, 1970, 1973, and 1977. Atlético Madrid also finished second place in 1961, 1963, and 1965. In 1971, Valencia won their fourth La Liga title in 1971 under Alfredo Di Stéfano, and the Johan Cruyff-inspired Barcelona won their ninth La Liga in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Real Madrid's monopoly in La Liga was interrupted significantly in the 1980s. Although Real Madrid won another five La Liga titles in a row from 1986 to 1990 under the brilliance of Emilio Butragueño and Hugo Sánchez, the Basque clubs of Real Sociedad and Athletic Club also dominated the 1980s. Real Sociedad won back-to-back La Liga titles in 1981 and 1982, after leaving Real Madrid runner-up both times. Their title wins were followed by fellow Basque club Athletic Club, who won back-to-back titles in 1983 and 1984, with Athletic Club winning their fifth La Liga and Copa Del Rey double in 1984. Barcelona won their tenth La Liga title in 1985 under coach Terry Venables, their first La Liga win since 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Johan Cruyff returned to Barcelona as manager in 1988, and assembled the legendary Dream Team. When Cruyff took hold of this Barcelona side they had won only two La Liga titles in the past 20 years. Cruyff decided to build a team composed of international stars and La Masia graduates in order to restore Barcelona to their former glorious days. This team was formed by international stars Romario, Michael Laudrup, Hristo Stoichkov and Ronald Koeman. Cruyff's Dream Team also consisted of La Masia graduates Pep Guardiola, Albert Ferrer, and Guillermo Amor, as well as Spaniard Andoni Zubizarreta.",
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"plaintext": "Johan Cruyff changed the way modern football was played, and incorporated the principles of ‘Total Football’ into this team. The success of possession-based football was revolutionary, and Cruyff's team won their first European Cup in 1992 and four consecutive La Liga titles between 1991 and 1994. In total, Cruyff won 11 trophies in eight years, making him the most successful manager in Barcelona's history until the record was broken by his protégé Pep Guardiola two decades later.",
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"plaintext": "Barcelona's run ended with Real Madrid winning La Liga in 1995. Atlético Madrid won their ninth La Liga title in 1996, as well as their only Liga/Copa Del Rey double, before Real Madrid added another Liga to their cabinet in 1997. After the success of Cruyff, another Dutchman – Ajax manager, Louis van Gaal – arrived at the Camp Nou, and with the talents of Luís Figo, Luis Enrique, and Rivaldo, Barcelona won the La Liga title in 1998 and 1999, including their fourth double of Liga and Copa Del Rey in 1998. All in all, Barcelona won six La Liga titles in the 1990s and continued their success throughout the 2000s.",
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"plaintext": "The 21st Century has continued the success FC Barcelona had in the 1990s under Johan Cruyff, dominating La Liga. Although Real Madrid have been prominent, Barcelona have created a hegemony in Spain not seen since the Real Madrid of the 1960s-1970s. Since the start of the new century, Barcelona have won 10 La Ligas, including two trebles and four doubles. This new century however has also seen new challengers being crowned champions. Between 1999–2000 and 2004, Deportivo La Coruña finished in the top three on five occasions, a better record than either Real Madrid or Barcelona, and in 2000, under Javier Irureta, Deportivo became the ninth team to be crowned champions. Valencia were one of the strongest teams in Europe in the early to mid 2000s; they were crowned La Liga champions in 2002 and 2004 under Rafael Benítez. Whilst, also being runners-up in the UEFA Champions League in 2000 and 2001 under Hector Cuper, whilst winning the UEFA Cup in 2004 and the Copa del Rey in 1999.",
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"plaintext": "20 teams contest the league in its current season, including the top 17 sides from the 2020–21 season and three promoted from the 2020–21 Segunda División. Espanyol and Mallorca were promoted directly, and Rayo Vallecano won the promotion play-off.",
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"plaintext": "The Primera División is currently second in the UEFA rankings of European leagues based on their performances in European competitions over a five-year period, behind England's Premier League, but ahead of Italy's Serie A and Germany's Bundesliga.",
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"plaintext": "Real Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia have been in the top ten most successful clubs in European football in terms of total European trophies. These three clubs, along with Sevilla and Atlético Madrid, are five of the most successful teams in European competition history; these five are the only Spanish clubs to have won five or more international trophies. Deportivo La Coruña are the joint fifth-most participating Spanish team in the Champions League with Sevilla — after Real Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, and Atlético Madrid — with five Champions League appearances in a row, including a semifinal appearance in 2003–04.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005–06, Barcelona won the Champions League and Sevilla won the UEFA Cup, making La Liga the first league to do the European \"double\" since 1997. This feat was repeated in 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2018. On 25 August 2015, La Liga became the first league to qualify five teams for the UEFA Champions League group stage (Atlético Madrid, Barcelona, Real Madrid, Sevilla and Valencia).",
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"plaintext": "In La Liga in 2020, each club is allowed five non-EU players but are only allowed to name three non-EU players in each matchday squad.",
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"plaintext": "Players can claim citizenship from the nation their ancestors came from. If a player does not have European ancestry, he can claim Spanish citizenship after playing in Spain for five years. Sometimes, this can lead to a triple-citizenship situation; for example, Leo Franco, who was born in Argentina, is of Italian heritage yet can claim a Spanish passport, having played in La Liga for over five years.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, players from the ACP countries—countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement—are not counted against non-EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling.",
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"plaintext": "Until the 2008–09 season, no official individual awards existed in La Liga. In the 2008–09 season, the governing body created the LFP Awards (now called La Liga Awards), awarded each season to individual players and coaches. Additional awards relating to La Liga are distributed, some not sanctioned by the Liga de Futbol Profesional or RFEF and therefore not regarded as official. The most notable of these are four awarded by Spain's largest sports paper, Marca, namely the Pichichi Trophy, awarded to the top scorer of the season; the Ricardo Zamora Trophy, for the goalkeeper with the fewest goals allowed per game (minimum 28 games); the Alfredo Di Stéfano Trophy, for the player judged to be the best overall player in the division; and the Zarra Trophy, for the top scorer among Spanish domestic players.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 2013–14 season, La Liga has also bestowed the monthly manager of the month and player of the month awards.",
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"plaintext": "The first La Liga player to be involved in a transfer which broke the world record was Luis Suárez in 1961, who moved from Barcelona to Inter Milan for £152,000 (£million in ). 12 years later, Johan Cruyff was the first player to join a club in La Liga for a record fee of £922,000 (£million in ), when he moved from Ajax to Barcelona. In 1982, Barcelona again set the record by signing Diego Maradona from Boca Juniors for £5 million (£million in ). Real Betis set the world record in 1998 when they signed Denílson from São Paulo for £21.5 million (£million in ).",
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"plaintext": "Four of the last six world transfer records have been set by Real Madrid, signing Luís Figo, Zinedine Zidane, Cristiano Ronaldo (plus a deal for Kaká days before Ronaldo which fell just below a world record due to the way the fee was calculated) and finally Gareth Bale, who was bought in 2013 for £85.3m (€103.4m or $140m at the time; £m in ) from Tottenham Hotspur.",
