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37,992 | 1,107,632,425 | Hippocratic_Oath | [
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"plaintext": "The Hippocratic Oath is an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific ethical standards. The oath is the earliest expression of medical ethics in the Western world, establishing several principles of medical ethics which remain of paramount significance today. These include the principles of medical confidentiality and non-maleficence. As the seminal articulation of certain principles that continue to guide and inform medical practice, the ancient text is of more than historic and symbolic value. It is enshrined in the legal statutes of various jurisdictions, such that violations of the oath may carry criminal or other liability beyond the oath's symbolic nature.",
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"plaintext": "The original oath was written in Ionic Greek, between the fifth and third centuries BC. Although it is traditionally attributed to the Greek doctor Hippocrates and it is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus, most modern scholars do not regard it as having been written by Hippocrates himself.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest partial fragments of the oath date to circa AD 275. The oldest extant version dates to roughly the 10th–11th century, held in the Vatican Library. A commonly cited version, dated to 1595, appears in Koine Greek with a Latin translation. In this translation, the author translates \"πεσσὸν\" to the Latin \"fœtum.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Hippocratic Oath, in Greek, from the 1923 Loeb edition, and then followed by the English translation:",
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"plaintext": "I swear by Apollo Healer, by Asclepius, by Hygieia, by Panacea, and by all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will carry out, according to my ability and judgment, this oath and this indenture.",
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"plaintext": "To hold my teacher in this art equal to my own parents; to make him partner in my livelihood; when he is in need of money to share mine with him; to consider his family as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they want to learn it, without fee or indenture; to impart precept, oral instruction, and all other instruction to my own sons, the sons of my teacher, and to indentured pupils who have taken the Healer’s oath, but to nobody else.",
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"plaintext": "I will use those dietary regimens which will benefit my patients according to my greatest ability and judgment, and I will do no harm or injustice to them. Neither will I administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. Similarly I will not give to a woman a pessary to cause abortion. But I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even, verily, on sufferers from stone, but I will give place to such as are craftsmen therein.",
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"plaintext": "Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free. And whatsoever I shall see or hear in the course of my profession, as well as outside my profession in my intercourse with men, if it be what should not be published abroad, I will never divulge, holding such things to be holy secrets.",
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"plaintext": "Now if I carry out this oath, and break it not, may I gain for ever reputation among all men for my life and for my art; but if I break it and forswear myself, may the opposite befall me. – Translation by W.H.S. Jones.",
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"plaintext": "It is often said that the exact phrase \"First do no harm\" () is a part of the original Hippocratic oath. Although the phrase does not appear in the AD 245 version of the oath, similar intentions are vowed by, \"I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm\". The phrase primum non nocere is believed to date from the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "Another equivalent phrase is found in Epidemics, Book I, of the Hippocratic school: \"Practice two things in your dealings with disease: either help or do not harm the patient\". The exact phrase is believed to have originated with the 19th-century English surgeon Thomas Inman.",
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"plaintext": "The oath is arguably the best known text of the Hippocratic Corpus, although most modern scholars do not attribute it to Hippocrates himself, estimating it to have been written in the fourth or fifth century BC. Alternatively, classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by the Pythagoreans, an idea that others questioned for lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. While Pythagorean philosophy displays a correlation to the Oath's values, the proposal of a direct relationship has been mostly discredited in more recent studies. ",
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"plaintext": "Its general ethical principles are also found in other works of the Corpus: the Physician mentions the obligation to keep the 'holy things' of medicine within the medical community (i.e. not to divulge secrets); it also mentions the special position of the doctor with regard to his patients, especially women and girls. However, several aspects of the oath contradict patterns of practice established elsewhere in the Corpus. Most notable is its ban on the use of the knife, even for small procedures such as lithotomy, even though other works in the Corpus provide guidance on performing surgical procedures.",
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"plaintext": "Providing poisonous drugs would certainly have been viewed as immoral by contemporary physicians if it resulted in murder. However, the absolute ban described in the oath also forbids euthanasia. Several accounts of ancient physicians willingly assisting suicides have survived. Multiple explanations for the prohibition of euthanasia in the oath have been proposed: it is possible that not all physicians swore the oath, or that the oath was seeking to prevent widely held concerns that physicians could be employed as political assassins.",
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"plaintext": "The interpreted AD 275 fragment of the oath contains a prohibition of abortion that is in contradiction to original Hippocratic text On the Nature of the Child, which contains a description of an abortion, without any implication that it was morally wrong, and descriptions of abortifacient medications are numerous in the ancient medical literature. The oath’s stance on abortion was unclear even in the ancient world where physicians debated whether the specification of pessaries was a ban on simply pessaries, or a blanket ban on all abortion methods. William Henry Samuel Jones states that \"abortion…though doctors are forbidden to cause it, was possibly not condemned in all cases\". He believed that the oath prohibited abortions, though not under all circumstances. John M. Riddle argues that because he specified pessaries, he only meant pessaries and therefore it was acceptable for a Hippocratic doctor to perform abortions using oral drugs, violent means, a disruption of daily routine or eating habits, and more. Other scholars, most notably Ludwig Edelstein, believe that the author intended to prohibit any and all abortions. Olivia De Brabandere writes that regardless of the author’s original intention, the vague and polyvalent nature of the relevant line has allowed both professionals and non-professionals to interpret and use the oath in. While many Christian versions of the Hippocratic Oath, particularly from the middle-ages, explicitly prohibited abortion, the prohibition is often omitted from many oaths taken in US medical schools today, though it remains controversial. Scribonius Largus was adamant in AD 43 (the earliest surviving reference to the oath) that it preclude abortion.",
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"plaintext": "As with Scribonius Largus, there seemed to be no question to Soranus that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly in his time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century AD work Gynaecology, one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health.",
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"plaintext": "The oath stands out among comparable ancient texts on medical ethics and professionalism through its heavily religious tone, a factor which makes attributing its authorship to Hippocrates particularly difficult. Phrases such as 'but I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art' suggest a deep, almost monastic devotion to the art of medicine. He who keeps to the oath is promised 'reputation among all men for my life and for my art'. This contrasts heavily with Galenic writings on professional ethics, which employ a far more pragmatic approach, where good practice is defined as effective practice, without reference to deities.",
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"plaintext": "The oath's importance among the medical community is nonetheless attested by its appearance on the tombstones of physicians, and by the fourth century AD it had come to stand for the medical profession.",
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"plaintext": "The oath continued to be in use in the Byzantine Christian world with its references to pagan deities replaced by a Christian preamble, as in the 12th-century manuscript pictured in the shape of a cross.",
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"plaintext": "The Hippocratic Oath has been eclipsed as a document of professional ethics by more extensive, regularly updated ethical codes issued by national medical associations, such as the AMA Code of Medical Ethics (first adopted in 1847), and the British General Medical Council's Good Medical Practice. These documents provide a comprehensive overview of the obligations and professional behaviour of a doctor to their patients and wider society. Doctors who violate these codes may be subjected to disciplinary proceedings, including the loss of their license to practice medicine. Nonetheless, the length of these documents has made their distillations into shorter oaths an attractive proposition. In light of this fact, several updates to the oath have been offered in modern times, some facetious.",
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"plaintext": "The oath has been modified numerous times.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the majority of osteopathic medical schools use the Osteopathic Oath in place of or in addition to the Hippocratic Oath. The Osteopathic Oath was first used in 1938, and the current version has been in use since 1954.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most significant revisions was first drafted in 1948 by the World Medical Association (WMA), called the Declaration of Geneva. \"During the post World War II and immediately after its foundation, the WMA showed concern over the state of medical ethics in general and over the world. The WMA took up the responsibility for setting ethical guidelines for the world's physicians. It noted that in those years the custom of medical schools to administer an oath to its doctors upon graduation or receiving a license to practice medicine had fallen into disuse or become a mere formality\". In Nazi Germany, medical students did not take the Hippocratic Oath, although they knew the ethic of \"nil nocere\"—do no harm.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath was changed to require \"utmost respect for human life from its beginning\", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of any gods, but before only other people. When the oath was rewritten in 1964 by Louis Lasagna, Academic Dean of the School of Medicine at Tufts University, the prayer was omitted, and that version has been widely accepted and is still in use today by many US medical schools:",
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"plaintext": " I swear to fulfill, to the best of my ability and judgment, this covenant:",
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"plaintext": "I will respect the hard-won scientific gains of those physicians in whose steps I walk, and gladly share such knowledge as is mine with those who are to follow.",
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"plaintext": "I will apply, for the benefit of the sick, all measures [that] are required, avoiding those twin traps of overtreatment and therapeutic nihilism.",
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"plaintext": "I will remember that there is art to medicine as well as science, and that warmth, sympathy, and understanding may outweigh the surgeon's knife or the chemist's drug.",
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"plaintext": "I will not be ashamed to say \"I know not\", nor will I fail to call in my colleagues when the skills of another are needed for a patient's recovery.",
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"plaintext": "I will respect the privacy of my patients, for their problems are not disclosed to me that the world may know. Most especially must I tread with care in matters of life and death. If it is given me to save a life, all thanks. But it may also be within my power to take a life; this awesome responsibility must be faced with great humbleness and awareness of my own frailty. Above all, I must not play at God.",
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"plaintext": "I will remember that I do not treat a fever chart, a cancerous growth, but a sick human being, whose illness may affect the person's family and economic stability. My responsibility includes these related problems, if I am to care adequately for the sick.",
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"plaintext": "I will prevent disease whenever I can, for prevention is preferable to cure.",
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"plaintext": "I will remember that I remain a member of society, with special obligations to all my fellow human beings, those sound of mind and body as well as the infirm.",
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"plaintext": "If I do not violate this oath, may I enjoy life and art, respected while I live and remembered with affection thereafter. May I always act so as to preserve the finest traditions of my calling and may I long experience the joy of healing those who seek my help.",
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"plaintext": "In a 1989 survey of 126 US medical schools, only three of them reported use of the original oath, while thirty-three used the Declaration of Geneva, sixty-seven used a modified Hippocratic Oath, four used the Oath of Maimonides, one used a covenant, eight used another oath, one used an unknown oath, and two did not use any kind of oath. Seven medical schools did not reply to the survey.",
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"plaintext": "As of 1993, only 14% of medical oaths prohibited euthanasia, and only 8% prohibited abortion.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2000 survey of US medical schools, all of the then extant medical schools administered some type of profession oath. Among schools of modern medicine, sixty-two of 122 used the Hippocratic Oath, or a modified version of it. The other sixty schools used the original or modified Declaration of Geneva, Oath of Maimonides, or an oath authored by students and or faculty. All nineteen osteopathic schools used the Osteopathic Oath.",
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"plaintext": "In France, it is common for new medical graduates to sign a written oath.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Sir Joseph Rotblat, in his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize, suggested a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007 US citizen Rafiq Abdus Sabir was convicted for making a pledge to Al Qaeda thus agreeing to provide medical aid to wounded terrorists.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2018 all US medical school graduates made some form of public oath but none used the original Hippocratic Oath. A modified form or an oath unique to that school is often used. A review of 18 of these oaths was criticized for their wide variability: \"Consistency would help society see that physicians are members of a profession that’s committed to a shared set of essential ethical values.”",
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"plaintext": "There is no direct punishment for breaking the Hippocratic Oath, although an arguable equivalent in modern times is medical malpractice, which carries a wide range of punishments, from legal action to civil penalties. In the United States, several major judicial decisions have made reference to the classical Hippocratic Oath, either upholding or dismissing its bounds for medical ethics: Roe v. Wade, Washington v. Harper, Compassion in Dying v. State of Washington (1996), and Thorburn v. Department of Corrections (1998). In antiquity, the punishment for breaking the Hippocratic oath could range from a penalty to losing the right to practice medicine. In 2022, a college in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu saw a batch of medical students undertaking a Sanskrit Oath by the name of ancient sage physician Maharishi Charak instead of the Hippocratic oath. The state government subsequently dismissed the Dean of the Madurai medical college for this act.",
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"plaintext": " Ethical principles for human experimentation",
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"plaintext": "The Hippocratic Oath Today: Meaningless Relic or Invaluable Moral Guide? a PBS NOVA online discussion with responses from doctors as well as 2 versions of the oath. pbs.org",
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"plaintext": "Lewis Richard Farnell, Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality, 1921.",
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"plaintext": "\"Codes of Ethics: Some History\" by Robert Baker, Union College in Perspectives on the Professions, Vol. 19, No. 1, Fall 1999 , ethics.iit.edu",
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"plaintext": "Hippocratis jusiurandum Image of a 1595 copy of the Hippocratic oath with side-by-side original Greek and Latin translation, bium.univ-paris5.fr",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper (sometimes called toilet tissue or bathroom tissue) is a tissue paper product primarily used to clean the anus and surrounding anal region of feces after defecation, and to clean the perineal area and external genitalia of urine after urination or other bodily fluid releases. It also acts as a layer of protection for the hands during these processes. It is usually supplied as a long strip of perforated paper wrapped around a paperboard core for storage in a dispenser near a toilet. The bundle is known as a toilet roll, or loo roll or bog roll in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "There are other uses for toilet paper, as it is a readily available household product. It can be used like facial tissue for blowing the nose or wiping the eyes. Some women may use the paper to absorb the bloody discharge that comes out of the vagina during menstruation. It can be used to wipe off sweat or absorb it. Toilet paper can be used in cleaning like a less abrasive paper towel. As a prank, toilet papering is a form of temporary vandalism by adolescents and often directed at someone who has to clean up the mess.",
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"plaintext": "Most modern toilet paper in the developed world is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom and facial tissues are not. Wet toilet paper rapidly decomposes in the environment. Toilet paper comes in various numbers of plies (layers of thickness), from one- to six-ply, with more back-to-back plies providing greater strength and absorbency. Some people have a preference for whether the orientation of the roll on a dispenser should be over or under.",
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"plaintext": "The use of paper for hygiene has been recorded in China in the 6th century AD, with specifically manufactured toilet paper being mass-produced in the 14th century. Modern commercial toilet paper originated in the 19th century, with a patent for roll-based dispensers being made in 1883.",
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"plaintext": "Although paper had been known as a wrapping and padding material in China since the 2nd century BC, a reference to the use of toilet paper dates back as early as circa 589 when the scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531–591) wrote:",
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"plaintext": "During the later Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), an Arab traveller to China in the year 851 AD remarked:",
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"plaintext": "During the early 14th century, it was recorded that in what is now Zhejiang alone, ten million packages of 1,000 to 10,000 sheets of toilet paper were manufactured annually. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), it was recorded in 1393 that an annual supply of 720,000 sheets of toilet paper (approximately ) were produced for the general use of the imperial court at the capital of Nanjing. From the records of the Imperial Bureau of Supplies of that same year, it was also recorded that for the Hongwu Emperor's imperial family alone, there were 15,000 sheets of special soft-fabric toilet paper made, and each sheet of toilet paper was perfumed.",
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"plaintext": "Elsewhere, wealthy people wiped themselves with wool, lace or hemp, while less wealthy people used their hand when defecating into rivers, or cleaned themselves with various materials such as rags, wood shavings, leaves, grass, hay, stones, sand, moss, water, snow, ferns, plant husks, fruit skins, seashells, or corncobs, depending upon the country and weather conditions or social customs. In Ancient Rome, a sponge on a stick was commonly used, and, after use, placed back in a pail of vinegar. Several talmudic sources indicating ancient Jewish practice refer to the use of small pebbles, often carried in a special bag, and also to the use of dry grass and of the smooth edges of broken pottery jugs (e.g., Shabbat 81a, 82a, Yevamot 59b). These are all cited in the classic Biblical and Talmudic Medicine by the German physician Julius Preuss (Eng. trans. Sanhedrin Press, 1978).",
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"plaintext": "The 16th-century French satirical writer François Rabelais, in Chapter XIII of Book 1 of his novel sequence Gargantua and Pantagruel, has his character Gargantua investigate a great number of ways of cleansing oneself after defecating. Gargantua dismisses the use of paper as ineffective, rhyming that: \"Who his foul tail with paper wipes, Shall at his ballocks leave some chips.\" (Sir Thomas Urquhart's 1653 English translation). He concludes that \"the neck of a goose, that is well downed\" provides an optimum cleansing medium.",
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"plaintext": "The rise of publishing by the eighteenth century led to the use of newspapers and cheap editions of popular books for cleansing. Lord Chesterfield, in a letter to his son in 1747, told of a man who purchased",
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"plaintext": "In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, toilet paper is not used. Also, in many parts of the world people consider using water a much cleaner and more sanitary practice than using paper. Cleansing is then performed with other methods or materials, such as water, for example using a bidet, a lota, rags, sand, leaves (including seaweed), corn cobs, animal furs, sticks or hands; afterwards, hands are washed with water and possibly soap.",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Gayetty is widely credited with being the inventor of modern commercially available toilet paper in the United States. Gayetty's paper, first introduced in 1857, was available as late as the 1920s. Gayetty's Medicated Paper was sold in packages of flat sheets, watermarked with the inventor's name. Original advertisements for the product used the tagline \"The greatest necessity of the age! Gayetty's medicated paper for the water-closet.\"",
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"plaintext": "Seth Wheeler of Albany, New York, obtained the earliest United States patents for toilet paper and dispensers, the types of which eventually were in common use in that country, in 1883. Toilet paper dispensed from rolls was popularized when the Scott Paper Company began marketing it in 1890.",
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"plaintext": "The manufacturing of this product had a long period of refinement, considering that as late as the 1930s, a selling point of the Northern Tissue company was that their toilet paper was \"splinter free\". The widespread adoption of the flush toilet increased the use of toilet paper, as heavier paper was more prone to clogging the trap that prevents sewer gases from escaping through the toilet.",
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"plaintext": "Softer, two ply toilet roll was introduced in Britain in 1942, by St Andrew Mills in Walthamstow; this became the famous Andrex.",
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"plaintext": "Moist toilet paper, called wet wipes, was first introduced in the United Kingdom by Andrex in the 1990s. It has been promoted as being a better method of cleaning than dry toilet paper after defecation, and may be useful for women during menstruation. It was promoted as a flushable product but it has been implicated in the creation of fatbergs; by 2016 some municipalities had begun education campaigns advising people not to flush used wet wipes.",
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"plaintext": "More than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the United States. Americans use an average of 23.6 rolls per capita per year.",
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"plaintext": "In 1973, Johnny Carson joked in his Tonight Show monologue about comments made by Wisconsin congressman Harold V. Froehlich about the possibility of a toilet paper shortage. Subsequently, consumers purchased abnormal amounts, causing an actual shortage in the United States for several months.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper has been one of the commodities subject to shortages in Venezuela starting in the 2010s; the government seized one toilet paper factory in a failed effort to resolve the problem.",
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"plaintext": "During the COVID-19 pandemic, toilet paper shortages were reported in March 2020 in multiple countries due to hoarding and panic buying. At first, few believed the pandemic would be serious. Later, people realized they might need to stock up on certain items in case of a shelter-in-place order, or in case they did not know how long such an order would last; suppliers could not assure that they could keep up with demand. However, manufacturers continued to produce even more than they had before. Demand was higher for the types of toilet paper used at home because so many people were at home who would have used toilet paper away from home. In countries other than the United States, the bidet was already seen as a solution, and a survey before the pandemic had indicated an increasing number of Americans would be interested.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper is available in several types of paper, a variety of patterns, decorations, and textures, and it may be moistened or perfumed, although fragrances sometimes cause problems for users who are allergic to perfumes. The average measures of a modern roll of toilet paper is c. 10cm (3in.) wide, and 12cm (4in.) in diameter, and weighs about 227grams (8oz.). An alternative method of packing the sheets uses interleaved sheets in boxes, or in bulk for use in dispensers. \"Hard\" single-ply paper has been used as well as soft multi-ply.",
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"plaintext": "Manufactured toilet paper sheet in the United States was sized × . Since 1999 the size of a sheet has been shrinking; Kimberly-Clark reduced the length of a sheet to . Scott, in 2006, reduced the length of their product to . The width of sheets was later reduced giving a general sheet size of long and wide. Larger sizes remain available.",
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"plaintext": "The ply of a toilet paper refers to the number of layers per sheet. Rolls are typically available in single-ply, 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply.",
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"plaintext": "Phrases like \"single roll\", \"double roll\", \"triple roll\", \"jumbo roll\", and \"mega roll\" commonly used in retail advertising refer to the number of sheets per roll (though the actual number of sheets is also usually disclosed on packaging). A longer roll needs to be replaced less often, but the very largest sizes do not fit all toilet paper dispensers, especially in older homes.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper is usually manufactured from pulpwood trees, but is also sometimes made from sugar cane byproducts or bamboo.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper products vary greatly in the distinguishing technical factors, such as size, weight, roughness, softness, chemical residues, \"finger-breakthrough\" resistance, water-absorption, etc. The larger companies have very detailed, scientific market surveys to determine which marketing sectors require or demand which of the many technical qualities. Modern toilet paper may have a light coating of aloe or lotion or wax worked into the paper to reduce roughness.",
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"plaintext": "Quality is usually determined by the number of plies (stacked sheets), coarseness, and durability. Low grade institutional toilet paper is typically of the lowest grade of paper, has only one or two plies, is very coarse and sometimes contains small amounts of embedded unbleached/unpulped paper; it was typically called \"hard\" toilet paper. A brand disinfected with carbolic acid was manufactured in Sheffield, United Kingdom under the Izal brand name by Newton Chambers until 1981. Mid-grade two ply is somewhat textured to provide some softness and is somewhat stronger. Premium toilet paper may have lotion and wax and has two to four plies of very finely pulped paper. If it is marketed as \"luxury\", it may be quilted or rippled (embossed), perfumed, colored or patterned, medicated (with anti-bacterial chemicals), or treated with aloe or other perfumes.",
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"plaintext": "To advance decomposition of the paper in septic tanks or drainage, the paper used has shorter fibres than facial tissue or writing paper. The manufacturer tries to reach an optimal balance between rapid decomposition (which requires shorter fibres) and sturdiness (which requires longer fibres). Compaction of toilet paper in drain lines, such as in a clog, prevents fibre dispersion and largely halts the breakdown process.",
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"plaintext": "A German quip says that the toilet paper of Nazi Germany was so rough and scratchy that it was almost unusable, so many people used old issues of the Völkischer Beobachter instead, because the paper was softer.",
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"plaintext": "Colored toilet paper in colors such as pink, lavender, light blue, light green, purple, green, and light yellow (so that one could choose a color of toilet paper that matched or complemented the color of one's bathroom) was commonly sold in the United States from the 1960s. Up until 2004, Scott was one of the last remaining U.S. manufacturers to still produce toilet paper in beige, blue, and pink. However, the company has since cut production of colored paper altogether.",
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"plaintext": "Today, in the United States, plain unpatterned colored toilet paper has been mostly replaced by patterned toilet paper, normally white, with embossed decorative patterns or designs in various colors and different sizes depending on the brand. Colored toilet paper remains commonly available in some European countries.",
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"plaintext": "A toilet roll holder, also known as a toilet paper dispenser, is an item that holds a roll of toilet paper. There are at least seven types of holders:",
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"plaintext": " A horizontal piece of wire mounted on a hinge, hanging from a door or wall.",
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"plaintext": " A horizontal axle recessed in the wall.",
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"plaintext": " A vertical axle recessed in the wall",
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"plaintext": " A horizontal axle mounted on a freestanding frame.",
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"plaintext": " A freestanding vertical pole on a base.",
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"plaintext": " A wall mounted dispensing unit, usually containing more than one roll. This is used in the commercial/away-from-home marketplace.",
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"plaintext": " A wall mounted dispensing unit with tissue interleaved in a \"S\"-type fold so the user can extract the tissue one sheet at a time.",
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"plaintext": "Some commercial or institutional toilet paper is wrapped around a cylinder to many times the thickness of a standard toilet paper roll.",
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"plaintext": "There are two choices of orientation when using a holder with a horizontal axle parallel to the wall: the toilet paper may hang over or under the roll. The choice is largely a matter of personal preference, dictated by habit. In surveys of American consumers and of bath and kitchen specialists, 60–70% of respondents prefer over. This is said to exhibit Endianness, which applies not only to eggs, but to toilet paper. Most Americans think it should go over the top, like a waterfall.",
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"plaintext": "Toilegami refers to toilet paper origami. Like table napkins, some fancy Japanese hotels fold the first squares of toilet paper on its dispenser to be presented in a fashionable way.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, toilet paper has been the primary tool in a prank known as \"TP-ing\" (pronounced \"teepeeing\"). TP-ing, or \"toilet papering\", is often favored by adolescents and is the act of throwing rolls of toilet paper over cars, trees, houses and gardens, causing the toilet paper to unfurl and cover the property, creating an inconvenient mess.",
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"plaintext": "Children and cats may unroll an entire roll of toilet paper by spinning it until it completely unravels on the floor, or as a game by children wadding up one end, putting it in the toilet bowl without tearing it and then using the flushing of the toilet to pull new paper into the toilet, with the objective of flushing the entire roll down the toilet section at a time without the toilet paper breaking. Special toilet paper insert holders with an oblong shape were invented to prevent continuous unrolling without tearing to discourage this practice.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper pranks include musical toilet paper holders and inserts that are activated by the unrolling of the toilet paper and will loudly play an embarrassing song calling attention to the person defecating.",
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"plaintext": "Other gags include custom toilet paper printed with jokes, stories or politician's images.",
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"plaintext": "Alexander Balankin and coauthors have studied the behavior of toilet paper under tensile stress and during wetting and burning.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper has been used in physics education to demonstrate the concepts of torque, moment of inertia, and angular momentum; and the conservation of momentum and energy.",
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"plaintext": "One tree produces about 800 rolls () of toilet paper and about 83 million rolls are produced per day. Global toilet paper production consumes 27,000 trees daily.",
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"plaintext": "More than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the United States alone. Americans use an average of 141 rolls per capita a year which is equivalent to of tissue paper per year. This figure is about 50% more than the average of other Western countries or Japan. The higher use in the United States may be explained by the fact that other countries people use bidets or spray hoses to clean themselves. Millions of trees are harvested in North and South America leaving ecological footprint concerns. ",
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"plaintext": ", between 22% and 48% of the toilet paper used in the United States comes from tree farms in the U.S. and South America, with the rest mostly coming from old, second growth forests, and, some from virgin forests.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper made from recycled paper avoids the direct environmental impact of cutting down trees, and is commercially available. Recycled newspaper can contain BPA, an endocrine disruptor.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper produced from bamboo is commercially available, and is in some ways more environmentally friendly than virgin pulpwood, because bamboo grows faster, taking less land and less water. For North American consumers, the Natural Resources Defense Council recommends recycled tree pulp over bamboo toilet paper, because tree forests promote more biodiversity and bamboo products must be shipped from Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet paper produced from bagasse, a byproduct of sugarcane, is commercially available, and avoids cutting down any plants because sugarcane is already grown for sugar production.",
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"plaintext": "The most environmentally friendly alternatives are to rely solely on soap and water for anal hygiene.",
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"plaintext": "The company called Cloud Paper has developed an alternative to tree-based toilet paper that is made out of bamboo.",
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"plaintext": " Anal hygiene",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Fresh'n",
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"plaintext": " Xylospongium, an ancient equivalent",
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"plaintext": " Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " The Whole World Toilet Paper Museum",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wiping Correctly",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
] | [
"Toilet_paper",
"Hygiene",
"Toilets",
"Domestic_implements",
"Chinese_inventions",
"Sanitation"
] | 5,840 | 15,823 | 232 | 131 | 0 | 0 | toilet paper | tissue paper for cleaning after urination or defecation | [
"bathroom tissue",
"toilet tissue",
"toilet-paper",
"lavatory paper",
"loo paper",
"bath tissue",
"toilet papers",
"toilet tissue roll",
"toilet roll",
"loo roll",
"bog roll"
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37,996 | 1,107,901,486 | Niacin_(substance) | [
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"plaintext": "Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is an organic compound and a form of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient. It can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variety of whole and processed foods, with highest contents in fortified packaged foods, meat, poultry, red fish such as tuna and salmon, lesser amounts in nuts, legumes and seeds. Niacin as a dietary supplement is used to treat pellagra, a disease caused by niacin deficiency. Signs and symptoms of pellagra include skin and mouth lesions, anemia, headaches, and tiredness. Many countries mandate its addition to wheat flour or other food grains, thereby reducing the risk of pellagra.",
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"plaintext": "The amide derivative nicotinamide (niacinamide) is a component of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). Although niacin and nicotinamide are identical in their vitamin activity, nicotinamide does not have the same pharmacological, lipid-modifying effects or side effects as niacin, i.e., when niacin takes on the -amide group, it does not reduce cholesterol nor cause flushing. Nicotinamide is recommended as a treatment for niacin deficiency because it can be administered in remedial amounts without causing the flushing, considered an adverse effect.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin is also a prescription medication. Amounts far in excess of the recommended dietary intake for vitamin functions will lower blood triglycerides and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and raise blood high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, often referred to as \"good\" cholesterol). There are two forms: immediate-release and sustained-release niacin. Initial prescription amounts are 500mg/day, increased over time until a therapeutic effect is achieved. Immediate-release doses can be as high as 3,000mg/day; sustained-release as high as 2,000mg/day. Despite the proven lipid changes, niacin has not been found useful for decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease in those already on a statin. A 2010 review had concluded that niacin was effective as a mono-therapy, but a 2017 review incorporating twice as many trials concluded that prescription niacin, while affecting lipid levels, did not reduce all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes. Prescription niacin was shown to cause hepatotoxicity and increase risk of type 2 diabetes. Niacin prescriptions in the U.S. had peaked in 2009, at 9.4million, declining to 1.3million by 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin has the formula and belongs to the group of the pyridinecarboxylic acids. As the precursor for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, niacin is involved in DNA repair.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin is both a vitamin, i.e., an essential nutrient found in food and marketed as a dietary supplement, and in the US, a prescription medicine. As a vitamin, it is precursor of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). These compounds are coenzymes for many dehydrogenases, participating in many hydrogen transfer processes. NAD is important in catabolism of fat, carbohydrate, protein, and alcohol, as well as cell signaling and DNA repair, and NADP mostly in anabolism reactions such as fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis. Vitamin intake recommendations made by several countries are that intakes of 14–18mg/day are sufficient to meet the needs of healthy adults. Niacin or nicotinamide (niacinamide) are used for prevention and treatment of pellagra, a disease caused by lack of the vitamin. When niacin is used as a medicine to treat elevated cholesterol and triglycerides, daily doses range from 500 to 3,000mg/day. High-dose nicotinamide does not have this medicinal effect.",
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"plaintext": "Severe deficiency of niacin in the diet causes the disease pellagra, characterized by diarrhea, sun-sensitive dermatitis involving hyperpigmentation and thickening of the skin (see image), inflammation of the mouth and tongue, delirium, dementia, and if left untreated, death. Common psychiatric symptoms include irritability, poor concentration, anxiety, fatigue, loss of memory, restlessness, apathy, and depression. The biochemical mechanism(s) for the observed deficiency-caused neurodegeneration are not well understood, but may rest on: A) the requirement for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to suppress the creation of neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites, B) inhibition of mitochondrial ATP generation, resulting in cell damage; C), activation of the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) pathway, as PARP is a nuclear enzyme involved in DNA repair, but in the absence of NAD+ can lead to cell death; D) reduced synthesis of neuro-protective brain-derived neurotrophic factor or its receptor tropomyosin receptor kinase B; or E) changes to genome expression directly due to the niacin deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin deficiency is rarely seen in developed countries, and it is more typically associated with poverty, malnutrition or malnutrition secondary to chronic alcoholism. It also tends to occur in less developed areas where people eat maize (corn) as a staple food, as maize is the only grain low in digestible niacin. A cooking technique called nixtamalization i.e., pretreating with alkali ingredients, increases the bioavailability of niacin during maize meal/flour production. For this reason, people who consume corn as tortillas or hominy are at less risk of niacin deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "For treating deficiency, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends administering niacinamide(i.e. nicotinamide) instead of niacin, to avoid the flushing side effect commonly caused by the latter. Guidelines suggest using 300mg/day for three to four weeks. Dementia and dermatitis show improvement within a week. Because deficiencies of other B-vitamins may be present, the WHO recommends a multi-vitamin in addition to the niacinamide.",
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"plaintext": "Hartnup disease is a hereditary nutritional disorder resulting in niacin deficiency. It is named after an English family with a genetic disorder that resulted in a failure to absorb the essential amino acid tryptophan, tryptophan being a precursor for niacin synthesis. The symptoms are similar to pellagra, including red, scaly rash and sensitivity to sunlight. Oral niacin or niacinamide is given as a treatment for this condition in doses ranging from 50 to 100mg twice a day, with a good prognosis if identified and treated early. Niacin synthesis is also deficient in carcinoid syndrome, because of metabolic diversion of its precursor tryptophan to form serotonin.",
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"plaintext": "Plasma concentrations of niacin and niacin metabolites are not useful markers of niacin status. Urinary excretion of the methylated metabolite N1-methyl-nicotinamide is considered reliable and sensitive. The measurement requires a 24-hour urine collection. For adults, a value of less than 5.8 μmol/day represent deficient niacin status and 5.8 to 17.5 μmol/day represents low. According to the World Health Organization, an alternative mean of expressing urinary N1-methyl-nicotinamide is as mg/g creatinine in a 24-hour urine collection, with deficient defined as <0.5, low 0.5-1.59, acceptable 1.6-4.29, and high >4.3 Niacin deficiency occurs before the signs and symptoms of pellagra appear. Erythrocyte nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) concentrations potentially provide another sensitive indicator of niacin depletion, although definitions of deficient, low and adequate have not been established. Lastly, plasma tryptophan decreases on a low niacin diet because tryptophan converts to niacin. However, low tryptophan could also be caused by a diet low in this essential amino acid, so it is not specific to confirming vitamin status.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for niacin in 1998, also Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs). In lieu of an RDA, Adequate Intakes (AIs) are identified for populations for which there is not sufficient evidence to identify a dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of most people. (see table).",
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"plaintext": "The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values (DRV), with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. For the EU, AIs and ULs have the same definition as in the US, except that units are milligrams per megajoule (MJ) of energy consumed rather than mg/day. For women (including those pregnant or lactating), men and children the PRI is 1.6mg per megajoule. As the conversion is 1 MJ = 239 kcal, an adult consuming 2390 kilocalories should be consuming 16mg niacin. This is comparable to US RDAs (14mg/day for adult women, 16mg/day for adult men).",
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"plaintext": "ULs are established by identifying amounts of vitamins and minerals that cause adverse effects, and then selecting as an upper limit amounts that are the \"maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects.\" Regulatory agencies from different countries do not always agree. For the US, 30 or 35mg for teenagers and adults, less for children. The EFSA UL for adults is set at 10mg/day - about one-third of the US value. For all of the government ULs, the term applies to niacin as a supplement consumed as one dose, and is intended as a limit to avoid the skin flush reaction. This explains why for EFSA, the recommended daily intake can be higher than the UL.",
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"plaintext": "Both the DRI and DRV describe amounts needed as niacin equivalents (NE), calculated as 1mg NE = 1mg niacin or 60mg of the essential amino acid tryptophan. This is because the amino acid is utilized to synthesize the vitamin.",
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"plaintext": "For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For niacin labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value is 16mg. Prior to 27 May 2016 it was 20mg, revised to bring it into agreement with the RDA. ",
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"plaintext": "Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by 1 January 2020 for manufacturers with US$10million or more in annual food sales, and by 1 January 2021 for manufacturers with lower volume food sales. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin is found in a variety of whole and processed foods, including fortified packaged foods, meat from various animal sources, seafoods, and spices. In general, animal-sourced foods provide about 5–10mg niacin per serving, although dairy foods and eggs have little. Some plant-sourced foods such as nuts, legumes and grains provide about 2–5mg niacin per serving, although in some grain products this naturally present niacin is largely bound to polysaccharides and glycopeptides, making it only about 30% bioavailable. Fortified food ingredients such as wheat flour have niacin added, which is bioavailable. Among whole food sources with the highest niacin content per 100 grams:",
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"plaintext": "Vegetarian and vegan diets can provide adequate amounts if products such as nutritional yeast, peanuts, peanut butter, tahini, brown rice, mushrooms, avocado and sunflower seeds are included. Fortified foods and dietary supplements can also be consumed to ensure adequate intake.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin naturally found in food is susceptible to destruction from high heat cooking, especially in the presence of acidic foods and sauces. It is soluble in water, and so may also be lost from foods boiled in water.",
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"plaintext": "Countries fortify foods with nutrients to address known deficiencies. As of 2020, 54 countries required food fortification of wheat flour with niacin or niacinamide; 14 also mandate fortification of maize flour, and 6 mandate fortification of rice. From country to country, niacin fortification ranges from 1.3 to 6.0mg/100 g.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, niacin is sold as a non-prescription dietary supplement with a range of 100 to 1000mg per serving. These products often have a Structure/Function health claim allowed by the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA). An example would be \"Supports a healthy blood lipid profile.\" The American Heart Association strongly advises against the substitution of dietary supplement niacin for prescription niacin because of potentially serious side effects, which means that niacin should only be used under the supervision of a health care professional, and because manufacture of dietary supplement niacin is not as well-regulated by the FDA as prescription niacin. More than 30mg niacin consumed as a dietary supplement can cause skin flushing. Face, arms and chest skin turns a reddish color because of vasodilation of small subcutaneous blood vessels, accompanied by sensations of heat, tingling and itching. These signs and symptoms are typically transient, lasting minutes to hours; they are considered unpleasant rather than toxic.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, prescription niacin, in immediate-release and slow-release forms, is used to treat primary hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia. It is used either as a monotherapy or in combination with other lipid-modifying drugs. Dosages start at 500mg/day and are often gradually increased to as high as 3000mg/day for immediate release or 2000mg/day for slow release (also referred to as sustained release) to achieve the targeted lipid changes (lower LDL-C and triglycerides, and higher HDL-C). Prescriptions in the US peaked in 2009, at 9.4million and had declined to 1.3million by 2017. In late 2017, Avondale, having acquired the rights to Niacor from Upsher Smith, raised the price of the drug by more than 800%.",
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"plaintext": "Systematic reviews found no effect of prescription niacin on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes despite raising HDL cholesterol. Reported side effects include an increased risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin reduces synthesis of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), lipoprotein(a) and triglycerides, and increases high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). The lipid-therapeutic effects of niacin are partly mediated through the activation of G protein-coupled receptors, including hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2)and hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 3 (HCA3), which are highly expressed in body fat. HCA2 and HCA3 inhibit cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production and thus suppress the release of free fatty acids (FFAs) from body fat, reducing their availability to the liver to synthesize the blood-circulating lipids in question. A decrease in free fatty acids also suppresses liver expression of apolipoprotein C3 and PPARg coactivator-1b, thus increasing VLDL-C turnover and reducing its production. Niacin also directly inhibits the action of diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2) a key enzyme for triglyceride synthesis.",
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"plaintext": "The mechanism behind niacin increasing HDL-C is not totally understood, but seems to occur in various ways. Niacin increases apolipoprotein A1 levels by inhibiting the breakdown of this protein, which is a component of HDL-C. It also inhibits HDL-C hepatic uptake by suppressing production of the cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) gene. It stimulates the ABCA1 transporter in monocytes and macrophages and upregulates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, resulting in reverse cholesterol transport.",
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"plaintext": "Extended release niacin was combined with the lovastatin trade-named Advicor, and with simvastatin, trade-named Simcor as prescription drug combinations. Advicor was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2001. Simcor was approved in 2008. Subsequently, large outcome trials using these niacin and statin therapies were unable to demonstrate incremental benefit of niacin beyond statin therapy alone. The FDA withdrew approval of both drugs in 2016. The reason given: \"Based on the collective evidence from several large cardiovascular outcome trials, the Agency has concluded that the totality of the scientific evidence no longer supports the conclusion that a drug-induced reduction in triglyceride levels and/or increase in HDL-cholesterol levels in statin-treated patients results in a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular events.\" The drug company discontinued the drugs.",
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"plaintext": "Prescription immediate release (Niacor) and extended release (Niaspan) niacin are contraindicated for people with either active or a history of liver disease because both, but especially Niaspan, have been associated with instances of serious, on occasion fatal, liver failure. Both products are contraindicated for people with existing peptic ulcer disease, or other bleeding problems because niacin lowers platelet count and interferes with blood clotting. Both products are also contraindicated for women who are pregnant or expecting to become pregnant because safety during pregnancy has not been evaluated in human trials. These products are contraindicated for women who are lactating because it is known that niacin is excreted into human milk, but the amount and potential for adverse effects in the nursing infant are not known. Women are advised to either not nurse their child or discontinue the drug. High-dose niacin has not been tested or approved for use in children under 16 years.",
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"plaintext": "The most common adverse effects of medicinal niacin () are flushing (e.g., warmth, redness, itching or tingling) of the face, neck and chest, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting, rhinitis, pruritus and rash. These can be minimized by initiating therapy at low dosages, increasing dosage gradually, and avoiding administration on an empty stomach.",
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"plaintext": "The acute adverse effects of high-dose niacin therapy () which is commonly used in the treatment of hyperlipidemias can further include hypotension, fatigue, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, heartburn, blurred or impaired vision, and macular edema. With long-term use, the adverse effects of high-dose niacin therapy (750mg per day) also include liver failure (associated with fatigue, nausea, and loss of appetite), hepatitis, and acute liver failure; these hepatotoxic effects of niacin occur more often when extended-release dosage forms are used. The long-term use of niacin at greater than or equal to 2grams per day also significantly increases the risk of cerebral hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, gastrointestinal ulceration and bleeding, diabetes, dyspepsia, and diarrhea.",
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"plaintext": "Flushing a short-term dilatation of skin arterioles, causing reddish skin color usually lasts for about 15 to 30 minutes, although sometimes can persist for weeks. Typically, the face is affected, but the reaction can extend to neck and upper chest. The cause is blood vessel dilation due to elevation in prostaglandin GD2 (PGD2) and serotonin. Flushing was often thought to involve histamine, but histamine has been shown not to be involved in the reaction. Flushing is sometimes accompanied by a prickly or itching sensation, in particular, in areas covered by clothing.",
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"plaintext": "Prevention of flushing requires altering or blocking the prostaglandin-mediated pathway. Aspirin taken half an hour before the niacin prevents flushing, as does ibuprofen. Taking niacin with meals also helps reduce this side effect. Acquired tolerance will also help reduce flushing; after several weeks of a consistent dose, most people no longer experience flushing. Slow- or \"sustained\"-release forms of niacin have been developed to lessen these side effects.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin in medicinal doses can cause modest elevations in serum transaminase and unconjugated bilirubin, both biomarkers of liver injury. The increases usually resolve even when drug intake is continued. However, less commonly, the sustained release form of the drug can lead to serious hepatotoxicity, with onset in days to weeks. Early symptoms of serious liver damage include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, followed by jaundice and pruritus. The mechanism is thought to be a direct toxicity of elevated serum niacin. Lowering dose or switching to the immediate release form can resolve symptoms. In rare instances the injury is severe, and progresses to liver failure.",
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"plaintext": "The high doses of niacin used to treat hyperlipidemia have been shown to elevate fasting blood glucose in people with type 2 diabetes. Long-term niacin therapy was also associated with an increase in the risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes.",
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"plaintext": "High doses of niacin can also cause niacin maculopathy, a thickening of the macula and retina, which leads to blurred vision and blindness. This maculopathy is reversible after niacin intake ceases. Niaspan, the slow-release product, has been associated with a reduction in platelet content and a modest increase in prothrombin time.",
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"plaintext": "Activating HCA2 has effects other than lowering serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations: antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, improved endothelial function and plaque stability, all of which counter development and progression of atherosclerosis.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin inhibits cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2E1, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Niacin produces a rise in serum unconjugated bilirubin in normal individuals and in those with Gilbert's Syndrome. However, in the Gilbert's Syndrome, the rise in bilirubin is higher and clearance is delayed longer than in normal people. One test used to aid in diagnosing Gilbert's Syndrome involves intravenous administration of nicotinic acid (niacin) in a dose of 50mg over a period of 30 seconds.",
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"plaintext": "Both niacin and niacinamide are rapidly absorbed from the stomach and small intestine. Absorption is facilitated by sodium-dependent diffusion, and at higher intakes, via passive diffusion. Unlike some other vitamins, the percent absorbed does not decrease with increasing dose, so that even at amounts of 3-4 grams, absorption is nearly complete. With a one gram dose, peak plasma concentrations of 15 to 30 μg/mL are reached within 30 to 60 minutes. Approximately 88% of an oral pharmacologic dose is eliminated by the kidneys as unchanged niacin or nicotinuric acid, its primary metabolite. The plasma elimination half-life of niacin ranges from 20 to 45 minutes.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin and nicotinamide are both converted into the coenzyme NAD. NAD converts to NADP by phosphorylation in the presence of the enzyme NAD+ kinase. High energy requirements (brain) or high turnover rate (gut, skin) organs are usually the most susceptible to their deficiency. In the liver, niacinamide is converted to storage nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). As needed, liver NAD is hydrolyzed to niacinamide and niacin for transport to tissues, there reconverted to NAD to serve as an enzyme cofactor. Excess niacin is methylated in the liver to N1-methylnicotinamide (NMN) and excreted in urine as such or as the oxidized metabolite N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide (2-pyridone). Decreased urinary content of these metabolites is a measure of niacin deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to absorbing niacin from diet, niacin can be synthesized from the essential amino acid tryptophan, a five-step process with the penultimate compound being quinolinic acid (see figure). Some bacteria and plants utilize aspartic acid in a pathway that also goes to quinolinic acid. For humans, the efficiency of conversion is estimated as requiring 60mg of tryptophan to make 1mg of niacin. Riboflavin, vitamin B6 and iron are required for the process. Pellagra is a consequence of a corn-dominant diet because the niacin in corn is poorly bioavailable and corn proteins are low in tryptophan compared to wheat and rice proteins.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotinic acid was first synthesized in 1867 by oxidative degradation of nicotine. Niacin is prepared by hydrolysis of nicotinonitrile, which, as described above, is generated by oxidation of 3-picoline. Oxidation can be effected by air, but ammoxidation is more efficient. In the latter process, nicotinonitrile is produced by ammoxidation of 3-methylpyridine. Nitrile hydratase is then used to catalyze nicotinonitrile to nicotinamide, which can be converted to niacin. Alternatively, ammonia, acetic acid and paraldehyde are used to make 5-ethyl-2-methyl-pyridine, which is then oxidized to niacin. New \"greener\" catalysts are being tested using manganese-substituted aluminophosphates that use acetyl peroxyborate as non-corrosive oxidant, avoiding producing nitrogen oxides as do traditional ammoxidations.",
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"plaintext": "The demand for commercial production includes for animal feed and for food fortification meant for human consumption. According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, worldwide 31,000 tons of nicotinamide were sold in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "This colorless, water-soluble solid is a derivative of pyridine, with a carboxyl group (COOH) at the 3-position. Other forms of vitamin B3 include the corresponding amide nicotinamide (niacinamide), where the carboxyl group has been replaced by a carboxamide group ().",
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"plaintext": "Niacin is incorporated into multi-vitamin and sold as a single-ingredient dietary supplement. The latter can be immediate or slow release.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotinamide (niacinamide) is used to treat niacin deficiency because it does not cause the flushing adverse reaction seen with niacin. Nicotinamide may be toxic to the liver at doses exceeding 3g/day for adults.",
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"plaintext": "Prescription products can be immediate release (Niacor, 500mg tablets) or extended release (Niaspan, 500 and 1000mg tablets). Niaspan has a film coating that delays release of the niacin, resulting in an absorption over a period of 8–12 hours. This reduces vasodilation and flushing side effects, but increases the risk of hepatotoxicity compared to the immediate release drug.",
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"plaintext": "Prescription niacin in combination with statin drugs (discontinued) is described above. A combination of niacin and laropiprant had been approved for use in Europe and marketed as Tredaptive. Laropiprant is a prostaglandin D2 binding drug shown to reduce niacin-induced vasodilation and flushing side effects. A clinical trial showed no additional efficacy of Tredaptive in lowering cholesterol when used together with other statin drugs, but did show an increase in other side effects. The study resulted in the withdrawal of Tredaptive from the international market.",
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"plaintext": "One form of dietary supplement sold in the US is inositol hexanicotinate (IHN), also called inositol nicotinate. This is inositol that has been esterified with niacin on all six of inositol's alcohol groups. IHN is usually sold as \"flush-free\" or \"no-flush\" niacin in units of 250, 500, or 1000mg/tablets or capsules. In the US, it is sold as an over-the-counter formulation, and often is marketed and labeled as niacin, thus misleading consumers into thinking they are getting an active form of the medication. While this form of niacin does not cause the flushing associated with the immediate-release products, there is not enough evidence to recommend IHN to treat hyperlipidemia.",
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"plaintext": "Niacin as a chemical compound was first described by chemist Hugo Weidel in 1873 in his studies of nicotine, but that predated by many years the concept of food components other than protein, fat and carbohydrates that were essential for life. Vitamin nomenclature was initially alphabetical, with Elmer McCollum calling these fat-soluble A and water-soluble B. Over time, eight chemically distinct, water-soluble B vitamins were isolated and numbered, with niacin as vitamin B3.",
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"plaintext": "Corn (maize) became a staple food in the southeast United States and in parts of Europe. A disease that was characterized by dermatitis of sunlight-exposed skin was described in Spain in 1735 by Gaspar Casal. He attributed the cause to poor diet. In northern Italy it was named \"pellagra\" from the Lombard language (agra = holly-like or serum-like; pell = skin). In time, the disease was more closely linked specifically to corn. In the US, Joseph Goldberger was assigned to study pellagra by the Surgeon General of the United States. His studies confirmed a corn-based diet as the culprit, but he did not identify the root cause.",
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"plaintext": "Nicotinic acid was extracted from liver by biochemist Conrad Elvehjem in 1937. He later identified the active ingredient, referring to it as \"pellagra-preventing factor\" and the \"anti-blacktongue factor.\" It was also referred to as \"vitamin PP\", \"vitamin P-P\" and \"PP-factor\", all derived from the term \"pellagra-preventive factor\". In the late 1930s, studies by Tom Douglas Spies, Marion Blankenhorn, and Clark Cooper confirmed that niacin cured pellagra in humans. The prevalence of the disease was greatly reduced as a result.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, when flour enrichment with nicotinic acid began, a headline in the popular press said \"Tobacco in Your Bread.\" In response, the Council on Foods and Nutrition of the American Medical Association approved of the Food and Nutrition Board's new names niacin and niacin amide for use primarily by non-scientists. It was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate nicotinic acid from nicotine, to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins. The resulting name niacin was derived from cotinic id + vitam. ",
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"plaintext": "Carpenter found in 1951, that niacin in corn is biologically unavailable, and can be released only in very alkaline lime water of pH 11. This explains why a Latin-American culture that used alkali-treated cornmeal to make tortilla was not at risk for niacin deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "In 1955, Altschul and colleagues described large amounts of niacin as having a lipid-lowering property. As such, niacin is the oldest known lipid-lowering drug. Lovastatin, the first 'statin' drug, was first marketed in 1987.",
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"plaintext": "In animal models and in vitro, niacin produces marked anti-inflammatory effects in a variety of tissues– including the brain, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and vascular tissue– through the activation of hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), also known as niacin receptor 1 (NIACR1). Unlike niacin, nicotinamide does not activate NIACR1; however, both niacin and nicotinamide activate the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in vitro.",
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"plaintext": "Reflecting family influences, Mitterrand started political life on the Catholic nationalist right. He served under the Vichy Regime during its earlier years. Subsequently he joined the Resistance, moved to the left, and held ministerial office several times under the Fourth Republic. Mitterrand opposed Charles de Gaulle's establishment of the Fifth Republic. Although at times a politically isolated figure, he outmanoeuvered rivals to become the left's standard bearer in the 1965 and 1974 presidential elections, before being elected president in the 1981 presidential election. He was re-elected in 1988 and remained in office until 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Mitterrand invited the Communist Party into his first government, which was a controversial decision at the time. In the event, the Communists were boxed in as junior partners and, rather than taking advantage, saw their support erode. They left the cabinet in 1984. Early in his first term, he followed a radical left-wing economic agenda, including nationalisation of key firms, but after two years, with the economy in crisis, he reversed course. He pushed a socially liberal agenda with reforms such as the abolition of the death penalty, the 39-hour work week, and the end of a government monopoly in radio and television broadcasting. His foreign and defense policies built on those of his Gaullist predecessors, except as regards their reluctance to support European integration, which he reversed. His partnership with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl advanced European integration via the Maastricht Treaty, and he reluctantly accepted German reunification. During his time in office, he was a strong promoter of culture and implemented a range of costly \"Grands Projets\". He was the first French President to appoint a female Prime Minister, Édith Cresson, in 1991. Mitterrand was twice forced by the loss of a parliamentary majority into \"cohabitation governments\" with conservative cabinets led, respectively, by Jacques Chirac (1986–1988), and Édouard Balladur (1993–1995). Less than eight months after leaving office, he died from the prostate cancer he had successfully concealed for most of his presidency.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond making the French Left electable, François Mitterrand presided over the rise of the Socialist Party to dominance of the left, and the decline of the once-mighty Communist Party. (As a share of the popular vote in the first presidential round, the Communists shrank from a peak of 21.27% in 1969 to 8.66% in 1995, at the end of Mitterrand's second term.)",
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"plaintext": "François Marie Adrien Maurice Mitterrand was born on 26 October 1916 in Jarnac, Charente, the son of Joseph Mitterrand and Yvonne Lorrain. His family was devoutly Catholic and conservative. His father worked as an engineer for the Compagnie Paris Orléans railway. He had three brothers, Robert, Jacques, and Philippe, and four sisters, Antoinette, Marie-Josèphe, Colette, and Geneviève.",
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"plaintext": "Mitterrand's wife, Danielle Mitterrand (née Gouze, 1924–2011), came from a socialist background and worked for various left-wing causes. They married on 24 October 1944 and had three sons: Pascal (10 June – 17 September 1945), Jean-Christophe, born in 1946, and Gilbert, born on 4 February 1949. He also had two children as results of extra-marital affairs: an acknowledged daughter, Mazarine (born 1974), with his mistress Anne Pingeot, and an unacknowledged son, Hravn Forsne (born 1988), with Swedish journalist .",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand's nephew Frédéric Mitterrand is a journalist, Minister of Culture and Communications under Nicolas Sarkozy (and a supporter of Jacques Chirac, former French President), and his wife's brother-in-law Roger Hanin was a well-known French actor.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand studied from 1925 to 1934 in the Collège Saint-Paul in Angoulême, where he became a member of the Jeunesse Etudiante Chrétienne (JEC), the student organisation of Action catholique. Arriving in Paris in autumn 1934, he then went to the École Libre des Sciences Politiques until 1937, where he obtained his diploma in July of that year. François Mitterrand took membership for about a year in the Volontaires nationaux (National Volunteers), an organisation related to François de la Rocque's far-right league, the Croix de Feu; the league had just participated in the 6 February 1934 riots which led to the fall of the second Cartel des Gauches (Left-Wing Coalition).",
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"plaintext": "Contrary to some reports, François Mitterrand never became a formal member of the French Social Party (PSF) which was the successor to the Croix de Feu and may be considered the first French right-wing mass party. However, he did write news articles in the L'Echo de Paris newspaper, which was close to the PSF. He participated in the demonstrations against the \"invasion métèque \" in February 1935 and then in those against law teacher Gaston Jèze, who had been nominated as juridical counsellor of Ethiopia's Negus, in January 1936.",
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"plaintext": "When François Mitterrand's involvement in these conservative nationalist movements was revealed in the 1990s, he attributed his actions to the milieu of his youth. He furthermore had some personal and family relations with members of the Cagoule, a far-right terrorist group in the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand then served his conscription from 1937 to 1939 in the 23rd régiment d'infanterie coloniale. In 1938, he became the best friend of Georges Dayan, a Jewish socialist, whom he saved from anti-Semitic aggressions by the national-royalist movement Action française. His friendship with Dayan caused Mitterrand to begin to question some of his nationalist ideas. Finishing his law studies, he was sent in September 1939 to the Maginot line near Montmédy, with the rank of Sergeant-chief (infantry sergeant). He became engaged to Marie-Louise Terrasse (future actress and television presenter Catherine Langeais) in May 1940, when she was 16, but she broke it off in January 1942. Following an observation of Nazi concentration camps at the end of World War II, François Mitterrand became an agnostic.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand was at the end of his national service when the war broke out. He fought as an infantry sergeant and was injured and captured by the Germans on 14 June 1940. He was held prisoner at Stalag IXA near Ziegenhain (today part of Schwalmstadt, a town near Kassel in Hesse). François Mitterrand became involved in the social organisation for the POWs in the camp. He claims this, and the influence of the people he met there, began to change his political ideas, moving him towards the left. He had two failed escape attempts in March and then November 1941 before he finally escaped on 16 December 1941, returning to France on foot. In December 1941 he arrived home in the unoccupied zone controlled by the French. With help from a friend of his mother he got a job as a mid-level functionary of the Vichy government, looking after the interests of POWs. This was very unusual for an escaped prisoner, and he later claimed to have served as a spy for the Free French Forces.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand worked from January to April 1942 for the (Legion of French combatants and volunteers of the national revolution) as a civil servant on a temporary contract. François Mitterrand worked under Jean-Paul Favre de Thierrens who was a spy for the British secret service. He then moved to the Commissariat au reclassement des prisonniers de guerre (Service for the orientation of POWS). During this period, François Mitterrand was aware of Thierrens's activities and may have helped in his disinformation campaign. At the same time, he published an article detailing his time as a POW in the magazine France, revue de l'État nouveau (the magazine was published as propaganda by the Vichy Regime).",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand has been called a \"\" (an expression used by the historian Jean-Pierre Azéma to describe people who supported Marshal Philippe Pétain, the head of the Vichy Regime, before 1943, but subsequently rejected the Vichy Regime).",
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"plaintext": "From spring 1942, he met other escaped POWs , Max Varenne, and Dr. , under whose influence he became involved with the resistance. In April, François Mitterrand and Fric caused a major disturbance in a public meeting held by the collaborator Georges Claude. From mid-1942, he sent false papers to POWs in Germany and on 12 June and 15 August 1942, he joined meetings at the Château de Montmaur which formed the base of his future network for the resistance. From September, he made contact with Free French Forces, but clashed with , General Charles de Gaulle's nephew (and de Gaulle's candidate to head-up all POW-related resistance organizations). On 15 October 1942, François Mitterrand and Marcel Barrois (a member of the resistance deported in 1944) met Marshal Philippe Pétain along with other members of the Comité d'entraide aux prisonniers rapatriés de l'Allier (Help group for repatriated POWs in the department of Allier). By the end of 1942, François Mitterrand met Pierre Guillain de Bénouville, an old friend from his days with La Cagoule. Bénouville was a member of the resistance groups Combat and Noyautage des administrations publiques (NAP).",
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"plaintext": "In late 1942, the non-occupied zone was invaded by the Germans. François Mitterrand left the Commissariat in January 1943, when his boss , another , was replaced by the collaborator André Masson, but he remained in charge of the centres d'entraides. In the spring of 1943, along with Gabriel Jeantet, a member of Marshal Pétain's cabinet, and Simon Arbellot (both former members of La Cagoule), François Mitterrand received the Order of the Francisque (the honorific distinction of the Vichy Regime).",
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"plaintext": "Debate rages in France as to the significance of this. When François Mitterrand's Vichy past was exposed in the 1950s, he at first denied having received the Francisque (some sources say he was designated for the award, but never received the medal because he went into hiding before the ceremony took place). Socialist Resistance leader Jean Pierre-Bloch says that François Mitterrand was ordered to accept the medal as cover for his work in the resistance. Pierre Moscovici and Jacques Attali remain skeptical of François Mitterrand's beliefs at this time, accusing him of having at best a \"foot in each camp\" until he was sure who the winner would be. They noted François Mitterrand's friendship with René Bousquet and the wreaths he was said to have placed on Pétain's tomb in later years (see below) as examples of his ambivalent attitude.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, while President of France, François Mitterrand maintained that the roundup of Jews who were then deported to death camps during the war was solely the work of \"Vichy France\", an entity distinct from France: \"The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible.\" This position was rejected by President Jacques Chirac in 1995 who stated that it was time that France faced up to its past and he acknowledged the role of the state – \"4,500 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis\" – in the Holocaust. He added that the \"criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French State\".",
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"plaintext": "President Emmanuel Macron was even more specific as to the State's responsibility for the 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of 13,000 Jews for deportation to concentration camps. It was indeed \"France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death.\" It was done by \"French police collaborating with the Nazis\", he said on 16 July 2017. \"It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it’s convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand built up a resistance network, composed mainly of former POWs. The POWs National Rally (, RNPG) was affiliated with General Henri Giraud, a former POW who had escaped from a German prison and made his way across Germany back to the Allied forces. In 1943 Giraud was contesting with de Gaulle for the leadership of the French Resistance.",