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"plaintext": "Brazilian forward Neymar was the subject of an expensive and complicated transfer arrangement when he joined Barcelona from Santos in 2013, and his outgoing transfer to Paris Saint-Germain in 2017 set a new world record fee at €222m via his buyout clause. Barcelona soon invested a large amount of the money received from this transfer in a replacement, Ousmane Dembélé, whose deal – €105m – was the second most expensive ever before Philippe Coutinho's transfer to Barcelona for €142m in January 2018.",
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37,983 | 1,083,603,920 | Typex | [
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"plaintext": "Of the five rotors, typically the first two were stationary. These provided additional enciphering without adding complexity to the rotor turning mechanisms. Their purpose was similar to the plugboard in the Enigmas, offering additional randomization that could be easily changed. Unlike Enigma's plugboard, however, the wiring of those two rotors could not be easily changed day-to-day. Plugboards were added to later versions of Typex.",
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"plaintext": "The major improvement the Typex had over the standard Enigma was that the rotors in the machine contained multiple notches that would turn the neighbouring rotor. This eliminated an entire class of attacks on the system, whereas Enigma's fixed notches resulted in certain patterns appearing in the cyphertext that could be seen under certain circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Some Typex rotors came in two parts, where a slug containing the wiring was inserted into a metal casing. Different casings contained different numbers of notches around the rim, such as 5, 7 or 9 notches. Each slug could be inserted into a casing in two different ways by turning it over. In use, all the rotors of the machine would use casings with the same number of notches. Normally five slugs were chosen from a set of ten.",
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"plaintext": "In particular, the letters/figures cam-cluster balata discs had to be kept lubricated.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1920s, the British Government was seeking a replacement for its book cipher systems, which had been shown to be insecure and which proved to be slow and awkward to use. In 1926, an inter-departmental committee was formed to consider whether they could be replaced with cipher machines. Over a period of several years and at large expense, the committee investigated a number of options but no proposal was decided upon. One suggestion was put forward by Wing Commander Oswyn G. W. G. Lywood to adapt the commercial Enigma by adding a printing unit but the committee decided against pursuing Lywood's proposal.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1934, Lywood began work on a machine authorised by the RAF. Lywood worked with J. C. Coulson, Albert P. Lemmon, and Ernest W. Smith at Kidbrooke in Greenwich, with the printing unit provided by Creed & Company. The first prototype was delivered to the Air Ministry on 30 April 1935. In early 1937, around 30 Typex Mark I machines were supplied to the RAF. The machine was initially termed the \"RAF Enigma with Type X attachments\".",
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"plaintext": "The design of its successor had begun by February 1937. In June 1938, Typex Mark II was demonstrated to the cipher-machine committee, who approved an order of 350 machines. The Mark II model was bulky, incorporating two printers: one for plaintext and one for ciphertext. As a result, it was significantly larger than the Enigma, weighing around , and measuring × × . After trials, the machine was adopted by the RAF, Army and other government departments. During World War II, a large number of Typex machines were manufactured by the tabulating machine manufacturer Powers-Samas.",
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"plaintext": "Typex Mark III was a more portable variant, using the same drums as the Mark II machines powered by turning a handle (it was also possible to attach a motor drive). The maximum operating speed is around 60 letters a minute, significantly slower than the 300 achievable with the Mark II.",
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"plaintext": "Typex Mark VI was another handle-operated variant, measuring × ×, weighing and consisting of over 700 components.",
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"plaintext": "Plugboards for the reflector were added to the machine from November 1941.",
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"plaintext": "For inter-Allied communications during World War II, the Combined Cipher Machine (CCM) was developed, used in the Royal Navy from November 1943. The CCM was implemented by making modifications to Typex and the United States ECM Mark II machine so that they would be compatible.",
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"plaintext": "Typex 22 (BID/08/2) and Typex 23 (BID/08/3) were late models, that incorporated plugboards for improved security. Mark 23 was a Mark 22 modified for use with the CCM. In New Zealand, Typex Mark II and Mark III were superseded by Mark 22 and Mark 23 on 1 January 1950. The Royal; Air Force used a combination of the Creed Teleprinter and Typex until 1960. This amalgamation allowed a single operator to use punch tape and printouts for both sending and receiving encrypted material.",
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"plaintext": "Less than a year into the war, the Germans could read all British military encryption other than Typex, which was used by the British armed forces and by Commonwealth countries including Australia, Canada and New Zealand. The Royal Navy decided to adopt the RAF Type X Mark II in 1940 after trials; eight stations already had Type X machines. Eventually over 600 machines would be required. New Zealand initially got two machines at a cost of £115 (GBP) each for Auckland and Wellington.",
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"plaintext": "From 1943 the Americans and the British agreed upon a Combined Cipher Machine (CCM). The British Typex and American ECM Mark II could be adapted to become interoperable. While the British showed Typex to the Americans, the Americans never permitted the British to see the ECM, which was a more complex design. Instead, attachments were built for both that allowed them to read messages created on the other.",
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"plaintext": "In 1944 the Admiralty decided to supply 2 CCM Mark III machines (the Typex Mark II with adaptors for the American CCM) for each \"major\" war vessel down to and including corvettes but not submarines; RNZN vessels were the Achilles, Arabis (then out of action), Arbutus, Gambia and Matua.",
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"plaintext": "Although a British test cryptanalytic attack made considerable progress, the results were not as significant as against the Enigma, due to the increased complexity of the system and the low levels of traffic.",
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"plaintext": "A Typex machine without rotors was captured by German forces at Dunkirk during the Battle of France and more than one German cryptanalytic section proposed attempting to crack Typex; however, the B-Dienst codebreaking organisation gave up on it after six weeks, when further time and personnel for such attempts were refused.",
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"plaintext": "One German cryptanalyst stated that the Typex was more secure than the Enigma since it had seven rotors, therefore no major effort was made to crack Typex messages as they believed that even the Enigma's messages were unbreakable.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Typex has been attributed as having good security, the historic record is much less clear. There was an ongoing investigation into Typex security that arose out of German POWs in North Africa claiming that Typex traffic was decipherable.",
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"plaintext": "A brief excerpt from the report",
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"plaintext": "<blockquote><poem>TOP SECRET U [ZIP/SAC/G.34]",
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"plaintext": "THE POSSIBLE EXPLOITATION OF TYPEX BY THE GERMAN SIGINT SERVICES",
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"plaintext": "The following is a summary of information so far received on German attempts to break into the British Typex machine, based on P/W interrogations carried out during and subsequent to the war. It is divided into (a) the North African interrogations, (b) information gathered after the end of the war, and (c) an attempt to sum up the evidence for and against the possibility of German successes.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from an unconfirmed report from an agent in France on 19 July 1942 to the effect that the GAF were using two British machines captured at DUNKIRK for passing their own traffic between BERLIN and GOLDAP, our evidence during the war was based on reports that OKH was exploiting Typex material left behind in TOBRUK in 1942.</poem></blockquote>",