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"plaintext": "From the beginning of 1943, François Mitterrand had contacts with a powerful resistance group called the Organisation de résistance de l'armée (ORA), organised by former French military personnel. From this time on, François Mitterrand could act as a member of the ORA, moreover he set up his own RNPG network with Pinot in February and he obtained funding for his own network. In March, François Mitterrand met Henri Frenay, who encouraged the resistance in France to support François Mitterrand over Michel Cailliau. 28 May 1943, when François Mitterrand met with Gaullist , is generally taken as the date François Mitterrand split with Vichy. According to Dechartre, the meeting on 28 May 1943 was set up because \"there were three movements [of Résistance:] […] the Gaullist, the communist, and one from support centers […] hence I was assigned the mission to prepare what would be called afterwards the merger [of the three movements].\"",
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"plaintext": "During 1943, the RNPG gradually changed from providing false papers to information-gathering for France libre. Pierre de Bénouville said, \"François Mitterrand created a true spy network in the POW camps which gave us information, often decisive, about what was going on behind the German borders.\" On 10 July François Mitterrand and Piatzook (a militant communist) interrupted a public meeting in the Salle Wagram in Paris. The meeting was about allowing French POWs to go home if they were replaced by young French men forced to go and work in Germany (in French this was called \"la relève\"). When André Masson began to talk about \"la trahison des gaullistes\" (the Gaullist treason), François Mitterrand stood up in the audience and shouted him down, saying Masson had no right to talk on behalf of POWs and calling la relève a \"con\" (i.e., something stupid). Mitterrand avoided arrest as Piatzook covered his escape.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1943 the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) raided a flat in Vichy, where they hoped to arrest François Morland, a member of the resistance. \"Morland\" was François Mitterrand's cover name. He also used Purgon, Monnier, Laroche, Captain François, Arnaud et Albre as cover names. The man they arrested was Pol Pilven, a member of the resistance who was to survive the war in a concentration camp. François Mitterrand was in Paris at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Warned by his friends, François Mitterrand escaped to London aboard a Lysander plane on 15 November 1943 (piloted by then-Squadron Leader Lewis Hodges). He promoted his movement to the British and American Authorities, but he was sent to Algiers, where he met de Gaulle, by then the uncontested leader of the Free French. The two men clashed, de Gaulle refused to jeopardize the Resistance by including a movement that gathered information from POWs. Later Mitterrand refused to merge his group with other POW movements if de Gaulle's nephew Cailliau was to be the leader. Under the influence of Henri Frenay, de Gaulle finally agreed to merge his nephew's network and the RNPG with Mitterrand in charge. Thus the RNPG was listed in the French Force organization from spring 1944.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand returned to France by boat via England. In Paris, the three Resistance groups made up of POWs (Communists, Gaullists, RNPG) finally merged as the POWs and Deportees National Movement (, MNPGD) and Mitterrand took the lead. In his memoirs, he says that he had started this organisation while he was still officially working for the Vichy Regime. From 27 November 1943 Mitterrand worked for the Bureau central de renseignements et d'action. In December 1943 François Mitterrand ordered the execution of Henri Marlin (who was about to order attacks on the \"Maquis\") by Jacques Paris and Jean Munier, who later hid out with François Mitterrand's father.",
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"plaintext": "After a second visit to London in February 1944, François Mitterrand took part in the liberation of Paris in August; he took over the headquarters of Commissariat général aux prisonniers de guerre (general office for POW, the ministry he was working for), immediately he took up the vacant post of secretary general of POWs. When de Gaulle entered Paris following the Liberation, he was introduced to various men who were to be part of the provisional government. Among them was François Mitterrand, when they came face to face, de Gaulle is said to have muttered: \"You again!\" He dismissed François Mitterrand 2 weeks later.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1944 François Mitterrand and Jacques Foccart developed a plan to liberate the POW and concentration camps. This was called operation Vicarage. On the orders of de Gaulle, in April 1945 François Mitterrand accompanied General Lewis as the French representative at the liberation of the camps at Kaufering and Dachau. By chance Mitterrand discovered his friend and member of his network, Robert Antelme, suffering from typhus. Antelme was restricted to the camp to prevent the spread of disease, but François Mitterrand arranged for his \"escape\" and sent him back to France for treatment.",
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"plaintext": "After the war François Mitterrand quickly moved back into politics. At the June 1946 legislative election, he led the list of the Rally of the Republican Lefts (Rassemblement des gauches républicaines, RGR) in the Western suburb of Paris, but he was not elected. The RGR was an electoral entity composed of the Radical Party, the centrist Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance (Union démocratique et socialiste de la Résistance, UDSR) and several conservative groupings. It opposed the policy of the \"Three-parties alliance\" (Communists, Socialists and Christian Democrats).",
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"plaintext": "In the November 1946 legislative election, he succeeded in winning a seat as deputy from the Nièvre département. To be elected, he had to win a seat at the expense of the French Communist Party (PCF). As leader of the RGR list, he led a very anti-communist campaign. He became a member of the UDSR party. In January 1947, he joined the cabinet as War Veterans Minister. He held various offices in the Fourth Republic as a Deputy and as a Minister (holding eleven different portfolios in total), including as a mayor of Château-Chinon from 1959 to 1981.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1948 François Mitterrand participated in the Congress of The Hague, together with Konrad Adenauer, Winston Churchill, Harold Macmillan, Paul-Henri Spaak, Albert Coppé and Altiero Spinelli. It originated the European Movement.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1953 François Mitterrand attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Seated next to the elderly Princess Marie Bonaparte, he reported having spent much of the ceremony being psychoanalyzed by her.",
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"plaintext": "As Interior Minister in Pierre Mendès-France's cabinet (1954–1955), François Mitterrand had to direct the response to the Algerian War of Independence. He claimed: \"Algeria is France.\" He was suspected of being the informer of the Communist Party in the cabinet. This rumour was spread by the former Paris police prefect, who had been dismissed by him. The suspicions were dismissed by subsequent investigations.",
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"plaintext": "The UDSR joined the Republican Front, a centre-left coalition, which won the 1956 legislative election. As Justice Minister (1956–1957), François Mitterrand allowed the expansion of martial law in the Algerian conflict. Unlike other ministers (including Mendès-France), who criticised the repressive policy in Algeria, he remained in Guy Mollet's cabinet until its end. As Minister of Justice, he had a role in 45 executions of the Algerian natives, recommending President René Coty to reject clemency in 80% of the cases, an action he later came to regret. François Mitterrand's role in confirming the death sentences of FLN rebels convicted by French courts of terrorism and later in abolishing the death penalty in 1981 led the British writer Anthony Daniels (writing under his pseudonym of Theodore Dalrymple) to accuse François Mitterrand of being an unprincipled opportunist, a cynical politician who proudly confirmed death sentences of FLN terrorists in the 1950s when it was popular and who only came to champion abolishing the death penalty when this was popular with the French people.",
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"plaintext": "As Minister of Justice he was an official representative of France during the wedding of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and actress Grace Kelly. Under the Fourth Republic, he was representative of a generation of young ambitious politicians. He appeared as a possible future Prime Minister.",
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"plaintext": "In 1958, François Mitterrand was one of the few to object to the nomination of Charles de Gaulle as head of government, and to de Gaulle's plan for a Fifth Republic. He justified his opposition by the circumstances of de Gaulle's comeback: the 13 May 1958 quasi-putsch and military pressure. In September 1958, determinedly opposed to Charles de Gaulle, François Mitterrand made an appeal to vote \"no\" in the referendum over the Constitution, which was nevertheless adopted on 4 October 1958. This defeated coalition of the \"No\" was composed of the PCF and some left-wing republican politicians (such as Pierre Mendès-France and François Mitterrand).",
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"plaintext": "This attitude may have been a factor in François Mitterrand's losing his seat in the 1958 elections, beginning a long \"crossing of the desert\" (this term is usually applied to de Gaulle's decline in influence for a similar period). Indeed, in the second round of the legislative election, François Mitterrand was supported by the Communists but the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) refused to withdraw its candidate. This division caused the election of the Gaullist candidate. One year later, he was elected to represent Nièvre in the Senate, where he was part of the Group of the Democratic Left. At the same time, he was not admitted to the ranks of the Unified Socialist Party (Parti socialiste unifié, PSU) which was created by Mendès-France, former internal opponents of Mollet and reform-minded former members of the Communist Party. The PSU leaders justified their decision by referring to his non-resignation from Mollet's cabinet and by his past in Vichy.",
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"plaintext": "Also in that same year, on the Avenue de l'Observatoire in Paris, François Mitterrand claimed to have escaped an assassin's bullet by diving behind a hedge, in what became known as the Observatory Affair. The incident brought him a great deal of publicity, initially boosting his political ambitions. Some of his critics claimed, however, that he had staged the incident himself, resulting in a backlash against François Mitterrand. He later said he had earlier been warned by right-wing deputy Robert Pesquet that he was the target of an Algérie française death squad and accused Prime Minister Michel Debré of being its instigator. Before his death, Pesquet claimed that François Mitterrand had set up a fake attempt on his life. Prosecution was initiated against François Mitterrand but was later dropped. Nonetheless, the Observatory Affair cast a lasting shadow over François Mitterrand's reputation. Years later in 1965, when François Mitterrand emerged as the challenger to de Gaulle in the second round of the presidential elections, de Gaulle was urged by an aide to use the Observatory Affair to discredit his opponent. \"No, and don't insist\" was the General's response, \"It would be wrong to demean the office of the Presidency, since one day he [Mitterrand] may have the job.\"",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand visited China in 1961, during the worst of the Great Chinese Famine, but denied the existence of starvation.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1962 election, François Mitterrand regained his seat in the National Assembly with the support of the PCF and the SFIO. Practicing left unity in Nièvre, he advocated the rallying of left-wing forces at the national level, including the PCF, in order to challenge Gaullist domination. Two years later, he became the president (chairman) of the General Council of Nièvre. While the opposition to De Gaulle organized in clubs, he founded his own group, the Convention of Republican Institutions (Convention des institutions républicaines, CIR). He reinforced his position as a left-wing opponent to Charles de Gaulle in publishing Le Coup d'État permanent (The permanent coup, 1964), which criticized de Gaulle's personal power, the weaknesses of Parliament and of the government, the President's exclusive control of foreign affairs, and defence, etc.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, François Mitterrand was the first left-wing politician who saw the presidential election by universal suffrage as a way to defeat the opposition leadership. Not a member of any specific political party, his candidacy for presidency was accepted by all left-wing parties (the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), French Communist Party (PCF), Radical-Socialist Party (PR) and Unified Socialist Party (PSU)). He ended the cordon sanitaire of the PCF which the party had been subject to since 1947. For the SFIO leader Guy Mollet, Mitterrand's candidacy prevented Gaston Defferre, his rival in the SFIO, from running for the presidency. Furthermore, François Mitterrand was a lone figure, so he did not appear as a danger to the left-wing parties' staff members.",
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"plaintext": "De Gaulle was expected to win in the first round, but François Mitterrand received 31.7% of the vote, denying De Gaulle a first-round victory. François Mitterrand was supported in the second round by the left and other anti-Gaullists: centrist Jean Monnet, moderate conservative Paul Reynaud and Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour, an extreme right-winger and the lawyer who had defended Raoul Salan, one of the four generals who had organized the 1961 Algiers putsch during the Algerian War.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand received 44.8% of votes in the second round and de Gaulle, with the majority, was thus elected for another term, but this defeat was regarded as honourable, for no one was really expected to defeat de Gaulle. François Mitterrand took the lead of a centre-left alliance: the Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left (Fédération de la gauche démocrate et socialiste, FGDS). It was composed of the SFIO, the Radicals and several left-wing republican clubs (such the CIR of François Mitterrand).",
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"plaintext": "In the legislative election of March 1967, the system where all candidates who failed to pass a 10% threshold in the first round were eliminated from the second round favoured the pro-Gaullist majority, which faced a split opposition (PCF, FGDS and centrists of Jacques Duhamel). Nevertheless, the parties of the left managed to gain 63 seats more than previously for a total of 194. The Communists remained the largest left-wing group with 22.5% of votes. The governing coalition won with its majority reduced by only one seat (247 seats out of 487).",
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"plaintext": "In Paris, the Left (FGDS, PSU, PCF) managed to win more votes in the first round than the two governing parties (46% against 42.6%) while the Democratic Centre of Duhamel got 7% of votes. But with 38% of votes, de Gaulle's Union for the Fifth Republic remained the leading French party.",
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"plaintext": "During the May 1968 governmental crisis, François Mitterrand held a press conference to announce his candidacy if a new presidential election was held. But after the Gaullist demonstration on the Champs-Elysées, de Gaulle dissolved the Assembly and called for a legislative election instead. In this election, the right wing won its largest majority since the Bloc National in 1919.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand was accused of being responsible for this huge legislative defeat and the FGDS split. In 1969, François Mitterrand could not run for the Presidency: Guy Mollet refused to give him the support of the SFIO. The left wing was eliminated in the first round, with the Socialist candidate Gaston Defferre winning a humiliating 5.1 percent of the total vote. Georges Pompidou faced the centrist Alain Poher in the second round.",
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"plaintext": "After the FGDS's implosion, François Mitterrand turned to the Socialist Party (Parti socialiste or PS). In June 1971, at the time of the Epinay Congress, the CIR joined the PS, which had succeeded the SFIO in 1969. The executive of the PS was then dominated by Guy Mollet's supporters. They proposed an \"ideological dialogue\" with the Communists. For François Mitterrand, an electoral alliance with the Communists was necessary to rise to power. With this in mind, François Mitterrand obtained the support of all the internal opponents to Mollet's faction and was elected as the first secretary of the PS. At the 1971 congress, he declared: \"Whoever does not accept the break with the established order, with capitalist society, cannot be an adherent of the Socialist Party.\"",
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"plaintext": "In June 1972, François Mitterrand signed the Common Programme of Government with the Communist Georges Marchais and the Left Radical Robert Fabre. With this programme, he led the 1973 legislative campaign of the \"Union of the Left\".",
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"plaintext": "At the 1974 presidential election, François Mitterrand received 43.2% of the vote in the first round, as the common candidate of the left. He faced Valéry Giscard d'Estaing in the second round. During the national TV debate, Giscard d'Estaing criticised him as being \"a man of the past\", due to his long political career. François Mitterrand was narrowly defeated by Giscard d'Estaing, François Mitterrand receiving 49.19% and Giscard 50.81%.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, the Communist and Socialist parties failed to update the Common Programme, then lost the 1978 legislative election. While the Socialists took the leading position on the left, by obtaining more votes than the Communists for the first time since 1936, the leadership of François Mitterrand was challenged by an internal opposition led by Michel Rocard who criticized the programme of the PS as being \"archaic\" and \"unrealistic\". The polls indicated Rocard was more popular than François Mitterrand. Nevertheless, François Mitterrand won the vote at the Party's Metz Congress (1979) and Rocard renounced his candidacy for the 1981 presidential election.",
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"plaintext": "For his third candidacy for presidency, François Mitterrand was not supported by the PCF but only by the PS. François Mitterrand projected a reassuring image with the slogan \"the quiet force\". He campaigned for \"another politics\", based on the Socialist programme 110 Propositions for France, and denounced the performance of the incumbent president. Furthermore, he benefited from divisions in the right-wing majority. He obtained 25.85% of votes in the first round (against 15% for the PCF candidate Georges Marchais), then defeated President Giscard d'Estaing in the second round, with 51.76%. He became the first left-wing politician elected President of France by universal suffrage.",
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"plaintext": "In the presidential election of 10 May 1981, François Mitterrand became the first socialist President of the Fifth Republic, and his government became the first left-wing government in 23 years. He named Pierre Mauroy as Prime Minister and organised a new legislative election. The Socialists obtained an absolute parliamentary majority, and four Communists joined the cabinet.",
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"plaintext": "The beginning of his first term was marked by a left-wing economic policy based on the 110 Propositions for France and the 1972 Common Programme between the Socialist Party, the Communist Party and the Left Radical Party. This included several nationalizations, a 10% increase in the SMIC (minimum wage), a 39-hour work week, 5 weeks holiday per year, the creation of the solidarity tax on wealth, an increase in social benefits, and the extension of workers' rights to consultation and information about their employers (through the Auroux Act). The objective was to boost economic demand and thus economic activity (Keynesianism), but the stimulative fiscal policy implemented by the Mauroy government was in contradiction with the constrained monetary policy implemented by the Bank of France. However, unemployment continued to grow, and the franc was devalued three times.",
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"plaintext": "Old age pensions were raised by 300 francs per month to 1,700 francs for a single person and to 3,700 francs for a couple, while health insurance benefits were made more widely available to unemployed persons and part-time employees. Housing allocations for the low-paid were raised by 25% in 1981, and in the two years following May 1981 family allowances were increased by 44% for families with 3 children and by 81% for families with 2 children. In 1981, the purchasing power of social transfers went up by 4.5% and by 7.6% in 1982. In addition, the minimum wage (which affected 1.7million employees) was increased by 15% in real terms between May 1981 and December 1982.",
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"plaintext": "Major efforts were made to improve access to housing and health care, while the government also attempted to tackle working-class under-achievement in schools by reinforcing the comprehensive system, modernising the curriculum and reducing streaming. As a means of increasing political participation, the government increased the financial allowances of local politicians, who also became entitled to paid leave from their jobs to attend courses in public administration. Allowances for the handicapped were improved, while improvements were also made in the pay and conditions for those serving in the army. A decree of January 1982 provided for \"solidarity contracts\" whereby firms would be subsidised for introducing part-time work or early retirement if they also allowed the creation of new jobs, while a decree of March 1982 provided employees with the right to retire at the age of 60 on 50% of average earnings during their 10 best years of employment. In 1983, legislation was passed to encourage greater equality in the private sector. Firms now had to make an annual report on the training opportunities and employment conditions for women and present a statistical analysis of their position in the firm, whilst the works committee had to ensure that equality promoting measures are taken. In addition, a new benefit was introduced for unemployed workers who had exhausted their eligibility for unemployment insurance. In December 1982, a law was passed that restored to workers the right to elect administrators to social security funds, which had been eliminated by Charles De Gaulle in 1967.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand continued to promote the new technologies initiated by his predecessor Valéry Giscard d'Estaing: the TGV high speed train and the Minitel, a pre-World Wide Web interactive network similar to the web. The Minitel and the Paris-Lyon TGV line were inaugurated only a few weeks after the election. In addition, Government grants and loans for capital investment for modernisation were significantly increased.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand passed the first decentralization laws, the Defferre Act.",
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"plaintext": "After two years in office, François Mitterrand made a substantial u-turn in economic policies, with the March 1983 adoption of the so-called \"tournant de la rigueur\" (austerity turn). Priority was given to the struggle against inflation in order to remain competitive in the European Monetary System. Although there were two periods of mild economic reflation (first from 1984 to 1986 and again from 1988 to 1990), monetary and fiscal restraint was the essential policy orientation of François Mitterrand's presidency from 1983 onwards. Nevertheless, compared to the OECD average, fiscal policy in France remained relatively expansionary during the course of the two François Mitterrand presidencies.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, all members of the general pension scheme obtained the right to a full pension at the age of 60 payable at a rate of half the reference wage in return for 37.5 years contribution. The government agreed at the same time to improve the pension position of some public sector employees and to increase the real value of the minimum pension. In addition, later negotiations brought retirement at 60 years into the occupational schemes although the financial terms for doing so could only be agreed for a 7-year period. A comparison between 1981 and 1986 showed that the minimum state pension had increased by 64% for a couple and by 81% for one person. During that same period, family allowances had increased by 71% for three children and by 112% for two children. In addition, the single-parent allowance for mothers or fathers with one child had been increased by 103% and for two or more children by 52% for each child",
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"plaintext": "In order to mark the importance of the problems of the elderly, the government appointed a Secretary of State (attached to the Ministry of Social Affairs and National Solidarity) to carry special responsibility for them, and in an effort to try to relate policy to the felt needs of the elderly, it set up a central advisory committee to examine social policy from their point of view and carry out special studies and enquiries. This body became especially concerned with monitoring the attempts at coordination and encouraging policies which were aimed at helping he elderly stay at home instead of entering residential care.",
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"plaintext": "In the field of health care, some prescription charges were abolished, hospital administration was decentralised, workers' rights in the health service were reaffirmed, and equipment was provided for researchers. From 1983 onwards, wage-earners who had contributed to a pension fund for 37.5 years became eligible to retire on a full pension. This right was extended to the self-employed in 1984 and to farmers in 1986. People who had retired at the age of 60 were, however, not initially eligible for reductions on public transport until they reached the age of 65. The qualifying age for these reductions was, however, reduced to 62 in 1985. A number of illegal immigrants had their position regularized under the Socialists and the conditions pertaining to residence and work permits were eased. Educational programmes were implemented to help immigrant communities, while immigrants were allowed the right to free association. The Socialist government also opened up talks with the authorities in some of the main countries of origin, easing nationality rules in the public sector, associating representatives of migrant groups with public authority work, and established an Immigrants Council in 1984.",
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"plaintext": "Although the income limit for allowances varied according to the position of the child in the family and the number of dependent children, these ceilings were made more favourable in cases where both parents were working or where a single parent was in charge and were linked to changes in wage levels. Those taking parental leave to care for three or more children (provided that they fulfilled the rules for eligibility) also received certain benefits in kind, such as a non-taxable, non-means-tested benefit and priority on vocational training courses. A new boost was also given to research into family problems including an interest in the effects of changing family structures, of women’s employment and the impact of local social policies on family life. In addition, while a law on equal opportunities in employment was passed in July 1983 which prohibited all forms of unequal treatment regardless of the circumstances, together with providing for positive action plans to be established in major companies. In January 1984, a decree was made granting state aid to companies which implemented equality plans for staff. That same year, a law was passed that gave the regional Caissess des Allocations Familiales the task of collecting unpaid alimony, initially for lone parents and subsequently for remarried or cohabiting mothers.",
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"plaintext": "In the field of education, more resources were devoted to the educational system, with the education budgets of 1982, 1983, and 1984 increased by approximately 4% to 6% per year above the rate of inflation. From 1981 to 1983, the corps of teachers was increased by 30,000. Authorization was restored for a number of advanced undergraduate and graduate programmes which the previous centre-right minister Saunier-Seite had rejected on grounds of economy and \"rationalization\" of resources. Numerous initiatives were carried out such as the teaching of civics, the reintroduction of the teaching of French history and geography at the primary level, the introduction of new professional degrees, a partnership between schools and enterprises, and the introduction of computers in classrooms. Priority areas were set up in 1981 as part of a systematic effort to combat underachievement in schools, while technical education was encouraged. In addition, nursery education was expanded, while efforts by the Socialists to promote joint research between industry and the research agencies increased the number of such contracts by a half each year between 1982 and 1985, with a 29% increase in joint patents. The baccalauréat professionnel, introduced in 1985, enabled holders of a Brevet d'études professionnelles (or in some cases of a Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle) to continue for another two years and study for the baccalauréat.",
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"plaintext": "Several societal measures were ratified, such as the official decriminalization of homosexuality. The Minister of the Interior, Gaston Defferre, put an end to the registration of homosexuals, and the Communist Jack Ralite, Minister of Health, removed homosexuality from the list of mental disorders. The government also introduced the passage of the sexual majority to 15 years for all, abolishing the distinction, introduced in 1942, in the age of consent between homosexual and heterosexual relations. Homosexual lifestyle ceased to be a clause for cancellation of a residential lease.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand abolished the death penalty as soon as he took office (via the Badinter Act), as well as the \"anti-casseurs Act\" which instituted collective responsibility for acts of violence during demonstrations. He also dissolved the Cour de sûreté, a special high court, and enacted a massive regularization of illegal immigrants. Tighter regulations on the powers of police to stop, search and arrest were introduced, and the \"loi sécurité et liberté\" (a controversial public order act) was repealed. In addition, the legal aid system was improved.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, a law was passed to ensure that divorced women who were not in receipt of maintenance would be provided with assistance in recovering the shortfall in their income from their former husband. By 1986, particular attention was being focused on assisting women in single-parent families to get back into employment, in recognition of the growing problems associated with extra-marital births and marital breakdown. Parental leave was extended to firms with 100 employees in 1981 (previously, parental leave provision had been made in 1977 for firms employing at least 200 employees) and subsequently to all employees in 1984. From 1984 onwards, married women were obliged to sign tax returns, men and women were provided with equal rights in managing their common property and that of their children, and in 1985 they became responsible for each other’s debts.",
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"plaintext": "Childcare facilities were also expanded, with the number of places in crèches rising steadily between 1981 and 1986. In addition, the minimum wage was significantly increased. From 1981 to 1984, the SMIC rose by 125%, while prices went up by only 75% during that same period. Various measures were also introduced to mitigate the effects of rising unemployment. Between 1981 and 1986, there had been just over 800,000 young people placed on special work schemes, 800,000 early retirements, 200,000 enterprise allowance successes, and 30,000 retrained workers from declining industrial sectors.",
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"plaintext": "With respect to cultural policies, grants were allocated to non-profit associations and community cultural initiatives, Mitterrand liberalized the media, created the CSA media regulation agency, and authorized pirate radio and the first private TV (Canal+), giving rise to the private broadcasting sector.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of the theatre, some transfer of resources was made from the subsidy of the national theatres to the support for theatre companies which did not necessarily have an institutional home. A significant investment was made in music education with the creation of 5 new music schools in the departements and the revamping of the Conservatoire National de la Musique at Lyon, while the range and capacity of performance facilities in Paris was considerably increased, with the Cite Musicale de la Villette and the Opera de la Bastille allowing for specialist performance in a way that was lacking in Paris previously, and a 2,000 seat concert hall called le Zenith, which was designed primarily for rock music concerts but adapted for all uses.",
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"plaintext": "The Socialists continued the policies of their predecessors with the Grand Louvre project and the opening of the Picasso Museum at the Hotel Sale, while the museum budget was quadrupled and particular sums were set aside for the first time for large regional projects including the establishment of a number of new museums in the provinces such as the Ecomuseum at Chartres and the Museum of Prehistory at Carnac. A Fonds Regional des Acquisitions was established to assist provincial museums in the purchase of works of art, while the state actively continued an existing policy of encouraging bequests in lieu of death duties.",
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"plaintext": "Libraries and publishing benefited from new thinking and an injection of funds, while aid to authors and publishers was restructured and book prices were fixed once again, with the objective being to assist smaller publishing houses and specialist bookshops. The network of regional lending libraries was significantly reinforced, while financial assistance was provided for the export of French books. In addition, archaeology, ethnography and historical buildings and monuments all benefited from the general increase in resources.",
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"plaintext": "The Left lost the 1983 municipal elections and the 1984 European Parliament election. At the same time, the Savary Bill, to limit the financing of private schools by local communities, caused a political crisis. It was abandoned and Mauroy resigned in July 1984. Laurent Fabius succeeded him, and the Communists left the cabinet.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of foreign policy, François Mitterrand did not significantly deviate from his predecessors and he continued nuclear weapons testing in the South Pacific in spite of protests from various peace and environmentalist organizations. In 1985, French agents sank the Greenpeace-owned ex-trawler Rainbow Warrior while it was docked in Auckland, New Zealand which the group had used in demonstrations against nuclear tests, whaling, and seal hunting. One Greenpeace member was killed, and when news broke of the event, a major scandal erupted that led to the resignation of Defense Minister Charles Hernu. France subsequently paid reparations of 1.8million USD to Greenpeace.",
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"plaintext": "Before the 1986 legislative campaign, proportional representation was instituted in accordance with the 110 Propositions. It did not prevent, however, the victory of the Rally for the Republic/Union for French Democracy (RPR/UDF) coalition. François Mitterrand thus named the RPR leader Jacques Chirac as Prime Minister. This period of government, with a President and a Prime Minister who came from two opposite coalitions, was the first time that such a combination had occurred under the Fifth Republic, and came to be known as \"Cohabitation\".",
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"plaintext": "Chirac mostly handled domestic policy while François Mitterrand concentrated on his \"reserved domain\" of foreign affairs and defence. However, several conflicts erupted between the two. In one example, François Mitterrand refused to sign executive decrees of liberalisation, obliging Chirac to pass the measures through parliament instead. François Mitterrand also reportedly gave covert support to some social movements, notably the student revolt against the university reform (Devaquet Bill). Benefiting from the difficulties of Chirac's cabinet, the President's popularity increased.",
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"plaintext": "With the polls running in his favour, François Mitterrand announced his candidacy in the 1988 presidential election. He proposed a moderate programme (promising \"neither nationalisations nor liberalisation\") and advocated a \"united France,\" and laid out his policy priorities in his \"Letter to the French People.\" He obtained 34% of the votes in the first round, then faced Chirac in the second, and was re-elected with 54% of the votes. François Mitterrand thus became the first President to be elected twice by universal suffrage.",
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"plaintext": "Following his re-election, he named Michel Rocard as Prime Minister, in spite of their poor relations. Rocard led the moderate wing of the PS and he was the most popular of the Socialist politicians. François Mitterrand decided to organize a new legislative election. The PS obtained a relative parliamentary majority. Four centre-right politicians joined the cabinet.",
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"plaintext": "The second term was marked by the creation of the Insertion Minimum Revenue (RMI), which ensured a minimum level of income to those deprived of any other form of income; the restoring of the solidarity tax on wealth, which had been abolished by Chirac's cabinet; the institution of the Generalized social tax; the extension of parental leave up to the child's third birthday; the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy; the 1990 Gayssot Act on hate speech and Holocaust denial; the Besson law of 1990; the Mermaz Law of 1989;, the introduction of a private childcare allowance; the Urban Orientation Law of 1991; the Arpaillange Act on the financing of political parties; the reform of the penal code; the Matignon Agreements concerning New Caledonia; the Evin Act on smoking in public places; the extension of the age limit for family allowances to 18 years in 1990; and the 1989 Education Act which, amongst other measures, obliged local authorities to educate all children with disabilities. Several large architectural works were pursued, in what would become known as the Grands Projets of François Mitterrand with the building of the Louvre Pyramid, the Channel Tunnel, the Grande Arche at La Défense, the Bastille Opera, the Finance Ministry in Bercy, and the National Library of France. On 16 February 1993, President François Mitterrand inaugurated in Fréjus a memorial to the wars in Indochina.",
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"plaintext": "But the second term was also marked by rivalries within the PS and the split of the Mitterrandist group (at the Rennes Congress, where supporters of Laurent Fabius and Lionel Jospin clashed bitterly for control of the party), the scandals about the financing of the party, the contaminated blood scandal which implicated Laurent Fabius and former ministers Georgina Dufoix and Emond Hervé, and the Elysée wiretaps affairs.",
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"plaintext": "Disappointed with Rocard's apparent failure to enact the Socialists' programme, François Mitterrand dismissed Michel Rocard in 1991 and appointed Édith Cresson to replace him. She was the first woman to become Prime Minister in France, but proved a costly mistake due to her tendency for making acerbic and racist public remarks. After the Socialists experienced heavy losses in the 1992 regional elections, Cresson resigned from office. Her successor Pierre Bérégovoy promised to fight unemployment and corruption but he could not prevent the catastrophic defeat of the left in the 1993 legislative election. The Socialist Party suffered a crushing defeat with the right-wing parties winning 485 seats to the left's 95. He killed himself on 1 May 1993.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand named the former RPR Finance Minister Edouard Balladur as Prime Minister. The second \"cohabitation\" was less contentious than the first, because the two men knew they were not rivals for the next presidential election. By this point, François Mitterrand was nearly 80 years old and suffering from cancer in addition to the shock of his friend François de Grossouvre's suicide. His second and last term ended after the 1995 presidential election in May 1995 with the election of Jacques Chirac. Socialist candidate Lionel Jospin lost the presidential election.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, as President, François Mitterrand maintained the \"basic characteristic of a strong welfare base underpinned by a strong state.\" A United Nations Human Development report concluded that, from 1979 to 1989, France was the only country in the OECD (apart from Portugal) in which income inequalities did not get worse. During his second term as president, however, the gap between rich and poor widened in France, with both unemployment and poverty rising in the awake of the economic recession of 1991–1993. According to other studies, though, the percentage of the French population living in poverty (based on various criteria) fell between the mid-Eighties and the mid-Nineties.",
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"plaintext": "According to Wayne Northcutt, certain domestic circumstances helped shape Mitterrand's foreign policy in four ways: he needed to maintain a political consensus; he kept an eye on economic conditions; he believed in the nationalistic imperative for French policy; and he tried to exploit Gaullism and its heritage that is on political advantage.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand supported closer European collaboration and the preservation of France's unique relationship with its former colonies, which he feared were falling under \"Anglo-Saxon influence.\" His drive to preserve French power in Africa led to controversies concerning Paris' role during the Rwandan genocide.",
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"plaintext": "Despite François Mitterrand's left-wing affiliations, the 1980s saw France becoming more distant from the USSR, especially following events such as the expulsion of 47 Soviet diplomats and their families from the country in 1982 after they were accused of large-scale industrial and military espionage. François Mitterrand also sharply criticized the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as well as the country's nuclear weapons buildup. When François Mitterrand visited the USSR in November 1988, the Soviet media claimed to be 'leaving aside the virtually wasted decade and the loss of the Soviet-French 'special relationship' of the Gaullist era'.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, François Mitterrand was worried by the rapidity of the Eastern bloc's collapse. He was opposed to German reunification but came to see it as unavoidable. He was opposed to the swift recognition of Croatia and Slovenia, which he thought would lead to the violent implosion of Yugoslavia.",
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"plaintext": "France participated in the Gulf War (1990–1991) with the U.N. coalition.",
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"plaintext": "He initially opposed further membership, fearing the Community was not ready and it would water it down to a free trade area.",
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"plaintext": "François Mitterrand supported the enlargement of the Community to include Spain and Portugal (which both joined in January 1986). In February 1986 he helped the Single European Act come into effect. He worked well with his friend Helmut Kohl and improved Franco-German relations significantly. Together they fathered the Maastricht Treaty, which was signed on 7 February 1992. It was ratified by referendum, approved by just over 51% of the voters.",
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"plaintext": "British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was against a German reunification and also against the then discussed Maastricht Treaty.",
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"plaintext": "When Helmut Kohl, then German Chancellor, asked François Mitterrand to agree to reunification (France was one of the four Allies who had to agree to the Two Plus Four-treaty), François Mitterrand told Kohl he accepted it only in the event Germany would abandon the Deutsche Mark and adopt the Euro. Kohl accepted this package deal (including without talking to Karl Otto Pöhl, then President of the Bundesbank).",
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"plaintext": "That year, he also established the Mitterrand doctrine, a policy of not extraditing convicted far-left terrorists of the years of lead such as Cesare Battisti to Italy, due to the alleged non-conformity of Italian legislation to European standards of rule of law, in particular the anti-terrorism laws passed by Italy in the 1970s and 1980s. When the European Court of Human Rights finally ruled against the François Mitterrand doctrine, the policy had already led to most of the criminals never being punished for their crimes.",
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"plaintext": "Responding to a democratic movement in Africa after the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall, he made his La Baule speech in June 1990 which tied development aid to democratic efforts from former French colonies, and during which he opposed the devaluation of the CFA Franc. Seeing an \"East wind\" blowing in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, he stated that a \"Southern wind\" was also blowing in Africa, and that state leaders had to respond to the populations' wishes and aspirations by a \"democratic opening\", which included a representative system, free elections, multipartyism, freedom of the press, an independent judiciary, and abolition of censorship. Claiming that France was the country making the most important effort concerning development aid, he announced that the least developed countries (LDCs) would henceforth receive only grants from France, as opposed to loans (in order to combat the massive increase of Third World debt during the 1980s). He likewise limited the interest rate to 5% on French loans to intermediate-income countries (that is, Ivory Coast, Congo, Cameroon and Gabon).",
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"plaintext": "He also criticized interventionism in sovereign matters, which was according to him only another form of \"colonialism\". However, according to François Mitterrand, this did not imply lessened concern on the part of Paris for its former colonies. François Mitterrand thus continued with the African policy of de Gaulle inaugurated in 1960, which followed the relative failure of the 1958 creation of the French Community. All in all, François Mitterrand's La Baule speech, which marked a relative turning point in France's policy concerning its former colonies, has been compared with the 1956 loi-cadre Defferre which was responding to anti-colonialist feelings.",
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"plaintext": "African heads of state themselves reacted to François Mitterrand's speech at most with indifference. Omar Bongo, President of Gabon, declared that he would rather have \"events counsel him;\" Abdou Diouf, President of Senegal, said that, according to him, the best solution was a \"strong government\" and a \"good faith opposition;\" the President of Chad, Hissène Habré (nicknamed the \"African Pinochet\") claimed that it was contradictory to demand that African states should simultaneously carry on a \"democratic policy\" and \"social and economic policies which limited their sovereignty\", in a clear allusion to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank's \"structural adjustment programs\". Hassan II, the king of Morocco, said for his part that \"Africa was too open to the world to remain indifferent to what was happening around it\", but that Western countries should \"help young democracies open out, without putting a knife under their throat, without a brutal transition to multipartyism.\"",
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"plaintext": "All in all, the La Baule speech has been said to be on one hand \"one of the foundations of political renewal in Africa French speaking area\", and on the other hand \"cooperation with France\", this despite \"incoherence and inconsistency, like any public policy\".",
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"plaintext": " Gong Ro-myung Ministry of Foreign Affairs",
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"plaintext": ", François Mitterrand has had the most prime ministers during the regime of the 5th Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Following his death, a controversy erupted when his former physician, Dr Claude Gubler, wrote a book called Le Grand Secret (\"The Grand Secret\") explaining that François Mitterrand had false health reports published since November 1981, hiding his cancer. François Mitterrand's family then prosecuted Gubler and his publisher for violating medical confidentiality.",
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"plaintext": "The Urba consultancy was established in 1971 by the Socialist Party to advise Socialist-led communes on infrastructure projects and public works. The Urba affair became public in 1989 when two police officers investigating the Marseille regional office of Urba discovered detailed minutes of the organisation's contracts and division of proceeds between the party and elected officials. Although the minutes proved a direct link between Urba and graft activity, an edict from the office of François Mitterrand, himself listed as a recipient, prevented further investigation. The François Mitterrand election campaign of 1988 was directed by Henri Nallet, who then became Justice Minister and therefore in charge of the investigation at national level. In 1990 François Mitterrand declared an amnesty for those under investigation, thus ending the affair. Socialist Party treasurer Henri Emmanuelli was tried in 1997 for corruption offences, for which he received a two-year suspended sentence.",
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"plaintext": "From 1982 to 1986, François Mitterrand established an \"anti-terror cell\" installed as a service of the President of the Republic. This was an unusual set-up, since such law enforcement missions against terrorism are normally left to the National Police and Gendarmerie, run under the cabinet and the Prime Minister, and under the supervision of the judiciary. The cell was largely staffed by members of these services, but it bypassed the normal line of command and safeguards. 3000 conversations concerning 150 people (7 for reasons judged to be contestable by the ensuing court process) were recorded between January 1983 and March 1986 by this anti terrorist cell at the Elysée Palace. In one of its first actions, the cell was involved in the \"Irish of Vincennes\" affair, in which it appeared that members of the cell had planted weapons and explosives in the Vincennes apartment of three Irish nationals who were arrested on terrorism charges. Most markedly, it appears that the cell, under illegal presidential orders, obtained wiretaps on journalists, politicians and other personalities who may have been an impediment for François Mitterrand's personal life. The illegal wiretapping was revealed in 1993 by Libération; the case against members of the cell went to trial in November 2004.",
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"plaintext": "It took 20 years for the 'affaire' to come before the courts because the instructing judge Jean-Paul Vallat was at first thwarted by the 'affaire' being classed a defence secret, but in December 1999 la Commission consultative du secret de la défense nationale declassified part of the files concerned. The Judge finished his investigation in 2000, but it still took another four years before coming on 15 November 2004 before the 16th chamber of the Tribunal correctionnel de Paris. 12 people were charged with \"atteinte à la vie privée\" (breach of privacy) and one with selling computer files. 7 were given suspended sentences and fines and 4 were found not guilty.",
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"plaintext": "The affair finally ended before the Tribunal correctionnel de Paris with the court's judgement on 9 November 2005. 7 members of the President's anti-terrorist unit were condemned and François Mitterrand was designated as the \"inspirator and essentially the controller of the operation.\"",
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"plaintext": "The court's judgement revealed that François Mitterrand was motivated by keeping elements of his private life secret from the general public, such as the existence of his illegitimate daughter Mazarine Pingeot (which the writer Jean-Edern Hallier, was threatening to reveal), his cancer which had been diagnosed in 1981, and the elements of his past in the Vichy Régime which were not already public knowledge. The court judged that certain people were tapped for \"obscure\" reasons, such as Carole Bouquet's companion, a lawyer with family in the Middle East, Edwy Plenel, a journalist for le Monde who covered the Rainbow Warrior story and the Vincennes Three affair, and the lawyer Antoine Comte. The court declared \"Les faits avaient été commis sur ordre soit du président de la République, soit des ministres de la Défense successifs qui ont mis à la disposition de (Christian Prouteau) tous les moyens de l'État afin de les exécuter\" (translation: these actions were committed following orders from the French President or his various Defence Ministers who gave Christian Prouteau full access to the state machinery so he could execute the orders) The court stated that François Mitterrand was the principal instigator of the wire taps (l'inspirateur et le décideur de l'essentiel) and that he had ordered some of the taps and turned a blind eye to others and that none of the 3000 wiretaps carried out by the cell were legally obtained.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 March 2007 the Court of Appeal in Paris awarded a symbolic €1 in damages to the actress Carole Bouquet and €5000 to Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-Michel Beau for breach of privacy.",
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"plaintext": "The case was taken to the European Court of Human Rights, which gave judgement on 7 June 2007 that the rights of free expression of the journalists involved in the case were not respected.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008 the French state was ordered by the courts to give Jean-Edern Hallier's family compensation.",
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"plaintext": "Paris assisted Rwanda's president Juvénal Habyarimana, who was assassinated on 6 April 1994 while travelling in a Dassault Falcon 50 given to him as a personal gift of François Mitterrand. Through the offices of the 'Cellule Africaine', a Presidential office headed by François Mitterrand's son, Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, he provided the Hutu regime with financial and military support in the early 1990s. With French assistance, the Rwandan army grew from a force of 9,000 men in October 1990 to 28,000 in 1991. France also provided training staff, experts and massive quantities of weaponry and facilitated arms contracts with Egypt and South Africa. It also financed, armed and trained Habyrimana's Presidential Guard. French troops were deployed under Opération Turquoise, a military operation carried out under a United Nations (UN) mandate. The operation is currently the object of political and historical debate.",
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"plaintext": "On 10 July 1985, the Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace vessel, was in New Zealand preparing to protest against French nuclear testing in the South Pacific when two explosions sank the ship, resulting in the death of freelance photographer Fernando Pereira. The New Zealand government called the bombing the first terrorist attack in the country. In mid-1985, French Defence Minister Charles Hernu was forced to resign after New Zealand authorities arrested DGSE (French intelligence services) agents who confessed to planting the explosives and later pleaded guilty.",
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"plaintext": "On the twentieth anniversary of the sinking, it was revealed that François Mitterrand had personally authorised the mission. Admiral Pierre Lacoste, the former head of the DGSE, made a statement saying Pereira's death weighed heavily on his conscience. Television New Zealand (TVNZ) also sought access to the court video recording hearing where two French agents pleaded guilty, which they won a year later.",
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"plaintext": "President of the French Republic: 1981–1995. Reelected in 1988.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Secretary of State for Information: July–September 1948",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Secretary of State for Presidency of Council: 1948–1949",
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"plaintext": "Minister of Overseas and Colonies: 1950–1951",
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"plaintext": "Minister of State: January–March 1952",
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},
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"plaintext": "Minister for Council of Europe: June–September 1953",
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"plaintext": "Minister of Interior: 1954–1955",
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"plaintext": "Member of the National Assembly of France for Nièvre: 1946–1958 / 1962–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Elected in 1946, reelected in 1951, 1956, 1962, 1967, 1968, 1973, 1978.",
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"plaintext": "President of the General Council of Nièvre: 1964–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Reelected in 1967, 1970, 1973, 1976, 1979.",
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"plaintext": "General councillor of Nièvre: 1949–1981 (resignation). Reelected in 1955, 1961, 1967, 1973, 1979.",
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"plaintext": "Mayor of Château-Chinon (Ville): 1959–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Reelected in 1965, 1971, 1977.",
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"François Marie Adrien Maurice Mitterrand"
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38,001 | 1,101,558,496 | Phenylalanine | [
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"plaintext": "A (rare) \"variant form\" of phenylketonuria called hyperphenylalaninemia is caused by the inability to synthesize a cofactor called tetrahydrobiopterin, which can be supplemented. Pregnant women with hyperphenylalaninemia may show similar symptoms of the disorder (high levels of phenylalanine in blood), but these indicators will usually disappear at the end of gestation. Pregnant women with PKU must control their blood phenylalanine levels even if the fetus is heterozygous for the defective gene because the fetus could be adversely affected due to hepatic immaturity.",
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"plaintext": "A non-food source of phenylalanine is the artificial sweetener aspartame. This compound is metabolized by the body into several chemical byproducts including phenylalanine. The breakdown problems phenylketonurics have with the buildup of phenylalanine in the body also occurs with the ingestion of aspartame, although to a lesser degree. Accordingly, all products in Australia, the U.S. and Canada that contain aspartame must be labeled: \"Phenylketonurics: Contains phenylalanine.\" In the UK, foods containing aspartame must carry ingredient panels that refer to the presence of \"aspartame or E951\" and they must be labeled with a warning \"Contains a source of phenylalanine.\" In Brazil, the label \"Contém Fenilalanina\" (Portuguese for \"Contains Phenylalanine\") is also mandatory in products which contain it. These warnings are placed to help individuals avoid such foods.",
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"plaintext": "The stereoisomer -phenylalanine (DPA) can be produced by conventional organic synthesis, either as a single enantiomer or as a component of the racemic mixture. It does not participate in protein biosynthesis although it is found in proteins in small amounts - particularly aged proteins and food proteins that have been processed. The biological functions of -amino acids remain unclear, although -phenylalanine has pharmacological activity at niacin receptor 2.",
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"plaintext": "-Phenylalanine (DLPA) is marketed as a nutritional supplement for its purported analgesic and antidepressant activities. -Phenylalanine is a mixture of -phenylalanine and -phenylalanine. The reputed analgesic activity of -phenylalanine may be explained by the possible blockage by -phenylalanine of enkephalin degradation by the enzyme carboxypeptidase A. The mechanism of -phenylalanine's supposed antidepressant activity may be accounted for by the precursor role of -phenylalanine in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. Elevated brain levels of norepinephrine and dopamine are thought to have an antidepressant effect. -Phenylalanine is absorbed from the small intestine and transported to the liver via the portal circulation. A small amount of -phenylalanine appears to be converted to -phenylalanine. -Phenylalanine is distributed to the various tissues of the body via the systemic circulation. It appears to cross the blood–brain barrier less efficiently than -phenylalanine, and so a small amount of an ingested dose of -phenylalanine is excreted in the urine without penetrating the central nervous system.",
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"plaintext": "-Phenylalanine is an antagonist at α2δ Ca2+ calcium channels with a Ki of 980 nM.",
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"plaintext": "In the brain, -phenylalanine is a competitive antagonist at the glycine binding site of NMDA receptor and at the glutamate binding site of AMPA receptor. At the glycine binding site of NMDA receptor -phenylalanine has an apparent equilibrium dissociation constant (KB) of 573 μM estimated by Schild regression which is considerably lower than brain -phenylalanine concentration observed in untreated human phenylketonuria.",
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"plaintext": "-Phenylalanine also inhibits neurotransmitter release at glutamatergic synapses in hippocampus and cortex with IC50 of 980 μM, a brain concentration seen in classical phenylketonuria, whereas -phenylalanine has a significantly smaller effect.",
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"plaintext": "-Phenylalanine is produced for medical, feed, and nutritional applications, such as aspartame, in large quantities by utilizing the bacterium Escherichia coli, which naturally produces aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine. The quantity of -phenylalanine produced commercially has been increased by genetically engineering E. coli, such as by altering the regulatory promoters or amplifying the number of genes controlling enzymes responsible for the synthesis of the amino acid.",
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"plaintext": "Boronophenylalanine (BPA) is a dihydroxyboryl derivative of phenylalanine, used in neutron capture therapy.",
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"plaintext": "4-Azido-l-phenylalanine is a protein-incorporated unnatural amino acid used as a tool for bioconjugation in the field of chemical biology.",
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"plaintext": "Phenylalanine mass spectrum",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Phenylalanine at ChemSynthesis",
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"Phenyl_compounds",
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38,005 | 1,106,294,788 | Boeing_CH-47_Chinook | [
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"plaintext": "The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter developed by American rotorcraft company Vertol and manufactured by Boeing Vertol. The Chinook is a heavy-lift helicopter that is among the heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name, Chinook, is from the Native American Chinook people of Oregon and Washington state.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinook was originally designed by Vertol, which had begun work in 1957 on a new tandem-rotor helicopter, designated as the Vertol Model 107 or V-107. Around the same time, the United States Department of the Army announced its intention to replace the piston engine–powered Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave with a new, gas turbine–powered helicopter. During June 1958, the U.S. Army ordered a small number of V-107s from Vertol under the YHC-1A designation; following testing, it came to be considered by some Army officials to be too heavy for the assault missions and too light for transport purposes. While the YHC-1A would be improved and adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps as the CH-46 Sea Knight, the Army sought a heavier transport helicopter, and ordered an enlarged derivative of the V-107 with the Vertol designation Model 114. Initially designated as the YCH-1B, on 21 September 1961, the preproduction rotorcraft performed its maiden flight. In 1962, the HC-1B was redesignated CH-47A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinook possesses several means of loading various cargoes, including multiple doors across the fuselage, a wide loading ramp located at the rear of the fuselage and a total of three external ventral cargo hooks to carry underslung loads. Capable of a top speed of , upon its introduction to service in 1962, the helicopter was considerably faster than contemporary 1960s utility helicopters and attack helicopters, and is still one of the fastest helicopters in the US inventory. Improved and more powerful versions of the Chinook have also been developed since its introduction; one of the most substantial variants to be produced was the CH-47D, which first entered service in 1982; improvements from the CH-47C standard included upgraded engines, composite rotor blades, a redesigned cockpit to reduce workload, improved and redundant electrical systems and avionics, and the adoption of an advanced flight control system. It remains one of the few aircraft to be developed during the early 1960s – along with the fixed-wing Lockheed C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft – that has remained in both production and frontline service for over 60 years.",
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"plaintext": "The military version of the helicopter has been exported to nations across the world; the U.S. Army and the Royal Air Force (see Boeing Chinook (UK variants)) have been its two largest users. The civilian version of the Chinook is the Boeing Vertol 234. It has been used by civil operators not only for passenger and cargo transport, but also for aerial firefighting and to support logging, construction, and oil extraction industries.",
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"plaintext": "During late 1956, the United States Department of the Army announced its intention to replace the Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave, which was powered by piston engines, with a new, gas turbine-powered helicopter. Turbine engines were also a key design feature of the smaller UH-1 \"Huey\" utility helicopter. Following a design competition, in September 1958, a joint Army–Air Force source selection board recommended that the Army procure the Vertol-built medium transport helicopter. However, funding for full-scale development was not then available, and the Army vacillated on its design requirements. Some officials in Army Aviation thought that the new helicopter should be operated as a light tactical transport aimed at taking over the missions of the old piston-engined Piasecki H-21 and Sikorsky H-34 helicopters, and be consequently capable of carrying about 15 troops (one squad). Another faction in Army Aviation thought that the new helicopter should be much larger, enabling it to airlift large artillery pieces and possess enough internal space to carry the new MGM-31 \"Pershing\" missile system.",
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"plaintext": "During 1957, Vertol commenced work upon a new tandem-rotor helicopter, designated as the Vertol Model 107 or V-107. During June 1958, the U.S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for the acquisition of a small number of the rotorcraft, giving it the YHC-1A designation. As ordered, the YHC-1A possessed the capacity to carry a maximum of 20 troops. Three underwent testing by the Army for deriving engineering and operational data. However, the YHC-1A was considered by many figures within the Army users to be too heavy for the assault role, while too light for the more general transport role. Accordingly, a decision was made to procure a heavier transport helicopter, and at the same time, upgrade the UH-1 \"Huey\" to serve as the needed tactical troop transport. The YHC-1A would be improved and adopted by the Marines as the CH-46 Sea Knight in 1962. As a result, the Army issued a new order to Vertol for an enlarged derivative of the V-107, known by internal company designation as the Model 114, which it gave the designation of HC-1B. On 21 September 1961, the preproduction Boeing Vertol YCH-1B made its initial hovering flight. During 1962, the HC-1B was redesignated the CH-47A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system; it was also named \"Chinook\" after the Chinook people of the Pacific Northwest.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47 is powered by two Lycoming T55 turboshaft engines, mounted on each side of the helicopter's rear pylon and connected to the rotors by drive shafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at each. The counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an antitorque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it less sensitive to changes in the center of gravity, important for the cargo lifting and dropping. While hovering over a specific location, a twin-rotor helicopter has increased stability over a single rotor when weight is added or removed, for example, when troops drop from or begin climbing up ropes to the aircraft, or when other cargo is dropped. If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors. The \"sizing\" of the Chinook was directly related to the growth of the Huey and the Army's tacticians' insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility effort.",
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"plaintext": "Improved and more powerful versions of the CH-47 have been developed since the helicopter entered service. The U.S. Army's first major design leap was the now-common CH-47D, which entered service in 1982. Improvements from the CH-47C included upgraded engines, composite rotor blades, a redesigned cockpit to reduce pilot workload, improved and redundant electrical systems, an advanced flight control system, and improved avionics. The latest mainstream generation is the CH-47F, which features several major upgrades to reduce maintenance, digitized flight controls, and is powered by two Honeywell engines.",
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"plaintext": "A commercial model of the Chinook, the Boeing-Vertol Model 234, is used worldwide for logging, construction, fighting forest fires, and supporting petroleum extraction operations. In December 2006, Columbia Helicopters Inc purchased the type certificate of the Model 234 from Boeing. The Chinook has also been licensed to be built by companies outside the United States, such as Agusta (now AgustaWestland) in Italy and Kawasaki in Japan.",
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"plaintext": "The Army finally settled on the larger Chinook as its standard medium-transport helicopter, and as of February 1966, 161 aircraft had been delivered to the Army. The 1st Cavalry Division had brought its organic Chinook battalion (three Chinook companies) when it arrived in 1965 and a separate aviation medium helicopter company, the 147th, had arrived in Vietnam on 29 November 1965. This latter company was initially placed in direct support of the 1st Infantry Division. CH-47 crews quickly learned to mount an M60 machine gun in each of the forward doors. Sometimes they also installed an M60 or M2 machine gun to fire from the rear cargo door.",
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"plaintext": "The most spectacular mission in Vietnam for the Chinook was the placing of artillery batteries in perilous mountain positions inaccessible by any other means, and then keeping them resupplied with large quantities of ammunition. The 1st Cavalry Division found that its CH-47s were limited to a payload when operating in the mountains, but could carry an additional when operating near the coast. The early Chinook design was limited by its rotor system which did not permit full use of the installed power, and users were anxious for an improved version which would upgrade this system.",
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"plaintext": "As with any new piece of equipment, the Chinook presented a major problem of \"customer education\". Commanders and crew chiefs had to be constantly alert that eager soldiers did not overload the temptingly large cargo compartment. It would be some time before troops would be experts at using sling loads. The Chinook soon proved to be such an invaluable aircraft for artillery movement and heavy logistics that it was seldom used as an assault troop carrier. Some of the Chinook fleet was used for casualty evacuation, and due to the very heavy demand for the helicopters, they were usually overburdened with wounded. Perhaps the most cost effective use of the Chinook was the recovery of other downed aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "At the Vietnam war's peak the US Army had 21 Chinook companies in Vietnam. Pilots discovered the CH-47A's transmission system could not handle the two gas turbines running at full power, and high humidity and heat reduced the maximum lift by more than 20% in the low lands and 30% in mountain areas. More powerful, improved transmission and strengthened fuselages arrived in 1968 with the CH-47B, followed a few months later by the CH-47C. The CH-47s in Vietnam were generally armed with a single 7.62 mm M60 machine gun on a pintle mount on either side of the aircraft for self-defense, with stops fitted to keep the gunners from firing into the rotor blades. Dust filters were also added to improve engine reliability. Of the nearly 750 Chinook helicopters in the U.S. and South Vietnam fleets, about 200 were lost in combat or wartime operational accidents. The U.S. Army CH-47s supported the 1st Australian Task Force as required.",
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"plaintext": "Four CH-47s were converted into ACH-47As by adding armor and improved engines. Its armament included two fixed forward firing M24A1 20mm cannons, one turret with 40mm automatic grenade launcher on the nose, five .50 in machine guns and two weapon pods on the sides that could carry either XM159B/XM159C 70mm rocket launchers or 7.62mm miniguns. They arrived in Vietnam in 1966, and they engaged in six months of operational testing at An Khê Army Airfield. They performed well in combat, but its high maintenance costs and demand for use in troop and cargo transport was stronger. Three ACH-47s were lost. One collided with a CH-47 while taxiing. Another had a retention pin shake loose on a 20mm cannon and was brought down when its own gun fired through the forward rotor blades. The third was grounded by enemy fire and destroyed by enemy mortar rounds after the crew escaped.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1970s, the United States and Iran had a strong relationship, in which the Iranian armed forces began to use many American military aircraft, most notably the F-14 Tomcat, as part of a modernization program. After an agreement signed between Boeing and Agusta, the Imperial Iranian Air Force purchased 20 Agusta-built CH-47Cs in 1971. The Imperial Iranian Army Aviation purchased 70 CH-47Cs from Agusta between 1972 and 1976. In late 1978, Iran placed an order for an additional 50 helicopters with Elicotteri Meridionali, but that order was canceled immediately after the revolution; 11 of them were delivered after multiple requests by Iran.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1978 Iranian Chinook shootdown, four Iranian CH-47Cs penetrated into Soviet airspace in the Turkmenistan Military District. They were intercepted by a MiG-23M which shot down one, killing eight crew members, and forced a second one to land. Chinook helicopters were used in efforts by the Imperial Iranian loyalist forces to resist the 1979 Iranian revolution.",
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"plaintext": "During the Iran–Iraq War, Iran made heavy use of its US-bought equipment, and lost at least eight CH-47s during the 1980–1988 period, most notably during a clash on 15 July 1983, when an Iraqi Mirage F1 destroyed three Iranian Chinooks transporting troops to the front line, and on 25–26 February 1984, when Iraqi MiG-21 fighters shot down two examples. On 22 March 1982, in Operation Fath ol-Mobin, a key operation of the war, Iranian Chinooks were landed behind Iraqi lines, deployed troops that silenced their artillery, and captured an Iraqi headquarters; the attack took the Iraqi forces by surprise.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the arms embargo in place upon Iran, it has managed to keep its Chinook fleet operational. Some of the Chinooks have been rebuilt by Panha. As of 2015, 20 to 45 Chinooks were operational in Iran.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, the Libyan Air Force purchased 24 Italian-built CH-47C helicopters, 14 of which were transferred to the Libyan Army during the 1990s. The Libyan Air Force recruited Western pilots and technicians to operate the CH-47 fleet. The Libyan Chinooks flew transport and support missions into Chad to supply Libyan ground forces operating there in the 1980s. Chinooks were occasionally used to transport Libyan special forces in assault missions in northern Chad.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Libya sold 16 helicopters to the United Arab Emirates, as due to the Western embargo and lack of funds, maintaining them was difficult. The sale to UAE was a $939 million package that included equipment, parts, and training. How many CH-47s are still in existence or operational during the ongoing Libyan civil wars that started in 2011 is not known.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinook was used both by Argentina and the United Kingdom during the Falklands War in 1982.",
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"plaintext": "The Argentine Air Force and the Argentine Army each deployed two CH-47C helicopters, which were widely used in general transport duties. Of the Army's aircraft, one was destroyed on the ground by 30 mm cannon fire from an RAF GR3 Harrier, while the other was captured by the British and reused after the war. Both Argentine Air Force helicopters were returned to Argentina and remained in service until 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Three British Chinooks were destroyed on 25 May 1982 when Atlantic Conveyor was struck by an Exocet sea-skimming missile fired by an Argentine Super Étendard. The sole surviving British Chinook, Bravo November, did outstanding service in the Falklands, lifting 81 troops on one occasion and is still in service 38 years later.",
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"plaintext": "About 163 CH-47Ds of various operators were deployed to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Iraq during Operation Desert Shield and the subsequent Operation Desert Storm in 1990–91.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47D has seen wide use in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq. The Chinook is being used in air assault missions, inserting troops into fire bases, and later bringing food, water, and ammunition. It is also the casualty evacuation aircraft of choice in the British Armed Forces. In combat theaters, it is typically escorted by attack helicopters such as the AH-64 Apache for protection. Its lift capacity has been found of particular value in the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan, where high altitudes and temperatures limit the use of helicopters such as the UH-60 Black Hawk; reportedly, one Chinook can replace up to five UH-60s in the air assault transport role.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinook helicopters of several nations have participated in the Afghanistan War, including aircraft from Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Canada, and Australia. Despite the age of the Chinook, it is still in heavy demand, in part due its proven versatility and ability to operate in demanding environments such as Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2011, an Australian Army CH-47D crashed during a resupply mission in Zabul Province, resulting in one fatality and five survivors. The helicopter was unable to be recovered and was destroyed in place. To compensate for the loss, the ADF added two ex-U.S. Army CH-47Ds to the fleet which are expected to be in service until the introduction of the CH-47Fs in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 August 2011, a Chinook crashed near Kabul, killing all of the 38 aboard. The Chinook was reportedly shot down with a rocket-propelled grenade by the Taliban while attempting to assist a group of U.S. Army Rangers. The 38 were members of NATO and allied forces, including 22 Naval Special Warfare operators, five U.S. Army Aviation soldiers, three U.S. Air Force special operations personnel, and seven Afghan National Army commandos. A civilian translator and a U.S. military working dog were also killed in the crash. The crash was the single deadliest during the entire Operation Enduring Freedom campaign. The previous biggest single-day loss for American forces in Afghanistan involved a Chinook that was shot down near Kabul in Kunar Province in June 2005 with all aboard killed, including a 16-member U.S. Special Operations team.",