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"plaintext": "Typex machines continued in use long after World War II. The New Zealand military used TypeX machines until the early 1970s, disposing of its last machine in about 1973.",
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"plaintext": "All the versions of the Typex had advantages over the German military versions of the Enigma machine. The German equivalent teleprinter machines in World War II (used by higher-level but not field units) were the Lorenz SZ 40/42 and Siemens and Halske T52 using Fish cyphers.",
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"plaintext": " Most versions of the Enigma required two operators to operate effectively—one operator to input text into the Enigma and the other to copy down the enciphered or deciphered characters—Typex required just one operator.",
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"plaintext": " Typex avoided operator copying errors, as the enciphered or deciphered text was automatically printed on paper tape.",
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"plaintext": " Unlike Enigma, Typex I machines were linked to teleprinters while Typex II machines could be if required.",
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"plaintext": " Enigma messages had to be written, enciphered, transmitted (by Morse), received, deciphered, and written again, while Typex messages were typed and automatically enciphered and transmitted all in one step, with the reverse also true.",
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"plaintext": " Cryptanalysis of the Enigma",
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"plaintext": "Mercury (Typex Mark X)—a Typex descendant used for on-line traffic.",
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"plaintext": " Martin Campbell-Kelly, ICL: A Business and Technical History, Oxford University Press, 1990.",
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"plaintext": " Dorothy Clarkson, \"Cypher Machines: Maintenance and Restoration Spanning Sixty Years\", Cryptologia, 27(3), July 2003, pp.209–212.",
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"plaintext": " Cipher A. Deavours and Louis Kruh, \"Machine Cryptography and Modern Cryptanalysis\", Artech House, 1985, pp.144–145; 148–150.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph Erskine, \"The Admiralty and Cipher Machines During the Second World War: Not So Stupid after All\". Journal of Intelligence History 2(2) (Winter 2002).",
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"plaintext": " Ralph Erskine, \"The Development of Typex\", The Enigma Bulletin'' 2 (1997): pp.69–86",
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"plaintext": " Kruh and Deavours, \"The Typex Cryptograph\" Cryptologia 7(2), pp.145–167, 1983",
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"plaintext": " Eric Morgon, \"The History of Communications Security in New Zealand\", Part 1 (PDF).Possibly related page as html",
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"plaintext": " A series of photographs of a Typex Mk III",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jerry Proc's page on Typex",
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},
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"plaintext": " Typex graphical simulator for Microsoft Windows",
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"plaintext": " Virtual Typex online simulator",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Crypto Museum page on Typex",
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232
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{
"plaintext": "In 1933, with passage of the National Guard Mobilization Act, Congress finalized the split between the National Guard and the traditional state militias by mandating that all federally funded soldiers take a dual enlistment/commission and thus enter both the state National Guard and the National Guard of the United States, a newly created federal reserve force. The National Defense Act of 1947 created the Air Force as a separate branch of the Armed Forces and concurrently created the Air National Guard of the United States as one of its reserve components, mirroring the Army's structure.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Origins",
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"plaintext": "The National Guard of the several states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first line of defense for the United States. The state National Guard is organized into units stationed in each of the 50 states, three territories, and the District of Columbia, and operates under their respective state or territorial governor, except in the instance of Washington, D.C., where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee. The governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for active duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Organization",
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"plaintext": "The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army and Air Force under the DoD. The National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. The National Guard Bureau also provides policies and requirements for training and funds for state Army National Guard and state Air National Guard units, the allocation of federal funds to the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard, and other administrative responsibilities prescribed under . The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau (CNGB), who is a four-star general in the Army or Air Force and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.",
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"section_name": "Organization",
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"plaintext": "The National Guard Bureau is headquartered in Arlington County, Virginia, and is a joint activity of the Department of Defense to conduct all the administrative matters pertaining to the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. The chief is either an Army or an Air Force four-star general officer, and is the senior uniformed National Guard officer, and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In this capacity, he serves as a military adviser to the President, the Secretary of Defense, the National Security Council and is the Department of Defense's official channel of communication to the Governors and to State Adjutants General on all matters pertaining to the National Guard. He is responsible for ensuring that the more than half a million Army and Air National Guard personnel are accessible, capable, and ready to protect the homeland and to provide combat resources to the Army and the Air Force. He is appointed by the President in his capacity as Commander in Chief.",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "The respective state National Guards are authorized by the Constitution of the United States. As originally drafted, the Constitution recognized the existing state militias, and gave them vital roles to fill: \"to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasion.\" (Article I, Section 8, Clause 15). The Constitution distinguished \"militias,\" which were state entities, from \"Troops,\" which were unlawful for states to maintain without Congressional approval. (Article I, Section 10, Clause 3). Under current law, the respective state National Guards and the State Defense Forces are authorized by Congress to the states and are referred to as \"troops.\" .",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Organization",
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"plaintext": "Although originally state entities, the Constitutional \"Militia of the Several States\" were not entirely independent because they could be federalized. According to Article I, Section 8; Clause 15, the United States Congress is given the power to pass laws for \"calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions.\" Congress is also empowered to come up with the guidelines \"for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress\" (clause 16). The President of the United States is the commander-in-chief of the state militias \"when called into the actual Service of the United States.\" (Article II, Section 2).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Organization",
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"plaintext": "The traditional state militias were redefined and recreated as the \"organized militia\"—the National Guard, via the Militia Act of 1903. They were now subject to an increasing amount of federal control, including having arms and accoutrements supplied by the central government, federal funding, and numerous closer ties to the Regular Army.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Organization",