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"plaintext": "According to Suresh Abraham, the Chinook's ability to carry large, underslung loads has been of significant value in relief operations in the aftermath of natural disasters. Numerous operators have chosen to deploy their Chinook fleets to support humanitarian efforts in stricken nations overseas. Following the 2004 Asian tsunami, the Republic of Singapore Air Force assisted in the relief operations in neighboring Indonesia using its Chinooks; similarly, after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the Royal Air Force dispatched several Chinooks to Northern Pakistan to assist in recovery efforts.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1992, six CH-47Ds were deployed from Fort Bragg in North Carolina to provide relief in the wake of Hurricane Andrew in what was one of the first major helicopter disaster relief operations on US soil. Then President George H. W. Bush ordered the military to assist. The Chinooks arrived at Miami-Opa Locka Executive Airport, just outside of the disaster zone, one day after the President's order; early on, they performed a wide loop over Homestead and Florida City to publicly display their presence, helping to curtail lawlessness and looting. The Chinooks initially flew twelve sorties per day out of Opa Locka, which expanded over time, often supporting distribution operations at Homestead AFB and Opa Locka, as well as delivering relief payloads via internal storage, not using sling loads, supplementing the two dozen distribution centers and trucks, proving essential as trucks could not reach the worst hit areas due to downed trees and power lines. They flew everyday for approximately three weeks, moving supplies and personnel around the disaster zone as well as carrying media and government officials, including then Congressman Bill Nelson. Ultimately, the Chinooks supplied 64 distribution sites throughout the zone and transported 1.2 million pounds of supplies before the urgent relief phase ended.",
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"plaintext": "Three of Japan's CH-47s were used to cool Reactors 3 and 4 of the Fukushima Nuclear power plant following the 9.0 earthquake in 2011; they were used to collect sea water from the nearby ocean and drop it over the affected areas. In order to protect the crew from the heightened radiation levels present, a number of lead plates were attached to the floor of each Chinook; even with such measures, pilots had to keep their distance from the reactors while also limiting flight times in the vicinity to a maximum of 45 minutes to avoid excessive radiation exposure.",
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"plaintext": "Since the type's inception, the Chinook has carried out various secondary missions, including medical evacuation, disaster relief, search and rescue, aircraft recovery, fire fighting, and heavy construction assistance.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2007, the Royal Netherlands Air Force became the first international customer of the CH-47F model, expanding their Chinook fleet to 17. On 10 August 2009, Canada signed a contract for 15 extensively modified and upgraded CH-47Fs for the Canadian Forces, later delivered in 2013–2014 with the Canadian designation CH-147F. On 15 December 2009, Britain announced its Future Helicopter Strategy, including the purchase of 24 new CH-47Fs to be delivered from 2012. Australia ordered seven CH-47Fs in March 2010 to replace its six CH-47Ds between 2014 and 2017. In September 2015, India approved purchase of 15 CH-47F Chinooks. On 7 November 2016, Singapore announced that the CH-47F would replace its older Chinooks, which had been in service since 1994, enabling the Republic of Singapore Air Force to meet its requirements for various operations, including Search and Rescue (SAR), Aeromedical Evacuation (AME), and Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2020, the Indian Air Force started using Chinooks at theatres such as Ladakh and Siachen Glacier to assist Indian forces deployed at the Indian borders with China and Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "The pre-1962 designation for Model 114 development aircraft that would be redesignated CH-47 Chinook.",
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"plaintext": "The all-weather, medium-lift CH-47A Chinook was powered initially by Lycoming T55-L-5 engines rated at , but then replaced by the T55-L-7 rated at engines or T55-L-7C engines rated at . The CH-47A had a maximum gross weight of , allowing for a maximum payload around Initial delivery of the CH-47A Chinook to the U.S. Army was in August 1962. A total of 354 were built.",
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"plaintext": "The ACH-47A was originally known as the Armed/Armored CH-47A (or A/ACH-47A). It was officially designated ACH-47A as a U.S. Army Attack Cargo Helicopter, and unofficially referred to as Guns A Go-Go. Four CH-47A helicopters were converted to gunships by Boeing Vertol in late 1965. Three were assigned to the 53rd Aviation Detachment in South Vietnam for testing, with the remaining one retained in the U.S. for weapons testing. By 1966, the 53rd was redesignated the 1st Aviation Detachment (Provisional) and attached to the 228th Assault Support Helicopter Battalion of the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile). By 1968, only one gunship remained, and logistical concerns prevented more conversions. It was returned to the United States, and the program stopped.",
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"plaintext": "The ACH-47A carried five 7.62 × 51mm M60D machine guns or .50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2HB heavy machine guns, provided by the XM32 and XM33 armament subsystems, two 20mm M24A1 cannons, two 19-tube Folding Fin Aerial Rocket launchers (XM159B/XM159) or sometimes two M18/M18A1 7.62 × 51mm gun pods, and a single 40mm M75 grenade launcher in the XM5/M5 armament subsystem (more commonly seen on the UH-1 series of helicopters). Rare newsreel footage shows one of the aircraft in action supporting the 8th Cavalry Regiment during an ambush at Bông Son, South Vietnam. The surviving aircraft, Easy Money, has been restored and is on display at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47B was an interim solution while Boeing worked on a more substantially improved CH-47C. The CH-47B was powered by two Lycoming T55-L-7C engines. It featured a blunted rear rotor pylon, redesigned asymmetrical rotor blades, and strakes along the rear ramp and fuselage to improve flying characteristics. It could be equipped with two door-mounted M60D 7.62 mm NATO machine guns on the M24 armament subsystem and a ramp-mounted M60D using the M41 armament subsystem. Some CH-47 \"bombers\" were equipped to drop tear gas or napalm from the rear cargo ramp onto Viet Cong bunkers. The CH-47B could be equipped with a hoist and cargo hook. The Chinook proved especially valuable in \"Pipe Smoke\" aircraft recovery missions. The \"Hook\" recovered about 12,000 aircraft valued at over $3.6billion during the war; 108 were built.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47C principally featured more powerful engines and transmissions. Three sub-versions were built; the first had Lycoming T55-L-7C engines delivering . The \"Super C\" included Lycoming T55-L-11 engines delivering , an upgraded maximum gross weight of , and a pitch stability augmentation system. The T55-L-11 engines suffered difficulties, as they had been hurriedly introduced to increase payload; thus, they were temporarily replaced by the more reliable Lycoming T55-L-7C. The type was distinguishable from the standard \"C\" by the uprated maximum gross weight.",
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"plaintext": "The type was unable to receive FAA certification to engage in civil activities due to the nonredundant hydraulic flight boost system drive. A redesign of the hydraulic boost system drive was incorporated in the succeeding CH-47D, allowing that model to achieve certification as the Boeing Model 234. A total of 233 CH-47Cs were built. Canada bought a total of eight CH-47Cs; deliveries of the type began in 1974. Receiving the Canadian designation \"CH-147\", these were fitted with a power hoist above the crew door; other changes included a flight engineer station in the rear cabin: operators referred to the configuration as the \"Super C\". The CH-47C was used widely during the Vietnam War, eventually replacing the older Piasecki H-21 Shawnee in the combat assault support role.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47D shares the same airframe as earlier models, the main difference being the adoption of more powerful engines. Early CH-47Ds were originally powered by two T55-L-712 engines, the most common engine is the later T55-GA-714A. With its triple-hook cargo system, the CH-47D can carry heavy payloads internally and up to (such as containers) externally. It was first introduced into service in 1979. In air assault operations, it often serves as the principal mover of the 155mm M198 howitzer, accompanying 30 rounds of ammunition, and an 11-man crew. The CH-47D also has advanced avionics, such as the Global Positioning System. Nearly all US Army CH-47D were conversions from previous A, B, and C models, a total of 472 being converted. The last U.S. Army CH-47D built was delivered to the U.S. Army Reserve, located at Fort Hood, Texas, in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "The Netherlands acquired all seven of the Canadian Forces' surviving CH-147Cs and upgraded them to CH-47D standard. Six more new-build CH-47Ds were delivered in 1995 for a total of 13. The Dutch CH-47Ds feature a number of improvements over U.S. Army CH-47Ds, including a long nose for Bendix weather radar, a \"glass cockpit\", and improved T55-L-714 engines. As of 2011, the Netherlands shall upgrade 11 of these which will be updated to the CH-47F standard at a later date. As of 2011, Singapore has 18 CH-47D/SDs, which includes twelve \"Super D\" Chinooks, in service. In 2008, Canada purchased 6 CH-47Ds from the U.S. for the Canadian Helicopter Force Afghanistan for $252million. With 1 CH-47D lost to an accident, the remaining five were sold in 2011 after the end of Canada's mission in Afghanistan and replaced with seven CH-147Fs.",
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"plaintext": "The MH-47D variant was developed for special forces operations and has inflight refueling capability, a fast rope-rappelling system, and other upgrades. The MH-47D was used by U.S. Army 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. 12 MH-47D helicopters were produced. Six were conversions from CH-47A models and six were conversions from CH-47C models.",
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"plaintext": "The MH-47E has been used by U.S. Army Special Operations. Beginning with the E-model prototype manufactured in 1991, a total of 26 Special Operations Aircraft were produced. All aircraft were assigned to 2–160th SOAR(A) \"Nightstalkers\", home based at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. E models were conversions from existing CH-47C model airframes. The MH-47E has similar capabilities as the MH-47D, but includes an increased fuel capacity similar to the CH-47SD and terrain following/terrain avoidance radar.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, the Royal Air Force ordered eight Chinook HC3s, effectively a low-cost version of the MH-47E for the special operations role. They were delivered in 2001, but never entered operational service due to technical issues with their avionics fit, unique to the HC3. In 2008, work started to revert the HC3s to HC2 standard, to enable them to enter service. They have since been upgraded to HC5 standard with a digital automated flight control system.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, the first CH-47F, an upgraded CH-47D, made its maiden flight; the first production model rolled out on 15 June 2006 at Boeing's facility in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania, and first flew on 23 October 2006. Upgrades include Honeywell engines and the airframe featuring greater single-piece construction to lower maintenance requirements. The milled construction reduces vibration, as well as inspection and repair needs, and eliminates flexing points to increase service life. The CH-47F can fly at speeds of over with a payload of more than . New avionics include a Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) cockpit, and BAE Systems' Digital Advanced Flight Control System (DAFCS). AgustaWestland assembles the CH-47F under license, known as the Chinook ICH-47F, for several customers. Boeing delivered 48 CH-47Fs to the U.S. Army through August 2008; at that time Boeing announced a $4.8billion contract with the Army for 191 Chinooks.",
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"plaintext": "A CH-47F Block 2 is planned to be introduced after 2020. The Block 2 aims for a payload of with and high and hot hover performance, eventually increased up to , to carry the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle; maximum takeoff weight would be raised to . It features the composite-based Advanced Chinook Rotor Blade (derived from the cancelled RAH-66 Comanche), 20% more powerful Honeywell T55-715 engines, and the active parallel actuator system (APAS); the APAS enhances the digital advanced flight-control system, providing an exact torque split between the rotors for greater efficiency. A new fuel system combines the three fuel cells in each sponson into one larger fuel cell and eliminating intracell fuel transfer hardware, reducing weight by and increasing fuel capacity. Electrical capacity is increased by three 60 kVA generators. Part of the Block II upgrade was the Advanced Chinook Rotor Blades (ACRB), intended to improve lift performance in hot/high altitude conditions by 2,000 lb, after initially being trialed in 2020 ACRB testing was postponed by the US Army due to vibration issues. Boeing denied the Army's assertion that the vibration issues were a safety risk and believed it could be solved with dampeners. Testing resumed in 2021 but the Army ultimately decided against implementing the upgrade as the vibration issues persisted in the resumed testing, in addition the aft rotor blade was stalling when in a swept back position.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army plans for a Block 3 upgrade after 2025, which could include a new class engine with boosted power capacity of the transmission and drive train developed under the future affordable turbine engine (FATE) program and a lengthened fuselage. The Future Vertical Lift program plans to begin replacing the Army's rotorcraft fleet in the mid-2030s, initially focusing on medium-lift helicopters, thus the CH-47 is planned to be in service beyond 2060, over 100 years after first entering service.",
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"plaintext": "The German government announced in June 2022 that Boeing's CH-47F Chinook was selected as the winner of its heavy helicopter program to replace its Sikorsky CH-53G Sea Stallion fleet.",
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"plaintext": "The MH-47G Special Operations Aviation (SOA) version is currently being delivered to the U.S. Army. It is similar to the MH-47E, but features more sophisticated avionics including a digital Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS). The CAAS is a common glass cockpit used by different helicopters such as MH-60K/Ls, CH-53E/Ks, and ARH-70As. The MH-47G also incorporates all of the new sections of the CH-47F.",
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"plaintext": "The new modernization program improves MH-47D and MH-47E Special Operations Chinooks to the MH-47G design specs. A total of 25 MH-47E and 11 MH-47D aircraft were upgraded by the end of 2003. In 2002, the army announced plans to expand the Special Operations Aviation Regiment via an additional 12 MH-47G helicopters. The final MH-47G Chinook was delivered to the U.S. Army Special Operations Command on 10 February 2011. Modernization of MH-47D/E Chinooks to MH-47G standard is due for completion in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "On the 1st September 2020, Boeing announced that their Philadelphia plant had delivered the first example of the MH-47G Block II helicopter to U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC), saying that the delivery was made \"recently\", and was \"on time\". This is the first MH-47G Block II from an initial order of 24, with a stated ultimate requirement for 69. The MH-47G Block II includes all of the improvements from the CH-47F Block II, as well as inflight refueling capability, a comprehensive defensive aids suite and low-level/adverse weather piloting aids, such as forward-looking infrared and multi-mode/terrain-following radar. It is armed with two 7.62 mm M134 Miniguns and two M240 7.62 mm machine guns.",
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"plaintext": "The British MOD confirmed that while the U.S. does not currently export the model, the two countries are currently in discussion regarding the MH-47G. On 19 October 2018, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible sale of 16 H-47 Chinooks (Extended Range) to the UK.",
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"plaintext": "The CH-47J is a medium-transport helicopter for the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The differences between the CH-47J and the CH-47D are the engine, rotor brake and avionics, for use for general transportation, SAR and disaster activity like U.S. forces. The CH-47JA, introduced in 1993, is a long-range version of the CH-47J, fitted with an enlarged fuel tank, an AAQ-16 FLIR in a turret under the nose, and a partial glass cockpit. Both versions are built under license in Japan by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, who produced 61 aircraft by April 2001.",
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"plaintext": "The Japan Defense Agency ordered 54 aircraft of which 39 were for the JGSDF and 15 were for the JASDF. Boeing supplied flyable aircraft, to which Kawasaki added full avionics, interior, and final paint. The CH-47J model Chinook (N7425H) made its first flight in January 1986, and it was sent to Kawasaki in April. Boeing began delivering five CH-47J kits in September 1985 for assembly at Kawasaki.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 November 2006, the HH-47, a new variant of the Chinook based on the MH-47G, was selected by the U.S. Air Force as the winner of the Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR-X) competition. Four development HH-47s were to be built, with the first of 141 production aircraft planned to enter service in 2012. However, in February 2007 the contract award was protested and the GAO ordered the CSAR-X project to be re-bid. The CSAR-X program was again terminated in 2009. In February 2010, the USAF announced plans to replace aging HH-60G helicopters, and deferred secondary combat search and rescue requirements calling for a larger helicopter.",
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"plaintext": "For years U.S. Navy has been operating different versions of the single-rotor CH-53 helicopter as its heavy-lift helicopter. CH-47s regularly conduct ship-based operations for U.S. Special Forces and other international operators. Due to budget issues, technical problems and delays with CH-53K, the director of the Pentagon's cost assessment office directed US Navy to consider maritime versions of CH-47. Naval versions must be protected against the corrosive seaborne environment and be able to operate from aircraft carriers and amphibious ships.",
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"plaintext": " The Royal Air Force version of the CH-47C is designated Chinook HC1; its versions of the CH-47D are designated Chinook HC2 and HC2A.",
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"plaintext": " The export version of the CH-47C Chinook for the Italian Army was designated \"CH-47C Plus\".",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The HH-47D is a search and rescue version for the Republic of Korea Air Force. ",
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"plaintext": " The CH-47DG is an upgraded version of the CH-47C for Greece. ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " While the CH-47SD (also known as the \"Super D\") is a modified variant for Singapore of the CH-47D, with extended range fuel tanks and higher payload carrying capacity; the CH-47SD is currently in use by the Republic of Singapore Air Force, Hellenic Army and the Republic of China Army.",
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"plaintext": " Eight CH-47Cs were delivered to the Canadian Forces in 1974. These helicopters were in Canadian service until 1991, with the designation CH-147. These aircraft were subsequently sold to the Netherlands and operated by the Royal Netherlands Air Force as CH-47Ds. All aircraft were phased out in 2021 and replaced by CH-47Fs.",
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"plaintext": " Model 234LR (long range): Commercial transport helicopter. The Model 234LR can be fitted out as an all-passenger, all-cargo, or cargo/passenger transport helicopter.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Model 234ER (extended range): Commercial transport version.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Model MLR (multi-purpose long range): Commercial transport version.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Model 234UT (utility transport): Utility transport helicopter.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Model 414: The Model 414 is the international export version of the CH-47D. It is also known as the CH-47D International Chinook.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " CU-47: Built by Unical from parts from ex-Canadian Forces CH-47D/CH-147D for Coulson Aviation to be used for aerial firefighting. One delivered in 2020 with 11 others to be delivered.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 1969, work on the experimental Model 347 was begun. It was a CH-47A with a lengthened fuselage, four-blade rotors, detachable wings mounted on top of the fuselage and other changes. It first flew on 27 May 1970 and was evaluated for a few years.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 1973, the Army contracted with Boeing to design a \"Heavy Lift Helicopter\" (HLH), designated XCH-62A. It appeared to be a scaled-up CH-47 without a conventional body, in a configuration similar to the S-64 Skycrane (CH-54 Tarhe), but the project was canceled in 1975. The program was restarted for test flights in the 1980s and was again not funded by Congress. The scaled-up model of the HLH was scrapped in late 2005 at Fort Rucker, Alabama.",
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229
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435
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},
{
"plaintext": "Australian Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
2795
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Canadian Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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24
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},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of China Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "National Fire Agency",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Egyptian Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
377726
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Hellenic Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Indian Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Indonesian National Board for Disaster Management",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Islamic Republic of Iran Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Italian Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Japan Air Self-Defense Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Japan Ground Self-Defense Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Army",
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Libyan Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Moroccan Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Netherlands Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Royal Saudi Land Forces",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Singapore Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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0,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Spanish Army Airmobile Force",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
28
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},
{
"plaintext": "Turkish Army",
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0,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": "United Arab Emirates Air Force",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Air Force ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "United States Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Army National Guard",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "United States Army Reserve",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Argentine Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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0,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Argentine Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Australian Air Force (later transferred to the Australian Army)",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
26328
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[
0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Vietnam Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
5944924
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Thai Army",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1230371
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "British Airways Helicopters",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "NASA",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Vietnam People's Air Force",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
30874339
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "On 4 May 1966 , a CH-47A crashed near Di Linh, Lâm Đồng Province killing all 20 onboard. ",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 26 December 1967, a CH-47A carrying 33 military passengers and crew crashed in a landing descent at Phu Cat AFB, Binh Dinh Province, South Vietnam killing 8 of those on board.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " On 6 May 1969 a CH-47 carrying 83 people crashed southwest of Phước Vĩnh Base Camp, South Vietnam, killing 40 of those on board.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 18 August 1971, CH-47A, airframe , was operated by the 4th Aviation Company, 15th Aviation Group. The helicopter was transporting 33 soldiers of the Heavy Mortar Platoon, 2nd Battalion, 4th Infantry Regiment, 56th Field Artillery Brigade from battalion headquarters in Ludwigsburg to Grafenwöhr for live fire training exercises. Fatigue failure of the rear rotor blade led to its separation causing structural damage resulting in the crash and explosion that killed all 37 on board, including four crew members. A memorial plaque that was placed near the crash site in the forest outside Pegnitz was stolen in 2009.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
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284
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298
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[
592,
599
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 28 November 1971, a CH-47C carrying five crew and 28 soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division on a flight from Da Nang to Phu Bai Combat Base, South Vietnam crashed into high ground killing all onboard.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 18 October 1974, a CH-47C, US serial 74-22058 assigned 147001 but was never marked with Canadian Forces. The aircraft was lost on its delivery flight to Canada following gear failure in main combining gear box, caused by undetected metal infraction in gear blank before machining. This failure led to drive shaft failure and loss of synchronization and resulted in five fatalities. After a lengthy litigation, it was replaced by 147009.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " On 11 September 1982 at an airshow in Mannheim, Germany, a U.S. Army Chinook (serial number 74-22292) carrying parachutists crashed, killing 46people. The crash was later found to have been caused by an accumulation of ground walnut shell grit used for cleaning machinery, which blocked lubrication from reaching transmission bearings. The accident resulted in the eventual discontinuation of the use of walnut grit as a cleaning agent.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 4 February 1985, a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) CH-47C (A15-001) crashed into Perseverance Dam, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia. The Royal Air Force (RAF) exchange pilot was rescued from the submerged cockpit but later died in hospital.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 6 November 1986, a British International Helicopters Chinook crashed on approach to Sumburgh Airport, Shetland Islands resulting in the loss of 45 lives and the withdrawal of the Chinook from crew-servicing flights in the North Sea.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 30 October 1997, a civilian BV234UT operated by Columbia Helicopters (registration C-FHFH) engaged in logging operations crashed on Vancouver Island, Canada, killing both of the pilots. The investigation determined that the helicopter lost yaw control due to failure of flight control computer.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 1 March 1991, Major Marie Therese Rossi Cayton was killed when her U.S. Army Chinook helicopter crashed after colliding with a microwave tower during a dust storm. She was the first American woman to fly in combat during Desert Storm in 1991.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 2 June 1994, an RAF CH-47 carrying 25 British MI5, police, and military intelligence experts and 4 crew, flew from Northern Ireland to Scotland for a conference crashed on the Mull of Kintyre",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 29 May 2001, a Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) CH-47D installing a sculpture onto Olympic Bridge in Seoul, South Korea failed to unlatch the sculpture. The helicopter's rotors struck the monument; then the fuselage hit and broke into two. One section crashed onto the bridge in flames and the other fell into the river. All three crew members on board died.",
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111
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},
{
"plaintext": " On 22 February 2002, a U.S. Army special forces MH-47E crashed at sea in the Philippines, killing all ten U.S. soldiers on board.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " On 11 September 2004, a Hellenic Army Aviation CH-47SD crashed into the sea off Mount Athos. All 17 people on board were killed, including four senior figures in the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.",
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},
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"plaintext": " On 6 April 2005, the U.S. Army CH-47D known as \"Big Windy 25\" crashed during a sandstorm near Ghazni, Afghanistan, killing all eighteen aboard (fifteen soldiers and three contractors). The pilots had been disoriented by the dust storm.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " On 7 January 2013, a BV-234 N241CH owned by Columbia Helicopters, crashed shortly after taking off from the airport in Pucallpa, Coronel Portillo Province, Peru. All seven crew members were killed.",
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"section_name": "Accidents",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "H-91 - CH-47C on display at the Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina in Morón, Buenos Aires.",
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"section_name": "Aircraft on display",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A15-104 - CH-47D on display at the Australian Army Flying Museum in Oakey, Queensland.",
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"section_name": "Aircraft on display",
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38,007 | 1,101,903,416 | Julian_day | [
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"plaintext": "The Julian day is the continuous count of days since the beginning of the Julian period, and is used primarily by astronomers, and in software for easily calculating elapsed days between two events (e.g. food production date and sell by date).",
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"plaintext": "The Julian period is a chronological interval of 7980 years; year 1 of the Julian Period was . The Julian calendar year is year of the current Julian Period. The next Julian Period begins in the year . Historians used the period to identify Julian calendar years within which an event occurred when no such year was given in the historical record, or when the year given by previous historians was incorrect.",
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"plaintext": "The Julian day number (JDN) is the integer assigned to a whole solar day in the Julian day count starting from noon Universal Time, with Julian day number 0 assigned to the day starting at noon on Monday, January 1, 4713 BC, proleptic Julian calendar (November 24, 4714BC, in the proleptic Gregorian calendar), a date at which three multi-year cycles started (which are: Indiction, Solar, and Lunar cycles) and which preceded any dates in recorded history. For example, the Julian day number for the day starting at 12:00 UT (noon) on January 1, 2000, was 2451545.",
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"plaintext": "The Julian date (JD) of any instant is the Julian day number plus the fraction of a day since the preceding noon in Universal Time. Julian dates are expressed as a Julian day number with a decimal fraction added. For example, the Julian Date for 00:30:00.0 UT January 1, 2013, is 2456293.520833. Expressed as a Julian date, this page was loaded at . ",
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"plaintext": "The term Julian date may also refer, outside of astronomy, to the day-of-year number (more properly, the ordinal date) in the Gregorian calendar, especially in computer programming, the military and the food industry, or it may refer to dates in the Julian calendar. For example, if a given \"Julian date\" is \"October 5, 1582\", this means that date in the Julian calendar (which was October 15, 1582, in the Gregorian calendar—the date it was first established). Without an astronomical or historical context, a \"Julian date\" given as \"36\" most likely means the 36th day of a given Gregorian year, namely February 5. Other possible meanings of a \"Julian date\" of \"36\" include an astronomical Julian Day Number, or the year AD36 in the Julian calendar, or a duration of 36astronomical Julian years). This is why the terms \"ordinal date\" or \"day-of-year\" are preferred. In contexts where a \"Julian date\" means simply an ordinal date, calendars of a Gregorian year with formatting for ordinal dates are often called \"Julian calendars\", but this could also mean that the calendars are of years in the Julian calendar system.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, Julian dates were recorded relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) (later, Ephemeris Time), but since 1997 the International Astronomical Union has recommended that Julian dates be specified in Terrestrial Time. Seidelmann indicates that Julian dates may be used with International Atomic Time (TAI), Terrestrial Time (TT), Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and that the scale should be indicated when the difference is significant. The fraction of the day is found by converting the number of hours, minutes, and seconds after noon into the equivalent decimal fraction. Time intervals calculated from differences of Julian Dates specified in non-uniform time scales, such as UTC, may need to be corrected for changes in time scales (e.g. leap seconds).",
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"plaintext": "Because the starting point or reference epoch is so long ago, numbers in the Julian day can be quite large and cumbersome. A more recent starting point is sometimes used, for instance by dropping the leading digits, in order to fit into limited computer memory with an adequate amount of precision. In the following table, times are given in 24-hour notation.",
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"plaintext": "In the table below, Epoch refers to the point in time used to set the origin (usually zero, but (1) where explicitly indicated) of the alternative convention being discussed in that row. The date given is a Gregorian calendar date unless otherwise specified. JD stands for Julian Date. 0h is 00:00 midnight, 12h is 12:00 noon, UT unless otherwise specified. Current value is as of and may be cached. [ (update)]",
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"plaintext": " The Modified Julian Date (MJD) was introduced by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in 1957 to record the orbit of Sputnik via an IBM 704 (36-bit machine) and using only 18 bits until August 7, 2576. MJD is the epoch of VAX/VMS and its successor OpenVMS, using 63-bit date/time, which allows times to be stored up to July 31, 31086, 02:48:05.47. The MJD has a starting point of midnight on November 17, 1858, and is computed by MJD = JD − 2400000.5 ",
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"plaintext": " The Truncated Julian Day (TJD) was introduced by NASA/Goddard in 1979 as part of a parallel grouped binary time code (PB-5) \"designed specifically, although not exclusively, for spacecraft applications\". TJD was a 4-digit day count from MJD 40000, which was May 24, 1968, represented as a 14-bit binary number. Since this code was limited to four digits, TJD recycled to zero on MJD 50000, or October 10, 1995, \"which gives a long ambiguity period of 27.4 years\". (NASA codes PB-1–PB-4 used a 3-digit day-of-year count.) Only whole days are represented. Time of day is expressed by a count of seconds of a day, plus optional milliseconds, microseconds and nanoseconds in separate fields. Later PB-5J was introduced which increased the TJD field to 16 bits, allowing values up to 65535, which will occur in the year 2147. There are five digits recorded after TJD 9999.",
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"plaintext": " The Dublin Julian Date (DJD) is the number of days that has elapsed since the epoch of the solar and lunar ephemerides used from 1900 through 1983, Newcomb's Tables of the Sun and Ernest W. Brown's Tables of the Motion of the Moon (1919). This epoch was noon UT on January 0, 1900, which is the same as noon UT on December 31, 1899. The DJD was defined by the International Astronomical Union at their meeting in Dublin, Ireland, in 1955.",
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"plaintext": " The Lilian day number is a count of days of the Gregorian calendar and not defined relative to the Julian Date. It is an integer applied to a whole day; day 1 was October 15, 1582, which was the day the Gregorian calendar went into effect. The original paper defining it makes no mention of the time zone, and no mention of time-of-day. It was named for Aloysius Lilius, the principal author of the Gregorian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " Rata Die is a system used in Rexx, Go and Python. Some implementations or options use Universal Time, others use local time. Day 1 is January 1, 1, that is, the first day of the Christian or Common Era in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. In Rexx January 1 is Day 0.",
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"plaintext": "The Heliocentric Julian Day (HJD) is the same as the Julian day, but adjusted to the frame of reference of the Sun, and thus can differ from the Julian day by as much as 8.3minutes (498seconds), that being the time it takes light to reach Earth from the Sun.",
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"plaintext": "The Julian day number is based on the Julian Period proposed by Joseph Scaliger, a classical scholar, in 1583 (one year after the Gregorian calendar reform) as it is the product of three calendar cycles used with the Julian calendar:",
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"plaintext": "Its epoch occurs when all three cycles (if they are continued backward far enough) were in their first year together. Years of the Julian Period are counted from this year, , as , which was chosen to be before any historical record.",
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"plaintext": "Scaliger corrected chronology by assigning each year a tricyclic \"character\", three numbers indicating that year's position in the 28-year solar cycle, the 19-year lunar cycle, and the 15-year indiction cycle. One or more of these numbers often appeared in the historical record alongside other pertinent facts without any mention of the Julian calendar year. The character of every year in the historical record was unique – it could only belong to one year in the 7980-year Julian Period. Scaliger determined that was Julian Period . He knew that had the character 9 of the solar cycle, 1 of the lunar cycle, and 3 of the indiction cycle. By inspecting a 532-year Paschal cycle with 19 solar cycles (each year numbered 1–28) and 28 lunar cycles (each year numbered 1–19), he determined that the first two numbers, 9 and 1, occurred at its year 457. He then calculated via remainder division that he needed to add eight 532-year Paschal cycles totaling 4256 years before the cycle containing in order for its year 457 to be indiction 3. The sum was thus .",
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"plaintext": "A formula for determining the year of the Julian Period given its character involving three four-digit numbers was published by Jacques de Billy in 1665 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (its first year). John F. W. Herschel gave the same formula using slightly different wording in his 1849 Outlines of Astronomy.",
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"plaintext": "Carl Friedrich Gauss introduced the modulo operation in 1801, restating de Billy's formula as: ",
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"plaintext": "where a is the year of the indiction cycle, b of the lunar cycle, and c of the solar cycle.",
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"plaintext": "John Collins described the details of how these three numbers were calculated in 1666, using many trials. A summary of Collin's description is in a footnote.",
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"plaintext": "Reese, Everett and Craun reduced the dividends in the Try column from 285, 420, 532 to 5, 2, 7 and changed remainder to modulo, but apparently still required many trials.",
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"plaintext": "The specific cycles used by Scaliger to form his tricyclic Julian Period were, first, the indiction cycle with a first year of 313. Then he chose the dominant 19-year Alexandrian lunar cycle with a first year of 285, the Era of Martyrs and the Diocletian Era epoch, or a first year of 532 according to Dionysius Exiguus. Finally, Scaliger chose the post-Bedan solar cycle with a first year of 776, when its first quadrennium of concurrents, , began in sequence. Although not their intended use, the equations of de Billy or Gauss can be used to determined the first year of any 15-, 19-, and 28-year tricyclic period given any first years of their cycles. For those of the Julian Period, the result is AD3268, because both remainder and modulo usually return the lowest positive result. Thus 7980years must be subtracted from it to yield the first year of the present Julian Period, −4712 or 4713BC, when all three of its sub-cycles are in their first years.",
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"plaintext": "Scaliger got the idea of using a tricyclic period from \"the Greeks of Constantinople\" as Herschel stated in his quotation below in Julian day numbers. Specifically, the monk and priest Georgios wrote in 638/39 that the Byzantine year 6149 AM (640/41) had indiction 14, lunar cycle 12, and solar cycle 17, which places the first year of the Byzantine Era in 5509/08BC, the Byzantine Creation. Dionysius Exiguus called the Byzantine lunar cycle his \"lunar cycle\" in argumentum 6, in contrast with the Alexandrian lunar cycle which he called his \"nineteen-year cycle\" in argumentum 5.",
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"plaintext": "Although many references say that the Julian in \"Julian Period\" refers to Scaliger's father, Julius Scaliger, at the beginning of Book V of his (\"Work on the Emendation of Time\") he states, \"\", which Reese, Everett and Craun translate as \"We have termed it Julian because it fits the Julian year.\" Thus Julian refers to the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": "Julian days were first used by Ludwig Ideler for the first days of the Nabonassar and Christian eras in his 1825 Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie. John F. W. Herschel then developed them for astronomical use in his 1849 Outlines of Astronomy, after acknowledging that Ideler was his guide.",
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"plaintext": "At least one mathematical astronomer adopted Herschel's \"days of the Julian period\" immediately. Benjamin Peirce of Harvard University used over 2,800 Julian days in his Tables of the Moon, begun in 1849 but not published until 1853, to calculate the lunar ephemerides in the new American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac from 1855 to 1888. The days are specified for \"Washington mean noon\", with Greenwich defined as west of Washington (282°57′W, or Washington 77°3′W of Greenwich). A table with 197 Julian days (\"Date in Mean Solar Days\", one per century mostly) was included for the years –4713 to 2000 with no year 0, thus \"–\" means BC, including decimal fractions for hours, minutes and seconds. The same table appears in Tables of Mercury by Joseph Winlock, without any other Julian days.",
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257,
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"plaintext": "The national ephemerides started to include a multi-year table of Julian days, under various names, for either every year or every leap year beginning with the French Connaissance des Temps in 1870 for 2,620 years, increasing in 1899 to 3,000 years. The British Nautical Almanac began in 1879 with 2,000 years. The Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch began in 1899 with 2,000 years. The American Ephemeris was the last to add a multi-year table, in 1925 with 2,000 years. However, it was the first to include any mention of Julian days with one for the year of issue beginning in 1855, as well as later scattered sections with many days in the year of issue. It was also the first to use the name \"Julian day number\" in 1918. The Nautical Almanac began in 1866 to include a Julian day for every day in the year of issue. The Connaissance des Temps began in 1871 to include a Julian day for every day in the year of issue.",
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"plaintext": "The French mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace first expressed the time of day as a decimal fraction added to calendar dates in his book, , in 1823. Other astronomers added fractions of the day to the Julian day number to create Julian Dates, which are typically used by astronomers to date astronomical observations, thus eliminating the complications resulting from using standard calendar periods like eras, years, or months. They were first introduced into variable star work in 1860 by the English astronomer Norman Pogson, which he stated was at the suggestion of John Herschel. They were popularized for variable stars by Edward Charles Pickering, of the Harvard College Observatory, in 1890.",
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"plaintext": "Julian days begin at noon because when Herschel recommended them, the astronomical day began at noon. The astronomical day had begun at noon ever since Ptolemy chose to begin the days for his astronomical observations at noon. He chose noon because the transit of the Sun across the observer's meridian occurs at the same apparent time every day of the year, unlike sunrise or sunset, which vary by several hours. Midnight was not even considered because it could not be accurately determined using water clocks. Nevertheless, he double-dated most nighttime observations with both Egyptian days beginning at sunrise and Babylonian days beginning at sunset. Medieval Muslim astronomers used days beginning at sunset, so astronomical days beginning at noon did produce a single date for an entire night. Later medieval European astronomers used Roman days beginning at midnight so astronomical days beginning at noon also allow observations during an entire night to use a single date. When all astronomers decided to start their astronomical days at midnight to conform to the beginning of the civil day, on , it was decided to keep Julian days continuous with previous practice, beginning at noon.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, usage of Julian day numbers as a neutral intermediary when converting a date in one calendar into a date in another calendar also occurred. An isolated use was by Ebenezer Burgess in his 1860 translation of the Surya Siddhanta wherein he stated that the beginning of the Kali Yuga era occurred at midnight at the meridian of Ujjain at the end of the 588,465th day and the beginning of the 588,466th day (civil reckoning) of the Julian Period, or between or . Robert Schram was notable beginning with his 1882 Hilfstafeln für Chronologie. Here he used about 5,370 \"days of the Julian Period\". He greatly expanded his usage of Julian days in his 1908 Kalendariographische und Chronologische Tafeln containing over 530,000 Julian days, one for the zeroth day of every month over thousands of years in many calendars. He included over 25,000 negative Julian days, given in a positive form by adding 10,000,000 to each. He called them \"day of the Julian Period\", \"Julian day\", or simply \"day\" in his discussion, but no name was used in the tables. Continuing this tradition, in his book \"Mapping Time: The Calendar and Its History\" british physics educator and programmer Edward Graham Richards uses Julian day numbers to convert dates from one calendar into another using algorithms rather than tables.",
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"plaintext": "The Julian day number can be calculated using the following formulas (integer division rounding towards zero is used exclusively, that is, positive values are rounded down and negative values are rounded up):",
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"plaintext": "The months January to December are numbered 1 to 12. For the year, astronomical year numbering is used, thus 1 BC is 0, 2 BC is −1, and 4713 BC is −4712. JDN is the Julian Day Number. Use the previous day of the month if trying to find the JDN of an instant before midday UT.",
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"plaintext": "The algorithm is valid for all (possibly proleptic) Gregorian calendar dates after November 23, 4713. Divisions are integer divisions towards zero; fractional parts are ignored.",
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"plaintext": "The algorithm is valid for all (possibly proleptic) Julian calendar years ≥ −4712, that is, for all JDN ≥ 0. Divisions are integer divisions, fractional parts are ignored.",
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"plaintext": "For the full Julian Date of a moment after 12:00 UT one can use the following. Divisions are real numbers.",
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"plaintext": "So, for example, January 1, 2000, at 18:00:00 UT corresponds to JD = 2451545.25",
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"plaintext": "For a point in time in a given Julian day after midnight UT and before 12:00 UT, add 1 or use the JDN of the next afternoon.",
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"plaintext": "The US day of the week W1 (for an afternoon or evening UT) can be determined from the Julian Day Number J with the expression:",
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33538
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"plaintext": "If the moment in time is after midnight UT (and before 12:00 UT), then one is already in the next day of the week.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "The ISO day of the week W0 can be determined from the Julian Day Number J with the expression:",
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"plaintext": "This is an algorithm by Edward Graham Richards to convert a Julian Day Number, J, to a date in the Gregorian calendar (proleptic, when applicable). Richards states the algorithm is valid for Julian day numbers greater than or equal to 0. All variables are integer values, and the notation \"adivb\" indicates integer division, and \"mod(a,b)\" denotes the modulus operator.",
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"plaintext": "For Julian calendar:",
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"plaintext": " f = J + j",
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},
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"plaintext": "For Gregorian calendar:",
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"plaintext": " f = J + j + (((4 × J + B) div 146097) × 3) div 4 + C",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Julian day number calculation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "For Julian or Gregorian, continue:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Julian day number calculation",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": "D, M, and Y are the numbers of the day, month, and year respectively for the afternoon at the beginning of the given Julian day.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Julian day number calculation",
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"plaintext": "Let Y be the year BC or AD and i, m and s respectively its positions in the indiction, Metonic and solar cycles.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Divide 6916i + 4200m + 4845s by 7980 and call the remainder r.",
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"section_name": "Julian day number calculation",
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"plaintext": "Example",
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"plaintext": "i = 8, m = 2, s = 8. What is the year?",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "As stated above, the Julian date (JD) of any instant is the Julian day number for the preceding noon in Universal Time plus the fraction of the day since that instant. Ordinarily calculating the fractional portion of the JD is straightforward; the number of seconds that have elapsed in the day divided by the number of seconds in a day, 86,400. But if the UTC timescale is being used, a day containing a positive leap second contains 86,401 seconds (or in the unlikely event of a negative leap second, 86,399 seconds). One authoritative source, the Standards of Fundamental Astronomy (SOFA), deals with this issue by treating days containing a leap second as having a different length (86,401 or 86,399 seconds, as required). SOFA refers to the result of such a calculation as \"quasi-JD\".",
"section_idx": 5,
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18472,
14526771
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414,
425
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550,
584
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},
{
"plaintext": " Julian year (calendar)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
15651
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1,
23
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},
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"plaintext": " 5th millennium BC",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
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35944
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1,
18
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Barycentric Julian Date",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
27760969
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1,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dual dating",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
15512766
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Decimal time",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2662359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Epoch (astronomy)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
200006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Epoch (reference date)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
41113
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Era",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
9758
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " J2000 – the epoch that starts on JD 2451545.0 (TT), the standard epoch used in astronomy since 1984",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
200006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lunation Number (similar concept)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
21833
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ordinal date",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5463983
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Time",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
30012
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Time standards",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
41799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zeller's congruence",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1207119
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alsted, Johann Heinrich 1649 [1630]. Encyclopaedia , Tome 4, Page 122.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, Washington, 1855–1980, Hathi Trust",
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"plaintext": " Astronomical almanac for the year 2001. (2000). U.S. Nautical Almanac Office and Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office. .",
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]
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{
"plaintext": " Astronomical almanac for the year 2017. (2016). U.S. Naval Observatory and Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office. .",
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{
"plaintext": " Astronomical Almanac Online. (2016). U.S. Nautical Almanac Office and Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office.",
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{
"plaintext": " Bede: The Reckoning of Time, tr. Faith Wallis, 725/1999, pp.392–404, . Also Appendix 2 (Beda Venerabilis' Paschal table.",
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"plaintext": " Burgess, Ebenezer, translator. 1860. Translation of the Surya Siddhanta. Journal of the American Oriental Society 6 (1858–1860) 141–498, p.161.",
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"plaintext": " Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch, Berlin, 1776–1922, Hathi Trust",
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],
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"plaintext": " Franz Diekamp, \"Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts\", Byzantinische Zeitschrift 9 (1900) 14–51 (in German and Greek).",
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"plaintext": " . Herschel's words remained the same in all editions, even while the page varied.",
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{
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"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " Julian Date Converter (March 20, 2013). US Naval Observatory. Retrieved September 16, 2013.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Kempler, Steve. (2011). Day of Year Calendar. Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Laplace (1823). Traité de Mécanique Céleste vol. 5 p.348 (in French)",
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"plaintext": " McCarthy, D. & Guinot, B. (2013). Time. In S. E. Urban & P. K. Seidelmann, eds. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd ed. (pp.76–104). Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. ",
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"plaintext": " Moyer, Gordon. (April 1981). \"The Origin of the Julian Day System,\" Sky and Telescope 61 311−313.",
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"plaintext": " Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris, London, 1767–1923, Hathi Trust",
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"plaintext": " Otto Neugebauer, Ethiopic Astronomy and Computus, Red Sea Press, 2016, pp.22, 93, 111, 183, . Page references in text, footnotes, and index are six greater than the page numbers in this edition.",
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"plaintext": " Noerdlinger, P. (April 1995 revised May 1996). Metadata Issues in the EOSDIS Science Data Processing Tools for Time Transformations and Geolocation. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.",
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"plaintext": " Nothaft, C. Philipp E., Scandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp.57–58, .",
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"plaintext": " Ohms, B. G. (1986). Computer processing of dates outside the twentieth century. IBM Systems Journal 25, 244–251. 10.1147/sj.252.0244",
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"plaintext": " Pallé, Pere L., Esteban, Cesar. (2014). Asteroseismology, p.185, Cambridge University Press, ",
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"plaintext": " Ransom, D. H. Jr. (c. 1988) ASTROCLK Astronomical Clock and Celestial Tracking Program pages 69–143, \"Dates and the Gregorian calendar\" pages 106–111. Retrieved September 10, 2009.",
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"plaintext": " Reese, Ronald Lane; Everett, Steven M.; Craun, Edwin D. (1981). \"The origin of the Julian Period: An application of congruences and the Chinese Remainder Theorem\", American Journal of Physics, volume 49, pages 658–661. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " \"Resolution B1\". (1997). XXIIIrd General Assembly (Kyoto, Japan). International Astronomical Union, p.7.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Richards, E. G. (2013). Calendars. In S. E. Urban & P. K. Seidelmann, eds. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd ed. (pp.585–624). Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " \"SDP Toolkit Time Notes\". (July 21, 2014). In SDP Toolkit / HDF-EOS. NASA.",
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"plaintext": " Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (ed.) (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac pages 55 & 603–606. University Science Books, .",
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"plaintext": " Seidelmann, P. Kenneth. (2013). \"Introduction to Positional Astronomy\" in Sean Urban and P. Kenneth Seidelmann (eds.) Explanatory supplement to the Astronomical Almanac''' (3rd ed.) pp.144. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " \"SOFA Time Scale and Calendar Tools\". (June 14, 2016). International Astronomical Union.",
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"plaintext": " Theveny, Pierre-Michel. (September 10, 2001). \"Date Format\" The TPtime Handbook. Media Lab. ",
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"plaintext": " Tøndering, Claus. (2014). \"The Julian Period\" in Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars. author.",
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"plaintext": " USDA. (c. 1963). Julian date calendar.",
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"plaintext": " Winkler, M. R. (n. d.). \"Modified Julian Date\". US Naval Observatory. Retrieved April 24, 2015.",
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38,008 | 1,107,367,660 | Bell_UH-1_Iroquois | [
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"plaintext": "The Bell UH-1 Iroquois (nicknamed \"Huey\") is a utility military helicopter designed and produced by the American aerospace company Bell Helicopter. It is the first member of the prolific Huey family, as well as the first turbine-powered helicopter in service with the United States military.",
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"plaintext": "Development of the Iroquois started in the early 1950s, a major impetus being a requirement issued by the United States Army for a new medical evacuation and utility helicopter. The Bell 204, first flown on 20 October 1956, was warmly received, particularly for the performance of its single turboshaft engine over piston engine-powered counterparts. An initial production contract for 100 HU-1As was issued in March 1960. In response to criticisms over the rotorcraft's power, Bell quickly developed multiple models furnished with more powerful engines; in comparison to the prototype's Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1B-1) engine, producing 700 shp (520kW), by 1966, the Lycoming T53-L-13, capable of , was being installed on some models. A stretched version of the Iroquois, first flown during August 1961, was also produced in response to Army demands for a version than could accommodate more troops. Further modifications would include the use of all-aluminium construction, the adoption of a rotor brake, and alternative powerplants.",
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"plaintext": "The Iroquois was first used in combat operations during the Vietnam War, the first examples being deployed in March 1962. It was used for various purposes, conducting general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and ground attack missions. Armed Iroquois gunships carried a variety of weapons, including rockets, grenade launchers, and machine guns, and were often modified in the field to suit specific operations. The United States Air Force also deployed its Iroquois to Vietnam, using them to conduct reconnaissance operations, psychological warfare, and other support roles. Other nations' armed air services, such as the Royal Australian Air Force, also dispatched their own Iroquois to Vietnam. In total, around 7,000 Iroquois were deployed in the Vietnam theatre, over 3,300 of which were believed to be destroyed. Various other conflicts have seen combat deployments of the Iroquois, such as the Rhodesian Bush War, Falklands War, War in Afghanistan, and the 2007 Lebanon conflict.",
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"plaintext": "The Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. Various derivatives and developments of the Iroquois were produced. A dedicated attack helicopter, the Bell AH-1 Cobra, was derived from the UH-1, and retained a high degree of commonality. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civilian market. In response to demands from some customers, a twin-engined model, the UH-1N Twin Huey, was also developed during the late 1960s; a four-bladed derivative, the Bell UH-1Y Venom, was also developed during the early twenty-first century. In US Army service, the Iroquois was gradually phased out following the introduction of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk and the Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota, although hundreds were still in use more than 50 years following the type's introduction. In excess of 16,000 Iroquois have been built since 1960.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, the U.S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, or too complex to maintain easily. During November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204 and Kaman Aircraft with a turbine-powered version of the H-43. On 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designation XH-40.",
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"plaintext": "Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1B-1) engine producing 700 shp (520kW), the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956, at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bell's chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Even prior to the first flight, the Army had placed an order for six YH-40 service test helicopters. During 1957, a further two prototypes were completed. In March 1960, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated \"HU-1A\" and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations.",
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"plaintext": "The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its HU-1 designation, which came to be pronounced as \"Huey\". The reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopter's anti-torque pedals. The official U.S. Army name was almost never used in practice. Even after September 1962, at which point the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense (DOD) designation system, yet the nickname persisted.",
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"plaintext": "While glowing in praise for the helicopter's advances over piston-engined helicopters, the Army reports from the service tests of the YH-40 found it to be underpowered with the production T53-L-1A powerplant producing a maximum continuous 770 shaft horsepower (570 kilowatts). The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered. In response, Bell proposed the UH-1B, equipped with the Lycoming T53-L-5 engine producing 960shp (720kW) and a longer cabin that could accommodate either seven passengers or four stretchers and a medical attendant. Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961.",
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"plaintext": "Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in order to correct aerodynamic deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100shp (820kW) T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to lift all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army eventually refitted all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine. A new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a slight speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bell's engineers to design a new tail boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord vertical fin on the tail rotor pylon and larger synchronized elevators.",
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"plaintext": "Bell also introduced a dual hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia. The UH-1C fuel capacity was increased to 242 US gallons (920 liters), and gross weight was raised to , giving a nominal useful load of . UH-1C production started in June 1966 with a total of 766 aircraft produced, including five for the Royal Australian Navy and five for Norway.",
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"plaintext": "While earlier \"short-body\" Hueys were a success, the Army wanted a version that could carry more troops. Bell's solution was to stretch the HU-1B fuselage by and use the extra space to fit four seats next to the transmission, facing out. Seating capacity increased to 15, including crew. The enlarged cabin could also accommodate six stretchers and a medic, two more than the earlier models. In place of the earlier model's sliding side doors with a single window, larger doors were fitted which had two windows, plus a small hinged panel with an optional window, providing enhanced access to the cabin. The doors and hinged panels were quickly removable, allowing the Huey to be flown in a \"doors off\" configuration.",
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"plaintext": "The Model 205 prototype flew on 16 August 1961. Seven pre-production/prototype aircraft had been delivered for testing at Edwards AFB starting in March 1961. The 205 was initially equipped with a 44-foot (13.4 m) main rotor and a Lycoming T53-L-9 engine with 1,100 shp (820kW). The rotor was lengthened to 48 feet (14.6 m) with a chord of . The tailboom was also lengthened, in order to accommodate the longer rotor blades. Altogether, the modifications resulted in a gross weight capacity of . The Army ordered production of the 205 in 1963, produced with a T53-L-11 engine for its multi-fuel capability. The prototypes were designated as YUH-1D and the production aircraft was designated as the UH-1D.",
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"plaintext": "During 1966, Bell installed the Lycoming T53-L-13 engine to provide more power for the helicopter. The pitot tube was relocated from the nose to the roof of the cockpit to prevent damage during landing. Production models in this configuration were designated as the UH-1H.",
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"plaintext": "In 1962, the United States Marine Corps held a competition to choose an assault support helicopter to replace the Cessna O-1 fixed-wing aircraft and the Kaman OH-43D helicopter. The winner was the UH-1B, which was already in service with the Army. The helicopter was designated the UH-1E and modified to meet Marine requirements. The major changes included the use of all-aluminum construction for corrosion resistance, radios compatible with Marine Corps ground frequencies, a rotor brake for shipboard use to stop the rotor quickly on shutdown and a roof-mounted rescue hoist.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-1E was first flown on 7 October 1963, and deliveries commenced on 21 February 1964; a total of 192 Iroquois of this model were completed. Due to production line realities at Bell, the UH-1E was produced in two different versions, both with the same UH-1E designation. The first 34 built were essentially UH-1B airframes with the Lycoming T53-L-11 engine producing 1,100 shp (820kW). When Bell switched production to the UH-1C, the UH-1E production benefited from the same changes. The Marine Corps later upgraded UH-1E engines to the Lycoming T53-L-13, which produced 1,400 shp (1,000kW), after the Army introduced the UH-1M and upgraded their UH-1C helicopters to the same engine.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Air Force (USAF) held a competition for a helicopter to be used for support on missile bases included a specific requirement to mandate the use of the General Electric T58 turboshaft as a powerplant. The Air Force had a large inventory of these engines on hand for its fleet of HH-3 Jolly Green Giant rescue helicopters and using the same engine for both helicopters would save costs. In response, Bell proposed an upgraded version of the 204B with the T58 engine. Because the T58 output shaft is at the rear, and was thus mounted in front of the transmission on the HH-3, it had to have a separate offset gearbox (SDG or speed decreaser gearbox) at the rear, and shafting to couple to the UH-1 transmission.",
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"plaintext": "The single-engine UH-1 variants were followed by the twin-engine UH-1N Twin Huey and years later the UH-1Y Venom. Bell began development of the UH-1N for Canada in 1968. It changed to the more powerful Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T twin-engine set. The US also ordered the helicopter with the USAF receiving it in 1970. Canada's military, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Navy first received the model in 1971.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program via the award of a contract to Bell Helicopter for development of the improved UH-1Y and AH-1Zs variants. The UH-1Y includes a lengthened cabin, four-blade rotor, and two more powerful GE T700 engines. The UH-1Y entered service with the USMC in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility helicopter designed for military use. It has a metal fuselage of semi-monocoque construction with tubular landing skids and two rotor blades on the main rotor. Early UH-1 models featured a single Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine in versions with power ratings from to . Later UH-1 and related models often featured twin engines and four-blade rotors.",
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"plaintext": "All aircraft in the UH-1 family have similar construction. The UH-1H is the most-produced version, and is representative of all types. The main structure consists of two longitudinal main beams that run under the passenger cabin to the nose and back to the tail boom attachment point. The main beams are separated by transverse bulkheads and provide the supporting structure for the cabin, landing gear, under-floor fuel tanks, transmission, engine and tail boom. The main beams are joined at the lift beam, a short aluminum girder structure that is attached to the transmission via a lift link on the top and the cargo hook on the bottom and is located at the aircraft's center of gravity. The lift beams were changed to steel later in the UH-1H's life, due to cracking on high-time airframes. The semi-monocoque tail boom attaches to the fuselage with four bolts.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-1H's dynamic components include the engine, transmission, rotor mast, main rotor blades, tail rotor driveshaft, and the 42-degree and 90-degree gearboxes. The transmission is of a planetary type and reduces the engine's output to 324 rpm at the main rotor. The two-bladed, semi-rigid rotor design, with pre-coned and underslung blades, is a development of early Bell model designs, such as the Bell 47 with which it shares common design features, including a damped stabilizer bar. The two-bladed system reduces storage space required for the aircraft, but at a cost of higher vibration levels. The two-bladed design is also responsible for the characteristic 'Huey thump' when the aircraft is in flight, which is particularly evident during descent and in turning flight. The tail rotor is driven from the main transmission, via the two directional gearboxes which provide a tail rotor speed approximately six times that of the main rotor to increase tail rotor effectiveness.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-1H also features a synchronized elevator on the tail boom, which is linked to the cyclic control and allows a wider center of gravity range. The standard fuel system consists of five interconnected fuel tanks, three of which are mounted behind the transmission and two of which are under the cabin floor. The landing gear consists of two arched cross tubes joining the skid tubes. The skids have replaceable sacrificial skid shoes to prevent wear of the skid tubes themselves. Skis and inflatable floats may be fitted. While the five main fuel tanks are self-sealing, the UH-1H was not equipped with factory armor, although armored pilot seats were available.",
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"plaintext": "Internal seating is made up of two pilot seats and additional seating for up to 13 passengers or crew in the cabin. The maximum seating arrangement consists of a four-man bench seat facing rearwards behind the pilot seats, facing a five-man bench seat in front of the transmission structure, with two, two-man bench seats facing outwards from the transmission structure on either side of the aircraft. All passenger seats are constructed of aluminum tube frames with canvas material seats, and are quickly removable and reconfigurable. The cabin may also be configured with up to six stretchers, an internal rescue hoist, auxiliary fuel tanks, spotlights, or many other mission kits. Access to the cabin is via two aft-sliding doors and two small, forward-hinged panels. The doors and hinged panels may be removed for flight or the doors may be pinned open. Pilot access is via individual hinged doors.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-1H's dual controls are conventional for a helicopter and consist of a single hydraulic system boosting the cyclic stick, collective lever and anti-torque pedals. The collective levers have integral throttles, although these are not used to control rotor rpm, which is automatically governed, but are used for starting and shutting down the engine. The cyclic and collective control the main rotor pitch through push-pull tube linkages to the swashplate, while the anti-torque pedals change the pitch of the tail rotor via a tensioned cable arrangement. Some UH-1Hs have been modified to replace the tail rotor control cables with push-pull tubes similar to the UH-1N Twin Huey.",
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"plaintext": "The HU-1A (later redesignated UH-1A) first entered service with the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, the 82nd Airborne Division, and the 57th Medical Detachment. Although intended for evaluation only, the Army quickly pressed the new helicopter into operational service, and Hueys with the 57th Medical Detachment arrived in Vietnam in March 1962. The UH-1 has long been a symbol of US involvement in Southeast Asia in general and Vietnam in particular, and as a result of that conflict, has become one of the world's most recognized helicopters. In Vietnam primary missions included general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and later, ground attack. During the conflict, the craft was upgraded, notably to a larger version based on the Model 205. This version was initially designated the UH-1D and flew operationally from 1963.",
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"plaintext": "During service in the Vietnam War, the UH-1 was used for various purposes and various terms for each task abounded. UH-1s tasked with ground attack or armed escort were outfitted with rocket launchers, grenade launchers, and machine guns. As early as 1962, UH-1s were modified locally by the companies themselves, who fabricated their own mounting systems. These gunship UH-1s were commonly referred to as \"Frogs\" or \"Hogs\" if they carried rockets, and \"Cobras\" or simply \"Guns\" if they had guns. UH-1s tasked and configured for troop transport were often called \"Slicks\" due to an absence of weapons pods. Slicks did have door gunners, but were generally employed in the troop transport and medevac roles.",
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"plaintext": "UH-1s also flew \"hunter-killer\" teams with observation helicopters, namely the Bell OH-58A Kiowa and the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse (Loach). Towards the end of the conflict, the UH-1 was tested with TOW missiles, and two UH-1B helicopters equipped with the XM26 Armament Subsystem were deployed to help counter the 1972 Easter Invasion. USAF Lieutenant James P. Fleming piloted a UH-1F on a 26 November 1968 mission that earned him the Medal of Honor.",
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"plaintext": "During the course of the conflict, the UH-1 went through several upgrades. The UH-1A, B, and C models (short fuselage, Bell 204) and the UH-1D and H models (stretched-fuselage, Bell 205) each had improved performance and load-carrying capabilities. The UH-1B and C performed the gunship, and some of the transport, duties in the early years of the Vietnam War. UH-1B/C gunships were replaced by the new AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter from 1967 to late 1968. The increasing intensity and sophistication of NVA anti-aircraft defenses made continued use of UH-1 gunships impractical, and after Vietnam the Cobra was adopted as the Army's main attack helicopter. Devotees of the UH-1 in the gunship role cite its ability to act as an impromptu Dustoff if the need arose, as well as the superior observational capabilities of the larger Huey cockpit, which allowed return fire from door gunners to the rear and sides of the aircraft. In air cavalry troops (i.e., companies) UH-1s were combined with infantry scouts, OH-6 and OH-58 aero-scout helicopters, and AH-1 attack helicopters to form several color-coded teams (viz., blue, white, red, purple, and pink) to perform various reconnaissance, security, and \"economy of force\" missions in fulfilling the traditional cavalry battlefield role.",
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"plaintext": "The Army tested a great variety of experimental weapons on the UH-1; nearly anything that could be carried. The Army desired weapons with large calibers and high rates of fire, which led to the testing of a 20mm cannon on a large mount bolted to the cabin floor. The size of the weapon allowed very little room for movement. The Army further tested a full-size Vulcan cannon firing out the door of a UH-1. It was capable of firing 2400 rounds per minute, or about 40 rounds per second. Despite this being a significant reduction from the nearly 100 rounds per second fired by a standard Vulcan cannon, the installation proved \"too kinetic\" for the UH-1. Podded versions of the M24 20mm cannon were tested in combat over Vietnam. There was a wide variety of 7.62mm automatic weapons tested, including different installations of the M60 machine gun. AS-10 and SS-11 missiles were tested in several different configurations. High-capacity rocket launchers were also tested, such as the XM3 launcher, which had 24 launching tubes. Press photos were taken with the XM5 and XM3 installed on the same aircraft, but this arrangement could not be used because it was more than the gross take-off weight of the aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "During the Easter Offensive of 1972 by North Vietnam, experimental models of the TOW-firing XM26 were taken out of storage and sent to South Vietnam in response to the onslaught. The pilots had never fired a TOW missile before, and were given brief crash courses. Despite having little training with the units, the pilots managed to hit targets with 151 of the 162 missiles fired in combat, including a pair of tanks. The airborne TOW launchers were known as \"Hawks Claws\" and were based at Camp Holloway. During the conflict, 7,013 UH-1s served in Vietnam and of these 3,305 were destroyed. In total, 1,151 pilots were killed, along with 1,231 other crew members (these figures are not including Army of the Republic of Vietnam losses).",
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"plaintext": "Post Vietnam, the US Army continued to operate large numbers of Iroquois; they would see further combat during the US invasion of Grenada in 1983, the US invasion of Panama in 1989, and the Gulf War in 1991. In the latter conflict, in excess of 400 Iroquois performed a variety of missions in the region; over a nine-month period, the fleet cumulatively reached 31,000 flight hours and achieved a stable fully mission capable rate of 70%. The type comprised more than 20% of all rotorcraft across the coalition and recorded 21% of the overall flying hours. Even after the Gulf War, the US Army had more than 2,800 Iroquois in its inventory; in particular, 389 UH-1Vs comprised 76% of the Army's medevac aircraft. Nevertheless, plans were mooted as early as 1992 to undertake a slow withdrawal of the aging type in favour of larger and more technologically advanced rotorcraft.",
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"plaintext": "The US Army phased out the UH-1 with the introduction of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk, although the Army UH-1 Residual Fleet had around 700 UH-1s that were to be retained until 2015, primarily in support of Army Aviation training at Fort Rucker and in selected Army National Guard units. Army support for the craft was intended to end in 2004; The UH-1 was retired from active Army service in early 2005. During 2009, Army National Guard retirements of the UH-1 accelerated with the introduction of the Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota. The final UH-1 was retired in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1965, the United States Air Force (USAF) 20th Helicopter Squadron was formed at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, equipped initially with CH-3C helicopters. By June 1967, the UH-1F and UH-1P were also added to the unit's inventory and, by the end of the year, the entire unit had shifted from Tan Son Nhut to Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base, with the CH-3s transferring to the 21st Helicopter Squadron. On 1 August 1968, the unit was redesignated the 20th Special Operations Squadron. The 20th SOS's UH-1s were known as the Green Hornets, stemming from their color, a primarily green two-tone camouflage (green and tan) was carried, and radio call-sign \"Hornet\". The main role of these helicopters were to insert and extract reconnaissance teams, provide cover for such operations, conduct psychological warfare, and other support roles for covert operations especially in Laos and Cambodia during the so-called Secret War.",
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"plaintext": "USAF UH-1s were often equipped with automatic grenade launchers in place of the door guns. The XM-94 grenade launcher had been tested on Army rotorcraft prior to its use by the USAF. The unit was capable of firing 400 grenades per minute, up to 1,500 yards effective range.",
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"plaintext": "Into the twenty-first century, the USAF operates the UH-1N for support of intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) sites, including transport of security personnel and distinguished visitors. On 24 September 2018, the USAF announced that the Boeing/Leonardo MH-139 (an AW-139 variant) had won a competition to replace the UH-1Ns.",
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"plaintext": "The US Navy acquired a number of surplus UH-1B helicopters from the U.S. Army, these rotorcraft were modified into gunships, outfitted with special gun mounts and radar altimeters. They were known as Seawolves in service with Navy Helicopter Attack (Light) (HA(L)-3). UH-1C helicopters were also acquired during the 1970s. The Seawolves worked as a team with Navy river patrol operations.",
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"plaintext": "Four years after the disestablishment of HA(L)-3, the Navy determined that it still had a need for gunships, establishing two new Naval Reserve Helicopter Attack (Light) Squadrons as part of the newly formed Commander, Helicopter Wing Reserve (COMHELWINGRES) in 1976. Helicopter Attack Squadron (Light) Five (HA(L)-5), nicknamed the \"Blue Hawks\", was established at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California on 11 June 1977 and its sister squadron, Helicopter Attack Squadron (Light) Four (HA(L)-4), known as the Red Wolves, was formed at Naval Air Station Norfolk, Virginia on 1 July 1976.",
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"plaintext": "The UH-1H has been used on multiple occasions by the American Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA); initially, these were usually borrowed from the U.S. Army to support planned missions, such for Operation Snowcap, a large multi-year counter-narcotics action covering nine countries across Latin America.",
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"plaintext": "During the War in Afghanistan, the DEA made use of a number of UH-1s stationed in the country for the purpose of conducting counter-narcotics raids. Operated by contractors, these Hueys provide transportation, surveillance, and air support for DEA FAST teams. During July 2009, four UH-1Hs and two Mi-17s were used in a raid that led to the arrest of an Afghan Border Police commander on corruption charges.",
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"plaintext": "Nine Argentine Army Aviation UH-1Hs and two Argentine Air Force Bell 212 were included with the aircraft deployed during the Falklands War. They performed general transport and SAR missions and were based at Port Stanley (BAM Puerto Argentino). Two of the Hueys were destroyed and, after the hostilities had ended, the remainder were captured by the British military. Three captured aircraft survive as museum pieces in England and Falklands.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Australian Air Force employed the UH-1H until 1989. Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF were deployed to South Vietnam in mid 1966 in support of the 1st Australian Task Force. In this role they were armed with single M60 doorguns. In 1969 four of No. 9 Squadron's helicopters were converted to gunships (known as 'Bushrangers'), armed with two fixed forward firing M134 7.62mm minigun (one each side) and a 7-round rocket pod on each side. Aircrew were armed with twin M60 flexible mounts in each door. UH-1 helicopters were used in many roles including troop transport, medevac and Bushranger gunships for armed support. No. 35 Squadron and No. 5 Squadron also operated the Iroquois in various roles through the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1982 and 1986, the squadron contributed aircraft and aircrew to the Australian helicopter detachment which formed part of the Multinational Force and Observers peacekeeping force in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. During 1988, the RAAF began to re-equip with S-70A Blackhawks.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989 and 1990, the RAAF's UH-1H Iroquois were subsequently transferred to the 171st Aviation Squadron in Darwin, Northern Territory and the 5th Aviation Regiment based in Townsville, Queensland following the decision that all battlefield helicopters would be operated by the Australian Army. On 21 September 2007, the Australian Army retired the last of their Bell UH-1s. The last flight occurred in Brisbane on that day with the aircraft replaced by MRH-90 medium helicopters and Tiger armed reconnaissance helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Australian Navy's 723 Squadron also operated seven UH-1B from 1964 to 1989, with three of these aircraft lost in accidents during that time. 723 Squadron deployed Iroquois aircraft and personnel as part of the Experimental Military Unit during the Vietnam War.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous UH-1s were operated by the Salvadoran Air Force; during the 1980s, it became the biggest and most experienced combat helicopter force in Central and South America, fighting for over a decade during the Salvadoran Civil War and having been trained by US Army in tactics developed during the Vietnam War. By the start of 1985, El Salvador had 33 UH-1s in its inventory, some configured as gunships and others as transports; furthermore, in the following years, the country expanded its UH-1 fleet further with assistance from the US government. Several Salvadorean UH-1M and UH-1H helicopters used were modified to carry bombs instead of rocket pods. The UH-1s enabled the military to avoid ground routes vulnerable to guerilla ambushes; the gunships were typically used to suppress hostile forces ahead of troops being inserted by UH-1 transports.",
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"plaintext": "The German aerospace company Dornier constructed 352 UH-1Ds under license between 1967 and 1981 for the West German Bundeswehr. These saw service with both the German Army and German Air Force as utility helicopters, they were also commonly used for search and rescue (SAR) missions. Having been replaced by newer twin-engined Eurocopter EC145s, the last UH-1Ds in German service were withdrawn on 12 April 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Israel withdrew its UH-1s from service in 2002, after thirty three years of service. They were replaced by Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters beginning with an initial batch of 10 delivered during 1994. While some were passed on to pro-Israeli militias in Lebanon, eleven other UH-1Ds were reportedly sold to a Singapore-based logging company but were, instead, delivered in October 1978 to the Rhodesian Air Force to skirt a United Nations-endorsed embargo imposed on the country during the Rhodesian Bush War.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, a pair of Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) UH-1 helicopters were deployed to Pakistan for earthquake disaster relief. During 2010, after floods in Pakistan, UH-1s were again deployed to the country to aid in disaster relief. Japanese UH-1s have also been periodically used to conduct water bombing against fires.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan's UH-1 fleet was extensively deployed across the country for disaster relief purposes; they also conducted reconnaissance flights over the stricken Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant while carrying radiation detection equipment to help inform planners of the plant's condition.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 2020s, Japan's Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency was in the process of recapitalising much of the JGSDF's rotarywing capability; it is planned for a locally-built model of the twin-engined multirole Bell 412 helicopter to replace the remaining UH-1s in Japanese service.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 1990s, the Lebanese Air Force (LAF) inducted their first UH-1 helicopters. During the 2007 Lebanon conflict, at the Battle of Nahr el-Bared in North Lebanon, the Lebanese Army, lacking fixed-wing aircraft, modified several UH-1Hs to carry Mark 82 bombs, enabling it to perform helicopter bombing, and used it to strike militant-held positions. Specifically, special mounting points were installed along the sides of each Huey for the carriage of these high explosive bombs. In the aftermath of the 2020 Beirut explosion, UH-1s participated in the disaster response, and were used to extinguish fires.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, the fleet is tasked with performing search and rescue, troop transport, aerial firefighting and utility missions. In the late 2010s, specially modified UH-1Ds participated in the first LIDAR mapping exercise in the country. During February 2021, an additional three Bell UH-1H-IIs were delivered to the LAF by Bell to augment their existing fleet.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal New Zealand Air Force had an active fleet of 13 Iroquois serving with No. 3 Squadron RNZAF. The first delivery was five UH-1D in 1966 followed in 1970 by nine UH-1H and one more UH-1H in 1976. All of the UH-1D aircraft were upgraded to 1H specification during the 1970s. Two ex-U.S. Army UH-1H attrition airframes were purchased in 1996. Three aircraft have been lost in accidents.",
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"plaintext": "The RNZAF has retired the Iroquois, with the NHIndustries NH90 as its replacement. Eight active NH90 helicopters plus one spare have been procured. This process was initially expected to be completed by the end of 2013, but was delayed until 2016. Individual aircraft were retired as they reach their next major 'group' servicing intervals; the UH-1H was retired as the NH90 fleet stood up. On 21 May 2015, the remaining UH-1H fleet of six helicopters conducted a final tour of the country ahead of its planned retirement on 1 July. During 49 years of service the type had seen service in areas including the U.K., Southeast Asia, Timor, the Solomon Islands, various South Pacific nations, and the Antarctic.",
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"plaintext": "The Philippine Air Force (PAF) has a long history of acquiring United States Air Force assets, including the Bell UH-1. In PAF service, the type was regularly used to combat local insurgents as well as to conduct disaster relief operations after several earthquakes and typhoons hit the nation. Francis Ford Coppola filmed Apocalypse Now in the Philippines primarily because President Ferdinand Marcos agreed to let Coppola use Philippine Hueys to film the iconic scene with Robert Duvall as Lt. Colonel Kilgore.",
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"plaintext": "During 2013, the PAF was pursuing the acquisition of 21 used UH-1H helicopters; the deal reportedly included their refurbishment prior to delivery. Furthermore, during October 2019, the Philippines made a deal with Japan to acquire some of its spare parts inventory; this reportedly was to facilitate the restoration of seven stored UH-1s to flightworthy condition. By January 2021, the PAF had 13 UH-1H and 10 UH-1D helicopters in an operational condition.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 January 2021, President Rodrigo Duterte announced a plan to retire all of the PAF's remaining UH-1 helicopters, following a series of crashes involving the type. The latest crash occurred on 16 January 2021, killing seven passengers and prompting the grounding of all Hueys for further inspection. On 14 October 2021, the PAF officially decommissioned the remainder of its UH-1D fleet, despite some having only been acquired seven years prior; the retired rotorcraft were stored at Clark Air Base. The role of the UH-1 is to be performed by recently delivered UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters instead; in January 2022, a deal to buy 32 new-build Black Hawks was announced.",
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"plaintext": "Very late in the Rhodesian Bush War, the Rhodesian Air Force obtained 11 former Israeli Agusta-Bell 205As in violation of sanctions on the nation, allegedly having used a series of intermediaries to evade them. Locally known as Cheetahs, these helicopters were returned to a flightworthy condition and then assigned to No. 8 Squadron, after which they participated in the counter-insurgency effort, usually functioning as armed gunships as well as troop transports. During September 1979, one Cheetah was lost in combat after being hit by an RPG while flying over Mozambique. At least another three other UH-1s were also lost. The surviving helicopters were put up for sale in 1990.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2009, Yemen received four UH-1Hs. These remained grounded for almost all the time they were in Yemen; at least one helicopter was heavily damaged during Saudi-led airstrikes on Al Daylami and Al Anad Air bases.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " XH-40: The initial Bell 204 prototype. Three prototypes were built, equipped with the Lycoming XT-53-L-1 engine of .",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " YH-40: Six aircraft for evaluation, as XH-40 with cabin stretch and other modifications.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell Model 533: One YH-40BF rebuilt as a flight test bed with turbojet engines and wings.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " HU-1A: Initial Bell 204 production model, redesignated as the UH-1A in 1962. 182 built.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TH-1A: UH-1A with dual controls and blind-flying instruments, 14 conversions.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " XH-1A: A single UH-1A was redesignated for grenade launcher testing in 1960.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " HU-1B: Upgraded HU-1A, various external and rotor improvements. Redesignated UH-1B in 1962. 1014 built plus four prototypes designated YUH-1B.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " NUH-1B: a single test aircraft, serial number 64–18261.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1C: The UH-1B gunship lacked the power necessary to carry weapons and ammunition and keep up with transport Hueys. So Bell designed yet another variant, the UH-1C, intended strictly for the gunship role. It is an UH-1B with improved engine, modified blades and rotor-head for better performance in the gunship role. 767 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " YUH-1D: Seven pre-production prototypes of the UH-1D.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1D Iroquois: Initial Bell 205 production model (long fuselage version of the 204). Designed as a troop carrier to replace the CH-34 then in US Army service. 2008 built; many later converted to UH-1H standard.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " HH-1D: Army crash rescue variant of UH-1D.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1E: UH-1B/C for USMC with different avionics and equipment. 192 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " NUH-1E: UH-1E configured for testing.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TH-1E: UH-1C configured for Marine Corps training. Twenty were built in 1965.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1F: UH-1B/C for USAF with General Electric T58-GE-3 engine of . 120 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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30,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " TH-1F: Instrument and Rescue Trainer based on the UH-1F for the USAF. 26 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1H: Improved UH-1D with a Lycoming T53-L-13 engine of . 5435 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
4169686
],
"anchor_spans": [
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30,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " CUH-1H: Canadian Forces designation for the UH-1H utility transport helicopter. Redesignated CH-118. A total of 10 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
182792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
9,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " EH-1H: Twenty-two aircraft converted by installation of AN/ARQ-33 radio intercept and jamming equipment for Project Quick Fix.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " HH-1H: Search and rescue (SAR) variant for the USAF with rescue hoist. A total of 30 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
172599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
8,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " JUH-1: Five UH-1Hs converted to SOTAS battlefield surveillance configuration with belly-mounted airborne radar.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TH-1H: Recently modified UH-1Hs for use as basic helicopter flight trainers by the USAF.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " HH-1K: Purpose-built SAR variant of the Model 204 for the US Navy with USN avionics and equipment. 27 built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TH-1L: Helicopter flight trainer based on the HH-1K for the USN. A total of 45 were built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1L: Utility variant of the TH-1L. Eight were built.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1M: Gunship specific UH-1C upgrade with Lycoming T53-L-13 engine of .",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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44,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1N: Initial Bell 212 production model, the Bell \"Twin Pac\" twin-engined Huey powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada T400-CP-400.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
6
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16,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1P: UH-1F variant for USAF for special operations use and attack operations used solely by the USAF 20th Special Operations Squadron, \"the Green Hornets\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " EH-1U: No more than two UH-1H aircraft modified for Multiple Target Electronic Warfare System (MULTEWS).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1V: Aeromedical evacuation, rescue version for the US Army.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " EH-1X: Ten Electronic warfare UH-1Hs converted under \"Quick Fix IIA\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
82272
],
"anchor_spans": [
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12,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1Y: Upgraded variant developed from existing upgraded late model UH-1Ns, with additional emphasis on commonality with the AH-1Z.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Note: In U.S. service, the G, J, Q, R, S, T, W and Z model designations are used by the AH-1. The UH-1 and AH-1 are considered members of the same H-1 series. The military does not use I (India) or O (Oscar) for aircraft designations to avoid confusion with \"one\" and \"zero\" respectively.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
37745
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell 204: Bell Helicopters company designation, covering aircraft from the XH-40, YH-40 prototypes to the UH-1A, UH-1B, UH-1C, UH-1E, UH-1F, HH-1K, UH-1L, UH-1P and UH-1M production aircraft.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Agusta-Bell AB 204: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Italy by Agusta.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
510149
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
92,
98
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Agusta-Bell AB 204AS: Anti-submarine warfare, anti-shipping version of the AB 204 helicopter.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fuji-Bell HU-1B/HU-1H: Military utility transport helicopter for the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force. Built under license in Japan by Fuji Heavy Industries.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
2978818,
302444
],
"anchor_spans": [
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70,
101
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135,
156
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell 205: Bell Helicopters company designation of the UH-1D and UH-1H helicopters.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport helicopter version, initial version based on the UH-1H.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell 205A-1A: As 205A-1, but with armament hardpoints and military avionics. Produced specifically for Israeli contract.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Agusta-Bell 205: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Italy by Agusta.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " AIDC UH-1H: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Taiwan by Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
1361902,
1361902
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
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[
85,
129
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dornier UH-1D: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Germany by Dornier Flugzeugwerke.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
93334,
93334
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
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[
89,
110
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1G: Unofficial name applied locally to at least one armed UH-1H by the Khmer Air Force in Cambodia.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
35293309,
334751
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"anchor_spans": [
[
75,
90
],
[
94,
102
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fuji-Bell UH-1J: An improved Japanese version of the UH-1H built under license in Japan by Fuji Heavy Industries was locally given the designation UH-1J. Among improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343kW (1,800 shp), a vibration-reduction system, infrared countermeasures, and a night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
302444
],
"anchor_spans": [
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92,
113
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bell 211 Huey Tug With up-rated dynamic system and larger wide chord blades, the Bell 211 was offered for use as the US Army's prime artillery mover, but not taken up.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell Huey II: A modified and re-engined UH-1H, improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343kW (1,800 shp), a vibration-reduction system, infrared countermeasures and a night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit. This significantly improves performance and cost-effectiveness. Currently offered by Bell to all current military users of the type.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1/T700 Ultra Huey: Upgraded commercial version, fitted with a 1,400-kW (1900-shp) General Electric T700-GE-701C turboshaft engine.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Variant overview",
"target_page_ids": [
8741186
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"anchor_spans": [
[
86,
115
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The image of American troops disembarking from a Huey has become an iconic image of the Vietnam War, and can be seen in many films, video games and television shows on the subject, as well as more modern settings. The UH-1 is seen in many films about the Vietnam War, including The Green Berets, The Deer Hunter, Platoon, Hamburger Hill, Apocalypse Now, Casualties of War, and Born on the Fourth of July. It is prominently featured in We Were Soldiers as the main helicopter used by the Air Cavalry in the Battle of Ia Drang. Author Robert Mason recounts his career as a UH-1 \"Slick\" pilot in his memoir, Chickenhawk.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Notable appearances in media",
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"plaintext": "The 2002 journey of Huey 091, displayed in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, is outlined in the 2004 documentary In the Shadow of the Blade.",
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"plaintext": " .",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Specifications for Bell 204, 205 and 214 Huey Plus",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bell Huey II page on BellHelicopter.com",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1D/UH-1H Iroquois utility helicopter and UH-1 Factsheet on Army.mil",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UH-1 history on Navy Air web site",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Bell UH-1 Huey at Greg Goebel's Air Vectors site",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"RETROSPECTIVE: How the UH-1 'Huey' changed modern warfare\" on FlightGlobal.com",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
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"United_States_military_helicopters",
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"1950s_United_States_helicopters",
"Gunships",
"Single-turbine_helicopters",
"Aircraft_first_flown_in_1956",
"Military_equipment_of_the_Vietnam_War"
] | 154,106 | 43,795 | 1,073 | 235 | 0 | 0 | UH-1 Iroquois | 1961 utility helicopter family by Bell | [
"Huey",
"Bell 205",
"Bell 204",
"UH1",
"Bell HU-1 Iroquois",
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"Bell UH-1",
"H-1 Iroquois",
"Bell H-1 Iroquois",
"Iroquois helicopter",
"Model 205",
"Bell Model 205"
] |
38,010 | 1,096,125,277 | Heliox | [
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"plaintext": "Heliox is a breathing gas mixture of helium (He) and oxygen (O2). It is used as a medical treatment for patients with difficulty breathing. The mixture generates less resistance than atmospheric air when passing through the airways of the lungs, and thus requires less effort by a patient to breathe in and out of the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "Heliox has been used medically since the 1930s, and although the medical community adopted it initially to alleviate symptoms of upper airway obstruction, its range of medical uses has since expanded greatly, mostly because of the low density of the gas. Heliox is also used in saturation diving and sometimes during the deep phase of technical dives.",
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"plaintext": "In medicine heliox may refer to a mixture of 21% O2 (the same as air) and 79% He, although other combinations are available (70/30 and 60/40).",
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"plaintext": "Heliox generates less airway resistance than air and thereby requires less mechanical energy to ventilate the lungs. \"Work of Breathing\" (WOB) is reduced. It does this by two mechanisms:",
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"plaintext": " increased tendency to laminar flow;",
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"plaintext": " reduced resistance in turbulent flow.",
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"plaintext": "Since this gas diffuses 1.8 times faster than oxygen, that explains why the flow of heliox from an oxygen flowmeter is 1.8 times the normal flow.",
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"plaintext": "Heliox has a similar viscosity to air but a significantly lower density (0.5g/l versus 1.25g/l at STP). Flow of gas through the airway comprises laminar flow, transitional flow and turbulent flow. The tendency for each type of flow is described by the Reynolds number. Heliox's low density produces a lower Reynolds number and hence higher probability of laminar flow for any given airway. Laminar flow tends to generate less resistance than turbulent flow.",
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"plaintext": "In the small airways where flow is laminar, resistance is proportional to gas viscosity and is not related to density and so heliox has little effect. The Hagen–Poiseuille equation describes laminar resistance. In the large airways where flow is turbulent, resistance is proportional to density, so heliox has a significant effect.",
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"plaintext": "There is also some use of heliox in conditions of the medium airways (croup, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). A recent trial has suggested that lower fractions of helium (below 40%) thus allowing a higher fraction of oxygen might also have the same beneficial effect on upper airway obstruction.",
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"plaintext": "Patients with these conditions may develop a range of symptoms including dyspnea (breathlessness), hypoxemia (below-normal oxygen content in the arterial blood) and eventually a weakening of the respiratory muscles due to exhaustion, which can lead to respiratory failure and require intubation and mechanical ventilation. Heliox may reduce all these effects, making it easier for the patient to breathe. Heliox has also found utility in the weaning of patients off mechanical ventilation, and in the nebulization of inhalable drugs, particularly for the elderly. Research has also indicated advantages in using helium–oxygen mixtures in delivery of anaesthesia.",
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"plaintext": "Heliox has been used medically since the early 1930s. It was the mainstay of treatment in acute asthma before the advent of bronchodilators. Currently, heliox is mainly used in conditions of large airway narrowing (upper airway obstruction from tumors or foreign bodies and vocal cord dysfunction).",
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"plaintext": "Owing to the expense of helium, heliox is most likely to be used in deep commercial diving. It is also sometimes used by diving enthusiasts, particularly those using rebreathers, which conserve the breathing gas at depth much better than open circuit scuba.",
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"plaintext": "The proportion of oxygen in a diving mix depends on the maximum depth of the dive plan, but it is often hypoxic and typically 10%. Each mix is custom made and is created using gas blending techniques, which often involve the use of booster pumps to achieve typical diving cylinder pressures of from lower pressure banks of oxygen and helium cylinders.",
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"plaintext": "Because sound travels faster in heliox than in air, voice formants are raised, making divers' speech very high-pitched and hard to understand to people not used to it. Surface personnel often employ a piece of communications equipment called a \"helium de-scrambler\", which electronically lowers the pitch of the diver's voice as it is relayed through the communications gear, making it easier to understand.",
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"plaintext": "Trimix is a slightly less expensive alternative to heliox for deep diving. Trimix is often used in commercial diving and in technical diving.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit showed that decompression from bounce dives using trimix is not more efficient than dives on heliox.",
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] | [
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"Asthma",
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38,011 | 1,098,084,215 | Squid | [
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"plaintext": "A squid is a mollusc with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight arms, and two tentacles in the superorder Decapodiformes. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, and a mantle. They are mainly soft-bodied, like octopuses, but have a small internal skeleton in the form of a rod-like gladius or pen, made of chitin.",
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"plaintext": "Squid diverged from other cephalopods during the Jurassic and occupy a similar role to teleost fish as open water predators of similar size and behaviour. They play an important role in the open water food web. The two long tentacles are used to grab prey and the eight arms to hold and control it. The beak then cuts the food into suitable size chunks for swallowing. Squid are rapid swimmers, moving by jet propulsion, and largely locate their prey by sight. They are among the most intelligent of invertebrates, with groups of Humboldt squid having been observed hunting cooperatively. They are preyed on by sharks, other fish, sea birds, seals and cetaceans, particularly sperm whales.",
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"plaintext": "Squid can change colour for camouflage and signalling. Some species are bioluminescent, using their light for counter-illumination camouflage, while many species can eject a cloud of ink to distract predators.",
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"plaintext": "Squid are used for human consumption with commercial fisheries in Japan, the Mediterranean, the southwestern Atlantic, the eastern Pacific and elsewhere. They are used in cuisines around the world, often known as \"calamari\". Squid have featured in literature since classical times, especially in tales of giant squid and sea monsters.",
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"plaintext": "Squid are members of the class Cephalopoda, subclass Coleoidea. The squid orders Myopsida and Oegopsida are in the superorder Decapodiformes (from the Greek for \"ten-legged\"). Two other orders of decapodiform cephalopods are also called squid, although they are taxonomically distinct from squids and differ recognizably in their gross anatomical features. They are the bobtail squid of order Sepiolida and the ram's horn squid of the monotypic order Spirulida. The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis), however, is more closely related to the octopus than to any squid.",
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"plaintext": "The cladogram, not fully resolved, is based on Sanchez et al., 2018. Their molecular phylogeny used mitochondrial and nuclear DNA marker sequences; they comment that a robust phylogeny \"has proven very challenging to obtain\". If it is accepted that Sepiidae cuttlefish are a kind of squid, then the squids, excluding the vampire squid, form a clade as illustrated. Orders are shown in boldface; all the families not included in those orders are in the paraphyletic order \"Oegopsida\", except Sepiadariidae and Sepiidae that are in the paraphyletic order \"Sepiida\", ",
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"plaintext": "Crown coleoids (the common ancestor of octopuses and squid) diverged in the late Paleozoic (Mississippian), according to fossils of Syllipsimopodi, an early relative of vampire squids and octopuses. True squid diverged during the Jurassic, but many squid families appeared in or after the Cretaceous. Both the coleoids and the teleost fish were involved in much adaptive radiation at this time, and the two modern groups resemble each other in size, ecology, habitat, morphology and behaviour, however some fish moved into fresh water while the coleoids remained in marine environments.",
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"plaintext": "The ancestral coleoid was probably nautiloid-like with a strait septate shell that became immersed in the mantle and was used for buoyancy control. Four lines diverged from this, Spirulida (with one living member), the cuttlefishes, the squids and the octopuses. Squid have differentiated from the ancestral mollusc such that the body plan has been condensed antero-posteriorly and extended dorso-ventrally. What may have been the foot of the ancestor is modified into a complex set of appendages around the mouth. The sense organs are highly developed and include advanced eyes similar to those of vertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "The ancestral shell has been lost, with only an internal gladius, or pen, remaining. The pen, made of a chitin-like material, is a feather-shaped internal structure that supports the squid's mantle and serves as a site for muscle attachment. The cuttlebone or sepion of the Sepiidae is calcareous and appears to have evolved afresh in the Tertiary.",
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"plaintext": "Squid are soft-bodied molluscs whose forms evolved to adopt an active predatory lifestyle. The head and foot of the squid are at one end of a long body, and this end is functionally anterior, leading the animal as it moves through the water. A set of eight arms and two distinctive tentacles surround the mouth; each appendage takes the form of a muscular hydrostat and is flexible and prehensile, usually bearing disc-like suckers.",
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"plaintext": "The suckers may lie directly on the arm or be stalked. Their rims are stiffened with chitin and may contain minute toothlike denticles. These features, as well as strong musculature, and a small ganglion beneath each sucker to allow individual control, provide a very powerful adhesion to grip prey. Hooks are present on the arms and tentacles in some species, but their function is unclear. The two tentacles are much longer than the arms and are retractile. Suckers are limited to the spatulate tip of the tentacle, known as the manus.",
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"plaintext": "In the mature male, the outer half of one of the left arms is hectocotylised – and ends in a copulatory pad rather than suckers. This is used for depositing a spermatophore inside the mantle cavity of a female. A ventral part of the foot has been converted into a funnel through which water exits the mantle cavity.",
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"plaintext": "The main body mass is enclosed in the mantle, which has a swimming fin along each side. These fins are not the main source of locomotion in most species. The mantle wall is heavily muscled and internal. The visceral mass, which is covered by a thin, membranous epidermis, forms a cone-shaped posterior region known as the \"visceral hump\". The mollusc shell is reduced to an internal, longitudinal chitinous \"pen\" in the functionally dorsal part of the animal; the pen acts to stiffen the squid and provides attachments for muscles.",
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"plaintext": "On the functionally ventral part of the body is an opening to the mantle cavity, which contains the gills (ctenidia) and openings from the excretory, digestive and reproductive systems. An inhalant siphon behind the funnel draws water into the mantel cavity via a valve. The squid uses the funnel for locomotion via precise jet propulsion. In this form of locomotion, water is sucked into the mantle cavity and expelled out of the funnel in a fast, strong jet. The direction of travel is varied by the orientation of the funnel. Squid are strong swimmers and certain species can \"fly\" for short distances out of the water.",
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"plaintext": "Squid make use of different kinds of camouflage, namely active camouflage for background matching (in shallow water) and counter-illumination. This helps to protect them from their predators and allows them to approach their prey.",
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"plaintext": "The skin is covered in controllable chromatophores of different colours, enabling the squid to match its coloration to its surroundings. The play of colours may in addition distract prey from the squid's approaching tentacles. The skin also contains light reflectors called iridophores and leucophores that, when activated, in milliseconds create changeable skin patterns of polarized light. Such skin camouflage may serve various functions, such as communication with nearby squid, prey detection, navigation, and orientation during hunting or seeking shelter. Neural control of the iridophores enabling rapid changes in skin iridescence appears to be regulated by a cholinergic process affecting reflectin proteins.",
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"plaintext": "Some mesopelagic squid such as the firefly squid (Watasenia scintillans) and the midwater squid (Abralia veranyi) use counter-illumination camouflage, generating light to match the downwelling light from the ocean surface. This creates the effect of countershading, making the underside lighter than the upperside.",
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"plaintext": "Counter-illumination is also used by the Hawaiian bobtail squid (Euprymna scolopes), which has symbiotic bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri) that produce light to help the squid avoid nocturnal predators. This light shines through the squid's skin on its underside and is generated by a large and complex two-lobed light organ inside the squid's mantle cavity. From there, it escapes downwards, some of it travelling directly, some coming off a reflector at the top of the organ (dorsal side). Below there is a kind of iris, which has branches (diverticula) of its ink sac, with a lens below that; both the reflector and lens are derived from mesoderm. The squid controls light production by changing the shape of its iris or adjusting the strength of yellow filters on its underside, which presumably change the balance of wavelengths emitted. Light production shows a correlation with intensity of down-welling light, but it is about one third as bright; the squid can track repeated changes in brightness. Because the Hawaiian bobtail squid hides in sand during the day to avoid predators, it does not use counter-illumination during daylight hours.",
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"plaintext": "Squid distract attacking predators by ejecting a cloud of ink, giving themselves an opportunity to escape. The ink gland and its associated ink sac empties into the rectum close to the anus, allowing the squid to rapidly discharge black ink into the mantle cavity and surrounding water. The ink is a suspension of melanin particles and quickly disperses to form a dark cloud that obscures the escape manoeuvres of the squid. Predatory fish may also be deterred by the alkaloid nature of the discharge which may interfere with their chemoreceptors.",
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"plaintext": "Cephalopods have the most highly developed nervous systems among invertebrates. Squids have a complex brain in the form of a nerve ring encircling the oesophagus, enclosed in a cartilaginous cranium. Paired cerebral ganglia above the oesophagus receive sensory information from the eyes and statocysts, and further ganglia below control the muscles of the mouth, foot, mantle and viscera. Giant axons up to in diameter convey nerve messages with great rapidity to the circular muscles of the mantle wall, allowing a synchronous, powerful contraction and maximum speed in the jet propulsion system.",
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"plaintext": "The paired eyes, on either side of the head, are housed in capsules fused to the cranium. Their structure is very similar to that of a fish eye, with a globular lens that has a depth of focus from to infinity. The image is focused by changing the position of the lens, as in a camera or telescope, rather than changing the shape of the lens, as in the human eye. Squid adjust to changes in light intensity by expanding and contracting the slit-shaped pupil. Deep sea squids in the family Histioteuthidae have eyes of two different types and orientation. The large left eye is tubular in shape and looks upwards, presumably searching for the silhouettes of animals higher in the water column. The normally-shaped right eye points forwards and downwards to detect prey.",
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"plaintext": "The statocysts are involved in maintaining balance and are analogous to the inner ear of fish. They are housed in cartilaginous capsules on either side of the cranium. They provide the squid with information on its body position in relation to gravity, its orientation, acceleration and rotation, and are able to perceive incoming vibrations. Without the statocysts, the squid cannot maintain equilibrium. Squid appear to have limited hearing, but the head and arms bear lines of hair-cells that are weakly sensitive to water movements and changes in pressure, and are analogous in function to the lateral line system of fish.",
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"plaintext": "The sexes are separate in squid, there being a single gonad in the posterior part of the body with fertilisation being external, and usually taking place in the mantle cavity of the female. The male has a testis from which sperm pass into a single gonoduct where they are rolled together into a long bundle, or spermatophore. The gonoduct is elongated into a \"penis\" that extends into the mantle cavity and through which spermatophores are ejected. In shallow water species, the penis is short, and the spermatophore is removed from the mantle cavity by a tentacle of the male, which is specially adapted for the purpose and known as a hectocotylus, and placed inside the mantle cavity of the female during mating.",
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"plaintext": "The female has a large translucent ovary, situated towards the posterior of the visceral mass. From here, eggs travel along the gonocoel, where there are a pair of white nidamental glands, which lie anterior to the gills. Also present are red-spotted accessory nidamental glands containing symbiotic bacteria; both organs are associated with nutrient manufacture and forming shells for the eggs. The gonocoel enters the mantle cavity at the gonopore, and in some species, receptacles for storing spermatophores are located nearby, in the mantle wall.",
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"plaintext": "In shallow-water species of the continental shelf and epipelagic or mesopelagic zones, it is frequently one or both of arm pair IV of males that are modified into hectocotyli. However, most deep-sea squid lack hectocotyl arms and have longer penises; Ancistrocheiridae and Cranchiinae are exceptions. Giant squid of the genus Architeuthis are unusual in that they possess both a large penis and modified arm tips, although whether the latter are used for spermatophore transfer is uncertain. Penis elongation has been observed in the deep-water species Onykia ingens; when erect, the penis may be as long as the mantle, head, and arms combined. As such, deep-water squid have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles.",
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"plaintext": "Like all cephalopods, squids are predators and have complex digestive systems. The mouth is equipped with a sharp, horny beak mainly made of chitin and cross-linked proteins, which is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms; the cross-linked proteins are histidine- and glycine-rich and give the beak a stiffness and hardness greater than most equivalent synthetic organic materials. The stomachs of captured whales often have indigestible squid beaks inside. The mouth contains the radula, the rough tongue common to all molluscs except bivalvia, which is equipped with multiple rows of teeth. In some species, toxic saliva helps to control large prey; when subdued, the food can be torn in pieces by the beak, moved to the oesophagus by the radula, and swallowed.",
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"plaintext": "The food bolus is moved along the gut by waves of muscular contractions (peristalsis). The long oesophagus leads to a muscular stomach roughly in the middle of the visceral mass. The digestive gland, which is equivalent to a vertebrate liver, diverticulates here, as does the pancreas, and both of these empty into the caecum, a pouch-shaped sac where most of the absorption of nutrients takes place. Indigestible food can be passed directly from the stomach to the rectum where it joins the flow from the caecum and is voided through the anus into the mantle cavity. Cephalopods are short-lived, and in mature squid, priority is given to reproduction; the female Onychoteuthis banksii for example, sheds its feeding tentacles on reaching maturity, and becomes flaccid and weak after spawning.",
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"plaintext": "The squid mantle cavity is a seawater-filled sac containing three hearts and other organs supporting circulation, respiration, and excretion. Squid have a main systemic heart that pumps blood around the body as part of the general circulatory system, and two branchial hearts. The systemic heart consists of three chambers, a lower ventricle and two upper atria, all of which can contract to propel the blood. The branchial hearts pump blood specifically to the gills for oxygenation, before returning it to the systemic heart. The blood contains the copper-rich protein hemocyanin, which is used for oxygen transport at low ocean temperatures and low oxygen concentrations, and makes the oxygenated blood a deep, blue color. As systemic blood returns via two vena cavae to the branchial hearts, excretion of urine, carbon dioxide, and waste solutes occurs through outpockets (called nephridial appendages) in the vena cavae walls that enable gas exchange and excretion via the mantle cavity seawater.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike nautiloids which have gas-filled chambers inside their shells which provide buoyancy, and octopuses which live near and rest on the seabed and do not require to be buoyant, many squid have a fluid-filled receptacle, equivalent to the swim bladder of a fish, in the coelom or connective tissue. This reservoir acts as a chemical buoyancy chamber, with the heavy metallic cations typical of seawater replaced by low molecular-weight ammonium ions, a product of excretion. The small difference in density provides a small contribution to buoyancy per unit volume, so the mechanism requires a large buoyancy chamber to be effective. Since the chamber is filled with liquid, it has the advantage over a swim bladder of not changing significantly in volume with pressure. Glass squids in the family Cranchiidae for example, have an enormous transparent coelom containing ammonium ions and occupying about two-thirds the volume of the animal, allowing it to float at the required depth. About half of the 28 families of squid use this mechanism to solve their buoyancy issues.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of squid are no more than long, although the giant squid may reach . The smallest species are probably the benthic pygmy squids Idiosepius, which grow to a mantle length of , and have short bodies and stubby arms.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, sharp, curved claws on the suction cups of squid tentacles cut up the rubber coating on the hull of the USS Stein. The size suggested the largest squid known at the time.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, a large specimen of an abundant but poorly understood species, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (the colossal squid), was discovered. This species may grow to in length, making it the largest invertebrate. In February2007, a New Zealand fishing vessel caught the largest squid ever documented, weighing and measuring around off the coast of Antarctica. Dissection showed that the eyes, used to detect prey in the deep Southern Ocean, exceeded the size of footballs; these may be among the largest eyes ever to exist in the animal kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "The eggs of squid are large for a mollusc, containing a large amount of yolk to nourish the embryo as it develops directly, without an intervening veliger larval stage. The embryo grows as a disc of cells on top of the yolk. During the gastrulation stage, the margins of the disc grow to surround the yolk, forming a yolk sac, which eventually forms part of the animal's gut. The dorsal side of the disc grows upwards and forms the embryo, with a shell gland on its dorsal surface, gills, mantle and eyes. The arms and funnel develop as part of the foot on the ventral side of the disc. The arms later migrate upwards, coming to form a ring around the funnel and mouth. The yolk is gradually absorbed as the embryo grows. Some juvenile squid live higher in the water column than do adults. Squids tend to be short-lived; Loligo for example lives from one to three years according to species, typically dying soon after spawning.",
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"plaintext": "In a well-studied bioluminescent species, the Hawaiian bobtail squid, a special light organ in the squid's mantle is rapidly colonized with Aliivibrio fischeri bacteria within hours of hatching. This light-organ colonization requires this particular bacterial species for a symbiotic relationship; no colonization occurs in the absence of A. fischeri. Colonization occurs in a horizontal manner, such that the hosts acquires its bacterial partners from the environment. The symbiosis is obligate for the squid, but facultative for the bacteria. Once the bacteria enter the squid, they colonize interior epithelial cells in the light organ, living in crypts with complex microvilli protrusions. The bacteria also interact with hemocytes, macrophage-like blood cells that migrate between epithelial cells, but the mechanism and function of this process is not well understood. Bioluminescence reaches its highest levels during the early evening hours and bottoms out before dawn; this occurs because at the end of each day, the contents of the squid's crypts are expelled into the surrounding environment. Approximately 95% of the bacteria are voided each morning before the bacterial population builds up again by nightfall.",
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"plaintext": "Squid can move about in several different ways. Slow movement is achieved by a gentle undulation of the muscular lateral fins on either side of the trunk which drives the animal forward. A more common means of locomotion providing sustained movement is achieved using jetting, during which contraction of the muscular wall of the mantle cavity provides jet propulsion.",
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"plaintext": "Slow jetting is used for ordinary locomotion, and ventilation of the gills is achieved at the same time. The circular muscles in the mantle wall contract; this causes the inhalant valve to close, the exhalant valve to open and the mantle edge to lock tightly around the head. Water is forced out through the funnel which is pointed in the opposite direction to the required direction of travel. The inhalant phase is initiated by the relaxation of the circular muscles causes them to stretch, the connective tissue in the mantle wall recoils elastically, the mantle cavity expands causing the inhalant valve to open, the exhalant valve to close and water to flow into the cavity. This cycle of exhalation and inhalation is repeated to provide continuous locomotion.",
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"plaintext": "Fast jetting is an escape response. In this form of locomotion, radial muscles in the mantle wall are involved as well as circular ones, making it possible to hyper-inflate the mantle cavity with a larger volume of water than during slow jetting. On contraction, water flows out with great force, the funnel always being pointed anteriorly, and travel is backwards. During this means of locomotion, some squid exit the water in a similar way to flying fish, gliding through the air for up to , and occasionally ending up on the decks of ships.",
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"plaintext": "Squid are carnivores, and, with their strong arms and suckers, can overwhelm relatively large animals efficiently. Prey is identified by sight or by touch, grabbed by the tentacles which can be shot out with great rapidity, brought back to within reach of the arms, and held by the hooks and suckers on their surface. In some species, the squid's saliva contains toxins which act to subdue the prey. These are injected into its bloodstream when the prey is bitten, along with vasodilators and chemicals to stimulate the heart, and quickly circulate to all parts of its body. The deep sea squid Taningia danae has been filmed releasing blinding flashes of light from large photophores on its arms to illuminate and disorientate potential prey.",
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"plaintext": "Although squid can catch large prey, the mouth is relatively small, and the food must be cut into pieces by the chitinous beak with its powerful muscles before being swallowed. The radula is located in the buccal cavity and has multiple rows of tiny teeth that draw the food backwards and grind it in pieces. The deep sea squid Mastigoteuthis has the whole length of its whip-like tentacles covered with tiny suckers; it probably catches small organisms in the same way that flypaper traps flies. The tentacles of some bathypelagic squids bear photophores which may bring food within its reach by attracting prey.",
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"plaintext": "Squid are among the most intelligent invertebrates. For example, groups of Humboldt squid hunt cooperatively, spiralling up through the water at night and coordinating their vertical and horizontal movements while foraging.",
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"plaintext": "Courtship in squid takes place in the open water and involves the male selecting a female, the female responding, and the transfer by the male of spermatophores to the female. In many instances, the male may display to identify himself to the female and drive off any potential competitors. Elaborate changes in body patterning take place in some species in both agonistic and courtship behaviour. The Caribbean reef squid (Sepioteuthis sepioidea), for example, employs a complex array of colour changes during courtship and social interactions and has a range of about 16 body patterns in its repertoire.",
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"plaintext": "The pair adopt a head-to-head position, and \"jaw locking\" may take place, in a similar manner to that adopted by some cichlid fish. The heterodactylus of the male is used to transfer the spermatophore and deposit it in the female's mantle cavity in the position appropriate for the species; this may be adjacent to the gonopore or in a seminal receptacle.",
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"plaintext": "The sperm may be used immediately or may be stored. As the eggs pass down the oviduct, they are wrapped in a gelatinous coating, before continuing to the mantle cavity, where they are fertilised. In Loligo, further coatings are added by the nidimental glands in the walls of the cavity and the eggs leave through a funnel formed by the arms. The female attaches them to the substrate in strings or groups, the coating layers swelling and hardening after contact with sea water. Loligo sometimes forms breeding aggregations which may create a \"community pile\" of egg strings. Some pelagic and deep sea squid do not attach their egg masses, which float freely.",
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"plaintext": "Squid mostly have an annual life cycle, growing fast and dying soon after spawning. The diet changes as they grow but mostly consists of large zooplankton and small nekton. In Antarctica for example, krill is the main constituent of the diet, with other food items being amphipods, other small crustaceans, and large arrow worms. Fish are also eaten, and some squid are cannibalistic.",
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"plaintext": "As well as occupying a key role in the food chain, squid are an important prey for predators including sharks, sea birds, seals and whales. Juvenile squid provide part of the diet for worms and small fish. When researchers studied the contents of the stomachs of elephant seals in South Georgia, they found 96% squid by weight. In a single day, a sperm whale can eat 700 to 800 squid, and a Risso's dolphin entangled in a net in the Mediterranean was found to have eaten angel clubhook squid, umbrella squid, reverse jewel squid and European flying squid, all identifiable from their indigestible beaks. Ornithoteuthis volatilis, a common squid from the tropical Indo-Pacific, is predated by yellowfin tuna, longnose lancetfish, common dolphinfish and swordfish, the tiger shark, the scalloped hammerhead shark and the smooth hammerhead shark. Sperm whales also hunt this species extensively as does the brown fur seal. In the Southern Ocean, penguins and wandering albatrosses are major predators of Gonatus antarcticus.",
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"plaintext": "Giant squid have featured as monsters of the deep since classical times. Giant squid were described by Aristotle (4th century BC) in his History of Animals and Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) in his Natural History. The Gorgon of Greek mythology may have been inspired by squid or octopus, the animal itself representing the severed head of Medusa, the beak as the protruding tongue and fangs, and its tentacles as the snakes. The six-headed sea monster of the Odyssey, Scylla, may have had a similar origin. The Nordic legend of the kraken may also have derived from sightings of large cephalopods.",
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"plaintext": "In literature, H. G. Wells' short story \"The Sea Raiders\" featured a man-eating squid species Haploteuthis ferox. The science fiction writer Jules Verne told a tale of a kraken-like monster in his 1870 novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.",
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"plaintext": "Squid form a major food resource and are used in cuisines around the world, notably in Japan where it is eaten as ika sōmen, sliced into vermicelli-like strips; as sashimi; and as tempura. Three species of Loligo are used in large quantities, L. vulgaris in the Mediterranean (known as Calamar in Spanish, Calamaro in Italian); L. forbesii in the Northeast Atlantic; and L. pealei on the American East Coast. Among the Ommastrephidae, Todarodes pacificus is the main commercial species, harvested in large quantities across the North Pacific in Canada, Japan and China.",
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"plaintext": "In English-speaking countries, squid as food is often called calamari, adopted from Italian into English in the 17th century. Squid are found abundantly in certain areas, and provide large catches for fisheries. The body can be stuffed whole, cut into flat pieces, or sliced into rings. The arms, tentacles, and ink are also edible; the only parts not eaten are the beak and gladius (pen). Squid is a good food source for zinc and manganese, and high in copper, selenium, vitamin B12, and riboflavin.",
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"plaintext": "According to the FAO, the cephalopod catch for 2002 was . Of this, 2,189,206 tonnes, or 75.8 percent, was squid. The following table lists squid species fishery catches that exceeded in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Prototype chromatophores that mimic the squid's adaptive camouflage have been made by Bristol University researchers using an electroactive dielectric elastomer, a flexible \"smart\" material that changes its colour and texture in response to electrical signals. The researchers state that their goal is to create an artificial skin that provides rapid active camouflage.",
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"plaintext": "The squid giant axon inspired Otto Schmitt to develop a comparator circuit with hysteresis now called the Schmitt trigger, replicating the axon's propagation of nerve impulses.",
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38,012 | 1,093,057,274 | Roman_triumph | [
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"plaintext": "The Roman triumph () was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the success of a military commander who had led Roman forces to victory in the service of the state or in some historical traditions, one who had successfully completed a foreign war.",
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"plaintext": "On the day of his triumph, the general wore a crown of laurel and an all-purple, gold-embroidered triumphal toga picta (\"painted\" toga), regalia that identified him as near-divine or near-kingly. In some accounts, his face was painted red, perhaps in imitation of Rome's highest and most powerful god, Jupiter. The general rode in a four-horse chariot through the streets of Rome in unarmed procession with his army, captives, and the spoils of his war. At Jupiter's temple on the Capitoline Hill, he offered sacrifice and the tokens of his victory to the god Jupiter. ",
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"plaintext": "In Republican tradition, only the Senate could grant a triumph. The origins and development of this honour were obscure: Roman historians placed the first triumph in the mythical past. Republican morality required that the general conduct himself with dignified humility, as a mortal citizen who triumphed on behalf of Rome's Senate, people, and gods. Inevitably, the triumph offered the general extraordinary opportunities for self-publicity, besides its religious and military dimensions. Most triumphal celebrations included a range of popular games and entertainments for the Roman masses.",
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"plaintext": "Most Roman festivals were calendar fixtures, tied to the worship of particular deities. While the triumphal procession culminated at Jupiter's temple, the procession itself, attendant feasting, and public games promoted the general's status and achievement. By the Late Republican era, triumphs were drawn out and extravagant, motivated by increasing competition among the military-political adventurers who ran Rome's nascent empire. Some triumphs were prolonged by several days of public games and entertainments. From the Principate onwards, the triumph reflected the Imperial order and the pre-eminence of the Imperial family. The triumph was consciously imitated by medieval and later states in the royal entry and other ceremonial events.",
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"plaintext": "In Republican Rome, truly exceptional military achievement merited the highest possible honours, which connected the vir triumphalis (\"man of triumph\", later known as a triumphator) to Rome's mythical and semi-mythical past. In effect, the general was close to being \"king for a day\", and possibly close to divinity. He wore the regalia traditionally associated both with the ancient Roman monarchy and with the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus: the purple and gold \"toga picta\", laurel crown, red boots and, again possibly, the red-painted face of Rome's supreme deity. He was drawn in procession through the city in a four-horse chariot, under the gaze of his peers and an applauding crowd, to the temple of Capitoline Jupiter. The spoils and captives of his victory led the way; his armies followed behind. Once at the Capitoline temple, he sacrificed two white oxen to Jupiter and laid tokens of his victory at Jupiter's feet, dedicating his victory to the Roman Senate, people, and gods.",
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"plaintext": "Triumphs were tied to no particular day, season, or religious festival of the Roman calendar. Most seem to have been celebrated at the earliest practicable opportunity, probably on days that were deemed auspicious for the occasion. Tradition required that, for the duration of a triumph, every temple was open. The ceremony was thus, in some sense, shared by the whole community of Roman gods, but overlaps were inevitable with specific festivals and anniversaries. Some may have been coincidental; others were designed. For example, March 1, the festival and dies natalis of the war god Mars, was the traditional anniversary of the first triumph by Publicola (504 BCE), of six other Republican triumphs, and of the very first Roman triumph by Romulus. Pompey postponed his third and most magnificent triumph for several months to make it coincide with his own dies natalis (birthday).",
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"plaintext": "Religious dimensions aside, the focus of the triumph was the general himself. The ceremony promoted him – however temporarily – above every mortal Roman. This was an opportunity granted to very few. From the time of Scipio Africanus, the triumphal general was linked (at least for historians during the Principate) to Alexander and the demi-god Hercules, who had laboured selflessly for the benefit of all mankind. His sumptuous triumphal chariot was bedecked with charms against the possible envy (invidia) and malice of onlookers. In some accounts, a companion or public slave would remind him from time to time of his own mortality (a memento mori).",
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"plaintext": "Rome's earliest \"triumphs\" were probably simple victory parades, celebrating the return of a victorious general and his army to the city, along with the fruits of his victory, and ending with some form of dedication to the gods. This is probably so for the earliest legendary and later semi-legendary triumphs of Rome's regal era, when the king functioned as Rome's highest magistrate and war-leader. As Rome's population, power, influence, and territory increased, so did the scale, length, variety, and extravagance of its triumphal processions.",
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"plaintext": "The procession (pompa) mustered in the open space of the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) probably well before first light. From there, all unforeseen delays and accidents aside, it would have managed a slow walking pace at best, punctuated by various planned stops en route to its final destination of the Capitoline temple, a distance of just under 4km (2.48mi). Triumphal processions were notoriously long and slow; the longest could last for two or three days, and possibly more, and some may have been of greater length than the route itself.",
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"plaintext": "Some ancient and modern sources suggest a fairly standard processional order. First came the captive leaders, allies, and soldiers (and sometimes their families) usually walking in chains; some were destined for execution or further display. Their captured weapons, armour, gold, silver, statuary, and curious or exotic treasures were carted behind them, along with paintings, tableaux, and models depicting significant places and episodes of the war. Next in line, all on foot, came Rome's senators and magistrates, followed by the general's lictors in their red war-robes, their fasces wreathed in laurel, then the general in his four-horse chariot. A companion, or a public slave, might share the chariot with him or, in some cases, his youngest children. His officers and elder sons rode horseback nearby. His unarmed soldiers followed in togas and laurel crowns, chanting \"io triumphe!\" and singing ribald songs at their general's expense. Somewhere in the procession, two flawless white oxen were led for the sacrifice to Jupiter, garland-decked and with gilded horns. All this was done to the accompaniment of music, clouds of incense, and the strewing of flowers.",
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"plaintext": "Almost nothing is known of the procession's infrastructure and management. Its doubtless enormous cost was defrayed in part by the state but mostly by the general's loot, which most ancient sources dwell on in great detail and unlikely superlatives. Once disposed, this portable wealth injected huge sums into the Roman economy; the amount brought in by Octavian's triumph over Egypt triggered a fall in interest rates and a sharp rise in land prices. No ancient source addresses the logistics of the procession: where the soldiers and captives, in a procession of several days, could have slept and eaten, or where these several thousands plus the spectators could have been stationed for the final ceremony at the Capitoline temple.",
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"plaintext": "The following schematic is for the route taken by \"some, or many\" triumphs, and is based on standard modern reconstructions. Any original or traditional route would have been diverted to some extent by the city's many redevelopments and re-building, or sometimes by choice. The starting place (the Campus Martius) lay outside the city's sacred boundary (pomerium), bordering the eastern bank of the Tiber. The procession entered the city through a Porta Triumphalis (Triumphal Gate), and crossed the pomerium, where the general surrendered his command to the senate and magistrates. It continued through the site of the Circus Flaminius, skirting the southern base of the Capitoline Hill and the Velabrum, along a Via Triumphalis (Triumphal Way) towards the Circus Maximus, perhaps dropping off any prisoners destined for execution at the Tullianum. It entered the Via Sacra then the Forum. Finally, it ascended the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Once the sacrifice and dedications were completed, the procession and spectators dispersed to banquets, games, and other entertainments sponsored by the triumphing general.",
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"plaintext": "In most triumphs, the general funded any post-procession banquets from his share of the loot. There were feasts for the people and separate, much richer feasts for the elite; some went on for most of the night. Dionysus offers a contrast to the lavish triumphal banquets of his time by giving Romulus's triumph the most primitive possible \"banquet\" – ordinary Romans setting up food-tables as a \"welcome home\", and the returning troops taking swigs and bites as they marched by. He recreates the first Republican triumphal banquet along the same lines. Varro claims that his aunt earned 20,000 sesterces by supplying 5,000 thrushes for Caecilius Metellus's triumph of 71 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "Some triumphs included ludi as fulfillment of the general's vow to a god or goddess, made before battle or during its heat, in return for their help in securing victory. In the Republic, they were paid for by the triumphing general. Marcus Fulvius Nobilior vowed ludi in return for victory over the Aetolian League and paid for ten days of games at his triumph.",
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"plaintext": "Most Romans would never have seen a triumph, but its symbolism permeated Roman imagination and material culture. Triumphal generals minted and circulated high value coins to propagate their triumphal fame and generosity empire-wide. Pompey's issues for his three triumphs are typical. One is an aureus (a gold coin) that has a laurel-wreathed border enclosing a head which personifies Africa; beside it, Pompey's title \"Magnus\" (\"The Great\"), with wand and jug as symbols of his augury. The reverse identifies him as proconsul in a triumphal chariot attended by Victory. A triumphal denarius (a silver coin) shows his three trophies of captured arms, with his augur's wand and jug. Another shows a globe surrounded by triumphal wreaths, symbolising his \"world conquest\", and an ear of grain to show that his victory protected Rome's grain supply.",
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"plaintext": "In Republican tradition, a general was expected to wear his triumphal regalia only for the day of his triumph; thereafter, they were presumably displayed in the atrium of his family home. As one of the nobility, he was entitled to a particular kind of funeral in which a string of actors walked behind his bier wearing the masks of his ancestors; another actor represented the general himself and his highest achievement in life by wearing his funeral mask, triumphal laurels, and toga picta. Anything more was deeply suspect; Pompey was granted the privilege of wearing his triumphal wreath at the Circus, but he met with a hostile reception. Julius Caesar's penchant for wearing his triumphal regalia \"wherever and whenever\" was taken as one among many signs of monarchical intentions which, for some, justified his murder. In the Imperial era, emperors wore such regalia to signify their elevated rank and office and to identify themselves with the Roman gods and Imperial order – a central feature of Imperial cult.",
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"plaintext": "The building and dedication of monumental public works offered local, permanent opportunities for triumphal commemoration. In 55 BCE, Pompey inaugurated Rome's first stone-built Theatre as a gift to the people of Rome, funded by his spoils. Its gallery and colonnades doubled as an exhibition space and likely contained statues, paintings, and other trophies carried at his various triumphs. It contained a new temple to Pompey's patron goddess Venus Victrix (\"Victorious Venus\"); the year before, he had issued a coin which showed her crowned with triumphal laurels. Julius Caesar claimed Venus as both patron and divine ancestress; he funded a new temple to her and dedicated it during his quadruple triumph of 46 BCE. He thus wove his patron goddess and putative ancestress into his triumphal anniversary.",
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"plaintext": "Augustus, Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor, built a vast triumphal monument on the Greek coast at Actium, overlooking the scene of his decisive sea-battle against Antony and Egypt; the bronze beaks of captured Egyptian warships projected from its seaward wall. Imperial iconography increasingly identified Emperors with the gods, starting with the Augustan reinvention of Rome as a virtual monarchy (the principate). Sculpted panels on the arch of Titus (built by Domitian) celebrate Titus' and Vespasian's joint triumph over the Jews after the siege of Jerusalem, with a triumphal procession of captives and treasures seized from the temple of Jerusalem – some of which funded the building of the Colosseum. Another panel shows the funeral and apotheosis of the deified Titus. Prior to this, the senate voted Titus a triple-arch at the Circus Maximus to celebrate or commemorate the same victory or triumph.",
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"plaintext": "In Republican tradition, only the Senate could grant a triumph. A general who wanted a triumph would dispatch his request and report to the Senate. Officially, triumphs were granted for outstanding military merit; the state paid for the ceremony if this and certain other conditions were met – and these seem to have varied from time to time, and from case to case – or the Senate would pay for the official procession, at least. Most Roman historians rest the outcome on an open Senatorial debate and vote, its legality confirmed by one of the people's assemblies; the senate and people thus controlled the state's coffers and rewarded or curbed its generals. Some triumphs seem to have been granted outright, with minimal debate. Some were turned down but went ahead anyway, with the general's direct appeal to the people over the senate and a promise of public games at his own expense. Others were blocked or granted only after interminable wrangling. Senators and generals alike were politicians, and Roman politics was notorious for its rivalries, shifting alliances, back-room dealings, and overt public bribery. The senate's discussions would likely have hinged on triumphal tradition, precedent, and propriety; less overtly but more anxiously, it would hinge on the extent of the general's political and military powers and popularity, and the possible consequences of supporting or hindering his further career. There is no firm evidence that the Senate applied a prescribed set of \"triumphal laws\" when making their decisions, Valerius Maximus extrapolated various \"triumphal laws\" from disputed historic accounts of actual practice. They included one law that the general must have killed at least 5,000 of the enemy in a single battle, and another that he must swear an oath that his account was the truth. No evidence has survived for either of these laws, or any other laws relating to triumphs.",
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"plaintext": "A general might be granted a \"lesser triumph\", known as an Ovation. He entered the city on foot, minus his troops, in his magistrate's toga and wearing a wreath of Venus's myrtle. In 211 BCE, the Senate turned down Marcus Marcellus's request for a triumph after his victory over the Carthaginians and their Sicilian-Greek allies, apparently because his army was still in Sicily and unable to join him. They offered him instead a thanksgiving (supplicatio) and ovation. The day before it, he celebrated an unofficial triumph on the Alban Mount. His ovation was of triumphal proportions. It included a large painting, showing his siege of Syracuse, the siege engines themselves, captured plate, gold, silver, and royal ornaments, and the statuary and opulent furniture for which Syracuse was famous. Eight elephants were led in the procession, symbols of his victory over the Carthaginians. His Spanish and Syracusan allies led the way wearing golden wreaths; they were granted Roman citizenship and lands in Sicily.",
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"plaintext": "In 71 BCE, Crassus earned an ovation for quashing the Spartacus revolt, and increased his honours by wearing a crown of Jupiter's \"triumphal\" laurel. Ovations are listed along with triumphs on the Fasti Triumphales.",