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"plaintext": "Both the Army National Guard and Air National Guard are expected to adhere to the same moral and physical standards as their \"full-time\" active duty and \"part-time\" reserve federal counterparts. The same ranks and insignia of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force are used by the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard, respectively, and National Guard members are eligible to receive all United States military awards. The respective state National Guards also bestow state awards for services rendered both at home and abroad. Under Army and Air Force regulations, these awards may be worn while in state, but not federal, duty status. Regular Army and Army Reserve soldiers are also authorized to accept these awards, but are not authorized to wear them. ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Standards",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": "Many states also maintain their own state defense forces. Although not federal entities like the National Guard of the United States, these forces are components of the state militias like the individual state National Guards.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Other organizations",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": "These forces were created by Congress in 1917 as a result of the state National Guards' being deployed and were known as Home Guards. In 1940, with the onset of World War II and as a result of its federalizing the National Guard, Congress amended the National Defense Act of 1916, and authorized the states to maintain \"military forces other than National Guard.\" This law authorized the War Department to train and arm the new military forces that became known as State Guards. In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and at the urging of the National Guard, Congress reauthorized the separate state military forces for a time period of two years. These state military forces were authorized military training at federal expense, and \"arms, ammunition, clothing, and equipment,\" as deemed necessary by the Secretary of the Army. In 1956, Congress finally revised the law and authorized \"State defense forces\" permanently under Title 32, Section 109, of the United States Code.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Other organizations",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": "Although there are no Naval or Marine Corps components of the National Guard of the United States, there is a Naval Militia authorized under federal law.. Like the soldiers and airmen in the National Guard of the United States, members of the Naval Militia are authorized federal appointments or enlistments at the discretion of the Secretary of the Navy.. To receive federal funding and equipment, a state naval militia must be composed of at least 95% of Navy, Coast Guard, or Marine Corps Reservists. As such, some states maintain such units. Some states also maintain naval components of their State Defense Force. Recently, Alaska, California, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina, Texas and Ohio have had or currently maintain naval militias. Other states have laws authorizing them but do not currently have them organized. To receive federal funding, as is the case in the National Guard, a state must meet specific requirements such as having a set percentage of its members in the federal reserves..",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Other organizations",
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[
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[
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[
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]
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{
"plaintext": "National Guard units can be mobilized for federal active duty to supplement regular armed forces during times of war or national emergency declared by Congress, the President or the Secretary of Defense. They can also be activated for service in their respective states upon declaration of a state of emergency by the governor of the state or territory where they serve, or in the case of Washington, D.C., by the Commanding General. Unlike U.S. Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, except through voluntary transfers and Temporary Duty Assignments (TDY). The types of activation are as follows:",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Duties and administrative organization",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The term \"activated\" simply means that a unit or individual of the reserve components has been placed on orders. The purpose and authority for that activation determine limitations and duration of the activation. The Army and Air National Guard may be activated in a number of ways as prescribed by public law. Broadly, under federal law, there are two titles in the United States Code under which units and troops may be activated: as federal soldiers or airmen under Title 10 (\"Armed Forces\") and as state soldiers or airmen performing a federally-funded mission under Title 32 (\"National Guard\"). Outside federal activation, the Army and Air National Guard may be activated under state law. This is known as state active duty (SAD).",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "When National Guard units are not under federal control, the governor is the commander-in-chief of the units of his or her respective state or territory (such as Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands). The President of the United States commands the District of Columbia National Guard, though this command is routinely delegated to the Commanding General of the DC National Guard. States are free to employ their National Guard forces under state control for state purposes and at state expense as provided in the state's constitution and statutes. In doing so, governors, as commanders-in-chief, can directly access and utilize the Guard's federally assigned aircraft, vehicles and other equipment so long as the federal government is reimbursed for the use of fungible equipment and supplies such as fuel, food stocks, etc. This is the authority under which governors activate and deploy National Guard forces in response to natural disasters. It is also the authority under which governors deploy National Guard forces in response to man-made emergencies such as riots and civil unrest, or terrorist attacks.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " The Governor can activate National Guard personnel to \"State Active Duty\" in response to natural or man-made disasters or Homeland Defense missions. State Active Duty is based on State statute and policy and on State funds. Soldiers and Airmen remain under the command and control of the Governor. The federal Posse Comitatus Act (PCA) does not apply under state active duty status or Title 32 status.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " Title 32 Full-Time National Guard Duty. (Federally funded, but command and control remains with the State Governor through his Adjutant General.) Title 32 activation can only be done by the President or SECDEF with the approval and consent of the state Governor.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Title 10 service means full-time duty in the active military service of the United States. The term used is federalized. Federalized National Guard forces have been ordered, by the President to active duty either in their reserve component status or by calling them into Federal service in their militia status.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "There are several forms:",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Voluntary Order to Active Duty.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Federalized with the soldier's or airman's consent and the consent of their Governor.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Partial Mobilization.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In time of national emergency declared by the President for any unit or any member for not more than 24 consecutive months.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Presidential Reserve Call Up.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "When the President determines that it is necessary to augment the active forces for any operational mission for any unit or any member for not more than 270 days.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Federal Aid for State Governments.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Whenever an insurrection occurs in any state against its government, the President may, upon the request of its legislature or of its governor call into Federal service such of the militia of the other states. This is a statutory exception to the PCA",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Use of Militia and Armed Forces to Enforce Federal Authority.