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"plaintext": "The Fasti Triumphales (also called Acta Triumphalia) are stone tablets that were erected in the Forum Romanum around 12 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Augustus. They give the general's formal name, the names of his father and grandfather, the people(s) or command province whence the triumph was awarded, and the date of the triumphal procession. They record over 200 triumphs, starting with three mythical triumphs of Romulus in 753 BCE and ending with that of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (19 BCE). Fragments of similar date and style from Rome and provincial Italy appear to be modeled on the Augustan Fasti, and have been used to fill some of its gaps.",
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"plaintext": "Many ancient historical accounts also mention triumphs. Most Roman accounts of triumphs were written to provide their readers with a moral lesson, rather than to provide an accurate description of the triumphal process, procession, rites, and their meaning. This scarcity allows only the most tentative and generalised (and possibly misleading) reconstruction of triumphal ceremony, based on the combination of various incomplete accounts from different periods of Roman history.",
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"plaintext": "The origins and development of this honour are obscure. Roman historians placed the first triumph in the mythical past; some thought that it dated from Rome's foundation; others thought it more ancient than that. Roman etymologists thought that the soldiers' chant of triumpe was a borrowing via Etruscan of the Greek thriambus (θρίαμβος), cried out by satyrs and other attendants in Dionysian and Bacchic processions. Plutarch and some Roman sources traced the first Roman triumph and the \"kingly\" garb of the triumphator to Rome's first king Romulus, whose defeat of King Acron of the Caeninenses was thought coeval with Rome's foundation in 753 BCE. Ovid projected a fabulous and poetic triumphal precedent in the return of the god Bacchus/Dionysus from his conquest of India, drawn in a golden chariot by tigers and surrounded by maenads, satyrs, and assorted drunkards. Arrian attributed similar Dionysian and \"Roman\" elements to a victory procession of Alexander the Great. Like much in Roman culture, elements of the triumph were based on Etruscan and Greek precursors; in particular, the purple, embroidered toga picta worn by the triumphal general was thought to be derived from the royal toga of Rome's Etruscan kings.",
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"plaintext": "For triumphs of the Roman regal era, the surviving Imperial Fasti Triumphales are incomplete. After three entries for the city's legendary founder Romulus, eleven lines of the list are missing. Next in sequence are Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and finally Tarquin \"the proud\", the last king. The Fasti were compiled some five centuries after the regal era, and probably represent an approved, official version of several different historical traditions. Likewise, the earliest surviving written histories of the regal era, written some centuries after it, attempt to reconcile various traditions, or else debate their merits. Dionysus, for example, gives Romulus three triumphs, the same number given in the Fasti. Livy gives him none, and credits him instead with the first spolia opima, in which the arms and armour were stripped off a defeated foe, then dedicated to Jupiter. Plutarch gives him one, complete with chariot. Tarquin has two triumphs in the Fasti but none in Dionysius. No ancient source gives a triumph to Romulus' successor, the peaceful king Numa.",
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"plaintext": "Rome's aristocrats expelled their last king as a tyrant and legislated the monarchy out of existence. They shared among themselves the kingship's former powers and authority in the form of magistracies. In the Republic, the highest possible magistracy was an elected consulship, which could be held for no more than a year at a time. In times of crisis or emergency, the Senate might appoint a dictator to serve a longer term; but this could seem perilously close to the lifetime power of kings. The dictator Camillus was awarded four triumphs but was eventually exiled. Later Roman sources point to his triumph of 396 BCE as a cause for offense; the chariot was drawn by four white horses, a combination properly reserved for Jupiter and Apollo – at least in later lore and poetry. The demeanour of a triumphal Republican general would have been closely scrutinised by his aristocratic peers, as well as the symbols which he employed in his triumph; they would be alert for any sign that he might aspire to be more than \"king for a day\".",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle to Late Republic, Rome's expansion through conquest offered her political-military adventurers extraordinary opportunities for self-publicity; the long-drawn series of wars between Rome and Carthage – the Punic Wars – produced twelve triumphs in ten years. Towards the end of the Republic, triumphs became still more frequent, lavish, and competitive, with each display an attempt (usually successful) to outdo the last. To have a triumphal ancestor – even one long-dead – counted for a lot in Roman society and politics, and Cicero remarked that, in the race for power and influence, some individuals were not above vesting an inconveniently ordinary ancestor with triumphal grandeur and dignity, distorting an already fragmentary and unreliable historical tradition.",
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"plaintext": "To Roman historians, the growth of triumphal ostentation undermined Rome's ancient \"peasant virtues\". Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 BCE to after 7 BCE) claimed that the triumphs of his day had \"departed in every respect from the ancient tradition of frugality\". Moralists complained that successful foreign wars might have increased Rome's power, security, and wealth, but they also created and fed a degenerate appetite for bombastic display and shallow novelty. Livy traces the start of the rot to the triumph of Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in 186, which introduced ordinary Romans to such Galatian fripperies as specialist chefs, flute girls, and other \"seductive dinner-party amusements\". Pliny adds \"sideboards and one-legged tables\" to the list, but lays responsibility for Rome's slide into luxury on the \"1400 pounds of chased silver ware and 1500 pounds of golden vessels\" brought somewhat earlier by Scipio Asiaticus for his triumph of 189 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "The three triumphs awarded to Pompey the Great were lavish and controversial. The first in 80 or 81 BCE was for his victory over King Hiarbas of Numidia in 79 BCE, granted by a cowed and divided Senate under the dictatorship of Pompey's patron Sulla. Pompey was only 24 and a mere equestrian. Roman conservatives disapproved of such precocity but others saw his youthful success as the mark of a prodigious military talent, divine favour, and personal brio; and he also had an enthusiastic, popular following. His triumph, however, did not go quite to plan. His chariot was drawn by a team of elephants in order to represent his African conquest – and perhaps to outdo even the legendary triumph of Bacchus. They proved too bulky to pass through the triumphal gate, so Pompey had to dismount while a horse team was yoked in their place. This embarrassment would have delighted his critics, and probably some of his soldiers – whose demands for cash had been near-mutinous. Even so, his firm stand on the matter of cash raised his standing among the conservatives, and Pompey seems to have learned a lesson in populist politics. For his second triumph (71 BCE, the last in a series of four held that year) his cash gifts to his army were said to break all records, though the amounts in Plutarch's account are implausibly high: 6,000 sesterces to each soldier (about six times their annual pay) and about 5million to each officer.",
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"plaintext": "Pompey was granted a third triumph in 61 BCE to celebrate his victory over Mithridates VI of Pontus. It was an opportunity to outdo all rivals – and even himself. Triumphs traditionally lasted for one day, but Pompey's went on for two in an unprecedented display of wealth and luxury. Plutarch claimed that this triumph represented Pompey's domination over the entire world – on Rome's behalf – and an achievement to outshine even Alexander's. Pliny's narrative of this triumph dwells with ominous hindsight upon a gigantic portrait-bust of the triumphant general, a thing of \"eastern splendor\" entirely covered with pearls, anticipating his later humiliation and decapitation.",
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"plaintext": "Following Caesar's murder, Octavian assumed the permanent title of imperator and became the permanent head of the Senate from 27 BCE (see principate) under the title and name Augustus. Only the year before, he had blocked the senatorial award of a triumph to Marcus Licinius Crassus the Younger, despite the latter's acclamation in the field as Imperator and his fulfillment of all traditional, Republican qualifying criteria except full consulship. Technically, generals in the Imperial era were legates of the ruling Emperor (Imperator). Augustus claimed the victory as his own but permitted Crassus a second, which is listed on the Fasti for 27 BCE. Crassus was also denied the rare (and technically permissible, in his case) honour of dedicating the spolia opima of this campaign to Jupiter Feretrius.",
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"plaintext": "The last triumph listed on the Fasti Triumphales is for 19 BCE. By then, the triumph had been absorbed into the Augustan Imperial cult system, in which only the emperor would be accorded such a supreme honour, as he was the supreme Imperator. The Senate, in true Republican style, would have held session to debate and decide the merits of the candidate; but this was little more than good form. Augustan ideology insisted that Augustus had saved and restored the Republic, and it celebrated his triumph as a permanent condition, and his military, political, and religious leadership as responsible for an unprecedented era of stability, peace, and prosperity. From then on, emperors claimed – without seeming to claim – the triumph as an Imperial privilege. Those outside the Imperial family might be granted \"triumphal ornaments\" (Ornamenta triumphalia) or an ovation, such as Aulus Plautius under Claudius. The senate still debated and voted on such matters, though the outcome was probably already decided. In the Imperial era, the number of triumphs fell sharply.",
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"plaintext": "Imperial panegyrics of the later Imperial era combine triumphal elements with Imperial ceremonies such as the consular investiture of Emperors, and the adventus, the formal \"triumphal\" arrival of an emperor in the various capitals of the Empire in his progress through the provinces. Some emperors were perpetually on the move and seldom or never went to Rome. Christian emperor Constantius II entered Rome for the first time in his life in 357, several years after defeating his rival Magnentius, standing in his triumphal chariot \"as if he were a statue\". Theodosius I celebrated his victory over the usurper Magnus Maximus in Rome on June 13, 389. Claudian's panegyric to Emperor Honorius records the last known official triumph in the city of Rome and the western Empire. Emperor Honorius celebrated it conjointly with his sixth consulship on January 1, 404; his general Stilicho had defeated Visigothic King Alaric at the battles of Pollentia and Verona. In Christian martyrology, Saint Telemachus was martyred by a mob while attempting to stop the customary gladiatorial games at this triumph, and gladiatorial games (munera gladiatoria) were banned in consequence. In 438 CE, however, the western emperor Valentinian III found cause to repeat the ban, which indicates that it was not always enforced.",
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"plaintext": "In 534, well into the Byzantine era, Justinian I awarded general Belisarius a triumph that included some \"radically new\" Christian and Byzantine elements. Belisarius successfully campaigned against his adversary Vandal leader Gelimer to restore the former Roman province of Africa to the control of Byzantium in the 533–534 Vandalic War. The triumph was held in the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople. Historian Procopius, an eyewitness who had previously been in Belisarius's service, describes the procession's display of the loot seized from the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman Emperor Titus, including the Temple Menorah. The treasure had been stored in Rome's Temple of Peace after its display in Titus' own triumphal parade and its depiction on his triumphal arch; then it was seized by the Vandals during their sack of Rome in 455; then it was taken from them in Belisarius' campaign. The objects themselves might well have recalled the ancient triumphs of Vespasian and his son Titus; but Belisarius and Gelimer walked, as in an ovation. The procession did not end at Rome's Capitoline Temple with a sacrifice to Jupiter, but terminated at Hippodrome of Constantinople with a recitation of Christian prayer and the triumphant generals prostrate before the emperor.",
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"plaintext": "During the Renaissance, kings and magnates sought ennobling connections with the classical past. Ghibelline Castruccio Castracani defeated the forces of the Guelph Florence in the 1325 Battle of Altopascio. Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV made him Duke of Lucca, and the city gave him a Roman-style triumph. The procession was led by his Florentine captives, made to carry candles in honour of Lucca's patron saint. Castracani followed, standing in a decorative chariot. His booty included the Florentines' portable, wheeled altar, the carroccio.",
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"plaintext": "Flavio Biondo's Roma Triumphans (1459) claimed the ancient Roman triumph, divested of its pagan rites, as a rightful inheritance of Holy Roman Emperors. Italian poet Petrarch's Triumphs (I triomfi) represented the triumphal themes and biographies of ancient Roman texts as ideals for cultured, virtuous rule; it was influential and widely read. Andrea Mantegna's series of large paintings on the Triumphs of Caesar (1484–92, now Hampton Court Palace) became immediately famous and was endlessly copied in print form. The Triumphal Procession commissioned by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1512–19) from a group of artists including Albrecht Dürer was a series of woodcuts of an imaginary triumph of his own that could be hung as a frieze long.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1550s, the fragmentary Fasti Triumphales were unearthed and partially restored. Onofrio Panvinio's Fasti continued where the ancient Fasti left off. The last triumph recorded by Panvinio was the Royal Entry of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V into Rome on April 5, 1536, after his conquest of Tunis in 1535. Panvinio described it as a Roman triumph \"over the infidel.\" The Emperor followed the traditional ancient route, \"past the ruins of the triumphal arches of the soldier-emperors of Rome\", where \"actors dressed as ancient senators hailed the return of the new Caesar as miles christi,\" (a soldier of Christ).",
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"plaintext": "The extravagant triumphal entry into Rouen of Henri II of France in 1550 was not \"less pleasing and delectable than the third triumph of Pompey... magnificent in riches and abounding in the spoils of foreign nations\". A triumphal arch made for the Royal entry into Paris of Louis XIII of France in 1628 carried a depiction of Pompey.",
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"plaintext": " Victory parade",
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"plaintext": " Bastien J-L, Le triomphe romain et son utilisation politique à Rome aux trois derniers siècles de la République, CEFR 392, Rome, 2007",
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"plaintext": " Bastien J-L, Le triomphe à Rome sous la République, un rite monarchique dans une cité aristocratique (IVe-Ier siècle av. notre ère) dans Guisard P. et Laizé C. (dir.), La guerre et la paix, coll. Cultures antiques, Ellipses, 2014, pp.509–526 ",
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"plaintext": " Beard, Mary: The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2007. (hardcover). ",
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"plaintext": " Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ",
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"plaintext": " Bosworth, A. B., From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in Historical Interpretation, illustrated, reprint, Oxford University Press, 1988. ",
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"plaintext": " Bowersock, Glen W., \"Dionysus as an Epic Hero,\" Studies in the Dionysiaca of Nonnos, ed. N. Hopkinson, Cambridge Philosophical Society, suppl. Vol. 17, 1994, 156–166.",
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"plaintext": " Brennan, T. Corey: \"Triumphus in Monte Albano\", 315–337 in R. W. Wallace & E. M. Harris (eds.) Transitions to Empire. Essays in Greco-Roman History, 360–146 B.C., in honor of E. Badian (University of Oklahoma Press, 1996) ",
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"plaintext": " Galinsky, G. Karl, The Herakles theme: the adaptations of the hero in literature from Homer to the twentieth century (Oxford, 1972). ",
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"plaintext": " Goell, H. A., De triumphi Romani origine, permissu, apparatu, via (Schleiz, 1854)",
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"plaintext": " Künzl, E., Der römische Triumph (Münich, 1988)",
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"plaintext": " Lemosse, M., \"Les éléments techniques de l'ancien triomphe romain et le probleme de son origine\", in H. Temporini (ed.) ANRW I.2 (Berlin, 1972). Includes a comprehensive bibliography.",
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"plaintext": " MacCormack, Sabine, Change and Continuity in Late Antiquity: the ceremony of \"Adventus\", Historia, 21, 4, 1972, pp 721–752.",
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"plaintext": " Pais, E., Fasti Triumphales Populi Romani (Rome, 1920)",
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"plaintext": " Richardson, J. S., \"The Triumph, the Praetors and the Senate in the early Second Century B.C.\", JRS 65 (1975), 50–63",
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"plaintext": " Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian, \"Trajan und die symbolische Kommunikation bei kaiserlichen Rombesuchen in der Spätantike\", in R. Behrwald & C. Witschel (eds.) Rom in der Spätantike (Steiner, 2012) pp.33–60. ",
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"plaintext": " Southern, Pat, Augustus, illustrated, reprint, Routledge, 1998. ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Syme, Ronald, The Augustan Aristocracy (Oxford University Press, 1986; Clarendon reprint with corrections, 1989) ",
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"plaintext": " Versnel, H S: Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Leiden, 1970)",
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"plaintext": " Wienand, Johannes, \"O tandem felix civili, Roma, victoria! Civil War Triumphs From Honorius to Constantine and Back\", in J. Wienand (ed.) Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the 4th Century AD (Oxford, 2015) pp.169–197 ",
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"plaintext": " Wienand, Johannes; Goldbeck, Fabian; Börm, Henning: Der römische Triumph in Prinzipat und Spätantike. Probleme – Paradigmen – Perspektiven, in F. Goldbeck, J. Wienand (eds.): Der römische Triumph in Prinzipat und Spätantike (Berlin/New York, 2017), pp.1–26.",
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"plaintext": " Zaho, Margaret A, and Bernstein, Eckhard, Imago Triumphalis: The Function and Significance of Triumphal Imagery for Italian Renaissance Rulers, Peter Lang Publishing Inc, 2004, ",
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"plaintext": "Roman Triumph on World History Encyclopedia",
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"plaintext": "Fasti Triumphales at attalus.org. Partial, annotated English translation. From A. Degrassi's \"Fasti Capitolini\", 1954. Attalus.org",
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38,015 | 1,099,701,900 | Epic | [
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"plaintext": " A base-ejecting projectile which can come in two versions: felt-wedge and standard. White phosphorus smoke is used to start fires, burn a target, or to create smoke which is useful in concealing the movements of friendly units.",
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"plaintext": " Illumination projectiles are base-ejecting rounds which deploy a bright parachute flare ideally 600 meters above the ground and illuminates an area of approximately 1 grid square (1 square kilometer). Illumination rounds are often used in conjunction with HE rounds, to illuminate the target area so that HE rounds can be fired more effectively. Illumination rounds can also be used during the daytime to mark targets for aircraft. The M485 Illumination round burns for 120 seconds.",
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"plaintext": "Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition (DPICM)",
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"plaintext": " A base-ejecting projectile that drops 88 bomblets above a target. Each bomblet has a shaped-charge munition capable of penetrating two inches of solid steel as well as a fragmentation casing which is effective against infantry in the open. The DPICM round is effective against armored vehicles, even tanks (since the deck armor is usually the thinnest on the vehicle), and is also extremely useful against entrenched infantry in positions with overhead cover.",
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"plaintext": " An artillery round that releases anti-armor mines, usually used along with ADAMS rounds to prevent the antitank mines from being removed. Designed to self-destruct after a pre-determined period of time.",
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"plaintext": " An artillery launched guided high-explosive munition used for very precise targeting of high-value targets such as tanks and fortifications. It required the target be designated with a laser designator system and is no longer produced or used by the US military.",
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"plaintext": "Sense and Destroy ARMor (SADARM)",
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"plaintext": " An experimental munition that is fired in the general direction of an enemy vehicle. The shell activates at a certain point in time ejecting a parachute and then guides itself to the nearest vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "XM454 AFAP (artillery fired atomic projectile) (W48)",
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"plaintext": " The XM454 AFAP (W48) nuclear artillery shell had a 155mm caliber and an explosive yield of only . All units were retired from service in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "BAE Systems won the contract to replace the M198 in the US Army and Marine Corps with its M777 155mm/39 cal towed howitzer, which weighs less than . It was introduced in 2005.",
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"plaintext": " : 18 in service with the Royal Bahraini Army",
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"plaintext": " : 12 ",
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"plaintext": " : 120 howitzers supplied by the United States.",
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"plaintext": " : Total is 219 pieces. 36 howitzers operated by the LAF since the 1980s, 41 howitzers received in 2008, followed by 30 M-198 Howitzers in January 2010, 72 pieces delivered on February 8, 2015, and a batch of 40 pieces on September 8, 2016.",
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"plaintext": " : 35 units.",
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"plaintext": " : 184 in service with the Pakistan Army.",
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"plaintext": " : 57–60 units in service.",
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"plaintext": " : 36",
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"plaintext": " : 52 captured. Some were taken back while other were destroyed by air strikes.",
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"plaintext": " : 358",
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"plaintext": " List of artillery",
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"plaintext": " List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces",
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"plaintext": " 2A36 Giatsint-B",
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"plaintext": " Weapon Profile as part of The Whirlwind War The United States Army in Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History",
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"plaintext": " www.fas.org – M198 Towed Howitzer",
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"plaintext": " www.globalsecurity.org – M198 Towed Howitzer",
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"plaintext": " www.military.com – M198 155 mm Towed Howitzer",
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"plaintext": " Development prototype XM198 (U.S. Army photo)",
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38,020 | 1,105,974,560 | Gregory_of_Nyssa | [
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"plaintext": "Gregory of Nyssa, also known as Gregory Nyssen (; c. 335 c. 395), was Bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia from 372 to 376 and from 378 until his death in 395. He is venerated as a saint in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, and Lutheranism. Gregory, his elder brother Basil of Caesarea, and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus are collectively known as the Cappadocian Fathers.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory lacked the administrative ability of his brother Basil or the contemporary influence of Gregory of Nazianzus, but he was an erudite Christian theologian who made significant contributions to the doctrine of the Trinity and the Nicene Creed. Gregory's philosophical writings were influenced by Origen. Since the mid-twentieth century, there has been a significant increase in interest in Gregory's works from the academic community, particularly involving universal salvation, which has resulted in challenges to many traditional interpretations of his theology.",
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"plaintext": "The Book of Acts depicts that on the Day of Pentecost there were visiting Jews who were \"residents of ...Cappadocia\" in attendance. In the First Epistle of Peter, written after AD 65, the author greets Christians who are \"exiles scattered throughout…Cappadocia\". There is no further reference to Cappadocia in the rest of the New Testament.",
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"plaintext": "Early Christianity arose in Cappadocia relatively late, with no evidence of a Christian community before the late second century AD. Alexander of Jerusalem was the first bishop of the province in the early to mid third century, a period in which Christians suffered persecution from the local Roman authorities. The community remained very small throughout the third century: when Gregory Thaumaturgus acceded to the bishopric in c. 250, according to his namesake, the Nyssen, there were only seventeen members of the Church in Caesarea.",
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"plaintext": "Cappadocian bishops were among those at the First Council of Nicaea. Because of the broad distribution of the population, rural bishops [χωρεπισκοποι] were appointed to support the Bishop of Caesarea. During the late fourth century there were around 50 of them. In Gregory's lifetime, the Christians of Cappadocia were devout, with the cults of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste and Saint George being particularly significant and represented by a considerable monastic presence. There were some adherents of heretical branches of Christianity, most notably Arians, Encratites and Messalians.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was born around 335, probably in or near the city of Neocaesarea, Pontus. His family was aristocratic and Christian—according to Gregory of Nazianzus, his mother was Emmelia of Caesarea, and his father, a rhetorician, has been identified either as Basil the Elder or as a Gregory. Among his eight siblings were St. Macrina the Younger, St. Naucratius, St. Peter of Sebaste and St. Basil of Caesarea. The precise number of children in the family was historically contentious: the commentary on 30 May in the Acta Sanctorum, for example, initially states that they were nine, before describing Peter as the tenth child. It has been established that this confusion occurred due to the death of one son in infancy, leading to ambiguities in Gregory's own writings. Gregory's parents had suffered persecution for their faith: he writes that they \"had their goods confiscated for confessing Christ.\" Gregory's paternal grandmother, Macrina the Elder. is also revered as a saint and his maternal grandfather was a martyr, as Gregory put it \"killed by Imperial wrath\" under the persecution of the Roman Emperor Maximinus II. Between the 320s to the early 340s, the family rebuilt its fortunes, with Gregory's father working in the city of Neocaesarea as an advocate and rhetorician.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory's temperament is said to have been quiet and meek, in contrast to his brother Basil who was known to be much more outspoken. Gregory was first educated at home, by his mother Emmelia and sister Macrina. Little is known of what further education he received. Apocryphal hagiographies depict him studying at Athens, but this is speculation probably based on the life of his brother Basil. It seems more likely that he continued his studies in Caesarea, where he read classical literature, philosophy and perhaps medicine. Gregory himself claimed that his only teachers were Basil, \"Paul, John and the rest of the Apostles and prophets\".",
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"plaintext": "While his brothers Basil and Naucratius lived as hermits from , Gregory initially pursued a non-ecclesiastical career as a rhetorician. He did, however, act as a lector. He is known to have married a woman named Theosebia during this period, who is sometimes identified with Theosebia the Deaconess, venerated as a saint by Orthodox Christianity. This is controversial, however, and other commentators suggest that Theosebia the Deaconess was one of Gregory's sisters.",
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"plaintext": "In 371, the Emperor Valens split Cappadocia into two new provinces, Cappadocia Prima and Cappadocia Secunda. This resulted in complex changes in ecclesiastical boundaries, during which several new bishoprics were created. Gregory was elected bishop of the new see of Nyssa in 372, presumably with the support of his brother Basil, who was metropolitan of Caesarea. Gregory's early policies as bishop often went against those of Basil; for instance, while his brother condemned the Sabellianist followers of Marcellus of Ancyra as heretics, Gregory may have tried to reconcile them with the church.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory faced opposition to his reign in Nyssa and, in 373, Amphilochius, bishop of Iconium, had to visit the city to quell discontent. In 375, Desmothenes of Pontus convened a synod at Ancyra to try Gregory on charges of embezzlement of church funds and irregular ordination of bishops. He was arrested by imperial troops in the winter of the same year, but escaped to an unknown location. The synod of Nyssa, which was convened in the spring of 376, deposed him. However, Gregory regained his see in 378, perhaps due to an amnesty promulgated by the new emperor, Gratian. In the same year Basil died, and despite the relative unimportance of Nyssa, Gregory took over many of his brother's former responsibilities in Pontus.",
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"plaintext": "He was present at the Synod of Antioch in April 379, where he unsuccessfully attempted to reconcile the followers of Meletius of Antioch with those of Paulinus. After visiting the village of Annisa to see his dying sister Macrina, he returned to Nyssa in August. In 380 he travelled to Sebaste, in the province of Armenia Prima, to support a pro-Nicene candidate for the election to the bishopric. To his surprise, he himself was elected to the seat, perhaps due to the population's association of him with his brother. However, Gregory deeply disliked the relatively unhellenized society of Armenia, and he was confronted by an investigation into his orthodoxy by local opponents of the Nicene theology. After a stay of several months, a substitute was found—possibly Gregory's brother Peter, who was bishop of Sebaste from 381—and Gregory returned home to Nyssa to write books I and II of Against Eunomius.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory participated in the First Council of Constantinople (381), and perhaps gave there his famous sermon In suam ordinationem. He was chosen to eulogise at the funeral of Meletius, which occurred during the council. The council sent Gregory on a mission to Arabia, perhaps to ameliorate the situation in Bostra where two men, Agapius and Badagius, claimed to be bishop. If this is the case, Gregory was unsuccessful, as the see was still contested in 394. He then travelled to Jerusalem where Cyril of Jerusalem faced opposition from local clergy due to the fact that he had been ordained by Acacius of Caesarea, an Arian heretic. Gregory's attempted mediation of the dispute was unsuccessful, and he himself was accused of holding unorthodox views on the nature of Christ. His later reign in Nyssa was marked by conflict with his metropolitan, Helladius. Gregory was present at a 394 synod convened at Constantinople to discuss the continued problems in Bostra. The year of his death is unknown.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional view of Gregory is that he was an orthodox Trinitarian theologian, who was influenced by the Neoplatonism of Plotinus and believed in universal salvation following Origen. However, as a highly original and sophisticated thinker, Gregory is difficult to classify, and many aspects of his theology are contentious among both conservative Eastern Orthodox theologians and Western academic scholarship. This is often due to the lack of systematic structure and the presence of terminological inconsistencies in Gregory's work.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory, following Basil, defined the Trinity as \"one essence οὐσία in three persons ὑποστάσεις\", the formula adopted by the Council of Constantinople in 381. Like the other Cappadocian Fathers, he was a homoousian, and Against Eunomius affirms the truth of the consubstantiality of the trinity over Eunomius' Aristotelian belief that the Father's substance is unengendered, whereas the Son's is engendered. According to Gregory, the differences between the three persons of the Trinity reside in their differing hypostatic origin, and the triune nature of God is revealed through divine action (despite the unity of God in His action). The Son is therefore defined as begotten of the Father, the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father, and the Father by his role as progenitor. However, this doctrine would seem to subordinate the Son to the Father, and the Holy Spirit to the Son. Robert Jenson suggests that Gregory implies that each member of the Godhead has an individual priority: the Son has epistemological priority, the Father has ontic priority and the Spirit has metaphysical priority. Other commentators disagree: Morwenna Ludlow, for instance, argues that epistemic priority resides primarily in the Spirit in Gregory's theology.",
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"plaintext": "Modern proponents of social trinitarianism often claim to have been influenced by the Cappadocians' dynamic picture of the Trinity. However, it would be fundamentally incorrect to identify Gregory as a social Trinitarian, as his theology emphasises the unity of God's will, and he clearly believes that the identities of the Trinity are the three persons, not the relations between them.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was one of the first theologians to argue, in opposition to Origen, that God is infinite. His main argument for the infinity of God, found in Against Eunomius, is that God's goodness is limitless, and as God's goodness is essential, God is also limitless.",
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"plaintext": "An important consequence of Gregory's belief in the infinity of God is his belief that God, as limitless, is essentially incomprehensible to the limited minds of created beings. In Life of Moses, Gregory writes: \"...every concept that comes from some comprehensible image, by an approximate understanding and by guessing at the Divine nature, constitutes an idol of God and does not proclaim God.\" Gregory's theology was thus apophatic: he proposed that God should be defined in terms of what we know He is not rather than what we might speculate Him to be.",
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"plaintext": "Accordingly, the Nyssen taught that due to God's infinitude, a created being can never reach an understanding of God, and thus for man in both life and the afterlife there is a constant progression ἐπέκτασις towards the unreachable knowledge of God, as the individual continually transcends all which has been reached before. In the Life of Moses, Gregory speaks of three stages of this spiritual growth: initial darkness of ignorance, then spiritual illumination, and finally a darkness of the mind in mystic contemplation of the God who cannot be comprehended.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory seems to have believed in the universal salvation of all human beings. Gregory argues that when Paul says that God will be \"all in all\" (1 Cor. 15:28), this means that though some may need to undergo a long period of purification, eventually \"no being will remain outside the number of the saved\" and that \"no being created by God will fall outside the Kingdom of God\". Due to the unity of human nature in Christ \"all, thanks to the union with one another, will be joined in communion with the Good, in Jesus Christ Our Lord\". By his incarnation, death and resurrection Christ achieves \"the common salvation of human nature\".",
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"plaintext": "Gregory also described God's work this way: \"His [God's] end is one, and one only; it is this: when the complete whole of our race shall have been perfected from the first man to the last—some having at once in this life been cleansed from evil, others having afterwards in the necessary periods been healed by the Fire, others having in their life here been unconscious equally of good and of evil—to offer to every one of us participation in the blessings which are in Him, which, the Scripture tells us, 'eye hath not seen, nor ear heard,' nor thought ever reached.\" That this is what Gregory believed and taught is affirmed by most scholars. A minority of scholars have argued that Gregory only affirmed the universal resurrection.",
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"plaintext": "In the Life of Moses, Gregory writes that just as the darkness left the Egyptians after three days, perhaps redemption ἀποκατάστασις will be extended to those suffering in hell γέεννα. This salvation may not only extend to humans; following Origen, there are passages where he seems to suggest (albeit through the voice of Macrina) that even the demons will have a place in Christ's \"world of goodness\". Gregory's interpretations of 1 Corinthians 15:28 (\"And when all things shall be subdued unto him...\") and Philippians 2:10 (\"That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth\") support this understanding of his theology.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, in the Great Catechism, Gregory suggests that while every human will be resurrected, salvation will only be accorded to the baptised, although he also states that others driven by their passions can be saved after being purified by fire. While he believes that there will be no more evil in the hereafter, it is arguable that this does not preclude a belief that God might justly damn sinners for eternity. Thus, the main difference between Gregory's conception of ἀποκατάστασις and that of Origen would be that Gregory believes that mankind will be collectively returned to sinlessness, whereas Origen believes that personal salvation will be universal. This interpretation of Gregory has been criticized recently, however. Indeed, this interpretation is explicitly contradicted in the \"Great Catechism\" itself, for at the end of chapter XXXV Gregory declares that those who have not been purified by water through baptism will be purified by fire in the end, so that \"their nature may be restored pure again to God\". On the contrary, Saint Gregory also affirms that \"without the laver of regeneration it is impossible for the man to be in the resurrection\", meaning that the salvation will not be universal. Furthermore, in the next chapter (ch. XXXVI), Gregory says that those who are purified from evil will be admitted into the \"heavenly company\".",
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"plaintext": "Attempting to reconcile these disparate positions, Eastern Orthodox theologian Dr. Mario Baghos notes that \"when taken at face value the saint seems to be contradicting himself in these passages; on the one hand he asserted the salvation of all and the complete eradication of evil, and, on the other, that the fire needed to purge evil is 'sleepless', i.e. everlasting. The only solution to this inconsistency is to view any allusion to universal salvation in St Gregory as an expression of God's intention for humanity, which is in fact attested to when his holy sister states that God has \"one goal ... some straightway even in this life purified from evil, others healed hereafter through fire for the appropriate length of time.\" That we can choose either to accept or ignore this purification is confirmed by the saint's many exhortations that we freely undertake the virtuous path.\" Dr. Ilaria Ramelli has made the observation that for Gregory free will was compatible with universal salvation, since every person would eventually accept the good having gone through purification. Nevertheless, some interpret Gregory as conceding that Judas and similar sinners will never be completely purified when he wrote, \"that which never existed is to be preferred to that which has existed in such sin. For, as to the latter, on account of the depth of the ingrained evil, the chastisement in the way of purgation will be extended into infinity\". However, Ramelli renders the original Greek \"εἰς ἄπειρον παρατείνεται ἡ διὰ τῆς καθάρσεως κόλασις\" as \"the punishment provided for the purpose of purification will tend to an indefinite duration.\"",
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"plaintext": "Additional sources are needed to interpret correctly the questioned chapter.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory's anthropology is founded on the ontological distinction between the created and uncreated. Man is a material creation, and thus limited, but infinite in that his immortal soul has an indefinite capacity to grow closer to the divine. Gregory believed that the soul is created simultaneous to the creation of the body (in opposition to Origen, who believed in preexistence), and that embryos were thus persons. To Gregory, the human being is exceptional, being created in the image of God. Humanity is theomorphic both in having self-awareness and free will, the latter which gives each individual existential power, because to Gregory, in disregarding God one negates one's own existence. In the Song of Songs, Gregory metaphorically describes human lives as paintings created by apprentices to a master: the apprentices (the human wills) imitate their master's work (the life of Christ) with beautiful colors (virtues), and thus man strives to be a reflection of Christ. Gregory, in stark contrast to most thinkers of his age, saw great beauty in the Fall: from Adam's sin from two perfect humans would eventually arise myriad.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was among the early Christian voices to write against slavery, declaring the institution inherently sinful.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory used Plato’s definition of virtue as ‘something that admits of no master [ἀδέσποτον]’ in the service of his own theological arguments against slavery: (1) each human is an image of God and therefore free, (2) the equality of all humans reflects the equality of the divine Persons and (3) just as the divine nature cannot be divided into slavery (δουλεία) and mastery (δυναστεία, κυριότης), neither can human nature; the whole creation is a slave, but of God alone. ",
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"plaintext": "Although the stoic Seneca had criticized cruel slave masters and advised slave masters to treat slaves with kindness (or at least those of good character), the stoics never questioned the institution of slavery, which was considered an ordinary part of daily life in the ancient world. Gregory of Nyssa's critique was the first and only sustained critique of the institution of slavery itself made in the ancient world.",
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"plaintext": "There are many similarities between Gregory's theology and neoplatonist philosophy, especially that of Plotinus. Specifically, they share the idea that the reality of God is completely inaccessible to human beings and that man can only come to see God through a spiritual journey in which knowledge γνῶσις is rejected in favour of meditation. Gregory does not refer to any neoplatonist philosophers in his work, and there is only one disputed passage which may directly quote Plotinus. Considering this, it seems possible that Gregory was familiar with Plotinus and perhaps other figures in neoplatonism. However, some significant differences between neoplatonism and Gregory's thought exist, such as Gregory's statement that beauty and goodness are equivalent, which contrasts with Plotinus' view that they are two different qualities. However Plotinus does say \"And Beauty, this Beauty which is also the Good\" implying the Platonist One which is the Good is also Beauty.",
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"plaintext": "Eastern Orthodox theologians are generally critical of the theory that Gregory was influenced by neoplatonism. For example, Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos argues in Life After Death that Gregory opposed all philosophical (as opposed to theological) endeavour as tainted with worldliness. This view is supported by Against Eunomius, where Gregory denounces Eunomius for placing the results of his systematic Aristotelean philosophy above the traditional teachings of the Church.",
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"plaintext": "The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches commemorate Gregory of Nyssa on 10 January. The Roman Martyrology and the Episcopal Church commemorate his death on 9 March. In modern Roman Catholic calendars which include the feast of St. Gregory, such as the Benedictines, his feast day is observed on 10 January. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod commemorates Gregory along with the other Cappadocian Fathers on 10 January.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory is remembered (with Macrina) in the Church of England with a lesser festival on 19 July.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory is revered as a saint. However, unlike the other Cappadocian fathers, he is not a Doctor of the Church. He is venerated chiefly in the East. His relics were held by the Vatican until 2000, when a portion of them were translated to the Greek Orthodox church of St. Gregory of Nyssa, San Diego, California.",
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"plaintext": "Professor of theology, Natalie Carnes wrote: \"One reason Gregory was not taken up into the theological stream in the West is that he was little translated into Latin. John Scotus Eriugena (c. 800–c. 877) should be greatly credited for the influence Gregory did have. Not only was Eriugena himself influenced by Gregory, but he also translated On the Making of the Human into Latin.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gregory's work received little scholarly attention in the West until the mid-twentieth century, and he was historically treated as a minor figure in comparison to Basil the Great or Gregory of Nazianzus. As late as 1942, Hans Urs von Balthasar wrote that his work was virtually unknown. In part due to the scholarship of Balthasar and Jean Daniélou, by the 1950s Gregory became the subject of much serious theological research, with a critical edition of his work published (Gregorii Nysseni Opera), and the founding of the International Colloquium on Gregory of Nyssa. This attention has continued to the present day. Modern studies have mainly focused on Gregory's eschatology rather than his more dogmatic writings, and he has gained a reputation as an unconventional thinker whose thought arguably prefigures postmodernism. Major figures in contemporary research include Sarah Coakley, John Zizioulas and Robert Jenson.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, theologian David Bentley Hart published a book seemingly influenced by Gregory.",
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"plaintext": "In 787 AD, the Seventh Ecumenical Council of the Church, (also known as the Second Council of Nicea) honored Gregory of Nyssa:",
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"plaintext": "Let us then, consider who were the venerable doctors and indomitable champions of the Church [including] Gregory Primate of Nyssa, who all have called the father of fathers.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in his work on the history of evolutionary thought, From the Greeks to Darwin (1894):",
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"plaintext": "Among the Christian Fathers the movement towards a partly naturalistic interpretation of the order of Creation was made by Gregory of Nyssa in the fourth century, and was completed by Augustine in the fourth and fifth centuries. ...[Gregory] taught that Creation was potential. God imparted to matter its fundamental properties and laws. The objects and completed forms of the Universe developed gradually out of chaotic material.",
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"plaintext": "Anthony Meredith writes of Gregory's mystical and apophatic writings in his book Gregory of Nyssa (The Early Church Fathers) (1999): ",
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"plaintext": "Gregory has often been credited with the discovery of mystical theology, or rather with the perception that darkness is an appropriate symbol under which God can be discussed. There is much truth in this....Gregory seems to have been the first Christian writer to have made this important point.",
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"plaintext": "J. Kameron Carter writes about Gregory's stance on slavery, in the book Race a Theological Account (2008):",
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"plaintext": "What interests me is the defining features of Gregory's vision of the just society: his unequivocal stance against 'the peculiar institution of slavery' and his call for the manumission of all slaves. I am interested in reading Gregory as a fourth century abolitionist intellectual....His outlook surpassed not only St. Paul's more moderate (but to be fair to Paul, in his moment, revolutionary) stance on the subject but also those of all ancient intellectuals -- Pagan, Jewish and Christian - from Aristotle to Cicero and from Augustine in the Christian West to his contemporary, the golden mouthed preacher himself, John Crysotom in the East. Indeed, the world would have to wait another fifteen centuries -- until the nineteenth century, late into the modern abolitionist movement -- before such an unequivocal stance against slavery would appear again.",
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"plaintext": "Catholic theologian and author Hans Urs von Balthasar, describes Gregory in his book Presence and Thought: An Essay on the Religious Philosophy of Gregory of Nyssa (1988):Less prolific than Origen, less cultivated than Gregory Nazianzen, less practical than Basil, Gregory of Nyssa nonetheless outstrips them all in the profundity of his thought.",
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"plaintext": "The complete works of Gregory of Nyssa are published in the original Greek with Latin commentary as Gregorii Nysseni Opera:",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 2 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 3/1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 3/2 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 3/3 - Opera dogmatica minora, pars III - De Anima Et Resurrectione, 2014 Publisher=Brill Editor: Andreas Spira",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 3/4 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 3/5 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 4/1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 4/2 - Opera exegetica In Genesim, pars II - currently unavailable.",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 5 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 6 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 7/1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 7/2 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 8/1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 8/2 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 9 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 10/1 - ",
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"plaintext": "Vol. 10/2 - ",
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"plaintext": "The following are editions of English translations of Gregory's writings;",
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"plaintext": "Gregory of Nyssa, Homilies on Ecclesiastes: An English Version with Supporting Studies. Proceedings of the Seventh International Colloquium on Gregory of Nyssa (St Andrews, 5–10 September 1990). Link.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory of Nyssa, Life of Macrina, London, 2012. limovia.net ",
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38,021 | 1,099,028,716 | M102_howitzer | [
{
"plaintext": "The M102 is a light, towable 105 mm howitzer used by the United States Army in the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and the Iraq War.",
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"plaintext": "The M102 105mm howitzer is used in air mobile (helicopter), attack plane, and light infantry operations. The weapon carriage is lightweight welded aluminum, mounted on a variable recoil mechanism. The weapon is manually loaded and positioned, and can be towed by a 2-ton truck or High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), can be transported by UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, or can be dropped by parachute with airborne units. When emplaced, the howitzer's high volume of fire compensates in large measure for the lower explosive weight of the projectile compared to the Army's 155mm and 8-inch howitzers. Since 1964, the Army acquired 1,150 M102 towed howitzers. The weapon is being replaced by the M119-series 105mm howitzer.",
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"plaintext": "Units were initially equipped with the M101A1 howitzer, virtually the same 105mm howitzer that had been used to support U.S. forces since World War II. In 1966 a new 105mm towed howitzer, the M102, was received in Vietnam. The first M102s were issued to the 1st Battalion, 21st Field Artillery, in March 1966. Replacement of the old howitzers continued steadily over the next four years.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the more seasoned artillerymen did not want the old cannon replaced. Over the years they had become familiar with its every detail and were confident that it would not disappoint them in the clutch. These experienced artillerymen could offer some seemingly convincing reasons why the M101 was still the superior weapon: its waist-high breech made it easier to load; it had higher ground clearance when in tow; but most important, it was considerably less expensive than the M102. Their arguments, however, were futile.",
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"plaintext": "The new M102 was substantially lighter, weighing little more than whereas the M101A1 weighed approximately ; as a result, more ammunition could be carried during heliborne operations, and a 3/4-ton truck rather than a 2½-ton truck was its prime mover for ground operations. Another major advantage of the M102 was that it could be traversed a full 6,400 mils; the M101A1 had a limited on-carriage traverse, which required its trails (stabilizing legs) to be shifted if further traverse was necessary. The M102 fires the same semi-fixed ammunition as the M101, but its longer barrel (32 calibres versus 22 calibres on M101) allows a slightly higher muzzle velocity and thus enhanced firing range. A low silhouette made the new weapon a more difficult target for the enemy, an advantage that far outweighed the disadvantage of being somewhat less convenient to load.",
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"plaintext": "The 105mm howitzer M102 is a lightweight towed weapon, which has a very low silhouette when in the firing position. The M102 howitzer fires a projectile of semifixed ammunition and at charge 7 will fire 11,500 meters. It has a muzzle velocity of . The maximum rate of fire is 10 rounds per minute for the first 3 minutes, with a sustained rate of 3 rounds per minute.",
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"plaintext": "A roller tire attached to the trail assembly of the M102 permits the weapon to be rotated 6,400 mils (360 degrees) around a firing platform, which provides the pivot for the weapon. It can be elevated from −89 mils (−5 degrees) to a maximum of 1,333 mils (75 degrees). The panoramic telescope has a four power, fixed focus optical system, with 178 mils field of view. It contains dry nitrogen gas to retard fogging and condensation. The parallax shield used during boresighting protects the lens.",
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"plaintext": "The trails are made of aluminum alloy. They are a single box trail in wishbone shape, and serve three purposes: mobility; stability; and stowage of section equipment. The lunette is the towing pintle that allows the weapon to be connected to the vehicle. When towing, vehicle has a fixed or seized tow pintle; remove the lock plate located under the lunette. The drawbar has two positions: lowered for travel and raised for firing. There are two lifting brackets to connect slings to when the howitzer is being lifted by helicopter. A third bracket is located on front yoke. The carriage handles are used by crew members to lifting and shifting the howitzer during loading, unloading, and emplacing the howitzer.",
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"plaintext": "The firing platform attaches to the howitzer lower carriage by using a socket and a locking handle. The eight holes are for the stakes needed to stake the howitzer in position. Platform stakes are issued in three sizes. There are four stakes issued for use in frozen or rocky terrain, and are normally issued only where needed, such as extremely cold areas. There are eight stakes issued, and are used for hard packed ground. Four stakes are issued for use in soft ground.",
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"plaintext": "The first production versions were displayed with a muzzle brake, most likely to allow long range 105mm rounds to be fired, but was discontinued before shipment to Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": "While the M102 is no longer in active use by the United States Army, having been replaced by the M119, it is still in use by the National Guard. The M102 was last deployed to combat in 2004 by the 1st Battalion, 206th Field Artillery, Arkansas Army National Guard. Seventeen M102 howitzers were deployed to Camp Taji, Iraq. The 1-206th FA provided fire and conducted counter-fire missions in support of 39th BCT operations, an element of the 1st Cavalry Division. The 1-206th scavenged spare parts from nine M102 howitzers that were located in the Camp Taji Boneyard. These howitzers were allegedly captured by the Iraqi Army during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "The M102 is also used on the United States Air Force's Lockheed AC-130 gunship. The M102 105mm cannon was modified to be fired from the left rear side door of the AC-130. To accommodate the cannon, the rear side-firing 40mm guns were replaced by the radome that formerly had been installed in the door cavity. That change provided enough space for the 105mm gun to be mounted in the doorway in place of the radome. The gun was first used in the later stages of the Vietnam War and is still used in the AC-130U gunship. The latest AC-130J Ghostrider gunship was not originally planned to include the 105mm, but designed with enough spare power and room to mount it at some later point. The Air Force decided to include it in January 2015, starting installation on the third aircraft, then having the first two be retrofitted when guns become available; M102s will be pulled off retiring AC-130Us and put into the AC-130Js.",
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"plaintext": "The M102 is used in extremely limited roles by the United States Marine Corps, primarily for firing salutes.",
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"plaintext": "The Malaysian Army used the M102 during Malaysia's second communist insurgency (1968–1988) to bombard insurgent positions on the Malaysia-Thailand border. The guns were transported by helicopter to remote firing positions. All Malaysian M102s have now been decommissioned and are only used for firing salute.",
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"plaintext": " Caliber: 105mm (4.13in)",
"section_idx": 4,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Length: 21.8 feet (6.4 m)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Characteristics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Barrel Length: 32 calibres",
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"section_name": "Characteristics",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Width: 6.4 feet (2m)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Height: 5.2 feet (1.6 m)",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Weight: 1.5 tons (1.4 t)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Characteristics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Crew: 8",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rate of fire: 10 rounds per minute maximum, 3 rounds per minute sustained",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Characteristics",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Range: 11,500m (7.1 miles), 15,100m (9.4 miles) with rocket-assisted projectile",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 19",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 24",
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{
"plaintext": " 50",
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{
"plaintext": " 18",
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{
"plaintext": " 40",
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{
"plaintext": " 36",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 24",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 140",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 12",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
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"plaintext": " – AC-130 gunship",
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"plaintext": " 15",
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"plaintext": " Captured from Vietnam War",
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"plaintext": " – unknown number used by the Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division",
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"plaintext": " M101 howitzer – previous American 105mm towed howitzer",
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},
{
"plaintext": " M119 howitzer – next towed 105mm howitzer in US Army service",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " List of artillery",
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19800973
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"plaintext": " List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces",
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502839
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"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Cold_War_artillery_of_the_United_States",
"Artillery_of_the_United_States",
"Aircraft_artillery",
"Field_artillery_of_the_Cold_War",
"105_mm_artillery",
"Military_equipment_introduced_in_the_1960s"
] | 1,564,886 | 7,566 | 58 | 40 | 0 | 0 | M102 | 1962 towed 105 mm howitzer by Rock Island Arsenal | [
"M102 howitzer"
] |
38,022 | 1,106,850,332 | M109_howitzer | [
{
"plaintext": "The M109 is an American 155 mm turreted self-propelled howitzer, first introduced in the early 1960s to replace the M44. It has been upgraded a number of times, most recently to the M109A7. The M109 family is the most common Western indirect-fire support weapon of maneuver brigades of armored and mechanized infantry divisions.",
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"plaintext": "The M109 has a crew of four: the section chief/commander, the driver, the gunner, and the ammunition handler/loader. The chief or gunner aims the cannon left or right (deflection) and up and down (quadrant).",
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"plaintext": "The British Army replaced its M109s with the AS-90. Several European armed forces have or are currently replacing older M109s with the German PzH 2000. Upgrades to the M109 were introduced by the U.S. (see variants below) and by Switzerland (KAWEST). With the cancellation of the U.S. Crusader and Non-Line-of-Sight Cannon, the M109A6 (\"Paladin\") will likely remain the principal self-propelled howitzer for the U.S. until the new M1299 enters service.",
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"plaintext": "The M109 was the medium variant of a U.S. program to adopt a common chassis for its self-propelled artillery units. The light version, the M108 Howitzer, was phased out during the Vietnam War, but many were rebuilt as M109s.",
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"plaintext": "The M109 saw its combat debut in Vietnam. Around 200 vehicles were deployed in 1966, but the entire fleet suffered a mechanical malfunction within a year of operation. The U.S. dispatched engineers and mechanics, but all M109s were recalled back to the U.S. in 1967 after failing to repair on the field. The howitzer underwent upgrades afterward, which resulted M109A1 variant that went into production in 1970.",
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"plaintext": "Israel used the M109 against Egypt in the 1973 Yom Kippur War and in the 1982 and 2006 Lebanon Wars. Iran used the M109 in the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s. The M109 saw service with the British, Egyptian and Saudi Arabian Armies in the 1991 Gulf War. The M109 also saw service with the U.S. Army in the Gulf War, as well as in the Iraq War from 2003 to 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Upgrades to the cannon, ammunition, fire control, survivability, and other electronics systems over the design's lifespan have expanded the system's capabilities, including tactical nuclear projectiles, guided projectiles (Copperhead), Rocket Assisted Projectiles (RAP), FAmily of SCAtterable Mines (FASCAM), and cluster munitions (the Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition, DPICM).",
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"plaintext": "In August 2015, South Korean K55A1s fired rounds behind the Military Demarcation Line as a warning after several provocations.",
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"plaintext": " Primary by Watervliet Arsenal: M126 Cannon (or M126A1) 155mm Howitzer (M109), M185 Cannon 155mm Howitzer (A1/A2/A3/A4), or M284 Cannon 155mm Howitzer (A5/A6)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Secondary: .50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 machine gun, Mk 19 Mod 3 40 mm Automatic Grenade Launcher, 7.62 mm M60, M240 machine gun or L4 machine gun",
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"plaintext": "In January 2016, the U.S. Army test-fired hypervelocity projectiles originally designed for use by U.S. Navy electromagnetic railguns and found that they significantly increased the gun's range. The Army is looking into using the M109 Paladin firing the HVP for ballistic missile defense, as traditional missile interceptors are expensive and gun-based missile defense used for point defense would use artillery at a much lower cost per round. The HVP is capable of being fired out to from a conventional cannon. It weighs with a flight body containing its guidance and warhead—less powerful, but more agile to hit small, high-speed targets. Modifications will be needed for the Paladin to effectively shoot the HVP, possibly including different propellant to achieve higher velocities, automated reloading systems to fire quickly enough to defeat salvo launches, improved barrel life, and a new fire control and sensor system. During a test of the Air Force's Advanced Battle Management System (ABMS) on 3 September 2020, an HVP fired from an Army Paladin howitzer successfully intercepted a BQM-167 target drone simulating a cruise missile.",
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"plaintext": "First produced in 1963. It had a 23 caliber 155mm M126 Cannon in an M127 Mount, and carried 28 rounds of 155mm ammunition. It was also armed with a .50cal M2HB machine gun with 500 rounds of ammunition. Easily identified by its short barrel and a double baffle muzzle brake with a large fume extractor just behind it. Maximum range of 14,600 meters.",
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"plaintext": "Replaced the M126 Cannon with a 39 caliber M185 Cannon, featuring a longer barrel while increasing maximum range to 18,100 meters.",
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"plaintext": "Incorporated 27 Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability (RAM) mid-life improvements. Most notably, the long barreled 155mm M185 Cannon in the new M178 gun mount, ballistic protection for the panoramic telescope, counterbalanced travel lock, and the ability to mount the M140 bore sight alignment device. Stowage of 155mm rounds increased from 28 to 36 rounds; .50cal ammunition remained at 500 rounds. During M109A2 production, a slightly simplified version was also produced for export. This had minor internal changes and deleted the hull flotation feature. These were designated M109A1B.",
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"plaintext": "M109A1s and M109A1Bs rebuilt to M109A2 standard respectively. Some A3s feature three contact arm assemblies, while all A2s have five.",
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"plaintext": "M109A2s and M109A3s improved with Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical / Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability (NBC/RAM) improvements, including air purifiers, heaters, and Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) (protective) gear.",
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"plaintext": "The traversing mechanism's clutch was hydraulic, as compared to the electric mechanism on previous M109s, and featured a manual override. The M109A4 also gained a second hydraulic filter. Also included is an improvement to the engine starting equipment, greatly improving the ability to start in an emergency.",
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"plaintext": "Ammunition stowage remained the same as in previous models.",
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"plaintext": "Replaces the 155mm M185 Cannon in an M178 Mount with a 39-caliber 155mm M284 Cannon in an M182 Mount, giving the A5 a maximum range of 22,000 meters with unassisted projectiles and 30,000 meters with Rocket Assisted Projectile (RAP) rounds. The vehicle can carry 36 complete rounds of ammunition and has a 440hp engine instead of the standard 405hp engine.",
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"plaintext": "Various manufacturers have upgraded the fire control and other components of the M109A5. BAE Systems in York PA recently delivered 12 M109A5+ vehicles to Chile and 40 M109A5+ vehicles for Brazil.",
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"plaintext": "Overall product improvement in the areas of survivability, RAM, and armament. This includes increased armor, a redesigned internal arrangement for safer ammunition and equipment storage, engine and suspension upgrades, and product improvement of the M284 Cannon and M182A1 Mount. The greatest difference is the integration of an inertial navigation system, sensors detecting the weapons' lay, automation, and an encrypted digital communication system, which utilizes computer controlled frequency hopping to avoid enemy electronic warfare and allow the howitzer to send grid location and altitude to the battery Fire Direction Center (FDC) . The battery FDCs in turn coordinate fires through a battalion or higher FDC. This allows the Paladin to halt from the move and fire within 30 seconds with an accuracy equivalent to the previous models when properly emplaced, laid, and safed—a process that required several minutes under the best of circumstances. Tactically, this improves the system's survivability by allowing the battery to operate dispersed by pairs across the countryside and allowing the howitzer to quickly displace between salvos, or if attacked by indirect fire, aircraft, or ground forces.",
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"plaintext": "Ammunition storage increased from 36 to 39 155mm rounds.",
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"plaintext": "The US Army received first Paladin in 1994 and last of 950 in 1999.",
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"plaintext": "This Swiss improved version produced by Ruag incorporates a new Swiss-designed L47 155mm gun with an increased firing range of up to 36km. It features inertial navigation system coupled with a new gun-laying system and more ammunition storage (40 rounds, 64 charges). The KAWEST (lit. Kampfwertsteigerung = upgrade of combat capabilities) requires only six crew members instead of eight, and is able to fire three-round bursts within 15 seconds or maintain a constant firing rate of over one round per minute.",
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"plaintext": "Upgraded Swiss PzHb (Panzerhaubitze) 79 and 88 (M109A1) are known as respectively PzHb 79/95 and PzHb 88/95.",
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"plaintext": "Jointly developed by the Dutch firm RDM and the German firm Rheinmetall, the M109L52 was first revealed in 2002. The main improvement was replacing the M126 series gun with the longer 52-caliber cannon from the PzH 2000, thus the MTLS ammunition of the PzH 2000 can be used. In addition, improvements to the loading system were made. This resulted in an increase of the rate of fire to 9–10 rds/min from the original 3 rds/min, and this high rate of fire can be sustained for up to 2 minutes. A total of 35 rounds can be carried.",
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"plaintext": "The latest version in service with the Norwegian Army's Artilleribataljonen. 126 M109Gs were acquired from West Germany between 1969 and 1971. They were then upgraded to the M109A3GN configuration during the latter half of the 1980s. In 2006, there were still 56 M109A3GNs in the Army's inventory, meaning that at least 70 SPGs had been scrapped after the end of the Cold War. 14 of the M109A3GNs received additional upgrades in 2007, and were designated M109A3GNM. The upgrade includes, among other things, new intercom and new navigation and positioning systems. In 2020, both the 14 units with \"A3GNM\" upgrades and the rest of the units still having \"A3GN\" specs were put in storage, as all of the new Korean K9 Thunder units had been delivered. In May 2022, Norway donated 22 \"A3GN\" to Ukraine.",
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"plaintext": "K55 is a South Korean license produced variant of the M109A2. In the 1960s, the South Korean Army received M107 and M110 from the United States. However, the number of these self-propelled guns was insufficient to counter rapidly-growing North Korean artillery capabilities. In the 1970s, South Korea began mass-producing towed howitzers locally, but intelligence reports of North Korean 170 mm self-propelled artillery forced South Korea to look for a new self-propelled artillery system.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1983, the ministers of defense of the United States and South Korea signed a MOU to co-produce M109A2 in South Korea using American technical data. The United States delivered two completed M109A2s to South Korea for operational review, and the Agency for Defense Development began to translate the data package and created field and maintenance manuals for soldiers. South Korea wanted to produce every parts of the vehicle domestically; however, due to the amendment bill by Rep. Samuel S. Stratton of New York, which set the limit in foreign military technology cooperation, the turret and the M185 cannon from Watervliet Arsenal were imported from the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to the M109A2, besides 63 percent of parts being produced locally, K55 has a driver's night periscope and light exposure minimization device to enhance night-time operations as well as additional radio systems. The vehicle also has NBC protection system, and halon fire extinguishers. A total of 1,180 K55s were produced between 1985 to 1996. The vehicle's name was changed from KM109A2 to K55, which was originally a code name from the Samsung factory.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 November 1990, the United States and South Korea signed an agreement to allow South Korea to supply M109 parts to third parties. On 28 May 1997, during the Security Cooperation Committee held in Washington D.C., South Korea requested the United States to revise the MOU for the exporting whole K55, which are intended for domestic use only. South Korea was expecting to export 72 K55s and four ammunition support vehicles to Brazil for $160 million over Belgium's offer, but the United States Department of Defense declined the request to avoid an arms race in the region.",
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"plaintext": "On 29 May 1998, South Korean military began fielding K55 simulator to boost artillerymen training. The simulator took a year and a billion KRW budget for development, and is expected to save 150 million KRW per year per device.",
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"plaintext": "The K55A1 is a South Korean overhaul and modernization of the K55 by augmenting the proven systems of the K9 Thunder and the K9 upgrade plan. The development took three years between 2007 to 2010, and the upgrade started in 2010. On 30 November 2010, in awake of the North Korean artillery attack, South Korean government authorized massive increase of the military spending; South Korea allocated 11.5 billion KRW on K55A1 upgrade for FY2011, more than 1500% increase from 700 million KRW for FY2010. The upgrade is performed by Samsung Techwin, and the first vehicle was fielded by the South Korean Army in early 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The K55A1 is fitted with the same electronics and fire control system as the K9. The self-propelled gun has significantly enhanced field operability and accuracy by the installation of Honeywell Aerospace's TALIN 5000 INS (inertial navigation system), satellite navigation device (GPS), and speed calibrator. As a result, the vehicle automatically lays the gun in the desired direction and delivers a first round within 45 seconds when stationary or 75 seconds during on move after receiving the shooting specification, which required 2 minutes and 11 minutes, respectively, on the K55. With the help of a new semi-autoloader, while charges are still inserted manually, the howitzer can fire 4 rounds per minute, increasing from 2 to 3 rounds per minute. With installation of strut type hydropneumatics The improved suspension by adding strut-type hydropneumatic buffer from Mottrol Co, Ltd. and enhanced chamber allow the vehicle to shoot without laying spades at a maximum distance of 32 km using base bleed ammunition. The APU (auxiliary power unit) is also installed to operate the howitzer without turning on the main engine.",
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"plaintext": "The Army Consolidated Maintenance Depot also joined K55A1 upgrade, and released its first results on 20 December 2013. The upgrade costs 20% of the K9 Thunder (800 million KRW) as of 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The newest M109 version for U.S. service is the M109A7, formerly known as the M109A6 Paladin Integrated Management (PIM). The M109A7 shares common chassis components with the Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV) such as the engine, transmission, and tracks. This creates commonality with other systems and maximizes cost-savings in production, parts inventory, and maintenance personnel. The M109A7's onboard power systems harness technologies originally developed for the Non-Line-of-Sight Cannon; the electric drive is faster than the previous hydraulic system, and the automatic rammer more consistently rams the round into the gun for consistent velocities and better accuracy. It features a 600-volt onboard power system to accommodate additional armor and future networking technologies as they become ready. The M109A7 can sustain a one-round per-minute rate of fire and a maximum rate of fire of four rounds per-minute. Weighing , the M109A7 is heavier than its predecessor, and it has the capacity to grow to . Even with the weight increase, the M109A7 can travel faster than previous versions at and is more maneuverable than a BFV.",
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"plaintext": "Prototypes of the vehicle underwent government testing in preparation for a Low-Rate Initial Production (LRIP) decision. The testing included RAM, mission and ballistic hull and turret testing. The M109A7 was slated to begin LRIP by 2013. The U.S. Army planned on procuring a fleet of 580 sets of M109A7 howitzers and M992A3 Field Artillery Ammunition Support Vehicles (FAASVs).",
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"plaintext": "In October 2013, the Defense Acquisition Board approved the decision to start M109A7 production. The FY 2014 budget called for $340.8 million in Paladin funding, which would be two dozen vehicle sets at $14.4 million per vehicle. The Army plans to buy 133 vehicles in 66 one-half vehicle sets starting in 2014, although one M109A7 howitzer and two supporting M992A3 ammunition carriers will be destroyed during tests. A Full-Rate Production (FRP) decision planned for February 2017. On 31 October 2013, BAE received a $668 million contract to begin LRIP of the M109A7. The first M109A6 and M992A2 vehicles were disassembled and reassembled to M109A7 and M992A3 standard as part of LRIP beginning in summer 2014. LRIP deliveries began in April 2015. The contract for FRP was signed in December 2017 with 48 vehicles slated for construction. The Army plans to upgrade 689 Paladins to A7-standard.",