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Whenever the President considers that unlawful obstructions, assemblages, or rebellion make it impracticable to enforce the laws of the United States in any state or territory, he may call into Federal service such of the militia of any state. This is another statutory exception to the PCA.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Interference with State and Federal law.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The President, by using the militia or the armed forces, or both, or by any other means, shall take such measures as he considers necessary to suppress, in a state, any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Air and Army National Guard.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Air and Army National Guard can specifically be called into Federal service in case of invasion, rebellion, or inability to execute Federal law with active forces.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In the categories listed above, Army and Air National Guard units or individuals may also be mobilized for non-combat purposes such as the State Partnership Program, humanitarian missions, counter-drug operations, and peacekeeping or peace enforcement missions.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "National Guard active duty character",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "On December 13, 1636, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ordered that the Colony's scattered militia companies be organized into North, South and East Regiments—with the goal of increasing accountability to the colonial government and responsiveness during conflicts with indigenous Pequot Indians. Under this act, white males between the ages of 16 and 60 were obligated to possess arms and to take part in the defense of their communities by serving in nightly guard details and participating in weekly drills. The modern-day 101st Field Artillery Regiment, 182nd Infantry Regiment, 101st Engineer Battalion and 181st Infantry Regiment of the Massachusetts Army National Guard are directly descended from the original colonial regiments formed in 1636.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Massachusetts militia began the American Revolutionary War at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, The Massachusetts militia units were mobilized either during or shortly after the above battles and used to form, along with units from Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire, the Army of Observation during the Siege of Boston. On July 3, 1775 General George Washington, under the authority of the Continental Congress, assumed command of the Army of Observation and the new organization became the Continental Army from which the United States Army traces its origins.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Throughout the war, militia units were mobilized when British forces entered their geographic areas and participated in most of the battles fought during the war.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The early United States distrusted a standing army - in emulation of a long standing British distrust - and kept the number of professional soldiers small. During the Northwest Indian War, the majority of soldiers were provided by state militias. There are nineteen Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Marquis de Lafayette visited the U.S. in 1824–25. The 2nd Battalion, 11th New York Artillery, was one of many militia commands who turned out in welcome. This unit decided to adopt the title \"National Guard,\" in honor of Lafayette's French National Guard. The Battalion, later the 7th Regiment, was prominent in the line of march on the occasion of Lafayette's final passage through New York en route home to France. Taking note of the troops named for his old command, Lafayette alighted from his carriage, walked down the line, clasping each officer by the hand as he passed.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
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"plaintext": "Militia units provided 70% of the soldiers that fought in the Mexican–American War, and also provided the majority of soldiers in the early months of the American Civil War The majority of soldiers in the Spanish–American War were from the National Guard.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Labor unrest in the industrial and mining sections of the Northeast and Midwest led to demands for a stronger military force within the states. ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "On July 14, 1877, workers on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) began to stop trains in Martinsburg, West Virginia in response to wage cuts. This protest developed into the national Great Railroad Strike of 1877. West Virginia governor Henry M. Mathews was the first state commander-in-chief to send in troops to break-up the protests, and this action has been viewed in retrospect as an incident that would transform the National Guard.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
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{
"plaintext": "After the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, calls for military suppression of labor strikes grew louder, and National Guard units proliferated. In many states, large and elaborate armories, often built to resemble medieval castles, were constructed to house militia units. Businessmen and business associations donated monies for the construction of armories and to supplement funds of the local National Guard units. National Guard officers also came from the middle and upper classes.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "National Guard troops were deployed to suppress strikers in some of the bloodiest and most significant conflicts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the Homestead Strike, the Pullman Strike of 1894, and the Colorado Labor Wars.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "History",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 19th century the Regular U.S. Army was small, and the state militias provided the majority of the troops during the Mexican–American War, the American Civil War, and the Spanish–American War. With the Militia Act of 1903, the militia was more organized and the name \"National Guard\" recommended. In 1908, the prohibition on National Guard units serving overseas was dropped. This resulted in constitutional debates within the U.S. government surrounding the legality of the use of the National Guard overseas, culminating in 1912 when U.S. Attorney General George W. Wickersham declared the 1908 amendment to be unconstitutional. The National Defense Act of 1916 contained a provision whereby the president could discharge National Guard members from the militia and draft them into the Army in the event of a war, allowing for their use overseas. This resulted in former National Guard members being discharged from the Army entirely (also losing their status as state troops) when they left service, so the 1920 amendments to the act defined the National Guard's dual role as a state and federal reserve force; the \"National Guard while in the service of the United States\" as a component of the Army of the United States could be ordered to active duty by the president, be deployed overseas if they so wished, and the Guardsmen would then revert to their status as state troops. The dual state and federal status proved confusing, so in 1933, the National Defense Act of 1916 was amended again. It finally severed the National Guard's traditional connection with the militia clause of the Constitution, providing for a new component called the \"National Guard of the United States\" that was to be a reserve component of the Army of the United States at all times. This is the beginning of the present legal basis of the National Guard. In World War I, National Guard soldiers made up 40 percent of the men in U.S. combat divisions in France. In World War II, the National Guard made up 18 divisions. One hundred forty thousand Guardsmen were mobilized during the Korean War and over 63,000 for Operation Desert Storm. They have also participated in U.S. peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Haiti, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bosnia, and Kosovo and for natural disasters, strikes, riots and security for the Olympic Games when they have been in the States.",
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{
"plaintext": "Following World War II, the National Guard aviation units that had previously been part of the U.S. Army Air Corps and its successor organization, the U.S. Army Air Forces, became the Air National Guard (ANG), one of two reserve components of the newly established United States Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "On September 24, 1957 President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the entire Arkansas National Guard to ensure the safe entry of the Little Rock Nine to Little Rock Central High School the following day. Governor Orval Faubus had previously used members of the guard to deny the students entry to the school.",
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"plaintext": "The New York National Guard were ordered by Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller to respond to the Rochester 1964 race riot in July of that year. The California Army National Guard were mobilized by the Governor of California Edmund Gerald Brown, Sr. during the Watts Riots, in August 1965, to provide security and help restore order.",
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"plaintext": "Elements of the Ohio Army National Guard were ordered to Kent State University by Ohio's governor Jim Rhodes to quell anti-Vietnam War protests, culminating in their shooting into a crowd of students on May 4, 1970, killing four and injuring nine. The massacre was followed by the Student strike of 1970.",
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"plaintext": "During the Vietnam War, service in the National Guard was highly sought after, as an enlistment in the Guard generally prevented a person from being sent to combat; only a handful of Guard units were ever deployed to Vietnam. In 1968, the National Guard had only 1.26% Black soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "During the Vietnam War, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara created the Selective Reserve Force (SRF) in October 1965. Since funding was not available to train and equip the entire National Guard adequately, the SRF would be a core group of 150,000 National Guardsmen available and ready for immediate overseas deployment if needed. SRF units were supposed to be authorized at 100% strength, receive priority training funds and modern equipment, and have more training and do 58 hours of drills of four hours each a year rather than the standard 48 hours of drills.",
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"plaintext": "The 2nd Battalion 138th Field Artillery of the Kentucky Army National Guard was ordered to service in Vietnam in late 1968. The unit served in support of the regular 101st Airborne Division. The Battalion's C Battery lost nine men killed and thirty-two wounded when North Vietnamese troops overran Fire Base Tomahawk on June 19, 1969.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1980s, the governors of California and Maine refused to allow deployment of their states' National Guard units to Central America. In 1986, Congress passed the Montgomery Amendment, which prohibited state governors from withholding their consent. In 1990, the Supreme Court ruled against the governor of Minnesota, who had sued over the deployment of the state's National Guard units to Central America.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1992 Los Angeles Riots, when portions of south central Los Angeles erupted in chaos, overwhelming the Los Angeles Police Department's ability to contain the violence, the California Army National Guard and selected units of the California Air National Guard was mobilized to help restore order. The National Guard were attributed with five shootings of people suspected of violating the curfew order placed on the city.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1993 Waco siege of the Branch Davidians, elements of the Alabama and Texas Army National Guard were called in to assist the ATF and the follow on effort by the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the National Guard's involvement was limited to several specific areas; surveillance and reconnaissance, transport, maintenance and repairs, training and instruction, helicopters, unarmed tactical ground vehicles. The Army National Guard helicopters were also used to do photographic reconnaissance work. Training for ATF agents included such subjects as Close Quarters Combat, and combat medical instruction, and a mock up of the Mount Carmel complex was constructed at Fort Hood, Texas for rehearsals. ATF also received several surplus helmets, flack vests, canteens, first aid dressings, empty magazines, and some night-vision equipment, in addition to MREs and diesel fuel. The FBI would request and receive the use of Bradley Armored Fighting Vehicles, and tank retrieval vehicles, as well as overflights by UH-1 and CH-47 helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the Bottom Up Review and post-Cold War force cutbacks, the Army National Guard maneuver force was reduced to eight divisions (from ten; the 26th Infantry and 50th Armored were consolidated in the northeastern states) and fifteen 'enhanced brigades,' which were supposed to be ready for combat operations, augmenting the active force, within 90 days.",
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"plaintext": "National Guard units played a major role in providing security and assisting recovery efforts in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks in 2001 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, National Guard members and reservists were said to comprise a larger percentage of frontline fighting forces than in any war in U.S. history (about 43 percent in Iraq and 55 percent in Afghanistan). There were more than 183,366 National Guard members and reservists on active duty nationwide who left behind about 300,000 dependents, according to U.S. Defense Department statistics. In 2011, Army Chief of Staff Gen. George W. Casey, Jr. stated that \"Every Guard brigade has deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan, and over 300,000 Guardsmen have deployed in this war.\"",
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"plaintext": "In January and February 2007, National Guard troops from 8 states were activated to go help shovel snow, drop hay for starving cattle, deliver food and necessities to stranded people in their houses, and help control traffic and rescue stranded motorists in blizzards dropping feet of snow across the country.",
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"plaintext": "In the first quarter of 2007, United States Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates announced changes to the Guard deployment policy aimed at shorter and more predictable deployments for National Guard troops. \"Gates said his goal is for Guard members to serve a one-year deployment no more than every five years... Gates is imposing a one-year limit to the length of deployment for National Guard Soldiers, effective immediately.\" Prior to this time, Guard troops deployed for a standard one-year deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan would serve for 18 or more months including training and transit time. During the transition to the new policy for all troops in the pipeline, deployed or soon to be deployed, some will face deployments faster than every five years. \"The one-to-five year cycle does not include activations for state emergencies.\"",
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"plaintext": "Prior to the attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, the National Guard's general policy regarding mobilization was that Guardsmen would be required to serve no more than one year cumulative on active duty (with no more than six months overseas) for each five years of regular drill. Due to strains placed on active duty units following the attacks, the possible mobilization time was increased to 18 months (with no more than one year overseas). Additional strains placed on military units as a result of the invasion of Iraq further increased the amount of time a Guardsman could be mobilized to 24 months. Current Department of Defense policy is that no Guardsman is involuntarily activated for more than 24 months (cumulative) in one six-year enlistment period.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, most National Guard personnel serve \"One weekend a month, two weeks a year\", although personnel in highly operational or high demand units serve far more frequently. Typical examples are pilots, navigators and aircrewmen in active flying assignments, primarily in the Air National Guard, and to a lesser extent in the Army National Guard, and special operations airmen and soldiers in both. A significant number also serve in a full-time capacity in roles such as Active Guard and Reserve (AGR) or Air Reserve Technician or Army Reserve Technician (ART).",