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"plaintext": "The Army is looking to increase the capabilities of the M109A7. By introducing the new XM1113 rocket-assisted projectile (RAP), it can reach from the current 39-caliber barrel, and a planned barrel extension to 58-caliber can increase its range to . An additional XM1113 improvement over the legacy RAP round is the replacement of the high explosive, TNT, with an insensitive munition that is less volatile and less prone to unplanned detonation. The Army is also working on an autoloader to increase sustained rate of fire to 6–10 rounds per minute. Another part of the effort is the use of a new supercharged propellant to fire the shells, which required redesigning the howitzer to handle higher pressures. These improvements are being developed under the Extended Range Cannon Artillery (ERCA) program, which upgrade the design so much it was re-designated the M1299; one battalion of vehicles is planned to begin a year-long operational assessment in 2023, and the autoloader is planned to be ready in 2025.",
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"plaintext": "The M992 Field Artillery Ammunition Support Vehicle (FAASV) is built on the chassis of the M109. It replaced the M548. Unlike the M548, it is armored. This ammunition vehicle has no turret, but has a taller superstructure to store 93 rounds and an equivalent number of powders and primers.",
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"plaintext": "This vehicle is fitted with a Halon fire suppression system and a weapons mount similar to that on the M109 turret, usually mounting a Mk 19 grenade launcher for local defense against infantry and light armored vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "The vehicle also contains a 2-stroke diesel powered auxiliary power unit that can power all non-automotive energy requirements on the FAASV and on the M109.",
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"plaintext": "The K66 was a planned ammunition support vehicle for the K55. As a follow-up to the K55 program, Samsung Aerospace Industries prepared for licensing a local variant of the M992 with modifications such as NBC protection and the increase of ammunition storage capacity to 110 rounds, 116 packs of powders, and 132 primers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, Samsung Aerospace Industries completed against Daewoo Heavy Industries' ammunition support vehicle based on K200 APC. Daewoo Heavy Industries' vehicle was selected as the K66 but fell from the test evaluation. Eventually, the K66 project was cancelled in the mid-1990s as it expanded into a lawsuit.",
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"plaintext": "The K77 FDCV is a command & control post vehicle variant based on the K55 platform.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The K56 ARV is a ammunition resupply vehicle based on the K55 platform. Unlike the K10 ARV, the K56 can resupply both K55A1 and K9 Thunder. It has a 45.7% (4,197 out of 9,191 total parts) compatibility with K55A1.",
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"plaintext": "After 10 months of pilot experiment, the K56 program was authorized by DAPPC (Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee) on 16 February 2007. On 2 May, DAPPC allocated 16 billion KRW for research and development for 2008 to 2010, with planning to produce 520 vehicles between 2011 to 2020. On 26 June 2008, Samsung Techwin was selected as the main contractor for the project. Later, the development completion schedule was delayed to 2011 while the total production amount was increased to 700 vehicles with 1.3 trillion KRW between 2012 to 2021.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 September 2010, the Board of Audit and Inspection claimed that the Army was biased during evaluation, demanding re-analyzing of the project due to inefficiency of the system. However, the Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) ignored the Board and continued with the project while the Army purposely delayed complying. On 14 June 2011, the Ministry of Defense once again ordered a reexamination of the resupply vehicle. Nevertheless, the DAPA requested a budget for the program instead, and the development was completed in October 2011. On 25 July 2013, the DAPA announced the 1st batch production of the K56 between 2013 to 2015 for 65 billion KRW.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2015, Hanwha Techwin signed a contract with the DAPA for 2nd batch production. On 2 January 2018, Hanwha Land Systems announced 166.4 billion KRW contract with the DAPA for 3rd batch production and related products. On 30 June 2020, Hanwha Defense announced 380.3 billion KRW contract with the DAPA for 4th batch production. South Korea plans 5th batch production and achieving full operational capability by 2025. All K56s were delivered to the western front.",
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{
"plaintext": "The US Army uses the Fire Support Combined Arms Tactical Trainer (FSCATT) in two versions for initial and sustainment training of the M109A6 and M109A5. The system uses an actual surplus turret and a simulated ammunition system.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Swiss Army uses a highly advanced KAWEST trainer from Van Halteren Metaal of the Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "The Dutch, Belgian, Thai, and Israeli Armies have various configurations of the Van Halteren Metaal M109 Howitzer Crew Trainer (HCT).",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The US Army PEO STRI had a program called M109A7 Howitzer Crew Trainer (HCT). The plan was to procure 16 systems beginning in the 3rd Quarter of FY 20.",
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{
"plaintext": "The U.S. Army sought to replace the M109 with the XM2001 Crusader, initially part of the Armored Systems Modernization program. The program was canceled in 2002 amid criticism that the program was not in line with the Army's long-term plans for lighter armored brigades. Funding was redirected to the Future Combat Systems Manned Ground Vehicles program, which produced the 18-ton XM1203 Non-Line-of-Sight Cannon as the program's lead effort. The Pentagon terminated the MGV program in 2009 due to concerns over its affordability. The U.S. Army's M1299 howitzer was planned to be completed in 2021 and will undergo operational assessment in 2023.",
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{
"plaintext": " : 10",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 17",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 51 A1B",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 440",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 44 M109A1B",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 15 A0",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 12",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 224 (upgraded to M109 KAWEST)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 40 (from Switzerland)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 40 A3 (former Belgian)",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 84 A2, 50 A3GEA1, 223 A3GEA2",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 400 A2",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 356 A2/A2-90 (121 M109A2-90 purchased from Netherlands)",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 12 A3 ",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 78 M109A2, 22 M109A3 and 40 M-109L47",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 785 A2 in service with the Pakistan Army. Being upgraded to M109A5 standard.",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
1965925
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30,
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 60 A2s are currently being upgraded to A5s (2010)",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 6 (Spanish Marines)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 19–20 A2 (former Belgian)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 22 A3GN (donated by Norway)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 33 A2/A5Ö",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 65 A5Ö",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Taiwan): 197",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 6 units, previously owned by Latvia",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 36 units M109A4-BE bought from Belgium",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 4 M109A4",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 22 units, previously owned by Belgium, bought, refurbished and donated by the UK",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 96 A5/A5+ More 56 surplus U.S. Army, to be upgraded to M109A5+, contract awarded to BAE Systems.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
200128
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " : 48 (24 from Switzerland, upgraded to M-109 KAWEST, 12 A3 and 12 A5+ Upgrade to similar Paladin configuration)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 201",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 36",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 90 ",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 600",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : ",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 18 since 2002 (Portuguese Army). 6 of these vehicles were M109A2/A3 upgraded to A5 variant. This variant replaced the previous 6 M109A2 operated by the Portuguese Army.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 20",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 12",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 96 (Spanish Army)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 70",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 74 TBD",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Taiwan): 28",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 992 (this number is now less since the main armament and cab structure is used to a reconstitute new A7 units)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 177 ordered in April 2018.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " (Taiwan) (Cancelled): >100 planned in 2019, 40 approved by U.S. State Department in August 2021. However, the US has since cancelled the order, possibly in the wake of ramping up support for Ukraine, forcing Taiwan to consider alternative options.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 48 with a further 180 contracted options",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 1,180 K55s were produced by Samsung Aerospace Industries between 1985 to 1996. All vehicles are undergoing upgrade to K55A1 since 2010. Operated by the Army and the Marine Corps.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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180
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},
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"plaintext": " : 167 A2, of which 64 were upgraded to the -A4BE standard, 31 sold to Brazil (1999–2001), 43 sold to Morocco (2008), the remainder being decommissioned",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 2–6 (upgraded to M109 A3DK, used to be 76)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 570 A3GE A1/A2, phased out by 1 July 2007 and replaced by the PzH 2000",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
892329
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 221 M109L (with an Italian-made 155mm/39 calibre barrel), replaced by PzH 2000",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : Unknown when entered service or when withdrawn",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : 126 as of 1998, replaced by the PzH 2000, 5 sold to Austria (1997), 87 to United Arab Emirates (1997), 121 to Jordan (2011–2012))",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 33 in storage after donation of 22 to Ukraine in 2022. 55 in storage in 2021. Inventory of 14 M109A3GNM + 42 M109A3GN in 2019.",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " : 6 A2 since 1981 (Portuguese Army). Currently retired from active service and replaced by 18 M109A5 in 2002.",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 140+ entered service in 1965, upgraded to -A1 and -A2 standards, 83 sold to Austria in 1994 (51 A2, 32 A3)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " : 64 A4BE of which 36 A4BE sold to Indonesia (2017–2018) and unknown number (at least 20 units) bought by the UK for Ukraine",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " : 76 A4B+. Used by the Canadian Forces from 1967 until 2005, when they were phased out. All the vehicles had been modernized to the M109A4B+ SPH standard in the 1980s. They were primarily used by the 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group in Germany.",
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"section_name": "Operators",
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182792,
18731832
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"anchor_spans": [
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24,
39
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201,
236
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " 2S3 Akatsiya – Soviet/Russian equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
6173010
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " 2S19 Msta – Soviet/Russian equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
1183904
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " 2S35 Koalitsiya-SV – Russian equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
46719553
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " AHS Krab - Polish equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
23137289
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " PzH 2000 – German equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
892329
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " GCT 155mm – French equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
21627275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " AS-90 – British equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
205819
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " K9 Thunder – South Korean howitzer developed by Samsung Techwin",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
4658186,
2854462
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
49,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Palmaria - Italian equivalent built for export",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
14767424
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " PLZ-05 – Chinese equivalent",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
20677424
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Type 75/Type 99 – Japanese equivalent ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
20496831,
23293821
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
9,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sholef - Israeli equivalent (prototype) ",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
166378
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bandkanon 1 – armored self-propelled L/50 155mm gun for the Swedish Army from 1967 to 2003",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
6418015,
28566
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
23,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " 152mm SpGH DANA - Army of the Czech Republic",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "International equivalents",
"target_page_ids": [
5318577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of artillery",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
19800973
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of land vehicles of the U.S. Armed Forces",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3102228
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " M107 standard 155mm High Explosive (HE) projectile",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
319548
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " M549 HE Rocket Assisted (HERA) projectile",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
36141147
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " M864 Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition (DPICM)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
9156717,
2239775
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
6,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " M795, a more lethal, longer range version of the M107 HE projectile",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
36137026
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gary's Combat Vehicle Reference Guide",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " M109A7 155mm self-propelled tracked howitzer artillery vehicle (United States) on armyrecognition.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fas.org",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Globalsecurity.org",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Israeli-weapons.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " M109 Technical Manuals M109 Technical Library & M109 Spare Parts",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
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"Self-propelled_howitzers_of_the_United_States",
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38,024 | 1,106,575,151 | Many-valued_logic | [
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"plaintext": "Many-valued logic (also multi- or multiple-valued logic) refers to a propositional calculus in which there are more than two truth values. Traditionally, in Aristotle's logical calculus, there were only two possible values (i.e., \"true\" and \"false\") for any proposition. Classical two-valued logic may be extended to n-valued logic for n greater than 2. Those most popular in the literature are three-valued (e.g., Łukasiewicz's and Kleene's, which accept the values \"true\", \"false\", and \"unknown\"), four-valued, nine-valued, the finite-valued (finitely-many valued) with more than three values, and the infinite-valued (infinitely-many-valued), such as fuzzy logic and probability logic.",
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"plaintext": "It is wrong that the first known classical logician who did not fully accept the law of excluded middle was Aristotle (who, ironically, is also generally considered to be the first classical logician and the \"father of [two-valued] logic\"). In fact, Aristotle did not contest the universality of the law of excluded middle, but the universality of the bivalence principle: he admitted that this principle did not all apply to future events (De Interpretatione, ch. IX), but he didn't create a system of multi-valued logic to explain this isolated remark. Until the coming of the 20th century, later logicians followed Aristotelian logic, which includes or assumes the law of the excluded middle.",
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"plaintext": "The 20th century brought back the idea of multi-valued logic. The Polish logician and philosopher Jan Łukasiewicz began to create systems of many-valued logic in 1920, using a third value, \"possible\", to deal with Aristotle's paradox of the sea battle. Meanwhile, the American mathematician, Emil L. Post (1921), also introduced the formulation of additional truth degrees with n≥ 2, where n are the truth values. Later, Jan Łukasiewicz and Alfred Tarski together formulated a logic on n truth values where n≥ 2. In 1932, Hans Reichenbach formulated a logic of many truth values where n→∞. Kurt Gödel in 1932 showed that intuitionistic logic is not a finitely-many valued logic, and defined a system of Gödel logics intermediate between classical and intuitionistic logic; such logics are known as intermediate logics.",
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"plaintext": "Kleene's \"(strong) logic of indeterminacy\" (sometimes ) and Priest's \"logic of paradox\" add a third \"undefined\" or \"indeterminate\" truth value . The truth functions for negation (¬), conjunction (∧), disjunction (∨), implication (), and biconditional () are given by:",
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"plaintext": "The difference between the two logics lies in how tautologies are defined. In only is a designated truth value, while in both and are (a logical formula is considered a tautology if it evaluates to a designated truth value). In Kleene's logic can be interpreted as being \"underdetermined\", being neither true nor false, while in Priest's logic can be interpreted as being \"overdetermined\", being both true and false. does not have any tautologies, while has the same tautologies as classical two-valued logic.",
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"plaintext": "Another logic is Dmitry Bochvar's \"internal\" three-valued logic , also called Kleene's weak three-valued logic. Except for negation and biconditional, its truth tables are all different from the above.",
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"plaintext": "The intermediate truth value in Bochvar's \"internal\" logic can be described as \"contagious\" because it propagates in a formula regardless of the value of any other variable.",
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"plaintext": "Belnap's logic combines and . The overdetermined truth value is here denoted as B and the underdetermined truth value as N.",
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"plaintext": "In 1932 Gödel defined a family of many-valued logics, with finitely many truth values , for example has the truth values and has . In a similar manner he defined a logic with infinitely many truth values, , in which the truth values are all the real numbers in the interval . The designated truth value in these logics is 1.",
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"plaintext": "The conjunction and the disjunction are defined respectively as the minimum and maximum of the operands:",
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"plaintext": "Negation and implication are defined as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Gödel logics are completely axiomatisable, that is to say it is possible to define a logical calculus in which all tautologies are provable.",
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"plaintext": "Implication and negation were defined by Jan Łukasiewicz through the following functions:",
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"plaintext": "At first Łukasiewicz used these definitions in 1920 for his three-valued logic , with truth values . In 1922 he developed a logic with infinitely many values , in which the truth values spanned the real numbers in the interval . In both cases the designated truth value was 1.",
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"plaintext": "By adopting truth values defined in the same way as for Gödel logics , it is possible to create a finitely-valued family of logics , the abovementioned and the logic , in which the truth values are given by the rational numbers in the interval . The set of tautologies in and is identical.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally there is a negative designated value that denotes the concept of false. Through this value it is possible to define a negation and an additional conjunction as follows:",
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"plaintext": "and then .",
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"plaintext": "In 1921 Post defined a family of logics with (as in and ) the truth values . Negation and conjunction and disjunction are defined as follows:",
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"plaintext": "In 1951, Alan Rose defined another family of logics for systems whose truth-values form lattices.",
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"plaintext": "Logics are usually systems intended to codify rules for preserving some semantic property of propositions across transformations. In classical logic, this property is \"truth.\" In a valid argument, the truth of the derived proposition is guaranteed if the premises are jointly true, because the application of valid steps preserves the property. However, that property doesn't have to be that of \"truth\"; instead, it can be some other concept.",
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"plaintext": "Multi-valued logics are intended to preserve the property of designationhood (or being designated). Since there are more than two truth values, rules of inference may be intended to preserve more than just whichever corresponds (in the relevant sense) to truth. For example, in a three-valued logic, sometimes the two greatest truth-values (when they are represented as e.g. positive integers) are designated and the rules of inference preserve these values. Precisely, a valid argument will be such that the value of the premises taken jointly will always be less than or equal to the conclusion.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the preserved property could be justification, the foundational concept of intuitionistic logic. Thus, a proposition is not true or false; instead, it is justified or flawed. A key difference between justification and truth, in this case, is that the law of excluded middle doesn't hold: a proposition that is not flawed is not necessarily justified; instead, it's only not proven that it's flawed. The key difference is the determinacy of the preserved property: One may prove that P is justified, that P is flawed, or be unable to prove either. A valid argument preserves justification across transformations, so a proposition derived from justified propositions is still justified. However, there are proofs in classical logic that depend upon the law of excluded middle; since that law is not usable under this scheme, there are propositions that cannot be proven that way.",
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"plaintext": "Functional completeness is a term used to describe a special property of finite logics and algebras. A logic's set of connectives is said to be functionally complete or adequate if and only if its set of connectives can be used to construct a formula corresponding to every possible truth function. An adequate algebra is one in which every finite mapping of variables can be expressed by some composition of its operations.",
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"plaintext": "Classical logic: CL = ({0,1}, ¬, →, ∨, ∧, ↔) is functionally complete, whereas no Łukasiewicz logic or infinitely many-valued logics has this property.",
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"plaintext": "Known applications of many-valued logic can be roughly classified into two groups. The first group uses many-valued logic to solve binary problems more efficiently. For example, a well-known approach to represent a multiple-output Boolean function is to treat its output part as a single many-valued variable and convert it to a single-output characteristic function (specifically, the indicator function). Other applications of many-valued logic include design of programmable logic arrays (PLAs) with input decoders, optimization of finite state machines, testing, and verification.",
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"plaintext": "The second group targets the design of electronic circuits that employ more than two discrete levels of signals, such as many-valued memories, arithmetic circuits, and field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). Many-valued circuits have a number of theoretical advantages over standard binary circuits. For example, the interconnect on and off chip can be reduced if signals in the circuit assume four or more levels rather than only two. In memory design, storing two instead of one bit of information per memory cell doubles the density of the memory in the same die size. Applications using arithmetic circuits often benefit from using alternatives to binary number systems. For example, residue and redundant number systems can reduce or eliminate the ripple-through carries that are involved in normal binary addition or subtraction, resulting in high-speed arithmetic operations. These number systems have a natural implementation using many-valued circuits. However, the practicality of these potential advantages heavily depends on the availability of circuit realizations, which must be compatible or competitive with present-day standard technologies. In addition to aiding in the design of electronic circuits, many-valued logic is used extensively to test circuits for faults and defects. Basically all known automatic test pattern generation (ATG) algorithms used for digital circuit testing require a simulator that can resolve 5-valued logic (0, 1, x, D, D'). The additional values—x, D, and D'—represent (1) unknown/uninitialized, (2) a 0 instead of a 1, and (3) a 1 instead of a 0.",
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"plaintext": "An IEEE International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic (ISMVL) has been held annually since 1970. It mostly caters to applications in digital design and verification. There is also a Journal of Multiple-Valued Logic and Soft Computing.",
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"plaintext": "Mathematical logic ",
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{
"plaintext": " Degrees of truth ",
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"plaintext": " Fuzzy logic",
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"plaintext": " Gödel logic",
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"plaintext": " Jaina seven-valued logic",
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"plaintext": " Kleene logic ",
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"plaintext": " Kleene algebra (with involution) ",
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"plaintext": " Łukasiewicz logic ",
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"plaintext": " MV-algebra ",
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"plaintext": " Post logic ",
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"plaintext": " Principle of bivalence ",
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24097
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1,
23
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"plaintext": " A. N. Prior ",
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"plaintext": " Relevance logic ",
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"plaintext": "Philosophical logic",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " False dilemma",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
17687
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mu",
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440118
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1,
3
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Digital logic",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MVCML, multiple-valued current-mode logic",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
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1468595
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " IEEE 1164 a nine-valued standard for VHDL",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
475918,
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " IEEE 1364 a four-valued standard for Verilog",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
63863,
63863
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Three-state logic",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " Noise-based logic",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
31730014
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "General",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Augusto, Luis M. (2017). Many-valued logics: A mathematical and computational introduction. London: College Publications. 340 pages. . Webpage",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Béziau J.-Y. (1997), What is many-valued logic ? Proceedings of the 27th International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, pp.117–121.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
3661969
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Malinowski, Gregorz, (2001), Many-Valued Logics, in Goble, Lou, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Blackwell.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cignoli, R. L. O., D'Ottaviano, I, M. L., Mundici, D., (2000). Algebraic Foundations of Many-valued Reasoning. Kluwer.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " S. Gottwald, A Treatise on Many-Valued Logics. Studies in Logic and Computation, vol. 9, Research Studies Press: Baldock, Hertfordshire, England, 2001.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
21090353
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hájek P., (1998), Metamathematics of fuzzy logic. Kluwer. (Fuzzy logic understood as many-valued logic sui generis.)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
19471069,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Specific",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexandre Zinoviev, Philosophical Problems of Many-Valued Logic, D. Reidel Publishing Company, 169p., 1963.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
3239705
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prior A. 1957, Time and Modality. Oxford University Press, based on his 1956 John Locke lectures",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
16143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
78,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Goguen J.A. 1968/69, The logic of inexact concepts, Synthese, 19, 325–373.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1894355
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chang C.C. and Keisler H. J. 1966. Continuous Model Theory, Princeton, Princeton University Press.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
25413983,
10962250
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
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16,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gerla G. 2001, Fuzzy logic: Mathematical Tools for Approximate Reasoning, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pavelka J. 1979, On fuzzy logic I: Many-valued rules of inference, Zeitschr. f. math. Logik und Grundlagen d. Math., 25, 45–52.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Covers proof theory of many-valued logics as well, in the tradition of Hájek.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " IEEE Computer Society's Technical Committee on Multiple-Valued Logic",
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"target_page_ids": [
56938
],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Resources for Many-Valued Logic by Reiner Hähnle, Chalmers University",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Many-valued Logics W3 Server (archived)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carlos Caleiro, Walter Carnielli, Marcelo E. Coniglio and João Marcos, Two's company: \"The humbug of many logical values\" in ",
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"section_name": "Types",
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[
0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tactical ballistic missile: Range between about ",
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"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Theatre ballistic missile (TBM): Range between ",
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"plaintext": "Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between ",
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0,
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]
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{
"plaintext": "Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM): Range between ",
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],
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) or long-range ballistic missile (LRBM): Range between ",
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],
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): Range greater than ",
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],
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[
0,
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]
]
},
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"plaintext": "Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM): Launched from ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs)",
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Most current designs have intercontinental range with a notable exception of Indian operational SLBM Sagarika and K-4 as well as North Korea's currently operationally deployed KN-11 which might not have intercontinental range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned China's JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2,500km.",
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{
"plaintext": "Tactical short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively. Long- and medium-range ballistic missiles are generally designed to deliver nuclear weapons because their payload is too limited for conventional explosives to be cost-effective in comparison to conventional bomber aircraft (though the U.S. is evaluating the idea of a conventionally armed ICBM for near-instant global air strike capability, despite the high costs).",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "A quasi ballistic missile (also called a semi ballistic missile) including anti-ship ballistic missiles is a category of missile that has a low trajectory and/or is largely ballistic but can perform maneuvers in flight or make unexpected changes in direction and range.",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "At a lower trajectory than a ballistic missile, a quasi ballistic missile can maintain higher speed, thus allowing its target less time to react to the attack, at the cost of reduced range.",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
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},
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"plaintext": "The Russian Iskander is a quasi ballistic missile. The Russian Iskander-M cruises at hypersonic speed of 2,100–2,600m/s (Mach 6–7) at a height of 50km. The Iskander-M weighs 4,615kg, carries a warhead of 710–800kg, has a range of 480km and achieves a CEP of 5–7 meters. During flight it can maneuver at different altitudes and trajectories to evade anti-ballistic missiles.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "DF-15 (active)",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "DF-21D (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "DF-26 (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
45183985
],
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "B-611MR (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "SY-400 (active)",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
8046179
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "XY-9",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hadès (retired)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Prithvi-III (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1108184
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Dhanush (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1108184
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Prahaar (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
32294106
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Shaurya (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
20189215
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bora (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
55680949
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Fateh-110 (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Qiam 1 (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
28456916
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Khalij Fars (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
31504407
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Kheibar Shekan (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
70129134
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sejjil (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
20187295
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Shahab (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
3115588
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Khorramshahr (missile) (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54338983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Emad (missile) (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
48163525
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ghadr-110 (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
5936291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Zolfaghar (missile) (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
54336425
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "LORA (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
6885599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "KN-23 (under development)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
63848635
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "KN-24 (under development)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "CM-400AKG (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
22123270
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Nasr (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Shaheen-III (active)",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
14205596
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "\\",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "R-27K (cancelled)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
1445001
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tochka (active)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
2222261
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Oka (retired)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
2040649
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
3
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Iskander (active)",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
5607520
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "MGM-140B/E ATACMS (active)",
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"section_name": "Quasi ballistic missiles",
"target_page_ids": [
147015
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Throw-weight is a measure of the effective weight of ballistic missile payloads. It is measured in kilograms or tonnes. Throw-weight equals the total weight of a missile's warheads, reentry vehicles, self-contained dispensing mechanisms, penetration aids, and missile guidance systems: generally all components except for the launch rocket booster and launch fuel. Throw-weight may refer to any type of warhead, but in normal modern usage, it refers almost exclusively to nuclear or thermonuclear payloads. It was once also a consideration in the design of naval ships and the number and size of their guns.",
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"section_name": "Throw-weight",
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238,
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260,
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333,
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472,
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483,
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Throw-weight was used as a criterion in classifying different types of missiles during Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the Soviet Union and the United States. The term became politically controversial during debates over the arms control accord, as critics of the treaty alleged that Soviet missiles were able to carry larger payloads and so enabled the Soviets to maintain higher throw-weight than an American force with a roughly comparable number of lower-payload missiles.",
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152,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The missiles with the world's heaviest payloads are the Russian SS-18 and Chinese CSS-4 and , Russia was developing a new heavy-lift, liquid-propellant ICBM called the Sarmat.",
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"section_name": "Throw-weight",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Throw-weight is normally calculated using an optimal ballistic trajectory from one point on the surface of the Earth to another. An optimal trajectory maximizes the total payload (throw-weight) using the available impulse of the missile. By reducing the payload weight, different trajectories can be selected, which can either increase the nominal range or decrease the total time in flight.",
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"section_name": "Throw-weight",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A depressed trajectory is non-optimal, as a lower and flatter trajectory takes less time between launch and impact but has a lower throw-weight. The primary reasons to choose a depressed trajectory are to evade anti-ballistic missile systems by reducing the time available to shoot down the attacking vehicle (especially during the vulnerable burn-phase against space-based ABM systems) or a nuclear first-strike scenario. An alternate, non-military purpose for a depressed trajectory is in conjunction with the space plane concept with use of air-breathing engines, which requires the ballistic missile to remain low enough inside the atmosphere for air-breathing engines to function.",
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211,
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400,
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512,
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544,
564
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},
{
"plaintext": "The following ballistic missiles have been used in combat:",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 9K720 Iskander",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
5607520
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ababil-100",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
64038944
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Samoud 2",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
189146
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " DF-12",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
55126
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fateh-110",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
4603470
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " LORA",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
6885599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " MGM-140 ATACMS",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
147015
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " OTR-21 Tochka",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
2222261
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qaher-1/2M",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
49474187
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Scud types",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
23014654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " V-2",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
32786
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zolfaghar",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Combat use",
"target_page_ids": [
54336425
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Anti-ballistic missile",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1791
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ballistic missile flight phases",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
54342189
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Missile (guided)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
19594
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "MIRV",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
53145
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "NATO reporting name (has lists of various Soviet missiles)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
21891
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Payload",
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"target_page_ids": [
41495
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Surface-to-surface missile",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1483499
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Weapons of mass destruction",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
53136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of currently active missiles of the United States military",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
27325855
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of ICBMs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
26814110
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of missiles",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
152847
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of missiles by nation",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2002565
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
21904
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Missile Threat: A Project of the Center for Strategic and International Studies",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Ballistic_missiles",
"Chinese_inventions",
"German_inventions_of_the_Nazi_period",
"Wernher_von_Braun"
] | 179,348 | 27,208 | 888 | 130 | 0 | 0 | ballistic missile | missile that follows a sub-orbital ballistic flightpath | [] |
38,027 | 941,733,886 | Risa | [
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38,030 | 1,097,996,733 | M110_howitzer | [
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"plaintext": "The 8inch (203mm) M110 self-propelled howitzer is an American-made self-propelled artillery system consisting of an M115 203 mm howitzer installed on a purpose-built chassis. Before its retirement from US service, it was the largest available self-propelled howitzer in the United States Army's inventory; it continues in service with the armed forces of other countries, to which it was exported. Missions include general support, counter-battery fire, and suppression of enemy air defense systems.",
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"plaintext": "According to the operator's manual, the M110's typical rate of fire was three rounds per two minutes when operated at maximum speed, and one round per two minutes with sustained fire. The M110 featured a hydraulically operated rammer to automatically chamber the 200+ pound projectile. These rammers were prone to breakdown and generally slowed operation of the gun because the rammers required crews to completely lower the massive barrel before using it. Well trained and motivated crews could achieve two to four rounds per minute for short periods by using the manual rammer, essentially a heavy steel pole with a hard rubber pad on one end. Using the manual rammer was physically demanding, but crews were not required to lower the barrels as much as with the hydraulic rammer.",
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"plaintext": "The M110's range varied from to approximately when firing standard projectiles, and up to when firing rocket-assisted projectiles.",
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"plaintext": "The M110 howitzer first entered service with the U.S. Army in 1963 and was used in the Vietnam War by the United States Army. Later versions were used in the Gulf War - Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm by Tango Battery 5th Battalion 11th Marines, and the British Army's 32nd Regiment Royal Artillery.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977 the upgraded M110A1 entered service, featuring a longer M201 series barrel which gave an increased range. The M110A2 is the latest version with a double muzzle brake, in contrast to the earlier A1 version which had a plain muzzle. The 2nd Battalion 18th Field Artillery (U.S. Army) which deactivated in 1994 at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and the 5th Battalion 18th Field Artillery served in Desert Storm with the M110A2 Howitzer, as well as the 142nd Field Artillery Brigade (Arkansas Army National Guard), and 1st BN 181 Field Artillery (Tennessee Army National Guard). Most of the U.S. Army and USMC relied on the M109 series 155-millimeter howitzer gun systems during this conflict; sending remaining M110s to reserve or National Guard units. These units then took possession of M109s as they returned from service in the Gulf. M110s were still in service with the 3/92 FA (USAR) and running fire missions at Camp Atterbury as late as the summer of 1994.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the Cold War under U.S. Division Plan 86, all armored and mechanized infantry divisions included a battalion of heavy artillery that included two batteries of M110A2 SP howitzers with six guns each for a total of 12 guns, plus one battery of nine M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System rocket artillery. ",
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"plaintext": "Iran used its M110s during Iran–Iraq War against Iraqi forces during its offensives against Iraq.",
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"plaintext": "Turkish Armed Forces have used M110A2 systems against Kurdistan Workers' Party since the 1990s and during Turkish military intervention in Syria, mainly against People's Protection Units.",
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"plaintext": " M14 dummy",
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"plaintext": " M106 HE",
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},
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"plaintext": " M650 HE rocket assist projectile (RAP)",
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},
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"plaintext": " M509 ICM",
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},
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"plaintext": " M404 ICM anti-personnel (airburst)",
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"plaintext": " M426 agent GB Sarin",
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"plaintext": " M422A1 Artillery Fired Atomic Projectile",
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"plaintext": " M424 High Altitude Spotting Round for the M422 projectile",
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"plaintext": " XM753 Atomic RA (rocket assisted)",
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"plaintext": ": Royal Bahraini Army 13 as M110A2 from Netherlands delivered in 1994, 25 as M110A2 from US delivered in 1996.",
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"plaintext": ": Hellenic Army 145 as M110A2.",
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"plaintext": ": Egyptian Army Received 144 as M110A2 as aid in 1996.",
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"plaintext": ": Iran Army 30 M110.",
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"plaintext": ": Japan Ground Self-Defense Force 91 as M110A2.",
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"plaintext": ": Jordanian Armed Forces 120 as M110A2.",
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"plaintext": ": Moroccan Army 60 as M110A2.",
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"plaintext": ": Pakistan Army 140 in service as of 2021.",
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"plaintext": ": Republic of China Army 60 as M110A2.",
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"plaintext": ": Turkish Army, currently phasing out 219 as M110A2 in favor of T-155 Fırtına",
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"plaintext": ": Belgian Army 11 M110A2 between 1972 and 1993 used by the 20 Artillery Regiment in Germany (BSD).",
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"plaintext": ": German Army M110A2 until 1993.",
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"plaintext": ": Israeli Army 36 as M110, retired in 1990s.",
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"plaintext": ": Italian Army used M110A2s, phased out by 1998.",
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"plaintext": ": Republic of Korea Army Operated M110 since 1961. Retired in the late 2000s after being replaced by K9 Thunder.",
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"plaintext": ": Army of the Republic of Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": ": Royal Netherlands Army M110A1 and M110A2, replaced by the M109 in the 1990s",
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"plaintext": ": Spanish Army as 64 M110A2, deployed in divisional fire support regiments until 2009.",
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"plaintext": ": British Army as M110A2 firing high explosive and nuclear shells only. (The FV433 Abbot SPG, the M109A2, and the M110A1 were replaced by the AS-90 in the early-mid-1990s.) Used in Operation Granby/Gulf War.",
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"plaintext": ": Used by United States Army and United States Marine Corps, M110A2s retired in 1994.",
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"plaintext": " List of U.S. military vehicles by model number",
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"plaintext": " 2S7 Pion – Soviet L/55.3 203mm self-propelled cannon",
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"plaintext": " 2S4 Tyulpan – Soviet 240mm self-propelled mortar",
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"plaintext": " List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces",
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"plaintext": " M55 – 203mm self-propelled gun, predecessor to the M110",
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"plaintext": " M107 – a 175mm self-propelled gun on the same chassis",
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"plaintext": " Sholef – Israeli 155mm self-propelled howitzer",
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"plaintext": " T92 Howitzer Motor Carriage – a 240 mm howitzer M1 fitted on a M26 Pershing chassis",
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38,031 | 1,106,194,910 | Hazardous_waste | [
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"plaintext": "Universal wastes are a special category of hazardous wastes that (in the U.S.) generally pose a lower threat relative to other hazardous wastes, are ubiquitous and produced in very large quantities by a large number of generators. Some of the most common \"universal wastes\" are: fluorescent light bulbs, some specialty batteries (e.g. lithium or lead containing batteries), cathode ray tubes, and mercury-containing devices.",
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"plaintext": "Universal wastes are subject to somewhat less stringent regulatory requirements. Small quantity generators of universal wastes may be classified as \"conditionally exempt small quantity generators\" (CESQGs) which release them from some of the regulatory requirements for the handling and storage hazardous wastes. Universal wastes must still be disposed of properly. ",
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"plaintext": "Household Hazardous Waste (HHW), also referred to as domestic hazardous waste or home generated special materials, is a waste that is generated from residential households. HHW only applies to waste coming from the use of materials that are labeled for and sold for \"home use\". Waste generated by a company or at an industrial setting is not HHW.",
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"plaintext": "The following list includes categories often applied to HHW. It is important to note that many of these categories overlap and that many household wastes can fall into multiple categories:",
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"plaintext": " Paints and solvents",
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"plaintext": " Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.)",
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{
"plaintext": " Electronics (computers, televisions, cell phones)",
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{
"plaintext": " Aerosols / Propane cylinders",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Caustics / Cleaning agents",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Refrigerant-containing appliances",
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"plaintext": " Some specialty batteries (e.g. lithium, nickel cadmium, or button cell batteries)",
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{
"plaintext": " Ammunition",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Asbestos",
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{
"plaintext": " Car batteries",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Radioactive wastes (some home smoke detectors are classified as radioactive waste because they contain very small amounts of radioactive isotope americium - see: Disposing of Smoke Detectors).",
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"plaintext": " Smoke from chimneys",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills. This resulted in unfavorable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the ground. These chemicals eventually entered to natural hydrologic systems. Many landfills now require countermeasures against groundwater contamination. For example, a barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Currently, hazardous wastes must often be stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo different treatments in order to stabilize and dispose of them. Most flammable materials can be recycled into industrial fuel. Some materials with hazardous constituents can be recycled, such as lead acid batteries.",
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"plaintext": "Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples may include lead–acid batteries or electronic circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types of ashes go through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement filling. Such treatments reduce the level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash, while also recycling the safe product. There is a recycling center facility in Oxnard, CA. The city does not charge for any hazardous materials being disposed of, but there is a limit to how much you can bring per month. Other than hazardous waste, the city also allows you to dispose of electronic waste, light-bulbs, and batteries.",
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"plaintext": "Hazardous waste may be \"destroyed\". For example, by incinerating them at a high temperature, flammable wastes can sometimes be burned as energy sources. For example, many cement kilns burn hazardous wastes like used oils or solvents. Today, incineration treatments not only reduce the amount of hazardous waste, but also generate energy from the gases released in the process. It is known that this particular waste treatment releases toxic gases produced by the combustion of byproduct or other materials which can affect the environment. However, current technology has developed more efficient incinerator units that control these emissions to a point where this treatment is considered a more beneficial option. There are different types of incinerators which vary depending on the characteristics of the waste. Starved air incineration is another method used to treat hazardous wastes. Just like in common incineration, burning occurs, however controlling the amount of oxygen allowed proves to be significant to reduce the amount of harmful byproducts produced. Starved air incineration is an improvement of the traditional incinerators in terms of air pollution. Using this technology, it is possible to control the combustion rate of the waste and therefore reduce the air pollutants produced in the process.",
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"plaintext": "Hazardous waste may be sequestered in a hazardous waste landfill or permanent disposal facility. \"In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal facility or part of a facility where hazardous waste is placed or on land and which is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an underground injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine, a cave, or a corrective action management unit (40 CFR 260.10).\"",
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"plaintext": "Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in a high temperature not necessarily through electrical arc but starved of oxygen to avoid combustion. However, when electrical arc is used to generate the required ultra heat (in excess of 3000 degree C temperature) all materials (waste) introduced into the process will melt into a molten slag and this technology is termed Plasma not pyrolysis. Plasma technology produces inert materials and when cooled solidifies into rock like material. These treatment methods are very expensive but may be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in the destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants.",
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"plaintext": "The international community has defined the responsible management of hazardous waste and chemicals as an important part of sustainable development by including it in Sustainable Development Goal 12. Target 12.4 of this goal is to \"achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle\". One of the indicators for this target is: \"hazardous waste generated per capita; and proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment\".",
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"plaintext": "Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges. They can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. In regulatory terms, RCRA hazardous wastes are wastes that appear on one of the four hazardous wastes lists (F-list, K-list, P-list, or U-list), or exhibit at least one of the following four characteristics; ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. in the US, Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Subtitle C.",
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"plaintext": "By definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency. These lists are organized into three categories: F-list (non-specific source wastes) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.31, K-list (source-specific wastes) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.32, and P-list and the U-list (discarded commercial chemical products) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.33.",
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"plaintext": "RCRA's record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed.",
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{
"plaintext": "The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980. The primary contribution of CERCLA was to create a \"Superfund\" and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR 261 where they are divided into two major categories: characteristic wastes and listed wastes.",
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"plaintext": "The requirements of the RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste as well as those companies that store or dispose hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste. Dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as chemical manufacturers, electroplating companies, and oil refineries.",
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"plaintext": "A U.S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain a permit for doing so under the RCRA. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet specific requirements for handling, managing, and tracking waste. Through the RCRA, Congress directed the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create regulations to manage hazardous waste. Under this mandate, the EPA developed strict requirements for all aspects of hazardous waste management including the treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. In addition to these federal requirements, states may develop more stringent requirements that are broader in scope than the federal regulations. Furthermore, RCRA allows states to develop regulatory programs that are at least as stringent as RCRA and, after review by EPA, the states may take over responsibility for the implementation of the requirements under RCRA. Most states take advantage of this authority, implementing their own hazardous waste programs that are at least as stringent, and in some cases are more stringent than the federal program.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. government provides several tools for mapping hazardous wastes to particular locations. These tools also allow the user to view additional information.",
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"plaintext": "TOXMAP was a Geographic Information System (GIS) service from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that used maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Program. This resource was funded by the US Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information was taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET), PubMed, and other authoritative sources.",
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{
"plaintext": "The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) \"Where You Live\" allows users to select a region from a map to find information about Superfund sites in that region.",
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"plaintext": " Bamako Convention",
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3271928
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},
{
"plaintext": " Brownfield Regulation and Development",
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31333851
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406260
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},
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994228
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gade v. National Solid Wastes Management Association",
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30864007
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of solid waste treatment technologies",
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5492199
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]
},
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10697942
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of waste management companies",
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6026113
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]
},
{
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of waste types",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mixed waste (radioactive/hazardous)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " National Priorities List (in the US)",
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"target_page_ids": [
2429833
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pollution",
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24872
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]
},
{
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70157
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10
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},
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13873019
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure",
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1131235
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Triad (environmental science)",
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12595069
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1,
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},
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12046544
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1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " The EPA's hazardous waste page",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The U.S. EPA's Hazardous Waste Cleanup Information System",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Waste Management: A Half Century of Progress, a report by the EPA Alumni Association",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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] | [
"Hazardous_waste",
"Environment_and_health",
"Occupational_safety_and_health"
] | 1,069,369 | 6,596 | 407 | 93 | 0 | 0 | hazardous waste | ignitable, reactive, corrosive and/or toxic unwanted or unusable materials | [] |
38,032 | 1,097,326,077 | Heavy_Expanded_Mobility_Tactical_Truck | [
{
"plaintext": "The Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT) is an eight-wheel drive, diesel-powered, tactical truck. The M977 HEMTT first entered service in 1982 with the United States Army as a replacement for the M520 Goer, and since that date has remained in production for the U.S. Army and other nations. By Q2 2021, around 35,800 HEMTTs in various configurations had been produced by Oshkosh Defense through new-build contracts and around 14,000 of these had been re-manufactured. Current variants have the A4 suffix.",
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"plaintext": "The 10×10 Logistic Vehicle System Replacement (LVSR) is the United States Marines Corps' (USMC) equivalent to the U.S. Army's 8×8 HEMTT and 10×10 Palletized Load System (PLS). The USMC do not use the HEMTT or PLS, and the Army does not use the LVSR, but both services use a common trailer (M1076) with all three truck types.",
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"plaintext": "Following the evaluation of proposals submitted by AM General, MAN, Pacific Car & Foundry (PACCAR) and Oshkosh Truck Corporation (with PACCAR–GMC team being the apparent leader of the competition, with pre-production assembly line already established) in May 1981, the then U.S. Army Tank Automotive Command awarded an initial five-year contract valued at US$251.13 million to Oshkosh Truck Corporation for production of the 8×8 Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT).",
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"plaintext": "The first prototype HEMTT was completed in December 1981, pre-production examples followed during March 1982, with the first production vehicles produced in September 1982. Over five contract years, 2,140 vehicles were to be delivered. Contract options allowed for up to an additional 5,351 HEMTTs to be ordered, bringing production totals to 7,490 vehicles. The bulk of these options were exercised.",
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"plaintext": "The second HEMTT contract was awarded to Oshkosh Truck Corporation in April 1987. This contract called for a base quantity of 1,403 vehicles, with options for an additional 1,684 vehicles; all contract options were exercised. A supplemental agreement added a further 1,449 vehicles (plus an option for 363 vehicles) to the second HEMTT contract in April 1989; the contract option was exercised. The third HEMTT production contract was awarded mid-1994 and when deliveries under this concluded over 14,000 HEMTTS had been produced. The fourth HEMTT production contract was awarded in August 1995, this extending production through September 2001.",
"section_idx": 1,
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{
"plaintext": "The Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles (FHTV) contract was awarded to Oshkosh by the U.S. Army in March 2001. In addition to the HEMTT (both new and re-manufacture), the contract covered the M1070 HET, M1074, and M1075 Palletized Load System (PLS) trucks, and M1076 PLS trailers and called for up to 5,398 trucks and 1,100 trailers (including options). FHTV covered the production period from March 2001 until mid-fiscal year 2006 (FY06). The FHTV contract was extended and renegotiated, and in February 2007, Oshkosh announced it had been awarded a contract to continue production of FHTVs. The follow-on FHTV contract (FHTV 2) covered new production of HEMTTs (including current A4 variants from mid-2008) and PLS vehicles plus PLS trailers. In total, 2,173 new-build HEMTT A4 and 104 Recap HEMTT A4 were ordered under FHTV 2.",
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"plaintext": "Production of product-improved HEMTT A2s continued until production of the HEMTT A4 began in July 2008. The exception was the M1977, which initially remained at A2 configuration for fleet commonality reasons; there is now an M1977A4.",
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"plaintext": "Oshkosh Defense announced in October 2008 that it had been awarded the FHTV 3 contract by the U.S. Army's TACOM. More than 6,000 vehicles and trailers could be delivered under this three-year contract. FHTV 3 covered the HEMTT A4 and A1 models of the PLS and HET, and both new and recapitalized (Recap) vehicles. HEMTT A4 models were required to be Long Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) compliant and came off the assembly line fitted with upgraded suspensions and integral composite (A-kit) armor, and ready to receive an add-on (B-kit) armor appliqué.",
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"plaintext": "The first FHTV 3 order was valued at US$1.2 billion and delivery commenced in November 2008. By late-2009, about 11,500 HEMTT A4s (new-build and Recap) had been ordered under the FHTV 2 and 3 contracts.",
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"plaintext": "Oshkosh Defense announced in 2012 that it had been awarded a bridge contract to continue production and support of the FHTV. In October 2013, the U.S. Army released a revised pre-solicitation notice associated with FHTV 4 (presented FHTV IV). The original synopsis had been released in July 2013. According to the October release, the government intends to award a five-year requirements contract with an estimated value of US$822 million on a sole source basis to Oshkosh Corporation. It is understood the aim of the U.S. Army, was to ensure negotiations with Oshkosh Defense for FHTV IV were concluded in time to ensure there was no break in production between FHTV 3 and FHTV IV production and deliveries.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 June 2015, Oshkosh Defense announced the U.S. Army had awarded the company a five-year requirements contract worth a potential $780 million to Recapitalize (Recap) its Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles (FHTV). The FHTV 4 contract covers an estimated 1,800 FHTVs and in addition to HEMTTs covers PLS trucks and also includes the production of approximately 1,000 new production PLS trailers. HEMTT models account for around 75 per cent of the Recap potential, and all work performed under the contract will be completed in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Deliveries will run from 2015 to 2019. In March 2016, Oshkosh received FHTV 4 awards valued at $430 million and covering the Recap of 1212 HEMTTs and PLS, plus the production of 345 new-build PLS trailers. Deliveries are slated for 2016–2017. In April 2017, Oshkosh announced further FHTV 4 awards valued at more than $258 million for the Recap of 670 FHTVs plus the production of 356 PLS trailers. Deliveries commence in December 2017. On 23 May 2018 Oshkosh announced a further FHTV-4 award, this valued at $235.2 million for the Recap of 410 FHTVs and the manufacture of 680 new PLS trailers. Deliveries commence in FY19. On 8 February 2019 Oshkosh announced an FHTV-4 award valued at $225.7 million for the Recap of 407 FHTVs and the manufacture of 601 new PLS trailers. Deliveries commence in FY19.",
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"plaintext": "The final FHTV 4 award was announced by Oshkosh in March 2020. The award was valued at US$346.4 million and called for an undisclosed quantity of U.S. Army and U..S Army Reserve FHTVs to be Recap’d. Quantities/breakdown were not revealed, and deliveries were scheduled to conclude in December 2021.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 May 2021 the U.S. Army announced that it had awarded Oshkosh Defense a three-year extension to the FHTV 4 contract. Under the extension, Oshkosh will provide new and Recap'd HEMTT, PLS trucks and trailers, and HETs. The initial delivery orders call for a total of 353 new and recapitalized vehicles, with HEMTTs accounting for US$130.5 million (inc. 33.8 million for M1977A4 CBTs) of the US$146.8 million total.",
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"plaintext": "Used vehicles can be returned to Oshkosh as part of a recapitalization program where they are stripped to their frame rails and then fully rebuilt to a zero-hour, zero-mile, like-new condition. Recapitalized vehicles are assembled on the same production line as new vehicles, and put through the same performance tests and inspection procedures as new vehicles. Recapitalized vehicles are returned to the Army with a new bumper-to-bumper warranty and include air-conditioned and armor-ready cabs; electrical upgrades, and an anti-lock braking system.",
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"plaintext": "Parallel to the FHTV 4 extension effort, the U.S. Army's Heavy Tactical Vehicles (HTV) PEO CS&CSS issued on 20 July 2020 Notice ID W56HZV-20-R-0237, a Request for Information (RfI) for the Next Generation Future Truck (NGFT). Responses were due by 24 August 2020 for what was quickly renamed the Common Tactical Truck (CTT). It is the intent that CTT will replace the HEMTT, plus the PLSA1 and M915 Truck Tractor, Line Haul. The Army desires five variants of the NGFT/CTT, and all with the option to perform semi-autonomous or autonomous operations. The five variants currently mooted are: a wrecker to recover Stryker, MRAPs, and other tactical wheeled vehicles up to 40 US tons; an LHS Heavy variant with crane to transport flatrack with up to 16 tons of cargo payload; a Tractor variant operable with the M870, M871, M172, M872, M967 tanker, M1062 tanker, future tanker (8,200 gallons), and commercial standard trailers; a Tanker variant with a 2,500 gallon threshold or objective fuel payload greater than 2,500 gallons; and a Cargo variant with crane capable of carrying a payload of up to 22 tons or greater.",
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"plaintext": "The HEMTT's objective is to provide heavy transport capabilities for supply and re-supply of combat vehicles and weapons systems. Compared to earlier generation 5-ton trucks in U.S. Army service it offers increased payload and mobility. The HEMTT is available in a variety of configurations, including cargo, tanker, tractor and wrecker.",
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"plaintext": "The HEMTT was developed from the outset as a tactical truck, but to minimize procurement and life cycle costs included militarized commercial automotive components where possible, these including the engine and transmission. Some components used in early HEMTTs are common with the Oshkosh Logistics Vehicle System (LVS) vehicles which were supplied to the U.S. Marine Corps.",
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"section_name": "Description",
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"plaintext": "With the exception of the M984 wrecker variant (254 × 89 × 9.5mm, front; 356 × 89 × 9.5mm, rear), on all HEMTT variants the chassis is formed of 257 × 89 × 9.5mm heat-treated carbon manganese steel with a yield strength of 758 MPa. Bolted construction with Grade 8 bolts is used throughout. A centrally mounted self-recovery winch is an option and this is fitted to around 20% of production.",
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"plaintext": "The HEMTT's two-door forward control cab seats two. It is of heavy-duty welded steel construction with corrosion-resistant sheet metal skins. Simula Inc. (acquired by Armor Holdings in 2003 and now BAE Systems) supplied 186 add-on cab armoring kits for use in the former Yugoslavia. These were not issued, but from 2004 were used in Iraq. BAE systems supplied a next-generation armor kit for the HEMTT and by late-2006 had supplied the U.S. Army with around 3600 kits for the Oshkosh HEMTT and PLS. The HEMTT A4 is fitted with the slightly larger from the Oshkosh PLS A1. This cab complies with the U.S. Army's Long Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) requirements of an A- and B-kit armoring philosophy. It also comes as standard with integrated floor armor, an integrated mount for a machine gun and gunner protection kit, and air-conditioning.",
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"plaintext": "A Detroit Diesel 8V92TA V-8 two-stroke diesel developing is fitted in HEMTT A0 and A1 models, with the DDECIV version of this engine fitted to A2 HEMTTs. An EPA 2004 compliant Caterpillar (CAT) C-15 six-cylinder, 15.2-liter diesel developing a peak of is fitted to HEMTT A4 models. HEMTT A0 and A1 models are fitted with an Allison HT 740D 4F/1R automatic transmission, torque converter, and Oshkosh two-speed transfer case. HEMTT A2 models have the Allison HD 4560P 6F/1R automatic transmission. HEMTT A4 models are fitted with an Allison 4500SP 5F/1R automatic transmission and an uprated version of Oshkosh's two-speed transfer case.",
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"plaintext": "The front axles on all HEMTTs are single-reduction Oshkosh 46K, the rear are Dana single-reduction which vary according to configuration. Drive to the front axles is selectable and all axles have differential locks. Suspension on A0/A1/A3 models is by Hendrickson leaf springs with equalizing beams. Suspension on A4 models is Holland air suspension, load rating on the rear axles varying by configuration. Tire size is 1600 R20 on all models, and standard tire fit is Michelin XZL.",