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"plaintext": "The \"One weekend a month, two weeks a year\" slogan has lost most of its relevance since the Iraq War, when nearly 28% of total US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan at the end of 2007 consisted of mobilized personnel of the National Guard and other Reserve components. In July 2012, the Army's top general stated his intention to increase the annual drill requirement from two weeks per year to up to seven weeks per year.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. Today, ADTs bring \"an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan.\" These teams are not only affiliated with the military, they frequently work across agencies, for example with USAID and the Department of State. ADTs provide education and expertise on the ground, while also providing security and order that is traditionally affiliated with the military. These teams have been essential to the counterinsurgency efforts in Afghanistan as a public diplomacy tool to build relations with the local people in the tribes and provinces of the country.",
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"plaintext": "ADTs provide classroom instruction and teachings to Afghans about how to improve their farming practices during non-seasonal growing months, which allows the farmers to use skills in the winter to prepare for farming in the summer and fall. This enhances agricultural production and the Afghan economy as a whole. Agricultural education also improves lines of communication and builds trust between the people, the US government, and the Host Nation. Additionally, through word of mouth in the provinces ideas are spread that inform others about these farming techniques, that may not have had direct interaction with the ADTs. The National Guard ADTs also introduce their US civilian colleagues to the Afghan University personnel, which further strengthens relations and trust in the US efforts in Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "ADTs also enhance public diplomacy in Afghanistan by providing security to the local provinces they are working within. This tool has provided the teams with the civilian-military partnership that is needed to conduct public diplomacy and defeat the insurgents in Afghanistan. President Barack Obama said that the US will enhance agricultural development instead of big reconstruction projects to build Afghanistan's economy, to have an immediate impact on the Afghan people. Today, these projects include \"...basic gardening practices, to large watershed and irrigation projects. There are also projects that teach bee keeping and livestock production: all of which will have a positive impact on unemployment, hunger, and the ability to sustain future generations.",
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"plaintext": "More and more Afghan tribal leaders have been requesting additional ADTs, which illustrates how important the use of public diplomacy has been in the efforts to win the trust of the Afghan people. The case study from Nangarhar Province in Afghanistan serves as an excellent example. This province is one of the most stable and secure provinces in Afghanistan. For example, over 100,000 Afghans have returned to province; the province has also been declared poppy-free in 2007 by the UN. Additionally, most districts within the province have all-weather paved roads and it is also one of the most productive agricultural regions in Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, Congress considered giving the president the full authority to mobilize National Guard units within the U.S. without the consent of state governors. However, this was met with resistance from states governors and members of the National Guard. The act was eventually passed, but instead, the president's authority was expanded to mobilize the reserve components for domestic operations without the consent of the governor, only during a natural disaster, terrorist attack, epidemic or other public health emergency. The following year, that authority was repealed.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, the National Guard was activated for 11,000,000 \"man days\" in support of natural disasters, civil unrest, food distribution at food banks, and COVID-19 testing and vaccination. This was the highest number of activation days since World War II.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Congress has enacted various laws that control the National Guard:",
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{
"plaintext": " The Militia Acts of 1792",
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"plaintext": " Providing for the authority of the President to call out the Militia, and providing federal standards for the organization of the Militia.",
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"plaintext": " For the 111 years that the Militia Act of 1792 remained in effect, it defined the position of the militia in relation to the federal government. The War of 1812 tested this uniquely American defense establishment. To fight the War of 1812, the republic formed a small regular military and trained it to protect the frontiers and coastlines. Although it performed poorly in the offensive against Canada, the small force of regulars backed by a well-armed militia, accomplished its defensive mission well. Generals like Andrew Jackson proved that, just as they had in the Revolution, regulars and militia could be effective when employed as a team.",
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"plaintext": " The Insurrection Act",
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"plaintext": " The Militia Act of 1862",
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"plaintext": " Providing for the service of persons of African descent in the Militia, and the emancipation of slaves owned by Confederates.",
"section_idx": 8,
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{
"plaintext": " Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 1385: The Posse Comitatus Act of June 18, 1878",
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"plaintext": " Reaction in Congress against the Reconstruction-era suspensions of Southern states' rights to organize militias led to the passage of the Posse Comitatus Act, restricting any person's use of the U.S. Army and, as later amended, the U.S. Air Force in domestic law enforcement (use of the Navy and Marine Corps, being uniformed services within the Department of Defense, is similarly restricted by statute). The U.S. Coast Guard, in its peacetime role within the Department of Homeland Security, and the National Guard, when not in Federal Service, are specifically not limited by this act.",
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{
"plaintext": " The States revise the military codes 1881 to 1892",
"section_idx": 8,
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{
"plaintext": " The Militia Act of 1903",
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"plaintext": " Established the creation of the National Guard of the United States as the primary organized reserve force for the U.S. armed forces.",
"section_idx": 8,
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{
"plaintext": " National Defense Act of 1916",
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"plaintext": " This act abandoned the idea of an expandable Regular Army and firmly established the traditional concept of the citizens' army as the keystone of the United States defense forces. It established the concept of merging the National Guard, the Army Reserve, and the Regular Army into the Army of the United States in time of war. The act further expanded the National Guard's role, and guaranteed the State militias' status as the Army's primary reserve force. The law mandated use of the term \"National Guard\" for that force, and the President was given authority, in case of war or national emergency, to mobilize the National Guard for the duration of the emergency. The number of yearly drills increased from 24 to 48 and annual training from five to 15 days. Drill pay was authorized for the first time.",
"section_idx": 8,
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{
"plaintext": " The National Defense Act Amendments of 1920",
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},
{
"plaintext": " This act established that the chief of the Militia Bureau (later the National Guard Bureau) would be a National Guard officer, that National Guard officers would be assigned to the general staff and that the divisions, as used by the Guard in World War I, would be reorganized.",
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"plaintext": " The National Guard Mobilization Act, 1933",
"section_idx": 8,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Made the National Guard a component of the Army.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " The National Defense Act of 1947",
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"plaintext": " Section 207 (f) established the Air National Guard of the United States, under the National Guard Bureau.",
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"plaintext": " 'The Total Force Policy, 1973",
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"plaintext": " Requires all active and reserve military organizations be treated as a single force.",
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"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " The Montgomery Amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987",
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"plaintext": " provides that a governor cannot withhold consent with regard to active duty outside the United States because of any objection to the location, purpose, type, or schedule of such duty. This law was challenged and upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1990 in Perpich v. Department of Defense.",
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"plaintext": " The John Warner Defense Authorization Act of 2007 ",
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"plaintext": " Federal law was changed in section 1076 so that the Governor of a state is no longer the sole commander in chief of their state's National Guard during emergencies within the state. The President of the United States could then take total control of a state's National Guard units without the governor's consent. In a letter to Congress, all 50 governors opposed the increase in power of the President over the National Guard.",
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"plaintext": " The National Defense Authorization Act of 2008 ",
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"plaintext": " Repeals provisions in section 1076 in Pub.L. 109-364 but still enables the President to call up the National Guard of the United States for active federal military service during Congressionally sanctioned national emergency or war. Places the National Guard Bureau directly under the Department of Defense as a joint activity. Promoted the Chief of the National Guard Bureau from a three-star to a four-star general.",
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"plaintext": "The National Defense Authorization Act of 2012' ",
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"plaintext": " Added the Chief, National Guard Bureau to the Joint Chiefs of Staff.",
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"plaintext": "Militia service was a common trait among presidents of the United States, 18 of whom have served in colonial or state militias and two have served in the National Guard since it was established in 1903. Among these, three served in colonial militias (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison), 15 served in state militias (James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harrison, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, William Henry Harrison, William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt), one in the Army National Guard (Harry S. Truman) and one (George W. Bush) served in the Air National Guard.",
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"plaintext": " Tulsi Gabbard, former United States Representative from Hawaii",
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"plaintext": "A member of the NG, often called a \"guardsman,\" is a person who has signed an Enlistment Contract and has subscribed to an Enlistment Oath, is still alive, or has not yet been discharged. The subscription to the oath (typically a recitation) and the signature must be witnessed by a person, typically a Guard officer, authorized as an official witness. The term of the enlistment, or membership, runs from the date on the contract through the date on the discharge or the death certificate.",
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},
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"plaintext": "The \"number of guardsmen\" is a statistic generated by the Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), an agency of the DoD tasked with tracking the identities of all persons in the active military, its reserves, and civilians employed by it. Membership in the Guard may be regarded as an independent variable. It changes constantly. Its value at any instant cannot be known exactly. It can, however, be estimated from the records of the DMDC. Its data and reports are for the most part inaccessible to the general public, but it does make available some reports under the category \"DoD Personal, Workforce Reports & Publications.\"",
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"plaintext": "The series \"Military and Civilian Personnel by Service/Agency by State/Country (Updated Quarterly),\" containing the statistics on membership in the NG by state, territory, and D.C., is updated every 3rd month at the end of the month. For example, one was generated on June 30, 2017. Like all statistics, these numbers of guardsmen are a sample culled according to a certain method. The report states that it uses the sources: \"Active Duty Master File, RCCPDS, APF Civilian Master, CTS Deployment File, Civilian Deployment.\" The probabilities of the statistics being accurate to various percentages are not stated.",
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{
"plaintext": "Below is a sample summary of a profile of National Guard membership as of September 30, 2020. Only the non-total columns come from the source. The totals are calculated from the data.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Number of guardsmen by state, territory and D.C.",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " 19th Special Forces Group",
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15123025
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"plaintext": " 20th Special Forces Group",
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14412158
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"plaintext": " Space National Guard",
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"target_page_ids": [
61673514
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},
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"plaintext": " Minutemen",
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27677647
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},
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"plaintext": " Youth Challenge Program",
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16416239
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},
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"plaintext": " National Guard Memorial Museum",
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},
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"plaintext": " Omicron slammed essential workers. So the National Guard became teachers, janitors and more, The Washington Post",
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"section_name": "External links",
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"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
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"National_Guard_(United_States)",
"United_States_Army",
"United_States_Air_Force",
"Military_units_and_formations_established_in_1636",
"Militia_of_the_United_States",
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] | 928,670 | 21,364 | 2,279 | 271 | 0 | 0 | National Guard | reserve force of the United States Army and Air Force | [
"National Guard",
"Guard",
"US National Guard",
"United States National Guard"
] |
37,989 | 1,078,579,678 | Boa_knot | [
{
"plaintext": "The boa knot is a modern binding knot invented by weaver Peter Collingwood in 1996. His intention was to develop a knot that would hold well when the constricted object was cut close to the winds of the knot.",
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"plaintext": "The boa knot is related to the strangle knot and the double constrictor knot. It combines both the structure and qualities of these other two knots. The boa knot can be very difficult to untie and is inappropriate when frequent or fast untying is needed. The knotted part needs to lie over a convex surface to hold.",
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"plaintext": "Start with making two loops that spiral upwards in a clockwise manner. Pull the top end of the rope along the path of the loops until it is parallel to the bottom end. If done correctly, there should be a total of 2.5 loops with both rope ends sticking out. Using both hands, pinch the loops at the sides where the ends hanging out. There should be 3 parts of rope pressed together in each hand. Take each end and twist clockwise until an infinity symbol is formed. Fold the ends of the twisted loops together such that the loose ends are between them. Place in the loops the desired object and pull the loose ends away from it, carefully shaping the knot. This should tighten the loops to the point where they cling firmly to the desired object, yielding the boa knot. Said knot is hard to move around. ",
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{
"plaintext": " List of knots",
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59024
],
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1,
14
]
]
}
] | [
"Knots_of_modern_origin"
] | 3,524,727 | 428 | 4 | 6 | 0 | 0 | Boa knot | binding knot | [] |
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