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"plaintext": "All models are capable of fording water crossings up to deep, and can climb a gradient of at least 60%. All original variants are air transportable in the C-130. All variants are air-transportable in the C-17.",
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"section_name": "Description",
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"plaintext": "Original HEMTT models now have the suffix A0. Only the M984 wrecker was produced in A1 configuration. All models were produced in A2 configuration. The A3 suffix is applied to HEMTT technology demonstrators with a diesel-electric drive system. Current HEMTT production models have the suffix A4.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Description",
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"plaintext": " The M977 cargo truck variant is the base member of the HEMTT family. The current model is the M977A4; there was no M977A1. In addition to the basic M977A0/A2/A4 cargo truck, two other variants are available. The M977A0/A2/A4 Electrical Power Plant (EPP) has an extended cargo body ( inside length) and is used to hold and transport generators for the Patriot air-defence missile system. There is no material handling crane on the EPP. The M977A0/A2/A4 Large Repair Parts Transporter (LRPT) and the basic M977 cargo truck are fitted with a light-duty Grove materials handling crane mounted at the rear of the chassis.",
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"plaintext": " The M978 is a 9,500 liter capacity tanker. The current model is the M978A4; there was no M978A1. The M978A0 was produced in both potable water (approximately 18) and fuel servicing truck variants, the A2 and A4 models have only been produced in the fuel servicing truck variant.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "HEMTT models",
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"plaintext": " The M983 is a tractor unit for use with the trailer-mounted MIM-104 Patriot missile system. It can also be used with the Interim Stryker Recovery System, or other trailers. An earlier variant fitted with a 30kW generator and crane mounted behind the cab was used to tow the Pershing II Erector Launcher in CONUS (a M1001 MAN tractor was used in West Germany). The M983A2/A4 Light Equipment Transporter (LET) tractor is mainly used to transport construction and engineer equipment. It has a ) 2 speed hydraulic winch mounted behind the cab used to load the trailer. It does not have a self-recovery winch.",
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"section_name": "HEMTT models",
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"plaintext": " The M984 wrecker is the only HEMTT variant to have been produced in the A1 configuration, and this resulting in the change of recovery crane and retrieval system between A0 and A1 configurations. The current model is the M984A4. Standard equipment includes a capacity two-speed recovery winch, a rear-mounted 11,340kg capacity vehicle retrieval system, and a at capacity Grove materials handling crane. A bare drum capacity self-recovery winch is fitted as standard on the M984.",
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"plaintext": " The M985 is available in two variants. The current models are A4; there were no A1 models. The M985 cargo variant is similar to the M977 cargo truck but was developed to support the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) with a M989A1 HEMAT trailer. It may also used to transport Patriot missiles. The M985 Guided Missile Transporter (GMT) was developed specifically for use with the Patriot system and it can be distinguished easily from other cargo models by its rear-mounted Hiab 8108/2 materials handling crane",
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"plaintext": " The M1120 Load Handling System (LHS) variant was initially introduced as part of the HEMTT overhaul/rebuild program, during which returned M977 cargo trucks have their cargo bodies and materials handling cranes removed, to be replaced by a Multilift Mark 5 (now designated MPH165-LHS) LHS, as fitted to the Oshkosh PLS truck.",
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"plaintext": " The M1977 HEMTT Common Bridge Transporter (CBT) is a further development of the M1120 LHS, and in common with the M1120 LHS was initially introduced as part of the HEMTT overhaul/rebuild program. It is used for loading, transporting, and unloading Ribbon Bridge components and bridge erection boats.",
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"plaintext": " The M1142 is a Tactical Fire Fighting Truck (TFFT) capable of extinguishing aircraft, petroleum, brush, and structural fires at isolated military installations. The TFFT is based on a HEMTT M977A2 chassis with the heavier duty M1120 LHS HEMTT variant rear suspension. The TFFT contract was awarded to Pierce Manufacturing with Oshkosh Corporation as a subcontractor to Pierce.",
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"plaintext": " The M1158 HEWATT is designed to support the M1142 Tactical Fire Fighting Truck (TFFT) while providing supplementary fire suppression capabilities.",
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"plaintext": " The HEMTT-based M1075 Terminal (formerly Theatre) High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) missile launcher is technically a variant of the HEMTT LHS, but as of November 2016 no technical details had been released.",
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"plaintext": " The HEMTT A3 is the first production-ready tactical defense vehicle to feature a diesel-electric drive system. The ProPulse system fitted uses a modular series-hybrid arrangement to simplify the transmission of power to the wheels. The diesel engine powers an electric generator, which provides direct power to the wheels, eliminating the torque converter, automatic transmission, transfer case, and drive shafts. A dedicated motor controlled from its own power converters drives each axle independently. ProPulse technology, it is claimed, can increase fuel economy by up to 40% over conventional power trains. The diesel engine is optimized to run at the most efficient speed based on power demand, and transient loads to the engine are eliminated using stored energy. This eliminates the inefficiency associated with changing rpm levels during acceleration and deceleration, and also reduces emissions. In stopping operations, the electric motors operate as generators, and energy is stored for use in the next acceleration. Other stated advantages of the system include the system acting as an on-board generator, providing enough electricity (up to 200 kW of AC power) to power a small airfield, hospital, or military command center. Since the system uses no batteries, they never need to be replaced, and the amount of fuel needed to supply ProPulse-equipped trucks will be less.",
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340,
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],
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358,
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382,
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],
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401,
412
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617,
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830,
833
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865,
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896,
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1136,
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1159,
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1165,
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"plaintext": " (10 M984 wreckers to be delivered from 2020 to support the Iveco VBTP-MR Guarani 6x6 armoured vehicles). 20 more ordered.",
"section_idx": 5,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " (includes approx. 420 EDA examples in 2015)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " (believed EDA but not confirmed)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4005958
],
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[
1,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Heavy Equipment Transport System",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
38044
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " U.S. Army equipment M-numbers",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1408163
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " M939 Truck",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5015091
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " MAN gl",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
29252786
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " MAZ-7310",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
11633956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tatra 816",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
28492506
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1945420
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oshkosh Corporation",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1369211
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oshkosh L-ATV",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
39643153
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Logistic Vehicle System Replacement (LVSR)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
49979508
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oshkosh M-ATV",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
23456306
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Palletized Load System",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4331268
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plasan Sand Cat",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
11490092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " RMMV HX range of tactical trucks",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
47569006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sisu E13TP",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
43992419
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " TA580/TAS5380",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
15710070
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " TerraMax (vehicle)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5209123
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " US Army tactical truck engines",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
47357663
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brothers of HEMTT - PLS-LVS by Carl Schulze (published by Tankograd) Tankograd",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "References (bibliography)",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " HEMTT: US Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck by Carl Schulze (published by Tankograd) Tankograd",
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"plaintext": " and ",
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"plaintext": " July 2015 Oshkosh promotional video",
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"plaintext": " Photos and Walk Arounds of most HEMTT Variants at Prime Portal",
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"plaintext": " Hybrid-Vehicle.org: Oshkosh hybrid truck the HEMTT A3",
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"plaintext": "The MGM-31A Pershing was the missile used in the Pershing 1 and Pershing 1a field artillery missile systems. It was a solid-fueled two-stage ballistic missile designed and built by Martin Marietta to replace the PGM-11 Redstone missile as the primary nuclear-capable theater-level weapon of the United States Army and replaced the MGM-1 Matador cruise missiles operated by the German Air Force. Pershing later replaced the European-based MGM-13 Mace cruise missiles deployed by the United States Air Force and the German Air Force. Development began in 1958, with the first test missile fired in 1960, the Pershing 1 system deployed in 1963 and the improved Pershing 1a deployed in 1969. The U.S. Army replaced the Pershing 1a with the Pershing II Weapon System in 1983 while the German Air Force retained Pershing 1a until all Pershings were eliminated in 1991. The U.S. Army Missile Command (MICOM) managed the development and improvements while the Field Artillery Branch deployed the systems and developed tactical doctrine.",
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"plaintext": "George Bunker, president of the Martin Company, paid a courtesy call on General John Medaris, USA, of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama in 1956. Medaris noted that it would be helpful to the Army if there was a missile plant near the Air Force Missile Test Center (present-day Cape Canaveral Air Force Station) in Florida. The Martin Company subsequently began construction of their Sand Lake facility in Orlando, Florida which opened in late 1957. Edward Uhl, the co-inventor of the bazooka, was the vice-president and general manager of the new factory, which continues to operate today as the Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control facility.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army began studies in 1956 for a ballistic missile with a range of about . Later that year, Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson issued the \"Wilson Memorandum\" that removed from the U.S. Army all missiles with a range of or more. The United States Department of Defense (DoD) rescinded the memorandum in 1958 and ABMA began development of the class of ballistic missile.",
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"plaintext": "The missile was initially called the Redstone-S, where the S meant solid propellant (and the name Redstone came from the Redstone missile it was supposed to replace), but renamed to Pershing in honor of General of the Armies John J. Pershing. ABMA selected seven companies to develop engineering proposals: Chrysler, the Lockheed Corporation, the Douglas Aircraft Company, the Convair Division of General Dynamics, the Firestone Corp., the Sperry-Rand Company, and the Martin Company.",
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"plaintext": "The Secretary of the Army, Wilber M. Brucker, the former governor of Michigan – was apparently under pressure from his home state to award the contract to a company in Michigan. Chrysler was the only contractor from Michigan, but Medaris persuaded Brucker to leave the decision entirely in the hands of the ABMA. After a selection process by General Medaris and Dr. Arthur Rudolph, the Martin Company (later Martin Marietta after a merger in 1961) was awarded a CPFF (cost-plus-fixed-fee) contract for research, development, and first production of the Pershing system under the technical supervision and concept control of the government. Martin's quality control manager for the Pershing, Phil Crosby developed the concept of Zero Defects that enhanced the production and reliability of the system.",
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"plaintext": "The first launch of the XM14 R&D Pershing 1 test missile (P-01) was on 25 February 1960. The first launch from the tactical transporter erector launcher (TEL) was on 26 July 1960 (P-06). For training there was an inert Pershing 1 missile designated XM19. In June 1963, the XM14 and XM19 Pershing missiles were redesignated as XMGM-31A and XMTM-31B, respectively. The production version of the tactical missile was later designated as MGM-31A and the XMTM-31B designation was dropped.",
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"plaintext": "President Eisenhower viewed the Pershing missile when he visited Cape Canaveral on 11 February 1960, and at Fort Benning on 5 May 1960 as part of Project MAN (Modern Army Needs). President Kennedy viewed Pershing three times: as part of the inaugural parade in 1961, at Fort Bragg on 12 October 1961, and at White Sands Missile Range in 1963.",
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"plaintext": "Plans were for the organization of ten missile battalions: one at Fort Sill, one in Korea and eight in West Germany; this was eventually reduced to one battalion at Fort Sill and three in West Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Each missile battalion organized at Fort Sill for deployment. The first tactical Pershing unit was the 2nd Missile Battalion, 44th Artillery Regiment, followed by the 4th Missile Battalion, 41st Artillery Regiment deployed to Schwäbisch Gmünd and the 1st Missile Battalion, 81st Artillery to McCully Barracks in Wackernheim. Each missile battalion had four launchers.",
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"plaintext": "The 2nd Missile Battalion, 79th Artillery Regiment formed for deployment to South Korea in February 1964. The deployment was placed on hold and the battalion supported the 56th Artillery Group and the German Air Force missile wings when they launched missiles from White Sands Missile Range. The 85th U.S. Army Field Artillery Detachment was organized in Fort Sill in November 1966 and attached to 2/79th Artillery. The deployment to Korea was canceled and the 2/79th Artillery was deactivated.",
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"plaintext": "The Secretary of Defense assigned the Pershing weapon system to a Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) role in 1964 after a DoD study showed that the Pershing would be superior to tactical aircraft for the QRA mission. The German Air Force began training at Fort Sill. Each missile battalion was then authorized six launchers. In 1965 this increased to eight launchers, two per firing battery. By 1965, three U.S. Army battalions and two German Air Force wings were operational in Germany. The 579th Ordnance Company was tasked with maintenance and logistical general support for the Pershing artillery units in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Two Thiokol solid-propellant motors powered the Pershing 1 missile. Since a solid-propellant motor cannot be turned off, the missile used thrust reversal and case venting for a selective range. Splice bands and explosive bolts attached the rocket motors. ",
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"plaintext": "The missile was controlled by an analog guidance computer using a ball-and-disk integrator and a control computer. As directed by the onboard computers, the bolts exploded and ejected the splice band. Another squib would open the thrust reversal ports in the forward end of the stage and ignite the propellant in the forward end, causing the motor to reverse direction. Testing found that the second stage would draft behind the warhead and cause it to drift off course, so explosive charges on the side of the motor opened the case and vented the propellant. The range could be graduated but the maximum was . Jet vanes in the motor nozzles and air vanes on the motor case steered the missile. The onboard analog guidance computer and the Eclipse-Pioneer ST-120 (Stable Table-120) inertial navigation system provided guidance. The warhead could be conventional explosive or a W50 nuclear weapon with three yield options— the Y1 with 60 kiloton yield, Y2 with 200 kiloton yield and Y3 with 400 kiloton yield; the conventional warhead was never deployed.",
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"plaintext": "The Pershing 1 firing platoon consisted of four M474 tracked-vehicles manufactured by FMC Corporation— by comparison, Redstone needed twenty vehicles. The transporter erector launcher (TEL) transported the two stages and the guidance section as an assembly and provided the launch platform after the warhead was mated. It used a removable erector launcher manufactured by Unidynamics. The warhead carrier transported the warhead, the missile fins and the azimuth laying set used to position the missile. The PTS/PS carrier transported the programmer test station (PTS) and power station (PS). A fourth vehicle transported the Radio Terminal Set. The four vehicles were known as the land train.",
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"plaintext": "The PTS featured rapid missile checkout and countdowns, with complete computer control, and automatic self-test and malfunction isolation. Additionally, the PTS would perform tests that simulated airborne missile operation, programmed the trajectory of the missile and controlled the firing sequence. Plug-in micromodules increased maintainability and allowed the PTS operator to perform 80% of all repairs at the firing position. A turbine driven Power Station mounted behind the PTS, provided the primary electrical and pneumatic power and conditioned air for the missile and ground support equipment at the firing position.",
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"plaintext": "Collins Radio Company produced the AN/TRC-80 Radio Terminal Set specifically for the Pershing system. The \"Track 80\" used an inflatable dish antenna to provide line-of-sight or tropospheric-scatter voice and teleprinter communications between missile firing units and higher headquarters. The erector-launcher, PTS, PS and RTS could be removed from the carriers and air-transported in fourteen CH-47 Chinook loads.",
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"plaintext": "In 1961, Martin proposed a satellite launch system based on the Pershing. Named Pegasus, it would have had a lighter, simplified guidance section and a short third stage booster. A payload could be boosted to a circular orbit, or to an elliptical orbit with a apogee. Pegasus would have used the Pershing erector-launcher and could be placed in any open area. Martin seems to have targeted the nascent European space program, but this system was never developed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, the Army contracted with the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of Johns Hopkins University to develop and implement a test and evaluation program. APL provided technical support to the Pershing Operational Test Unit (POTU), identified problem areas and improved the performance and survivability of the Pershing systems.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964 a series of operational tests and follow-on tests were performed to determine Pershing reliability. The Secretary of Defense then requested that the Army define the modifications required to make Pershing suitable for the Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) role. The Pershing 1a development program was approved in 1965, the original Pershing renamed to Pershing 1 and Martin Marietta received the Pershing 1a production contract in 1967. Project SWAP replaced all the Pershing equipment in Germany by mid-1970 and the first units quickly achieved QRA status. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara directed that the U.S. Air Force's MGM-13 Mace missile would be replaced by the Pershing 1a in 1965.",
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"plaintext": "Pershing 1a was a Quick Reaction Alert system and so had faster vehicles, launch times and newer electronics. The total number of launchers increased from 8 to 36 per battalion. Production of the Pershing 1a missile ended in 1975 and reopened in 1977 to replace missiles expended in training.",
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"plaintext": "Pershing 1a was further improved in 1971 with the Pershing Missile and Power Station Development Program. The analog guidance computer and the control computer in the missile were replaced by a single digital guidance and control computer. The main distributor in the missile that routed power and signals was replaced with a new version. The missile used a rotary inverter to convert DC to AC that was replaced by a solid-state static inverter. The power station was improved for accessibility and maintenance. Further improvements in 1976 allowed the firing of a platoon's three missiles in quick succession and from any site without the need for surveying. The Automatic Reference System (ARS) used an optical laser link and a north-seeking gyro with encode to eliminate the need for pre-selected and surveyed points. The Sequential Launch Adapter connected the PTS to three missiles, eliminating the need to cable and uncable each launcher.",
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"plaintext": "A total of 754 MGM-31A missiles were built.",
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"plaintext": "The battalions in Europe reorganized under a new table of organization and equipment (TOE); an infantry battalion was added to provide additional security; and the 56th Artillery Group was reorganized and redesignated the 56th Field Artillery Brigade. Due to the nature of the weapon system, officer positions were increased by one grade: batteries were commanded by a major instead of a captain; battalions were commanded by a colonel; and the brigade was commanded by a brigadier general.",
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"plaintext": "Pershing 1a was deployed with three U.S. battalions in Europe and two German Air Force wings. Each battalion or wing had 36 mobile launchers. The constitution of West Germany prohibited owning nuclear weapons, thus control of the nuclear warheads remained in the hands of the U.S. Army. During peacetime operations, a portion of the Pershing 1a assets were deployed on the QRA mission. The remainder would be conducting field training or were maintained in kasernes awaiting alert. The system was designed to be highly mobile, permitting its dispersal to clandestine sites in times of alert or war and was deployed at distances greater than 100km behind the forward edge of battle area or political border. Owing to its mobility and setback, Pershing was considered one of the most survivable theater nuclear weapons ever deployed in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In peacetime the four batteries of each battalion rotated through four states or conditions of alert readiness, the highest being that of the CAS battery. The purpose of this rotation was to assume the CAS status, to share the burden of CAS responsibility, to provide time for field tactical training and equipment maintenance, and to give ample leave and pass time to personnel without adverse impact on operational requirements.",
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"plaintext": "During periods of increased tension, the firing batteries of each battalion were deployed to previously unused field tactical sites. At these sites, they assumed responsibility for coverage of all assigned targets. During the transition from the peacetime to full combat status, coverage was maintained on the highest priority targets that were assigned to the peacetime CAS batteries.",
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"plaintext": "Once all firing batteries were at their field sites, the firing elements of the battalions were deployed by platoons, which were then separated from each other geographically to reduce vulnerability. The platoons then moved to new firing positions on a random schedule to increase survivability.",
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"plaintext": "The M790 erector launcher (EL) was a modified low-boy flat-bed trailer towed by a Ford M757 5-ton tractor. The erection booms used a 3,000psi pneumatic over hydraulic system that could erect the fiveton missile from horizontal to vertical in nine seconds. Due to the overall missile length and for security, the warhead was not mated during travel. It was stored in a carrier and mated using a hand-pumped davit after the launcher was emplaced. The EL was pulled by a Ford M757 tractor for U.S. Army units and by a Magirus-Deutz Jupiter 6×6 for German Air Force units.",
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"plaintext": "The PTS and PS were mounted on a Ford M656 truck for U.S. Army units and a Magirus-Deutz or MAN SE for German Air Force units. Launch activation was performed from a remote fire box that could be deployed locally or mounted in the battery control central (BCC). One PTS controlled three launchers— when one launch count was complete, ten large cables were unplugged from the PTS and the PTS was moved up and connected to the next launcher.",
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"plaintext": "Missile and power station upgrades in 1974 provided easier access to missile components, reduce maintenance and improved reliability. A new digital guidance and control computer combined the functions of the analog control computer and the analog guidance computer into one package. The mean time to repair decreased from 8.7 hours to 3.8 hours and the mean time between failures increased from 32 hours to 65 hours.",
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"plaintext": "More modifications in 1976 greatly reduced the launch time. The sequential launch adapter (SLA) was an automatic switching device mounted in a 10-ton trailer that allowed the PTS to remain connected to all three launchers allowing all three missiles to stay hot. The automatic reference system (ARS) eliminated the theodolites previously used to lay and orient the missile. It included a north-seeking gyro and a laser link to the ST-120 that more quickly oriented the missile.",
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"plaintext": "After the Pershing II explosion in 1985, the Pershing 1a launchers of the German Air Force were retrofitted with ballistic shields.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987 a joint Army/Department of Energy study concluded that it was technically and financially feasible to replace the W50 warhead carried by Pershing 1a with the W85 warhead developed for Pershing II. However, with the signing of the INF Treaty, development on the conversion was terminated.",
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"plaintext": "The Pershing II Weapon System was a solid-fueled two-stage ballistic missile designed and built by Martin Marietta to replace the Pershing 1a Field Artillery Missile System as the United States Army's primary nuclear-capable theater-level weapon. The U.S. Army replaced the Pershing 1a with the Pershing II in 1983 while the German Air Force retained Pershing 1a until all Pershings were eliminated in 1991.",
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"plaintext": " West Germany: German Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Missile Group 12 ()",
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"plaintext": " Missile Group 13 ()",
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"plaintext": " Missile Group 21 ()",
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"plaintext": " Missile Group 22 ()",
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{
"plaintext": "The Pershing systems were eliminated after the ratification of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty on 27 May 1988. The missiles began to be withdrawn in October 1988 and the last of the missiles were destroyed by the static burn of their motors and subsequently crushed in May 1991 at the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant near Caddo Lake, Texas. Although not covered by the treaty, West Germany agreed unilaterally to the removal of the Pershing 1a missiles from its inventory in 1991, and the missiles were destroyed in the United States.",
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"MGM31",
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38,041 | 1,102,553,266 | Human_skin_color | [
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"plaintext": "Human skin color ranges from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. Differences in skin color among individuals is caused by variation in pigmentation, which is the result of genetics (inherited from one's biological parents), exposure to the sun, or both. Differences across populations evolved through natural selection, because of differences in environment, and regulate the biochemical effects of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin.",
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"plaintext": "The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skin humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the hemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or sexual arousal, or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, embarrassment), arterioles dilate. Color is not entirely uniform across an individual's skin; for example, the skin of the palm and the sole is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people.",
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"plaintext": "There is a direct correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that receive higher amounts of UVR, generally located closer to the equator, tend to have darker-skinned populations. Areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower intensity of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations. Some researchers suggest that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa as they migrated to different UV zones, and that such major changes in pigmentation may have happened in as little as 100 generations (≈2,500 years) through selective sweeps. Natural skin color can also darken as a result of tanning due to exposure to sunlight. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the DNA of the skin cells. In addition, it has been observed that females on average are significantly lighter in skin pigmentation than males. Females need more calcium during pregnancy and lactation. The body synthesizes vitamin D from sunlight, which helps it absorb calcium. Females evolved to have lighter skin so their bodies absorb more calcium.",
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"plaintext": "The social significance of differences in skin color has varied across cultures and over time, as demonstrated with regard to social status and discrimination.",
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"plaintext": "Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis. Melanin is made within small membrane–bound packages called melanosomes. As they become full of melanin, they move into the slender arms of melanocytes, from where they are transferred to the keratinocytes. Under normal conditions, melanosomes cover the upper part of the keratinocytes and protect them from genetic damage. One melanocyte supplies melanin to thirty-six keratinocytes according to signals from the keratinocytes. They also regulate melanin production and replication of melanocytes. People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amount and kinds of melanin.",
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"plaintext": "The genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the enzyme tyrosinase, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades. Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of biological melanin is eumelanin, a brown-black polymer of dihydroxyindole carboxylic acids, and their reduced forms. Most are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Eumelanin is found in hair, areola, and skin, and the hair colors gray, black, blond, and brown. In humans, it is more abundant in people with dark skin. Pheomelanin, a pink to red hue is found in particularly large quantities in red hair, the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina.",
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"plaintext": "Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of genes that operate under incomplete dominance. One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent. Each gene can come in several alleles, resulting in the great variety of human skin tones. Melanin controls the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption. While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D, excessive exposure to UV can damage health.",
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"plaintext": "Loss of body hair in Hominini species is assumed to be related to the emergence of bipedalism some 5 to 7 million years ago. Bipedal hominin body hair may have disappeared gradually to allow better heat dissipation through sweating.",
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"plaintext": "The emergence of skin pigmentation dates to about 1.2 million years ago, under conditions of a megadrought that drove early humans into arid, open landscapes. Such conditions likely caused excess UV-B radiation. This favored the emergence of skin pigmentation in order to protect from folate depletion due to the increased exposure to sunlight. A theory that the pigmentation helped counter xeric stress by increasing the epidermal permeability barrier has been disproved.",
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"plaintext": "With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. By 1.2 million years ago, around the time of Homo ergaster, archaic humans (including the ancestors of Homo sapiens) had exactly the same receptor protein as modern sub-Saharan Africans.",
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"plaintext": "This was the genotype inherited by anatomically modern humans, but retained only by part of the extant populations, thus forming an aspect of human genetic variation. About 100,000–70,000 years ago, some anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) began to migrate away from the tropics to the north where they were exposed to less intense sunlight. This was possibly in part due to the need for greater use of clothing to protect against the colder climate. Under these conditions there was less photodestruction of folate and so the evolutionary pressure working against the survival of lighter-skinned gene variants was reduced. In addition, lighter skin is able to generate more vitamin D (cholecalciferol) than darker skin, so it would have represented a health benefit in reduced sunlight if there were limited sources of vitamin D. Hence the leading hypothesis for the evolution of human skin color proposes that:",
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"plaintext": " From about 1.2 million years ago to less than 100,000 years ago, archaic humans, including archaic Homo sapiens, were dark-skinned.",
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"plaintext": " As Homo sapiens populations began to migrate, the evolutionary constraint keeping skin dark decreased proportionally to the distance north a population migrated, resulting in a range of skin tones within northern populations.",
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"plaintext": " At some point, some northern populations experienced positive selection for lighter skin due to the increased production of vitamin D from sunlight and the genes for darker skin disappeared from these populations.",
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"plaintext": " Subsequent migrations into different UV environments and admixture between populations have resulted in the varied range of skin pigmentations we see today.",
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"plaintext": "The genetic mutations leading to light skin, though partially different among East Asians and Western Europeans, suggest the two groups experienced a similar selective pressure after settlement in northern latitudes.",
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"plaintext": "The theory is partially supported by a study into the SLC24A5 gene which found that the allele associated with light skin in Europe \"determined […] that 18,000 years had passed since the light-skin allele was fixed in Europeans\" but may have originated as recently as 12,000–6,000 years ago \"given the imprecision of method\" , which is in line with the earliest evidence of farming.",
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"plaintext": "Research by Nina Jablonski suggests that an estimated time of about 10,000 to 20,000 years is enough for human populations to achieve optimal skin pigmentation in a particular geographic area but that development of ideal skin coloration may happen faster if the evolutionary pressure is stronger, even in as little as 100 generations. The length of time is also affected by cultural practices such as food intake, clothing, body coverings, and shelter usage which can alter the ways in which the environment affects populations.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most recently proposed drivers of the evolution of skin pigmentation in humans is based on research that shows a superior barrier function in darkly pigmented skin. Most protective functions of the skin, including the permeability barrier and the antimicrobial barrier, reside in the stratum corneum (SC) and the researchers surmise that the SC has undergone the most genetic change since the loss of human body hair. Natural selection would have favored mutations that protect this essential barrier; one such protective adaptation is the pigmentation of interfollicular epidermis, because it improves barrier function as compared to non-pigmented skin. In lush rainforests, however, where UV-B radiation and xeric stress were not in excess, light pigmentation would not have been nearly as detrimental. This explains the side-by-side residence of lightly pigmented and darkly pigmented peoples.",
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"plaintext": "Population and admixture studies suggest a three-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early hominids in Africa and light skin evolving partly separately at least two times after modern humans had expanded out of Africa.",
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"plaintext": "For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in Western and Eastern Eurasian populations. Two genes however, KITLG and ASIP, have mutations associated with lighter skin that have high frequencies in Eurasian populations and have estimated origin dates after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the two lineages.",
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"plaintext": "The understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying human skin color variation is still incomplete; however, genetic studies have discovered a number of genes that affect human skin color in specific populations, and have shown that this happens independently of other physical features such as eye and hair color. Different populations have different allele frequencies of these genes, and it is the combination of these allele variations that bring about the complex, continuous variation in skin coloration we can observe today in modern humans. Population and admixture studies suggest a 3-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early hominids in sub-Saharan Africa and light skin evolving independently in Europe and East Asia after modern humans had expanded out of Africa.",
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"plaintext": "For skin color, the broad sense heritability (defined as the overall effect of genetic vs. nongenetic factors) is very high, provided one is able to control for the most important nongenetic factor, exposure to sunlight. Many aspects of the evolution of human skin and skin color can be reconstructed using comparative anatomy, physiology, and genomics. Enhancement of thermal sweating was a key innovation in human evolution that allowed maintenance of homeostasis (including constant brain temperature) during sustained physical activity in hot environments. Dark skin evolved pari passu with the loss of body hair and was the original state for the genus Homo. Melanin pigmentation is adaptive and has been maintained by natural selection. In recent prehistory, humans became adept at protecting themselves from the environment through clothing and shelter, thus reducing the scope for the action of natural selection on human skin. Credit for describing the relationship between latitude and skin color in modern humans is usually ascribed to an Italian geographer, Renato Basutti, whose widely reproduced \"skin color maps\" illustrate the correlation of darker skin with equatorial proximity. More recent studies by physical anthropologists have substantiated and extended these observations; a recent review and analysis of data from more than 100 populations (Relethford 1997) found that skin reflectance is lowest at the equator, then gradually increases, about 8% per 10° of latitude in the Northern Hemisphere and about 4% per 10° of latitude in the Southern Hemisphere. This pattern is inversely correlated with levels of UV irradiation, which are greater in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. An important caveat is that we do not know how patterns of UV irradiation have changed over time; more importantly, we do not know when skin color is likely to have evolved, with multiple migrations out of Africa and extensive genetic interchange over the last 500,000 years (Templeton 2002).Regardless, most anthropologists accept the notion that differences in UV irradiation have driven selection for dark human skin at the equator and for light human skin at greater latitudes. What remains controversial are the exact mechanisms of selection. The most popular theory posits that protection offered by dark skin from UV irradiation becomes a liability in more polar latitudes due to vitamin D deficiency (Murray 1934). UVB (short-wavelength UV) converts 7-dehydrocholesterol into an essential precursor of cholecaliferol (vitamin D3); when not otherwise provided by dietary supplements, deficiency for vitamin D causes rickets, a characteristic pattern of growth abnormalities and bony deformities. An oft-cited anecdote in support of the vitamin D hypothesis is that Arctic populations whose skin is relatively dark given their latitude, such as the Inuit and the Lapp, have had a diet that is historically rich in vitamin D. Sensitivity of modern humans to vitamin D deficiency is evident from the widespread occurrence of rickets in 19th-century industrial Europe, but whether dark-skinned humans migrating to polar latitudes tens or hundreds of thousands of years ago experienced similar problems is open to question. In any case, a risk for vitamin D deficiency can only explain selection for light skin. Among several mechanisms suggested to provide a selective advantage for dark skin in conditions of high UV irradiation (Loomis 1967; Robins 1991; Jablonski and Chaplin 2000), the most tenable are protection from sunburn and skin cancer due to the physical barrier imposed by epidermal melanin.",
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"plaintext": "All modern humans share a common ancestor who lived around 200,000 years ago in Africa. Comparisons between known skin pigmentation genes in chimpanzees and modern Africans show that dark skin evolved along with the loss of body hair about 1.2 million years ago and that this common ancestor had dark skin. Investigations into dark-skinned populations in South Asia and Melanesia indicate that skin pigmentation in these populations is due to the preservation of this ancestral state and not due to new variations on a previously lightened population.",
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"plaintext": " MC1R",
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"plaintext": "The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene is primarily responsible for determining whether pheomelanin and eumelanin are produced in the human body. Research shows at least 10 differences in MC1R between African and chimpanzee samples and that the gene has probably undergone a strong positive selection (a selective sweep) in early Hominins around 1.2 million years ago. This is consistent with positive selection for the high-eumelanin phenotype seen in Africa and other environments with high UV exposure.",
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"plaintext": "For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in European and East Asian populations. Two genes, however, KITLG and ASIP, have mutations associated with lighter skin that have high frequencies in both European and East Asian populations. They are thought to have originated after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the European and Asian lineages around 30,000 years ago. Two subsequent genome-wide association studies found no significant correlation between these genes and skin color, and suggest that the earlier findings may have been the result of incorrect correction methods and small panel sizes, or that the genes have an effect too small to be detected by the larger studies.",
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"plaintext": " KITLG",
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"plaintext": "The KIT ligand (KITLG) gene is involved in the permanent survival, proliferation and migration of melanocytes. A mutation in this gene, A326G (rs642742), has been positively associated with variations of skin color in African-Americans of mixed West African and European descent and is estimated to account for 15–20% of the melanin difference between African and European populations. This allele shows signs of strong positive selection outside Africa and occurs in over 80% of European and Asian samples, compared with less than 10% in African samples.",
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"plaintext": " ASIP",
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"plaintext": "Agouti signalling peptide (ASIP) acts as an inverse agonist, binding in place of alpha-MSH and thus inhibiting eumelanin production. Studies have found two alleles in the vicinity of ASIP are associated with skin color variation in humans. One, rs2424984, has been identified as an indicator of skin reflectance in a forensics analysis of human phenotypes across Caucasian, African-American, South Asian, East Asian, Hispanic and Native American populations and is about three times more common in non-African populations than in Africa. The other allele, 8188G (rs6058017) is significantly associated with skin color variation in African-Americans and the ancestral version occurs in only 12% of European and 28% of East Asian samples compared with 80% of West African samples.",
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"plaintext": "A number of genes have been positively associated with the skin pigmentation difference between European and non-European populations. Mutations in SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 are believed to account for the bulk of this variation and show very strong signs of selection. A variation in TYR has also been identified as a contributor.",
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"plaintext": "Research indicates the selection for the light-skin alleles of these genes in Europeans is comparatively recent, having occurred later than 20,000 years ago and perhaps as recently as 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. In the 1970s, Luca Cavalli-Sforza suggested that the selective sweep that rendered light skin ubiquitous in Europe might be correlated with the advent of farming and thus have taken place only around 6,000 years ago; This scenario found support in a 2014 analysis of mesolithic (7,000 years old) hunter-gatherer DNA from La Braña, Spain, which showed a version of these genes not corresponding with light skin color. In 2015 researchers analysed for light skin genes in the DNA of 94 ancient skeletons ranging from 8,000 to 3,000 years old from Europe and Russia. They found c. 8,000-year-old hunter-gatherers in Spain, Luxembourg, and Hungary were dark skinned while similarly aged hunter gatherers in Sweden were light skinned (having predominately derived alleles of SLC24A5, SLC45A2 and also HERC2/OCA2). Neolithic farmers entering Europe at around the same time were intermediate, being nearly fixed for the derived SLC24A5 variant but only having the derived SLC45A2 allele in low frequencies. The SLC24A5 variant spread very rapidly throughout central and southern Europe from about 8,000 years ago, whereas the light skin variant of SLC45A2 spread throughout Europe after 5,800 years ago.",
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"plaintext": " SLC24A5",
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"plaintext": "Solute carrier family 24 member 5 (SLC24A5) regulates calcium in melanocytes and is important in the process of melanogenesis. The SLC24A5 gene's derived Ala111Thr allele (rs1426654) has been shown to be a major factor in light skin pigmentation and is common in Western Eurasia. Recent studies have found that the variant represents as much as 25–40% of the average skin tone difference between Europeans and West Africans. This derived allele is a reliable predictor of phenotype across a range of populations. It has been the subject of recent selection in Western Eurasia, and is fixed in European populations.",
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"plaintext": " SLC45A2",
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"plaintext": "Solute carrier family 45 member 2 (SLC45A2 or MATP) aids in the transport and processing of tyrosine, a precursor to melanin. It has also been shown to be one of the significant components of the skin color of modern Europeans through its Phe374Leu (rs16891982) allele that has been directly correlated with skin color variation across a range of populations. This variation is ubiquitous in European populations but extremely rare elsewhere and shows strong signs of selection.",
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"plaintext": " TYR",
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"plaintext": "The TYR gene encodes the enzyme tyrosinase, which is involved in the production of melanin from tyrosine. It has an allele, Ser192Tyr (rs1042602), found solely in 40–50% of Europeans and linked to light-colored skin in studies of South Asian and African-American populations.",
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"plaintext": "A number of genes known to affect skin color have alleles that show signs of positive selection in East Asian populations. Of these, only OCA2 has been directly related to skin color measurements, while DCT, MC1R and ATRN are marked as candidate genes for future study.",
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"plaintext": " OCA2",
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"plaintext": "Oculocutaneous albinism II (OCA2) assists in the regulation of pH in melanocytes. The OCA2 gene's derived His615Arg (rs1800414) allele has been shown to account for about 8% of the skin tone difference between African and East Asian populations in studies of an East Asian population living in Toronto and a Chinese Han population. This variant is essentially restricted to East Asia, with highest frequencies in Eastern East Asia (49–63%), midrange frequencies in Southeast Asia, and the lowest frequencies in Western China and some Eastern European populations.",
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"plaintext": " Candidate genes",
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"plaintext": "A number of studies have found genes linked to human skin pigmentation that have alleles with statistically significant frequencies in Chinese and East Asian populations. While not linked to measurements of skin tone variation directly, dopachrome tautomerase (DCT or TYRP2 rs2031526), melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) Arg163Gln (rs885479) and attractin (ATRN) have been indicated as potential contributors to the evolution of light skin in East Asian populations.",
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"plaintext": "Tanning response in humans is controlled by a variety of genes. MC1R variants Arg151Sys (rs1805007), Arg160Trp (rs1805008), Asp294Sys (rs1805009), Val60Leu (rs1805005) and Val92Met (rs2228479) have been associated with reduced tanning response in European and/or East Asian populations. These alleles show no signs of positive selection and only occur in relatively small numbers, reaching a peak in Europe with around 28% of the population having at least one allele of one of the variations. A study of self-reported tanning ability and skin type in American non-Hispanic Caucasians found that SLC24A5 Phe374Leu is significantly associated with reduced tanning ability and also associated TYR Arg402Gln (rs1126809), OCA2 Arg305Trp (rs1800401) and a 2-SNP haplotype in ASIP (rs4911414 and rs1015362) to skin type variation within a \"fair/medium/olive\" context.",
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"plaintext": "Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) is a lack of pigment in the eyes, skin and sometimes hair that occurs in a very small fraction of the population. The four known types of OCA are caused by mutations in the TYR, OCA2, TYRP1, and SLC45A2 genes.",
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"plaintext": "In hominids, the parts of the body not covered with hair, like the face and the back of the hands, start out pale in infants and turn darker as the skin is exposed to more sun. All human babies are born pale, regardless of what their adult color will be. In humans, melanin production does not peak until after puberty.",
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"plaintext": "The skin of children becomes darker as they go through puberty and experience the effects of sex hormones. This darkening is especially noticeable in the skin of the nipples, the areola of the nipples, the labia majora in females, and the scrotum in males. In some people, the armpits become slightly darker during puberty. The interaction of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors on skin coloration with age is still not adequately understood, but it is known that men are at their darkest baseline skin color around the age of 30, without considering the effects of tanning. Around the same age, women experience darkening of some areas of their skin.",
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"plaintext": "Human skin color fades with age. Humans over the age of thirty experience a decrease in melanin-producing cells by about 10% to 20% per decade as melanocyte stem cells gradually die. The skin of face and hands has about twice the amount of pigment cells as unexposed areas of the body, as chronic exposure to the sun continues to stimulate melanocytes. The blotchy appearance of skin color in the face and hands of older people is due to the uneven distribution of pigment cells and to changes in the interaction between melanocytes and keratinocytes.",
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"plaintext": "It has been observed that females are found to have lighter skin pigmentation than males in some studied populations. This may be a form of sexual dimorphism due to the requirement in women for high amounts of calcium during pregnancy and lactation. Breastfeeding newborns, whose skeletons are growing, require high amounts of calcium intake from the mother's milk (about 4 times more than during prenatal development), part of which comes from reserves in the mother's skeleton. Adequate vitamin D resources are needed to absorb calcium from the diet, and it has been shown that deficiencies of vitamin D and calcium increase the likelihood of various birth defects such as spina bifida and rickets. Natural selection may have led to females with lighter skin than males in some indigenous populations because women must get enough vitamin D and calcium to support the development of fetus and nursing infants and to maintain their own health. However, in some populations such as in Italy, Poland, Ireland, Spain and Portugal men are found to have fairer complexions, and this has been ascribed as a cause to increased melanoma risk in men. Similarly, studies done in the late 19th Century/early 20th Century in Europe also conflicted with the notion at least in regards to Northern Europeans. The studies found that in England women tend to have darker hair, eyes, and skin complexation than men, and in particular women darken in relation to men during puberty. A study in Germany during this period showed that German men were more likely to have lighter skin, blond hair, and lighter eyes, while German women had darker hair, eyes and skin tone on average.",
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"plaintext": "The sexes also differ in how they change their skin color with age. Men and women are not born with different skin color, they begin to diverge during puberty with the influence of sex hormones. Women can also change pigmentation in certain parts of their body, such as the areola, during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy and between 50 and 70% of pregnant women will develop the \"mask of pregnancy\" (melasma or chloasma) in the cheeks, upper lips, forehead, and chin. This is caused by increases in the female hormones estrogen and progesterone and it can develop in women who take birth control pills or participate in hormone replacement therapy.",
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"plaintext": "Uneven pigmentation of some sort affects most people, regardless of bioethnic background or skin color. Skin may either appear lighter, or darker than normal, or lack pigmentation at all; there may be blotchy, uneven areas, patches of brown to gray discoloration or freckling. Apart from blood-related conditions such as jaundice, carotenosis, or argyria, skin pigmentation disorders generally occur because the body produces either too much or too little melanin.",
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"plaintext": "Some types of albinism affect only the skin and hair, while other types affect the skin, hair and eyes, and in rare cases only the eyes. All of them are caused by different genetic mutations. Albinism is a recessively inherited trait in humans where both pigmented parents may be carriers of the gene and pass it down to their children. Each child has a 25% chance of being albino and a 75% chance of having normally pigmented skin.<ref>Cummings (2011). Human Heridity Principles and Issues'. Cengage 9th edition. Retrieved 2014-02-16.</ref> One common type of albinism is oculocutaneous albinism or OCA, which has many subtypes caused by different genetic mutations.",
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"plaintext": "Albinism is a serious problem in areas of high sunlight intensity, leading to extreme sun sensitivity, skin cancer, and eye damage.",
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"plaintext": "Albinism is more common in some parts of the world than in others, but it is estimated that 1 in 70 humans carry the gene for OCA.",
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"plaintext": "The most severe type of albinism is OCA1A, which is characterized by complete, lifelong loss of melanin production, other forms of OCA1B, OCA2, OCA3, OCA4, show some form of melanin accumulation and are less severe. The four known types of OCA are caused by mutations in the TYR, OCA2, TYRP1, and SLC45A2 genes.",
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"plaintext": "Albinos often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, racism, fear, and violence. Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism. Albinos are persecuted in Tanzania by witchdoctors, who use the body parts of albinos as ingredients in rituals and potions, as they are thought to possess magical power.",
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"plaintext": "Vitiligo is a condition that causes depigmentation of sections of skin. It occurs when melanocytes die or are unable to function. The cause of vitiligo is unknown, but research suggests that it may arise from autoimmune, genetic, oxidative stress, neural, or viral causes. The incidence worldwide is less than 1%. Individuals affected by vitiligo sometimes suffer psychological discomfort because of their appearance.",
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"plaintext": "Increased melanin production, also known as hyperpigmentation, can be a few different phenomena:",
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"plaintext": " Melasma describes the darkening of the skin.",
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"plaintext": " Chloasma describes skin discolorations caused by hormones. These hormonal changes are usually the result of pregnancy, birth control pills or estrogen replacement therapy.",
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"plaintext": " Solar lentigo, also known as \"liver spots\" or \"senile freckles\", refers to darkened spots on the skin caused by aging and the sun. These spots are quite common in adults with a long history of unprotected sun exposure.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from sun exposure and hormones, hyperpigmentation can be caused by skin damage, such as remnants of blemishes, wounds or rashes. This is especially true for those with darker skin tones.",
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"plaintext": "The most typical cause of darkened areas of skin, brown spots or areas of discoloration is unprotected sun exposure. Once incorrectly referred to as liver spots, these pigment problems are not connected with the liver.",
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"plaintext": "On lighter to medium skin tones, solar lentigenes emerge as small- to medium-sized brown patches of freckling that can grow and accumulate over time on areas of the body that receive the most unprotected sun exposure, such as the back of the hands, forearms, chest, and face. For those with darker skin colors, these discolorations can appear as patches or areas of ashen-gray skin.",
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"plaintext": "Melanin in the skin protects the body by absorbing solar radiation. In general, the more melanin there is in the skin the more solar radiation can be absorbed. Excessive solar radiation causes direct and indirect DNA damage to the skin and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens, but can also cause sunburn. The tanning process can also be created by artificial UV radiation.",
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"plaintext": "There are two different mechanisms involved. Firstly, the UVA-radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin, also known as IPD (immediate pigment darkening). Secondly, there is an increase in production of melanin known as melanogenesis. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning and first becomes visible about 72 hours after exposure. The tan that is created by an increased melanogenesis lasts much longer than the one that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin. Tanning involves not just the increased melanin production in response to UV radiation but the thickening of the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum.",
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"plaintext": "A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.",
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"plaintext": "Modern lifestyles and mobility have created mismatch between skin color and environment for many individuals. Vitamin D deficiencies and UVR overexposure are concerns for many. It is important for these people individually to adjust their diet and lifestyle according to their skin color, the environment they live in, and the time of year. For practical purposes, such as exposure time for sun tanning, six skin types are distinguished following Fitzpatrick (1975), listed in order of decreasing lightness:",
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"plaintext": "The following list shows the six categories of the Fitzpatrick scale in relation to the 36 categories of the older von Luschan scale:",
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"plaintext": "Dark skin with large concentrations of melanin protects against ultraviolet light and skin cancers; light-skinned people have about a tenfold greater risk of dying from skin cancer, compared with dark-skinned persons, under equal sunlight exposure. Furthermore, UV-A rays from sunlight are believed to interact with folic acid in ways that may damage health. In a number of traditional societies the sun was avoided as much as possible, especially around noon when the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is at its most intense. Midday was a time when people stayed in the shade and had the main meal followed by a nap, a practice similar to the modern siesta.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within regions, and approximately 90% occurs between regions. Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness; populations with similar pigmentation may be genetically no more similar than other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world where people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has substantially weakened. In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups.",
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"plaintext": "In general, people living close to the equator are highly darkly pigmented, and those living near the poles are generally very lightly pigmented. The rest of humanity shows a high degree of skin color variation between these two extremes, generally correlating with UV exposure. The main exception to this rule is in the New World, where people have only lived for about 10,000 to 15,000 years and show a less pronounced degree of skin pigmentation.",
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"plaintext": "In recent times, humans have become increasingly mobile as a consequence of improved technology, domestication, environmental change, strong curiosity, and risk-taking. Migrations over the last 4000 years, and especially the last 400 years, have been the fastest in human history and have led to many people settling in places far away from their ancestral homelands. This means that skin colors today are not as confined to geographical location as they were previously.",
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"plaintext": "According to classical scholar Frank Snowden, skin color did not determine social status in ancient Egypt, Greece or Rome. These ancient civilizations viewed relations between the major power and the subordinate state as more significant in a person's status than their skin colors.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, some social groups favor specific skin coloring. The preferred skin tone varies by culture and has varied over time. A number of indigenous African groups, such as the Maasai, associated pale skin with being cursed or caused by evil spirits associated with witchcraft. They would abandon their children born with conditions such as albinism and showed a sexual preference for darker skin.",
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"plaintext": "Many cultures have historically favored lighter skin for women. Before the Industrial Revolution, inhabitants of the continent of Europe preferred pale skin, which they interpreted as a sign of high social status. The poorer classes worked outdoors and got darker skin from exposure to the sun, while the upper class stayed indoors and had light skin. Hence light skin became associated with wealth and high position. Women would put lead-based cosmetics on their skin to whiten their skin tone artificially. However, when not strictly monitored, these cosmetics caused lead poisoning. Other methods also aimed at achieving a light-skinned appearance, including the use of arsenic to whiten skin, and powders. Women would wear full-length clothes when outdoors, and would use gloves and parasols to provide shade from the sun.",
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"plaintext": "Colonization and enslavement as carried out by European countries became involved with colorism and racism, associated with the belief that people with dark skin were uncivilized, inferior, and should be subordinate to lighter-skinned invaders. This belief exists to an extent in modern times as well. Institutionalized slavery in North America led people to perceive lighter-skinned African-Americans as more intelligent, cooperative, and beautiful. Such lighter-skinned individuals had a greater likelihood of working as house slaves and of receiving preferential treatment from plantation owners and from overseers. For example, they had a chance to get an education. The preference for fair skin remained prominent until the end of the Gilded Age, but racial stereotypes about worth and beauty persisted in the last half of the 20th century and continue in the present day. African-American journalist Jill Nelson wrote that, \"To be both prettiest and black was impossible,\" and elaborated:",
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"plaintext": "We learn as girls that in ways both subtle and obvious, personal and political, our value as females is largely determined by how we look. ... For black women, the domination of physical aspects of beauty in women's definition and value render us invisible, partially erased, or obsessed, sometimes for a lifetime, since most of us lack the major talismans of Western beauty. Black women find themselves involved in a lifelong effort to self-define in a culture that provides them no positive reflection.",
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"plaintext": "A preference for fair or lighter skin continues in some countries, including Latin American countries where whites form a minority. In Brazil, a dark-skinned person is more likely to experience discrimination. Many actors and actresses in Latin America have European features—blond hair, blue eyes, and pale skin. A light-skinned person is more privileged and has a higher social status; a person with light skin is considered more beautiful and lighter skin suggests that the person has more wealth. Skin color is such an obsession in some countries that specific words describe distinct skin tones - from (for example) \"jincha\", Puerto Rican slang for \"glass of milk\" to \"morena''\", literally \"brown\".",
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"plaintext": "In South Asia, society regards pale skin as more attractive and associates dark skin with lower class status; this results in a massive market for skin-whitening creams. Fairer skin-tones also correlate to higher caste-status in the Hindu social order—although the system is not based on skin tone. Actors and actresses in Indian cinema tend to have light skin tones, and Indian cinematographers have used graphics and intense lighting to achieve more \"desirable\" skin tones. Fair skin tones are advertised as an asset in Indian marketing.",
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"plaintext": "Skin-whitening products have remained popular over time, often due to historical beliefs and perceptions about fair skin. Sales of skin-whitening products across the world grew from $40 billion to $43 billion in 2008. In South and East Asian countries, people have traditionally seen light skin as more attractive, and a preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In ancient China and Japan, for example, pale skin can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In ancient China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, pale skin was seen as a sign of wealth. Thus skin-whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. Four out of ten women surveyed in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea used a skin-whitening cream, and more than 60 companies globally compete for Asia's estimated $18 billion market. Changes in regulations in the cosmetic industry led to skin-care companies introducing harm-free skin lighteners. In Japan, the geisha have a reputation for their white-painted faces, and the appeal of the , or \"beautiful white\", ideal leads many Japanese women to avoid any form of tanning. There are exceptions to this, with Japanese fashion trends such as ganguro emphasizing tanned skin. Skin whitening is also not uncommon in Africa, and several research projects have suggested a general preference for lighter skin in the African-American community. In contrast, one study on men of the Bikosso tribe in Cameroon found no preference for attractiveness of females based on lighter skin color, bringing into question the universality of earlier studies that had exclusively focused on skin-color preferences among non-African populations.",
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"plaintext": "Significant exceptions to a preference for lighter skin started to appear in Western culture in the mid-20th century. However a 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned women in New Zealand and California. Though sun-tanned skin was once associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower class, the associations became dramatically reversed during this time—a change usually credited to the trendsetting Frenchwoman Coco Chanel (1883–1971) presenting tanned skin as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious. , though an overall preference for lighter skin remains prevalent in the United States, many within the country regard tanned skin as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin. Western mass media and popular culture continued to reinforce negative stereotypes about dark skin, but in some circles pale skin has become associated with indoor office-work while tanned skin has become associated with increased leisure time, sportiness and good health that comes with wealth and higher social status. Studies have also emerged indicating that the degree of tanning is directly related to how attractive a young woman is.",
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"plaintext": " Summary of clues to the saga in which humans evolved to lose their hair and had to adjust, including turning from light skin to dark skin, together with an estimation of the time when humans invented clothing.",
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"plaintext": " \"Key gene 'controls skin colour, BBC News. SLC24A5 gene controls up to 38% of the tonal range in people with mixed European and West African ancestry",
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] | [
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38,042 | 1,102,330,311 | Harry_Enfield | [
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"plaintext": "Henry Richard Enfield (born 30 May 1961) is an English comedian, actor, writer and director. He is known in particular for his television work, including Harry Enfield's Television Programme and Harry & Paul, and for the creation and portrayal of comedy characters such as Kevin the Teenager and \"Loadsamoney\".",
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"plaintext": "Born in Horsham, Sussex, he is the oldest of four children, the son of English television, radio and newspaper journalist and presenter Edward Enfield. He has three sisters. The Enfield family are descendants of the nineteenth-century philanthropist Edward Enfield. He was educated at the independent Arundale School in Pulborough, Dorset House School, Worth School, Collyer's Sixth Form College (all in West Sussex) and the University of York, where he was a member of Derwent College and studied politics. He squatted in Hackney and worked for a while as a milkman.",
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"plaintext": "Enfield first came to wide public attention when appearing on Channel 4's Saturday Live as several different characters created with Paul Whitehouse. These quickly entered the national consciousness. Among these characters were Stavros, a Greek kebab shop owner with fractured English; and Loadsamoney, an obnoxious plasterer who constantly boasted about how much money he earned. The Loadsamoney character was created in reaction to the policies of the Thatcher government of the day, and took on a life of its own, sampling the songs \"Money, Money\" from the musical Cabaret and \"Money, Money, Money\" by ABBA to spawn a hit single in 1988 and a sell-out live tour. In May 1988, Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock used the term loadsamoney to criticise the policies of the Conservative government and journalists began to refer to the \"loadsamoney mentality\" and the \"loadsamoney economy\".",
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"plaintext": "As a foil to Loadsamoney, Enfield and Whitehouse created the Geordie \"Bugger-All-Money\" and in 1988 Enfield appeared as both characters during the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute Concert at Wembley Stadium. In time Whitehouse and Enfield became disturbed that Loadsamoney was being seen in a positive light, rather than as a satirical figure, and they had him run over during a Comic Relief Red Nose Day show while leaving the studio after presenting host Lenny Henry with \"the biggest cheque of the night\"—a physically huge cheque for ten pence. Enfield created \"Tory Boy\", a character which portrayed a young male Conservative Member of Parliament (MP).",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, Enfield realised a personal project, Norbert Smith - a Life, a spoof on British theatrical knights \"slumming\" in the film industry. He also provided voices for the British satirical puppet show Spitting Image, and starred as Dirk Gently in the BBC Radio adaptations of Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency and The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, Enfield developed his BBC sketch show Harry Enfield's Television Programme, later retitled Harry Enfield & Chums, with Whitehouse and Kathy Burke. Eschewing the alternative comedy style prevalent at the time, both versions of the show were indebted to comedians such as Dick Emery and Morecambe and Wise. Enfield and his co-performers created another group of nationally recognised characters for these shows, such as Stan and Pam Herbert, who use the catchphrase \"We are considerably richer than you\" (in an exaggerated West-Midlands accent), Tim Nice-But-Dim, The Scousers, Smashie and Nicey, Wayne and Waynetta Slob, Annoying Kid Brother, who grew into Kevin the Teenager, and two old-fashioned presenters, Mr Cholmondley-Warner and Grayson.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Enfield played Dermot in the sitcom Men Behaving Badly along with Martin Clunes, Caroline Quentin and Leslie Ash, originally on Thames Television. Enfield left after the first series, and was replaced in the second series by Neil Morrissey as Tony. Enfield is a professed fan of opera and fronted a Channel 4 documentary series on the subject. In 1991 Harry also starred in the series Gone to the Dogs as Little Jim.",
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"plaintext": "Enfield appeared in some television commercials before becoming famous, including one made in 1987 for Tetley. Enfield's commercials include a series made in 1994 for Dime Bar. One commercial in this series had Enfield as a yokel refusing a Dime bar—smooth on the outside, crunchy on the inside—because he preferred armadillos—smooth on the inside, crunchy on the outside. Later Enfield, with Paul Whitehouse, starred in a series of commercials for Hula Hoops as The Self-Righteous Brothers, characters from Enfield's television show. In 2004 Enfield starred in a series of commercials for Burger King in Paraguay as Dr Angus, a character intended to promote the company's newest hamburger. Two more characters from Enfield's TV series, Mr Cholmondley-Warner and Grayson, also appeared in commercials, for Mercury Communications. Also in 2004 Enfield provided the voice of \"The Roaming Gnome\" character used in Travelocity's U.S. advertising campaign. Enfield was also in commercials for Worthington Bitter.",
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38,044 | 1,094,718,200 | Heavy_Equipment_Transport_System | [
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"plaintext": "Heavy Equipment Transporter System (HETS) is the name of a U.S. Army logistics vehicle transport system, the primary purpose of which is to transport the M1 Abrams tank. It is also used to transport, deploy, and evacuate armored personnel carriers, self-propelled artillery, armored bulldozers, and other heavy vehicles and equipment.",
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38,049 | 1,107,682,827 | FIM-92_Stinger | [
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"plaintext": "The FIM-92E or Block I was developed from 1992 and delivered from 1995 (certain sources state that the FIM-92D is also part of the Block I development). The main changes were again in the sensor and the software, improving the missile's performance against low-signature targets. A software upgrade in 2001 was designated F. Block II development began in 1996 using a new focal plane array sensor to improve the missile's effectiveness in \"high clutter\" environments and increase the engagement range to about 25,000 feet (7,600 m). Production was scheduled for 2004, but Jane's reports that this may be on hold.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1984 the Stinger has been issued to many U.S. Navy warships for point defense, particularly in Middle Eastern waters, with a three-man team that can perform other duties when not conducting Stinger training or maintenance. Until it was decommissioned in September 1993, the U.S. Navy had at least one Stinger Gunnery Detachment attached to Beachmaster Unit Two in Little Creek Virginia. The sailors of this detachment would deploy to carrier battlegroups in teams of two to four sailors per ship as requested by Battle Group Commanders.",
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"plaintext": "The original Stinger's reprogrammable microprocessor will become obsolete in 2023, and a service life extension will keep the Block I in service until 2030. With the arsenal declining from obsolescence, on 10 November 2020 the U.S. Army issued a request for information for a replacement MANPADS. The new system will be compatible with the Stinger Vehicle Universal Launcher used on the IM-SHORAD and be able to defeat fixed and rotary-wing aircraft, as well as Group 2 and 3 UAS as well or better than the Stinger. A contract for up to 8,000 missiles is planned to be awarded by 2026. The request for information, to interested firms, only went out in April 2022.",
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"plaintext": "According to Reuters the US government has signed a contract for 1,468 Stingers worth a total of $687 million. This may be to replace stock sent to Ukraine.",
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"plaintext": "Raytheon Chief Executive Greg Hayes said on 26 April: “Some of the components are no longer commercially available, and so we’re going to have to go out and redesign some of the electronics in the missile of the seeker head. That’s going to take us a little bit of time.”",
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"plaintext": "According to the report this new contract has no timeline. Neither US officials or officials from Raytheon have commented. ",
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"plaintext": " Air-to-Air Stinger (ATAS): Used as short range air-to-air missile. The system is mainly designed for attack helicopters.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92A: Stinger Basic: The basic model.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92B: Stinger POST: In this version, the infrared seeker head was replaced by a combined IR/UV seeker that utilized rosette scanning. This resulted in achieving significantly higher resistance to enemy countermeasures (flares) and natural disturbances. Production ran from 1981 to 1987; a total of 600 missiles were produced.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92C: Stinger RMP: The resistance to interference was increased again by adding more powerful digital computer components. Moreover, the software of the missile could now be reconfigured in a short time in order to respond quickly and efficiently to new types of countermeasures. Until 1991, some 20,000 units were produced for the U.S. Army alone.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92D: Various modifications were continued with this version in order to increase the resistance to interference.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92E: Stinger—RMP Block I: By adding a new rollover sensor and revised control software, the flight behavior was significantly improved. Additionally, the performance against small targets such as drones, cruise missiles and light reconnaissance helicopters was improved. The first deliveries began in 1995. Almost the entire stock of U.S. Stinger missiles was replaced by this version.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92F: A further improvement of the E version and the current production version.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92G: An unspecified upgrade for the D variant.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92H: Indicates a D variant that has been upgraded to the E standard.",
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"plaintext": " Stinger—RMP Block II: This variant was a planned developed based on the E version. The improvements included an imaging infrared seeker head from the AIM-9X. With this modification, the detection distance and the resistance to jamming was to be greatly increased. Changes to the airframe would furthermore enable a significant increase in range. Although the missile reached the testing phase, the program was dropped in 2002 for budgetary reasons.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92J: Block I missile upgrade to replace aging components to extend service life an additional 10 years. Upgrades include a proximity fuze warhead section, equipped with a target detection device to increase effectiveness against unmanned aerial vehicles, a new flight motor and gas generator cartridge, as well as new designs for the o-rings and integral desiccant cartridge.",
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"plaintext": " FIM-92K: Variant of FIM-92J designed to use a vehicle datalink rather than the missile's own seeker for targeting.",
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"plaintext": " ADSM: : Cancelled experiment variant fitted with a passive radar seeker, designed to be used against radar wave transmitters. The program began in FY 1983 and a final report was issued 3 December 1986.",
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"plaintext": "The Stinger's combat debut occurred during the Falklands War () fought between the United Kingdom and Argentina. At the onset of the conflict soldiers of the British Army's Special Air Service (SAS) had been clandestinely equipped with six missiles, although they had received little instruction in their use. The sole SAS trooper who had received training on the system, and was due to train other troops, was killed in a helicopter crash on 19 May. Nonetheless, on 21 May 1982 an SAS soldier engaged and shot down an Argentine Pucará ground attack aircraft with a Stinger. On 30 May, at about 11.00 a.m., an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopter was brought down by another missile, also fired by the SAS, in the vicinity of Mount Kent. Six Argentine National Gendarmerie Special Forces troops were killed and eight more wounded.",
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"plaintext": "The main MANPADS used by both sides during the Falklands War was the Blowpipe missile.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1985, several groups, such as Free the Eagle, began arguing the CIA was not doing enough to support the Mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War. Michael Pillsbury, Vincent Cannistraro, and others put enormous bureaucratic pressure on the CIA to provide the Stinger to the rebels. The idea was controversial because up to that point, the CIA had been operating with the pretense that the United States was not involved in the war directly, for various reasons. All weapons supplied up to that point were non-U.S. sourced weapons, including Kalashnikov style assault rifles made in China and Egypt.",
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"plaintext": "The final say-so came down to President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq of Pakistan, through whom the CIA had to pass all of its funding and weapons to the Mujahideen. President Zia constantly had to gauge how much he could \"make the pot boil\" in Afghanistan without provoking a Soviet invasion of his own country. According to George Crile III, U.S. Representative Charlie Wilson's relationship with Zia was instrumental in the final go-ahead for the Stinger introduction.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson and his associates at first viewed the Stinger as \"just adding another component to the lethal mix we were building.\" Their increasingly successful Afghanistan strategy, formed largely by Michael G. Vickers, was based on a broad mix of weapons, tactics, and logistics, not a 'silver bullet solution' of a single weapon. Furthermore, the previous attempts to provide MANPADs to the Mujahideen, namely the SA-7 and Blowpipe, hadn't worked very well.",
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"plaintext": "Engineer Ghaffar, of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami, brought down the first Hind gunship with a Stinger on 25 September 1986 near Jalalabad. As part of Operation Cyclone, the CIA eventually supplied nearly 500 Stingers (some sources claim 1,500–2,000) to the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, and 250 launchers.",
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"plaintext": "The impact of the Stinger on the outcome of the war is contested, particularly in the translation between the impact on the tactical battlefield to the strategic level withdrawal, and the influence the first had on the second. Dr. Robert F. Baumann (of the Staff College at Fort Leavenworth) described its impact on \"Soviet tactical operations\" as \"unmistakable\". This opinion was shared by Yossef Bodansky. Soviet, and later, Russian, accounts give little significance to the Stinger for strategically ending the war.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 1993 US Air Defense Artillery Yearbook, the Mujahideen gunners used the supplied Stingers to score approximately 269 total aircraft kills in about 340 engagements, a 79% kill probability. If this report is accurate, Stingers would be responsible for over half of the 451 Soviet aircraft losses in Afghanistan. But these statistics are based on Mujahideen self-reporting, which is of unknown reliability. Selig Harrison rejects such figures, quoting a Russian general who claims the United States \"greatly exaggerated\" Soviet and Afghan aircraft losses during the war. According to Soviet figures, in 1987–1988, only 35 aircraft and 63 helicopters were destroyed by all causes. The Pakistan Army fired 28 Stingers at enemy aircraft with no kill. According to Soviet figures, by 25 December 1987, only 38 aircraft (airplanes, helicopters) were lost and 14 more were damaged by MANPADS (Blowpipe or Stinger), or 10.2% kill probability.",
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"plaintext": "According to Crile, who includes information from Alexander Prokhanov, the Stinger was a \"turning point\". Milt Bearden saw it as a \"force multiplier\" and morale booster. Representative Charlie Wilson, the politician behind Operation Cyclone, described the first Stinger Mi-24 shootdowns in 1986 as one of the three crucial moments of his experience in the war, saying \"we never really won a set-piece battle before September 26, and then we never lost one afterwards.\" He was given the first spent Stinger tube as a gift and kept it on his office wall. That launch tube is now on exhibit at the US Army Air Defense Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, OK.",
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"plaintext": "Other military analysts tend to be dismissive of the impact to the Stinger. According to Alan J. Kuperman, the Stingers did make an impact at first but within a few months flares, beacons, and exhaust baffles were installed to disorient the missiles, along with night operation and terrain-hugging tactics to prevent the rebels from getting a clear shot. By 1988, Kuperman states, the Mujahideen had all but stopped firing them. Another source (Jonathan Steele) states that Stingers forced Soviet helicopters and ground attack planes to bomb from higher altitudes with less accuracy, but did not bring down many more aircraft than Chinese heavy machine guns and other less sophisticated anti-aircraft weaponry.",
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"plaintext": "The last Stingers were supplied in 1988 after increasing reports of fighters selling them to Iran and thawing relations with Moscow. After the 1989 Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the U.S. attempted to buy back the Stinger missiles, with a $55 million program launched in 1990 to buy back around 300 missiles (US$183,300 each). The U.S. government collected most of the Stingers it had delivered, but by 1996 around 600 were unaccounted for and some found their way into Croatia, Iran, Sri Lanka, Qatar, and North Korea. According to the CIA, already in August 1988 the U.S. had demanded from Qatar the return of Stinger missiles. Wilson later told CBS he \"lived in terror\" that a civilian airliner would be shot down by a Stinger, but he did not have misgivings about having provided Stingers to defeat the Soviets.",
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"plaintext": "The story of the Stingers in Afghanistan was popularly told in the media by Western sources primarily, notably in Charlie Wilson's War by George Crile, and Ghost Wars by Steve Coll.",
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"plaintext": "The Reagan administration provided 310 Stingers to Jonas Savimbi's UNITA movement in Angola between 1986 and 1989. As in Afghanistan, efforts to recover missiles after the end of hostilities proved incomplete. The battery of a Stinger lasts for four or five years, so any battery supplied in the 1980s would now be inoperative but during the Syrian Civil War, insurgents showed how easily they switched to different batteries, including widespread car batteries, as power sources for several MANPADS models.",
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"plaintext": "The French army used 15 firing positions and 30 missiles purchased in 1983 for operations in Chad. The 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment made an unsuccessful fire during a Libyan bombardment on 10 September 1987 and shot down a Hercules transport aircraft on 7 July 1988.",
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"plaintext": "The Chadian government received Stinger missiles from the United States, when Libya invaded the northern part of the African country.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 October 1987, a Libyan Su-22MK was shot down by a FIM-92A fired by Chadian forces. The pilot, Capt. Diya al-Din, ejected and was captured. He was later granted political asylum by the French government. During the recovery operation, a Libyan MiG-23MS was shot down by a FIM-92A.",
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"plaintext": "Tajik Islamist opposition forces operating from Afghanistan during the 1992–97 Tajik civil war encountered a heavy air campaign launched by Russia and Uzbekistan to prop up the government in Dushanbe that included border and cross-border raids. During one of these operations, a Sukhoi Su-24M was shot down on 3 May 1993 with a Stinger fired by opposition. Both Russian pilots were rescued.",
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"plaintext": "Russian officials claimed several times that the Chechen militia and insurgents possessed US-made Stinger missiles. They attributed a few of their aerial losses to the American MANPADS. The presence of such missiles was confirmed by photo evidence even though their actual number and origin were not clear.",
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"plaintext": "It is believed one Sukhoi Su-24 was shot down by a Stinger missile during the Second Chechen War.",
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"plaintext": "The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam also managed to acquire one or several Stingers, possibly from former Mujahideen stocks, and used at least one to down a Sri Lanka Air Force Mi-24 on 10 November 1997.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, the U.S. inventory contained 13,400 missiles. The total cost of the program is $7,281,000,000.",
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"plaintext": "It is rumored that the United States Secret Service has Stinger missiles to defend the President, a notion that has never been dispelled; however, U.S. Secret Service plans favor moving the President to a safer place in the event of an attack rather than shooting down the plane, lest the missile (or the wreckage of the target aircraft) hit innocents.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s, the Stinger was used to support different US-aligned guerrilla forces, notably the Afghan Mujahidins, the Chad government against the Libyan invasion and the Angolan UNITA. The Nicaraguan contras were not provided with Stingers due to the lack of fixed wing aircraft of the Sandinista government, as such the previous generation FIM-43 Redeye was considered adequate.",
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"plaintext": "In the Syrian civil war, Turkey reportedly helped to transport a limited amount of FIM-92 Stingers to the Free Syrian Army.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 February 2020, during the northwestern offensive launched in December 2019 by the Syrian regime (backed by Russia, Iran and Hezbollah), Russian and Syrian aircraft (variously reportedly as Russian Su-34s and Syrian Su-22) attacked a Turkish military convoy near Idlib, killing 36 Turkish soldiers. That day, video footage emerged of alleged Turkish soldiers (backing Syrian opposition fighters) firing what apparently looks like a Roketsan-made Stinger against either Russian or Syrian aircraft (or possibly against both).",
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"plaintext": "In February 2022, several nations announced that they were providing Stinger missiles to the Ukrainian forces defending against the Russian invasion.",
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"plaintext": "Germany announced that it would provide 500 missiles.",
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"plaintext": "Denmark said that it will provide parts for 300 missiles, to be assembled in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The Netherlands stated they would supply 200 units.",
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{
"plaintext": "Italy,",
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{
"plaintext": "Latvia,",
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{
"plaintext": "Lithuania,",
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"plaintext": " 9K38 Igla (SA-18 \"Grouse\") – the Soviet Union's equivalent missile during the Cold War",
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"plaintext": " QW-1 Vanguard – the Chinese equivalent",
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"plaintext": " Defense Update: Stinger VSHORAD Missile",
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38,050 | 1,101,062,983 | Aden | [
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"plaintext": "Aden ( ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. Aden's natural harbour lies in the crater of a dormant volcano, which now forms a peninsula joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front Bay, was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 7th to 5th centuries BC. The modern harbour is on the other side of the peninsula. Aden gives its name to the Gulf of Aden.",
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"plaintext": "Aden consists of a number of distinct sub-centres: Crater, the original port city; Ma'alla, the modern port; Tawahi, known as \"Steamer Point\" in the colonial period; and the resorts of Gold Mohur. Khormaksar, on the isthmus that connects Aden proper with the mainland, includes the city's diplomatic missions, the main offices of Aden University, and Aden International Airport (the former British Royal Air Force station RAF Khormaksar), Yemen's second biggest airport. On the mainland are the sub-centres of Sheikh Othman, a former oasis area; Al-Mansura, a town planned by the British; and Madinat ash-Sha'b (formerly Madinat al-Itihad), the site designated as the capital of the South Arabian Federation and now home to a large power/desalinization facility and additional faculties of Aden University.",
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"plaintext": "Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that constitutes the modern port. A long time ago this necessitated the existence of Aden's reservoirs, the Cisterns of Tawila. As described by 14th century scholar Ibn Battuta, \"These reservoirs accumulate rainwater for the sole purpose of drinking for the city's citizens. The city is prosperous with rich merchants living here and Indian vessels arriving for trade.\" The volcanic peninsula of forms a near-mirror image, enclosing the harbour and port on the western side. Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port. Both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "Aden was the capital of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen until that country's unification with the Yemen Arab Republic in 1990, and again briefly served as Yemen's temporary capital during the aftermath of the Houthi takeover in Yemen, as declared by President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi after he fled the Houthi occupation of Sana'a. From March to July 2015, the Battle of Aden raged between Houthis and government forces of President Hadi. Water, food, and medical supplies ran short in the city. On 14 July, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for the Yemeni government. Within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. Since February 2018, Aden has been seized by the Southern Transitional Council, that is supported by UAE, the Southern Transitional Council was formed from previous Aden Mayor Aidroos Alzubaidi after he was dismissed from his post by Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi together with sacked former Cabinet minister Salfi-religious leader Hani Bin Buraik.",
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"plaintext": "A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself. Some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city.",
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"plaintext": "The port's convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at various times throughout history. Known as Eudaemon (, meaning \"blissful, prosperous,\") in the 1st century BC, it was a transshipping point for the Red Sea trade, but fell on hard times when new shipping practices by-passed it and made the daring direct crossing to India in the 1st century AD, according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The same work describes Aden as \"a village by the shore,\" which would well describe the town of Crater while it was still little-developed. There is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus (a tombolo) was not then so developed as it is today.",
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"plaintext": "Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, there seems to have been little fortification at this stage. Fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and the Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watchtowers, since destroyed, are possible. However, the Arab historians Ibn al Mojawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zuree'a. Abu Makhramah has also included a detailed biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work, Tarikh ul-Yemen. The aim seems to have been twofold: to keep hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling the movement of goods, thereby preventing smuggling. In its original form, some of this work was relatively feeble.",
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"plaintext": "After 1175 AD, rebuilding in a more solid form began, and ever since Aden became a popular city attracting sailors and merchants from Egypt, Sindh, Gujarat, East Africa and even China. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Aden's population in the 10th century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1421, China's Ming dynasty Yongle Emperor ordered principal envoy grand eunuch Li Xing and grand eunuch Zhou Man of Zheng He's fleet to convey an imperial edict with hats and robes to bestow on the king of Aden. The envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden. This event was recorded in the book Yingyai Shenglan by Ma Huan who accompanied the imperial envoy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1513, the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, launched an unsuccessful four-day naval siege of Aden. Aden was ruled by the Portuguese between 1513 and 1538 and 1547–1548. It was ruled by the Ottoman Empire between 1538 and 1547 and between 1548 and 1645.",
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"plaintext": "After Ottoman rule, Aden was ruled by the Sultanate of Lahej, under suzerainty of the Zaidi imams of Yemen.",
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"plaintext": "In 1609 The Ascension was the first English ship to visit Aden, before sailing on to Mocha during the fourth voyage of the East India Company.",
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"plaintext": "British interests in Aden began in 1796 with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, after which a British fleet docked at Aden for several months at the invitation of the sultan. The French were defeated in Egypt in 1801, and their privateers were tracked down over the subsequent decade. By 1800, Aden was a small village with a population of 600 Arabs, Somalis, Jews, and Indians—housed for the most part in huts of reed matting erected among ruins recalling a vanished era of wealth and prosperity. As there was little British trade in the Red Sea, most British politicians until the 1830s had no further interest in the area beyond the suppression of piracy. However, a small number of government officials and the East India Company officials thought that a British base in the area was necessary to prevent another French advance through Egypt or Russian expansion through Persia. The emergence of Muhammad Ali of Egypt as a strong local ruler only increased their concerns. The governor of Bombay from 1834 to 1838, Sir Robert Grant, was one of those who believed that India could only be protected by preemptively seizing \"places of strength\" to protect the Indian Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "The Red Sea increased in importance after the steamship sailed from Bombay to the Suez isthmus in 1830, stopping at Aden with the sultan's consent to resupply with coal. Although cargo was still carried around the Cape of Good Hope in sailing ships, a steam route to the Suez could provide a much quicker option for transporting officials and important communications. Grant felt that armed ships steaming regularly between Bombay and Suez would help secure British interests in the region and did all he could to progress his vision. After lengthy negotiations due to the costs of investing in the new technology, the government agreed to pay half the costs for six voyages per year and the East India Company board approved the purchase of two new steamers in 1837. Grant immediately announced that monthly voyages to Suez would take place, despite the fact that no secure coaling station had been found.",
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"plaintext": "In 1838, under Muhsin bin Fadl, Lahej ceded including Aden to the British. On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to secure the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. In 1850 it was declared a free trade port, with the liquor, salt, arms, and opium trades developing duties as it won all the coffee trade from Mokha. The port lies about equidistant from the Suez Canal, Mumbai, and Zanzibar, which were all important British possessions. Aden had been an entrepôt and a way-station for seamen in the ancient world. There, supplies, particularly water, were replenished, so, in the mid-19th century, it became necessary to replenish coal and boiler water. Thus Aden acquired a coaling station at Steamer Point and Aden was to remain under British control until November 1967.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1937, Aden was governed as part of British India and was known as the Aden Settlement. Its original territory was enlarged in 1857 by the island of Perim, in 1868 by the Khuriya Muriya Islands, and in 1915 by the island of Kamaran. The settlement would become Aden Province in 1935.",
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"plaintext": "In 1937, the settlement was detached from India and became the Colony of Aden, a British Crown colony. The change in government was a step towards the change in monetary units seen in the stamps illustrating this article. When British India became independent in 1947, Indian rupees (divided into annas) were replaced in Aden by East African shillings. The hinterland of Aden and Hadhramaut were also loosely tied to Britain as the Aden Protectorate, which was overseen from Aden.",
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"plaintext": "Aden's location also made it a useful entrepôt for mail passing between places around the Indian Ocean and Europe. Thus, a ship passing from Suez to Bombay could leave mail for Mombasa at Aden for collection (See Postage stamps and postal history of Aden).",
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"plaintext": "The 1947 Aden riots saw more than 80 Jews killed, their property looted and schools burned by a Muslim mob. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, Aden became the main location in the region for the British.",
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"plaintext": "Aden sent a team of two to the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Western Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Little Aden is still dominated by the oil refinery built for British Petroleum. Little Aden was well known to seafarers for its tanker port with a very welcoming seaman's mission near to the BP Aden tugs' jetties, complete with swimming pool and air conditioned bar. The accommodation areas for the refinery personnel were known by the original Arabic names of Bureika and Ghadir.",
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"plaintext": "Bureika was wooden housing bunkhouses built to accommodate the thousands of skilled men and laborers imported to build the refinery, later converted to family housing, plus imported prefabricated houses \"the Riley-Newsums\" that are also to be found in parts of Australia (Woomera). Bureika also had a protected bathing area and Beach Club.",
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"plaintext": "Ghadir housing was stone built, largely from the local granite quarry; much of this housing still stands today, now occupied by wealthier locals from Aden. Little Aden also has a local township and numerous picturesque fishing villages, including the Lobster Pots of Ghadir. The British Army had extensive camps in Bureika and through Silent Valley in Falaise Camp, these successfully protected the refinery staff and facilities throughout the troubles, with only a very few exceptions. Schooling was provided for children from kindergarten age through to primary school, after that, children were bussed to The Isthmus School in Khormaksar, though this had to be stopped during the Aden Emergency.",
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"plaintext": "In order to stabilize Aden and the surrounding Aden Protectorate from the designs of the Egyptian backed republicans of North Yemen, the British attempted to gradually unite the disparate states of the region in preparation for eventual independence. On 18 January 1963, the Colony of Aden was incorporated into the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South against the wishes of North Yemen. The city became the State of Aden and the Federation was renamed the Federation of South Arabia (FSA).",
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"plaintext": "An insurgency against British administration known as the Aden Emergency began with a grenade attack by the communist National Liberation Front (NLF), against the British High Commissioner on 10 December 1963, killing one person and injuring fifty, and a \"state of emergency\" was declared.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964, Britain announced its intention to grant independence to the FSA in 1968, but that the British military would remain in Aden. The security situation deteriorated as NLF and FLOSY (Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen) vied for the upper hand.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1967, there were mass riots between the NLF and their rival FLOSY supporters in the old Arab quarter of Aden town. This conflict continued until mid February, despite the intervention of British troops. On 20 June 1967, 23 British Army soldiers were ambushed and shot dead by members of Aden Police during the Aden Mutiny in the Crater District. During the period there were as many attacks on the British troops by both sides as against each other culminating in the destruction of an Aden Airways DC3 plane in the air with no survivors.",
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"plaintext": "The increased violence was a determining factor in the British ensuring all families were evacuated more quickly than initially intended, as recorded in From Barren Rocks to Living Stones.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 November 1967, British troops were evacuated, leaving Aden and the rest of the FSA under NLF control. The Royal Marines, who had been the first British troops to arrive in Aden in 1839, were the last to leave – with the exception of a Royal Engineer detachment (10 Airfields Squadron left Aden on 13 December 1967).",
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"plaintext": "Aden ceased to be a Colony of the United Kingdom and became the capital of a new state known as the People's Republic of South Yemen which, in 1970, was renamed the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. With the unification of northern and southern Yemen in 1990, Aden was no longer a national capital but remained the capital of Aden Governorate which covered an area similar to that of the Aden Colony.",
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"plaintext": "On 29 December 1992, Al Qaeda conducted its first known terrorist attack in Aden, bombing the Gold Mohur Hotel, where US servicemen were known to have been staying en route to Somalia for Operation Restore Hope. A Yemeni and an Austrian tourist died in the attack.",
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"plaintext": "Aden was briefly the centre of the secessionist Democratic Republic of Yemen from 21 May 1994 but was reunited by Republic of Yemen troops on 7 July 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Members of al Qaeda attempted to bomb the US guided-missile destroyer The Sullivans at the port of Aden as part of the 2000 millennium attack plots. The boat that had the explosives in it sank, forcing the planned attack to be aborted.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007 growing dissatisfaction with unification led to the formation of the secessionist South Yemen Movement. According to The New York Times, the Movement's mainly underground leadership includes socialists, Islamists and individuals desiring a return to the perceived benefits of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen.",
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"plaintext": "President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi fled to Aden, his hometown, in February 2015 after being deposed in the coup d'état that many consider to be the start of the Yemeni civil war. Others consider that the civil war began in September 2014 when Houthi forces took over the capital city Sana'a, which was followed by a rapid Houthi takeover of the government.",
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"plaintext": "Hadi declared in Aden that he was still Yemen's legitimate president and called on state institutions and loyal officials to relocate to Aden. In a televised speech on 21 March 2015, he declared Aden to be Yemen's \"economic and temporary capital\" while Sana'a is controlled by the Houthis.",
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"plaintext": "Aden was hit by violence in the aftermath of the coup d'état, with forces loyal to Hadi clashing with those loyal to former president Ali Abdullah Saleh in a battle for Aden International Airport on 19 March 2015. After the airport battle, the entire city became a battleground for the Battle of Aden, which left large parts of the city in ruins and has killed at least 198 people since March 25, 2015.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 July 2015, the Saudi Arabian Army launched an offensive to win control of the city. Within three days, the city was cleared of Houthi rebels, ending the Battle of Aden with a coalition victory.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning on 28 January 2018, separatists loyal to the Southern Transitional Council (STC) seized control of the Yemeni government headquarters in Aden in a coup d'état against the Hadi-led government.",
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"plaintext": "The next day, President of the STC Aidarus al-Zoubaidi announced a state of emergency in Aden and that \"the STC has begun the process of overthrowing Hadi's rule over the South\".",
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"plaintext": "On 1 August 2019, General Munir Al Yafi the serving commander of the STC was killed in a Houthi-missile strike alongside dozens of Yemeni soldiers in a military camp in western Aden. Later that month, the STC took control of Aden, and in April 2020 they declared self-rule.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 December 2020, the undersecretary of labour and deputy minister of public works were killed along with between 20 and 30 others at the Aden airport while they conducted an international press briefing about their new arrangements with the STC, which includes the partition of forces inside Aden, as they returned from hiding in the Saudi capital. Prime Minister Maeen Abdulmalik Saeed, his ministers and his entourage were conducted to safety under the barrage of hostile fire.",
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"plaintext": "Aden has a number of historical and natural sites of interest to visitors. These include:",
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"plaintext": "The historical British churches, one of which lies empty and semi-derelict in 2019. ",
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"plaintext": "The Zoroastrian Temple",
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"plaintext": "The Cisterns of Tawila—an ancient water-catchment system located in the sub-centre of Crater",
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"plaintext": "Sira Fort",
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"plaintext": "The Aden Minaret",
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"plaintext": "Little Ben, a miniature Big Ben Clock Tower overlooking Steamer Point. Built during the colonial period, this was restored in 2012 after 3 decades of neglect since the British withdrawal of 1967.",
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"plaintext": "The Landing Pier at Steamer Point is a 19th-century building used by visiting dignitaries during the colonial period, most notably Queen Elizabeth during her 1954 visit to the colony. This building was hit by an airstrike in 2015 and is currently in the process of being restored in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The Crescent Hotel which contained a number of artifacts relating to the Royal Visit of 1954 and which currently remains derelict as a result of a recent airstrike.",
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"plaintext": "The Palace of the Sultanate of Lahej/National Museum—The National Museum was founded in 1966 and is located in what used to be the Palace of the Sultanate of Lehej. Northern forces robbed it during the 1994 Civil War, but its collection of pieces remains one of the biggest in Yemen.",
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"plaintext": "The Aden Military Museum which features a painting depicting the 20 June 1967 ambush by Arab Police Barracks on a British Army unit when a number of the 22 soldiers killed that day were driving in 2 Landrovers on Queen Arwa Road, Crater.",
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"plaintext": "The Rimbaud House, which opened in 1991, is the two-story house of French poet Arthur Rimbaud who lived in Aden from 1880 to 1891. Rimbaud moved to Aden on his way to Ethiopia in an attempt for a new life. As of the late 1990s, the first floor of the house belonged to the French Consulate, a cultural centre and a library. The house is located in al-Tawahi—the European Quarter of Aden—and is politically and culturally debated for its French nature in an area previously colonized by Britain.",
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"plaintext": "The fortifications of Jebal Hadid and Jebal Shamsan",
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"plaintext": "The beaches of Aden and Little Aden—Some of the popular beaches in Aden consist of Lover's Bay Beach, Elephant Beach and Gold Beach. The popular beach in Little Aden is called Blue Beach. Some beaches are private and some are public, which is subject to change over time due to the changing resort industry. According to the Wall Street Journal, kidnappings on the beaches and the threat of Al Qaeda has caused problems for the resort industry in Aden, which used to be popular among locals and Westerners.",
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"plaintext": "Al-Aidaroos Mosque",
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"plaintext": "Main Pass – now called Al-Aqba Road is the only road into Aden through Crater. Originally an Arched Upper bridge known as Main Gate, it overlooked Aden city and was built during the Ottoman Empire. A painted crest of the 24th British army battalion is still visible on the brickwork adjacent to the Gate site and is believed to be the only remaining army Crest from colonial rule still visible in Aden. In March 1963 the bridge was removed by a British Army controlled explosion to widen the 2 lane roadway to the present 4 lane highway and the only reminder of this bridge is a quarter scale replica built at the end of the Al-Aqba road intersection known as the AdenGate Model roundabout.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, Aden would import goods from the African coast and from Europe, the United States, and India. As of 1920, the British described it as \"the chief emporium of Arabian trade, receiving the small quantities of native produce, and supplying the modest wants of the interior and of most of the smaller Arabian ports.\" At the docks, the city provided coal to passing ships. The only item being produced by the city, as of 1920, was salt. Also, the port was the stop ships had to take when entering the Bab-el-Mandeb; this was how cities like Mecca had received goods by ship. Yemen Airlines, the national airline of South Yemen, had its head office in Aden. On 15 May 1996, Yemen Airlines merged with Yemenia.",
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"plaintext": "During the early 20th century Aden was a notable centre of coffee production. Women processed coffee beans, grown in the Yemen highlands. Frankincense, wheat, barley, alfalfa, and millet was also produced and exported from Aden. The leaves and stalks of the alfalfa, millet and maize produced in Aden were generally used as fodder. As of 1920, Aden was also gathering salt from salt water. An Italian company called Agostino Burgarella Ajola and Company gathered and process the salt under the name Aden Salt Works. There was also a smaller company from India, called Abdullabhoy and Joomabhoy Lalji & Company that owned a salt production firm in Aden. Both companies exported the salt. Between 1916 and 1917, Aden produced over 120,000 tons of salt. Aden has also produced potash, which was generally exported to Mumbai.",
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"plaintext": "Aden produced jollyboats. Charcoal was produced as well, from acacia, and mainly in the interior of the region. Cigarettes were produced by Jewish and Greek populations in Aden. The tobacco used was imported from Egypt.",
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"plaintext": "Since the outbreak of the Yemeni Civil War spread to Aden in 2015, the city has been struck by constant protests over a range of issues, but especially concerning electricity generation. Aden's power grid is composed solely of diesel generators and is thus heavily dependent on imported fuel. The main power plant is al-Hasswa diesel power plant, which in June 2021 had only two turbines out of five running, producing up to 50 megawatts (MW) of power in a region where the deficit hovers around 300 MW. Nawfal al-Mojamal, the plant director, said \"In its 35 years of existence, al-Hasswa station never had any kind of maintenance, except in 2016 ... when the two turbines were restored\".",
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"plaintext": "Historically, Aden's harbour has been a major hub of transportation for the region. As of 1920, the harbour was in size. Passenger ships landed at Steamer Point now called Tawahi.",
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"plaintext": "During the British colonial period motor vehicles drove on the left, as in the United Kingdom. On 2 January 1977, Aden, along with the rest of South Yemen, changed to driving on the right, bringing it into line with neighbouring Arab states.",
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"plaintext": "The city was served by Aden International Airport, the former RAF Khormaksar station which is away from the city, before the Battle of Aden Airport and the 2015 military intervention in Yemen closed this airport along with other airports in Yemen. On July 22, Aden International Airport was declared fit for operation again after the Houthi forces were driven from the city, and a Saudi plane carrying aid reportedly became the first plane to land in Aden in four months. The same day, a ship chartered by the World Food Programme carrying fuel docked in Aden's port.",
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"plaintext": "Aden has a hot desert climate (BWh) in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system. Although Aden sees next to no precipitation year-round, it is humid throughout the year.",
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"plaintext": "Hadhramaut Mountains",
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"plaintext": " Garston, J. \"Aden: The First Hundred Years,\" History Today (March 1965) 15#3 pp 147–158. covers 1839 to 1939. ",
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38,052 | 1,081,994,031 | United_Nations_Mission_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina | [
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"plaintext": "UNMIBH’s mandate is to contribute to the establishment of the rule of law in Bosnia and Herzegovina by assisting in reforming and restructuring the local police, assessing the functioning of the existing judicial system, and monitoring and auditing the performance of the police and others involved in the maintenance of law and order.",
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"plaintext": "From 2001 through 2003, at the request of United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan, Jacques Paul Klein served as his Special Representative and Coordinator of the United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the rank of Under-Secretary-General. As Chief of Mission, he had overall management authority and day-to-day management responsibility of 2,700 international police officers from 48 different countries with a budget of $168.2 million. UNMIBH restructured and downsized a 44,000 pre-war police force to approximately 16,000 trained personnel. The Mission recruited and trained the first BiH police contingent that was deployed to the United Nations Mission in East Timor and the first group of Bosnian United Nations military observers. He focused on combating international terrorism, illegal migration and organized crime and within eighteen months was able to cut the number of illegal persons entering BiH, through its three airports, from 25,000 to 300 per year.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003 Officer Kathryn Bolkovac discovered a ring of human trafficking involving UN officers, after two young girls appeared after being sold and abused in illegal brothels. Dozens of girls raised 'eerily similar' accounts of abuse: including emigrating to take a job as a waitress or in domestic service, including at the insistence of their own families – but were diverted into human trafficking. They were trafficked to different locations, forcibly stripped and sold to individuals who beat and raped them in brothels in Bosnia.",
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"plaintext": "Bolkovac's story was adapted into the film \"The Whistleblower\". A UN audit, released by the US government in 2008, into Klein's actions in both Bosnia and Liberia accused him of a significant role in a number of scandals, though specifically clearing him of corruption. In 2010, a UN review into the audit stated the investigation was inadequate and allegations lacked merit, including a complete failure to notify Klein of the allegations and allow him a chance to respond to them.",
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"plaintext": "During Klein's tenure as Special Representative of the Secretary General (SRSG) from 1999 through early 2003 there were no “cover ups” as a result of a zero tolerance policy regarding any serious misconduct. The mission investigates all allegations of misconduct in a fair, thorough, and timely manner. 24 international police officers, among them eight Americans, including the Deputy Police Commissioner were sanctioned by repatriating them home to face disciplinary or court action in their home countries in accordance with the prevailing agreements between the UN and the Countries providing police officers which define clearly that member states are expected to assume the responsibility for initiating appropriate disciplinary or legal (civil or penal) action and not the local courts of the host country. ",
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"plaintext": "Human Rights Watch, Hopes Betrayed: Trafficking of Women and Girls To Post-Conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina for Forced Prostitution, November 26, 2002",
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38,053 | 1,096,796,374 | Theodoret | [
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"plaintext": "Theodoret of Cyrus or Cyrrhus (; AD 393 458/466) was an influential theologian of the School of Antioch, biblical commentator, and Christian bishop of Cyrrhus (423–457). He played a pivotal role in several 5th-century Byzantine Church controversies that led to various ecumenical acts and schisms. He wrote against Cyril of Alexandria's 12 Anathemas which were sent to Nestorius and did not personally condemn Nestorius until the Council of Chalcedon. His writings against Cyril were included in the Three Chapters Controversy and were condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople. Some Chalcedonian and East Syriac Christians regard him as a \"full\" saint.",
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"plaintext": "According to Tillemont, he was born at Antioch in 393, and died either at Cyrrhus (\"about a two-days' journey east of Antioch\" or eighty Roman miles), or at the monastery near Apamea (fifty-four miles south-east of Antioch) about 457.",
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"plaintext": "The following facts about his life are gleaned mainly from his Epistles and his Religious History (Philotheos historia). He was the child of a prosperous Antiochene couple who had been childless for many years. Encouraged by the fact that his mother had been cured of a serious eye complaint and converted to a sober life by Peter the Galatian, an ascetic living in an unoccupied in the locality, Theodoret's parents sought further help from the local holy men, since she had been childless for twelve years. For years their hopes were fed but not fulfilled. Eventually, Theodoret's birth was promised by a hermit named Macedonius the Barley-Eater on the condition of his dedication to God, whence the name Theodoret (\"gift of God\").",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret received an extensive religious and secular education. The actual evidence given to us by Theodoret suggests that his education was exclusively religious. He paid weekly visits to Peter the Galatian, was instructed by Macedonius and other ascetics, and at an early age became a lector among the clergy of Antioch. Though he speaks of Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia as his teachers, this is improbable - though it was certainly their theological tradition in which he was brought up. He clearly, also, though, received an extensive classical education, unsurprisingly for the child of prosperous parents in a city which had long been a centre of secular learning and culture. His correspondents included the sophists Aerius and Isokasius. He understood Syriac as well as Greek, but was not acquainted with either Hebrew or Latin. In his letters he quotes from Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Demosthenes and Thucydides. When he was twenty-three years old and both parents were dead, he divided his fortune among the poor (Epist. cxiii; P.G., LXXXIII, 1316) and became a monk in the monastery of Nicerte not far from Apamea. There he lived for about seven years.",
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"plaintext": "In 423 he left as he had been appointed Bishop of Cyrrhus, over a diocese about forty miles square and embracing 800 parishes, but with an insignificant town as its see city. Theodoret, supported only by the appeals of the intimate hermits, himself in personal danger, zealously guarded purity of the doctrine. He converted more than 1,000 Marcionites in his diocese, besides many Arians and Macedonians; more than 200 copies of Tatian's Diatessaron he retired from the churches; and he erected churches and supplied them with relics.",
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"plaintext": "His philanthropic and economic interests were extensive and varied: he endeavoured to secure relief for the people oppressed with taxation; he divided his inheritance among the poor; from his episcopal revenues he erected baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts; he summoned rhetoricians and physicians, and reminded the officials of their duties. To the persecuted Christians of Persian Armenia he sent letters of encouragement, and to the Carthaginian Celestiacus, who had fled the rule of the Vandals, he gave refuge.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret stands out prominently in the Christological controversies aroused by Cyril of Alexandria. Theodoret shared in the petition of John I of Antioch to Nestorius to approve of the term theotokos (\"mother of God\"), and upon the request of John wrote against Cyril's anathemas.",
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"plaintext": "He may have prepared the Antiochian symbol which was to secure the emperor's true understanding of the Nicene Creed, and he was a member and spokesman of the deputation of eight from Antioch called by the emperor to Chalcedon. To the condemnation of Nestorius he could not assent. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by entrenching upon his eparchy.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret was determined to preserve the peace of the Church by seeking the adoption of a formula avoiding the unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and toward the close of 434 strove earnestly for the reconciliation between the Eastern churches. But Cyril refused to compromise and when he opened his attack (437) upon Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore, John sided with them and Theodoret assumed the defence of the Antiochian party (439). Domnus II, the successor of John, took him as his counsellor. After the death of Cyril, adherents of the Antiochian theology were appointed to bishoprics. Irenaeus the friend of Nestorius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, became bishop of Tyre, in spite of the protests of Dioscorus, Cyril's successor, who now turned specially against Theodoret; and secured the order from the court confining Theodoret to Cyrrhus.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret now composed the Eranistes (see below). In vain were his efforts at court at self-justification against the charges of Dioscurus, as well as the countercharge of Domnus against Eutyches of Apollinarism. The court excluded Theodoret from the Second Council of Ephesus in 449 because of his antagonism to Cyril. Here, because of his Epistle 151 against Cyril and his defence of Diodorus and Theodore, he was condemned without a hearing and excommunicated and his writings were directed to be burned. Even Domnus gave his assent.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret was compelled to leave Cyrrhus and retire to his monastery at Apamea. He made an appeal to Leo the Great, but not until after the death of Theodosius II in 450 was his appeal for a revocation of the judgments against him granted by imperial edict. He was ordered to participate in the Council of Chalcedon, which created violent opposition. He was first to take part only as accuser, yet among the bishops. Then he was constrained (October 26, 451) by the friends of Dioscurus to pronounce the anathema over Nestorius. His conduct shows (though hindered from a statement to that effect) that he performed this with his previous reservation; namely, without application beyond the teaching of two sons in Christ and the denial of the theotokos. Upon this he was declared orthodox and rehabilitated.",
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"plaintext": "The only thing known concerning him following the Council of Chalcedon is the letter of Leo charging him to guard the Chalcedonian victory (PG, lxxxiii. 1319 sqq.). With Diodorus and Theodore he was no less hated by the Miaphysites than Nestorius himself, and held by them and their friends as a heretic. After Chalcedon, he lived in Cyrrhus until his death, which may have been in 460.",
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"plaintext": "The Three-Chapter Controversy led to the condemnation of his writings against Cyril in the Second Council of Constantinople (553).",
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"plaintext": "A chronology of the composition of these works can be developed by studying references in the latter works to the earlier works. The commentary on the Song of Songs, written while he was a young bishop, though not before 430, precedes Psalms; the commentaries on the prophets were begun with Daniel, followed by Ezekiel, and then the Minor Prophets. Next that on the Psalms was completed before 436; and those on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were the interpretations of difficult passages in the Octateuch and Quaestiones dealing with the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, written about 452 to 453.",
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"plaintext": "Excepting the commentary on Isaiah (fragments preserved in the catenae) and on Galatians ii.6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are extant. Exegetical material on the Gospels under his name in the catenae may have come from his other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his comments on the Octateuch.",
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"plaintext": "The biblical authors are, for Theodoret, merely the mouthpieces of the Holy Spirit, though they do not lose their individual peculiarities. By the unavoidable imperfection of the translations, he states, the understanding is encumbered. Not familiar with Hebrew, Theodoret uses the Syriac translation, the Greek versions, and the Septuagint.",
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"plaintext": "In principle his exegesis is grammatical-historical; and he criticizes the intrusion of the author's own ideas. His aim is to avoid a one-sidedness of literalness as well as of allegory. Hence he protests against the attributing of The Song of Songs to Solomon and the like as degrading the Holy Spirit. Rather is it to be said that the Scripture speaks often \"figuratively\" and \"in riddles.\" In the Old Testament everything has typological significance and prophetically it embodies already the Christian doctrine. The divine illumination affords the right understanding after the apostolic suggestion and the New Testament fulfilment. Valuable though not binding is the exegetical tradition of the ecclesiastical teachers. Theodoret likes to choose the best among various interpretations before him, preferably Theodore's, and supplements from his own. He is clear and simple in thought and statement; and his merit is to have rescued the exegetical heritage of the school of Antioch as a whole for the Christian Church.",
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"plaintext": "Many of Theodoret's dogmatic works have perished; five, however, have survived.",
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"plaintext": "His chief Christological work is the Eranistes etoi polymorphos (Beggar or Multiform, or perhaps The Collector) in three dialogues, describing the Monophysites as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources and himself as the orthodox. The work is interspersed with lengthy florilegia (anthologies of patristic citations), which may be the reason for its preservation. These florilegia provide evidence of Theodoret's considerable learning, with 238 texts drawn from 88 works, including pre-Nicene writers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus and Hippolytus, as well as theologians such as Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers. This use of florilegia heralds a new stage in doctrinal development, in that it creates a new authority for Christian theology: that of the 'Fathers'.",
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"plaintext": "Two works, On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity and On the Incarnation of the Lord, have survived through ascription to his opponent Cyril of Alexandria.",
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"plaintext": "Another surviving work by Theodoret is his Refutation of the Anathemas, his rejection of the twelve anathemas pronounced on him by Cyril of Alexandria, which has been preserved in Cyril's defence. He detects Apollinarianism in Cyril's teaching, and declines a \"contracting into one\" of two natures of the only begotten, as much as a separation into two sons (Epist. Cxliii). Instead of a \"union according to hypostases,\" he would accept only one that \"manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures.\" The man united to God was born of Mary; between God the Logos and the form of a servant a distinction must be drawn.",
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"plaintext": "Another surviving work is the Expositio rectae fidei. This was preserved among the writings of Justin Martyr. However, both Lebon (1930) and Sellers (1945) independently recognised it as the work of Theodoret, probably pre-dating the outbreak of the Christological controversies.",
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"plaintext": "There are many lost works. Theodoret mentions having written against Arius and Eunomius, probably one work, to which were joined the three treatises against the Macedonians. There were, besides, two works against the Apollinarians, and of the Opus adversus Marcionem nothing has been preserved.",
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"plaintext": "God is immutable also in becoming man, the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassive. Each nature remained \"pure\" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of the twenty-seven orations in defence of various propositions, the first six agree in their given content with Theodoret. A few extracts from the five orations on Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (codex 273).",
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"plaintext": "Among apologetic writings was the Ad quaestiones magorum (429-436), now lost, in which Theodoret justified the Old Testament sacrifices as alternatives in opposition to the Egyptian idolatry, and exposed the fables of the Magi who worshipped the elements (Church History v. 38).",
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"plaintext": "De providentia, or Ten Discourses on Providence, consists of apologetic discourses, proving the divine providence from the physical order (chapters i-iv), and from the moral and social order (chapters vi-x). They were most probably delivered to the cultured Greek congregation of Antioch, sometime between 431 and 435. Unlike most sermons, they are reasoned arguments, lectures rather than homilies on scriptural texts.",
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"plaintext": "The Graecarum Affectionum Curatio or Cure of the Greek Maladies, subtitled The Truth of the Gospel proved from Greek Philosophy, arranged in twelve books, was an attempt to prove the truth of Christianity from Greek philosophy and in contrast with the pagan ideas and practises. As such, it forms one of the last Apologies written, since in an age when Christianity was dominant, the need for apologies gradually died out. The truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured with error and approves itself as the power of life; philosophy is only a presentiment of it. This work is distinguished for clearness of arrangement and style.",
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"plaintext": "The Ecclesiastical History of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and closes with the death of Theodore in 429 (despite being completed in 449–450) is very different in style from those of Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen. It contains many sources otherwise lost, specially letters on the Arian controversy; however, the book is extremely partisan, the heretics being consistently blackened and described as afflicted with the 'Arian plague'. The narrative is more compressed than in the other historians, and Theodoret often strings documents together, with only brief comments between. Original material of Antiochian information appears chiefly in the latter books.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoret's sources are in dispute. According to Valesius these were mainly Socrates and Sozomen; Albert Guldenpenning's thorough research placed Rufinus first, and next to him, Eusebius of Caesarea, Athanasius, Sozomen, Sabinus, Philostorgius, Gregory Nazianzen, and, least of all, Socrates. N. Glubokovskij counts Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus.",
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"plaintext": "The Religious History, with an appendix on divine love, contains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics, held forth as religious models. It is a document of remarkable significance for understanding the complexities of the role of early monastics, both in society and in the church; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority which runs strongly against Athanasius's Life of Antony.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the request of a high official named Sporacius, Theodoret compiled a Compendium of Heretical Accounts (Haereticarum fabularum compendium), including a heresiology (books i-iv) and a \"compendium of divine dogmas\" (book v), which, apart from Origen's De principiis and the theological work of John of Damascus, is the only systematic representation of the theology of the Greek Fathers.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to the more than 500 letters known to Nicephorus Callistus in the fourteenth century, only about half that number had survived to the twentieth century. Three collections survive, though there is some overlap between them. 179 letters were edited by J Sirmond in the seventeenth century. To these, J. Sakkelion added another 47 letters he published from a manuscript he found at the Monastery of Patmos in 1855. 36 letters have been preserved in conciliar records. These letters provide glimpses of rural Christianity in northern Syria, as well as insight into episcopal relationships; hints of the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon can be seen; there are letters of consolation and commendation; throughout there is revealed the generous and sensitive soul of a pastor.",
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"plaintext": "In several works, Theodoret demonstrated an interest for linguistic issues related to translations of sacred texts and theological works, with emphasis on literary exchange between two languages, Greek and Syriac. Theodoret himself belonged to the highly Hellenized urban landscape of Roman Syria, but his Aramaic background, accompanied with knowledge of Aramaic language (called Syriac among Greeks), enabled him to note several features of his ancestral language. Aware of regional diversities of Aramaic dialects, he recorded that \"the Osroënians, the Syrians, the people of the Euphrates, the Palestinians, and the Phoenicians all speak Syriac, but with many differences in pronunciation\". Theodoret's regional (provincial) differentiation of Aramaic dialects included an explicit distinction between the \"Syrians\" (as Aramaic speakers of Syria proper, western of Euphrates), and the \"Osroenians\" as Aramaic speakers of Osroene (eastern region, centered in Edessa), thus showing that dialect of the \"Syrians\" (Aramaic speakers of proper Syria) was known to have somewhat different pronunciation from that of the \"Osroenians\" (speakers of Edessan Aramaic). ",
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"plaintext": "A bilingual edition of the Eranistes was published by Oxford University Press in 1974.",
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"plaintext": " Ettlinger, GH, 2003. Theodoret: Eranistes, FC, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.",
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"plaintext": " Petruccione, John F and RC Hill, 2007. Theodoret of Cyrus. The Questions on the Octateuch, Greek text and English translation, Washington, DC, Catholic University of America Press",
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"plaintext": " RC Hill has published translations into English of the Commentary on the Psalms (2000, 2001), the Commentary on the Songs of Songs (2001), and the Commentary on the Letters of St Paul (2001)",
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"plaintext": "István Pásztori-Kupán, Theodoret of Cyrus, (Routledge, 2006), includes full translations of On the Trinity, On the Incarnation, and excerpts from A Cure of Greek Maladies and A Compendium of Heretical Mythification.",
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"plaintext": " Theodoret's works at CCEL",
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"plaintext": " Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca, with analytical indexes and concordances made on the whole writings",
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"plaintext": " István Pásztori-Kupán: Theodoret of Cyrus’s Double Treatise On the Trinity and On the Incarnation: The Antiochene Pathway to Chalcedon (PhD thesis)",
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"plaintext": "Capital adequacy policy applies to equity and capital assets. These can be overvalued in many circumstances because they do not always reflect current market conditions or adequately assess the risk of every trading position. Accordingly, the Basel standards require the capital/asset ratio of internationally active commercial banks to be above a prescribed minimum international standard, to improve the resilience of the banking sector.",
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"plaintext": "Reserve policy is also important, especially to consumers and the domestic economy. To ensure liquidity and limit liability to the larger economy, banks cannot create money in specific industries or regions without limit. To make bank depositing and borrowing safer for customers and reduce the risk of bank runs, banks are required to set aside or \"reserve\".",
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"plaintext": "Reserve policy is harder to standardize, as it depends on local conditions and is often fine-tuned to make industry-specific or region-specific changes, especially within large developing nations. For instance, the People's Bank of China requires urban banks to hold 7% reserves while letting rural banks continue to hold only 6%, and simultaneously telling all banks that reserve requirements on certain overheated industries would rise sharply or penalties would be laid if investments in them did not stop completely. The PBoC is thus unusual in acting as a national bank, focused on the country and not on the currency, but its desire to control asset inflation is increasingly shared among BIS members who fear \"bubbles\", and among exporting countries that find it difficult to manage the diverse requirements of the domestic economy, especially rural agriculture, and an export economy, especially in manufactured goods.",
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"plaintext": "Effectively, the PBoC sets different reserve levels for domestic and export styles of development. Historically, the United States also did this, by dividing federal monetary management into nine regions, in which the less-developed western United States had looser policies.",
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"plaintext": "For various reasons, it has become quite difficult to accurately assess reserves on more than simple loan instruments, and this plus the regional differences has tended to discourage standardizing any reserve rules at the global BIS scale. Historically, the BIS did set some standards which favoured lending money to private landowners (at about 5 to 1) and for-profit corporations (at about 2 to 1) over loans to individuals. These distinctions reflecting classical economics were superseded by policies relying on undifferentiated market values – more in line with neoclassical economics.",
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"plaintext": "The stated mission of the BIS is to serve central banks in their pursuit of monetary and financial stability, to foster international cooperation in those areas and to act as a bank for central banks. The BIS pursues its mission by:",
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"plaintext": " fostering discussion and facilitating collaboration among central banks;",
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"plaintext": " supporting dialogue with other authorities that are responsible for promoting financial stability;",
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"plaintext": " carrying out research and policy analysis on issues of relevance for monetary and financial stability;",
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"plaintext": " acting as a prime counterparty for central banks in their financial transactions; and",
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"plaintext": " serving as an agent or trustee in connection with international financial operations.",
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"plaintext": "The role that the BIS plays today goes beyond its historical role. The original goal of the BIS was \"to promote the co-operation of central banks and to provide additional facilities for international financial operations; and to act as trustee or agent in regard to international financial settlements entrusted to it under agreements with the parties concerned\", as stated in its Statutes of 1930.",
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"plaintext": "The BIS hosts the Secretariat of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision and with it has played a central role in establishing the Basel Capital Accords (now commonly referred to as Basel I) of 1988, Basel II framework in 2004 and more recently Basel III framework in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "BIS denominates its reserve in IMF special drawing rights. The balance sheet total of the BIS on 31 March 2019 was SDR 291.1 billion (US$403.7 billion) and a net profit of SDR 461.1 million (US$639.5 million).",
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"plaintext": "Sixty-three central banks and monetary authorities are currently members of the BIS and have rights of voting and representation at general meetings. The number of countries represented in each continent are: 35 in Europe, 15 in Asia, 5 in South America, 3 in North America, 2 in Oceania, and 3 in Africa. The 63 members represent the following countries:",
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"plaintext": "Central Bank of the Russian Federation was suspended in March 2022 (see \"History\", above).",
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"plaintext": " Stefan Ingves, Stockholm",
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"plaintext": "Strong criticisms of the financial institution have been made by Dutch economist and author Roland Bernard, who argues that numerous transactions bordering on ethics and legality have been passed through the BIS since its founding, beginning with the business dealings that the British and Americans allegedly had with the Germans during World War II, particularly in connection with the sale of gold seized by the Nazis from German Jews: \"Everything that could not stand the light of day, passed through it, by a devious means\".",
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"plaintext": "One of the Group's first projects, a detailed review of payment system developments in the G10 countries, was published by the BIS in 1985 in the first of a series that has become known as \"Red Books\". Currently, the red books cover countries participating in the Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI). A sample of statistical data in the red books appears in the table below, where local currency is converted to US dollars using end-of-year rates.",
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"plaintext": "Sweden is a wealthy country without much cash per capita compared to other countries (see Swedish krona).",
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"plaintext": " \"They've Got a Secret\" by Michael Hirsh, The New York Times, 2013 (a book review of Tower of Basel, Adam LeBor, 2014)",
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"plaintext": " , by Henry C K Liu in the Asia Times.",
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"plaintext": " , Timewatch, Paul Elston, producer Laurence Rees, narrator Sean Barrett (UK), BBC, 1998 (a video documentary about the BIS role in financing Nazi Germany)",
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"plaintext": "The judges or arbitrators that hear cases are called Members of the Court. Each member state may appoint up to four \"of known competency in questions of international law, of the highest moral reputation and disposed to accept the duties of arbitrators\" for a renewable 6-year term. Members of each member state together form a \"national group\". Members may be selected in arbitration cases in which the PCA provides support. National Groups may propose candidates for International Court of Justice members.",
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"plaintext": " United States of America v. Mexico (Pious Fund of the Californias) (1902)",
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"plaintext": " Belgium v. The Netherlands (Iron Rhine case) (2005)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Barbados v. Trinidad and Tobago (2006)",
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"plaintext": " Bangladesh v. India (Bay of Bengal Maritime Boundary) (2014)",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Mauritius v. United Kingdom (Chagos Marine Protected Area) (2015)",
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"plaintext": " Italy v. India (Enrica Lexie case) (pending)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Hulley Enterprises Limited (Cyprus), Yukos Universal Limited (Isle of Man) and Veteran Petroleum Limited (Cyprus) v. the Russian Federation (2015)",
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"plaintext": "Cairn Energy PLC & Cairn UK Holdings Limited v. The Republic of India",
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"plaintext": " United States v. Iran (Iran-United States Claims Tribunal) in the early 1980s the PCA helped set up the claims tribunal",
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38,062 | 1,091,996,620 | Die_Entführung_aus_dem_Serail | [
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"plaintext": " () (K. 384; The Abduction from the Seraglio; also known as ) is a singspiel in three acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The German libretto is by Gottlieb Stephanie, based on Christoph Friedrich Bretzner's Belmont und Constanze, oder Die Entführung aus dem Serail. The plot concerns the attempt of the hero Belmonte, assisted by his servant Pedrillo, to rescue his beloved Constanze from the seraglio of Pasha Selim. The work premiered on 16 July 1782 at the Vienna Burgtheater, with the composer conducting.",
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"plaintext": "Mozart received the libretto from Stephanie on 29 July 1781. He had few opportunities to compose professionally during the summer and he set to work on the libretto at a very rapid pace, finishing three major numbers in just two days. A letter to his father Leopold indicates he was excited about the prospect of having his opera performed in Vienna and worked enthusiastically on his project.",
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"plaintext": "It would seem that something along these lines did happen—that is, Mozart decided to play a major role in the shaping of the libretto, insisting that Stephanie make changes for dramatic and musical effect. On 26 September Mozart wrote:",
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"plaintext": "With the delays for rewriting, the composition took several more months. The premiere took place on 16 July 1782, at the Burgtheater in Vienna.",
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"plaintext": "Die Entführung aus dem Serail is in the genre of \"Singspiel\", thus the music lacks recitatives and consists entirely of set numbers. As Spike Hughes notes, the action is mostly carried forward by the spoken dialogue, so the libretto gave Mozart little opportunity to display an achievement for which his later operas are celebrated, namely the construction of scenes in which the plot is both reflected in and driven forward by the music.",
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"plaintext": "The virtuosity of these roles is perhaps attributable to the fact that when he took up the task of composing the opera, Mozart already knew the outstanding reputations of the singers for whom he was writing, and he tailored the arias to their strengths. The first Osmin was Ludwig Fischer, a bass noted for his wide range and skill in leaping over large intervals with ease. Similarly, Mozart wrote of the first Konstanze, Caterina Cavalieri, \"I have sacrificed Konstanze's aria a little to the flexible throat of Mlle. Cavalieri.\"",
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"plaintext": " The opera was a huge success. The first two performances brought in the large sum of 1200 florins. The work was repeatedly performed in Vienna during Mozart's lifetime, and throughout German-speaking Europe. In 1787, Goethe wrote (concerning his own efforts as a librettist):",
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"plaintext": "Although the opera greatly raised Mozart's standing with the public as a composer, it did not make him rich: he was paid a flat fee of 100 Imperial ducats (about 450 florins) for his work, and made no profits from the many subsequent performances.",
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"plaintext": "The opera reached Paris in November 1801, when Frédéric Blasius conducted Ellmenreich's company in performances at the Théâtre de la Gaîté.",
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"plaintext": "The American premiere in English was given by the Rochester Opera Company on November 1, 1926 under the direction of Vladimir Rosing. A second production with a new English libretto by Robert A. Simon was debuted by the American Opera Company at the Gallo Opera House in New York on January 31, 1928. and was then performed on tour in Boston and Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "The orchestra for the premiere included a number of eminent musicians of the day: first cellist Joseph Franz Weigl, first oboist Josef Triebensee, second horn Joseph Leutgeb, and the clarinettist brothers Anton and Johann Stadler. In the first violin section was Franz de Paula Hofer, who later became Mozart's brother-in-law. The four musicians who played the \"Turkish\" instruments remain anonymous, though it is known that they were recruited for this purpose by one Franz Tyron, Kapellmeister of the Austrian Second Field Artillery Regiment.",
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"plaintext": "Place: the country house of the Pasha (German \"Bassa\"), in Turkey",
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"plaintext": "Time: 16th century",
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"plaintext": "After a lively overture Belmonte enters, looking for his betrothed, Konstanze, who, with her English servant, Blonde, has fallen into the hands of pirates and been sold to Pasha Selim (Aria: \"Hier soll ich dich denn sehen\" – \"Here surely I must find her\"). Osmin, the Pasha's bad-tempered servant, comes to pluck figs in the garden and contemptuously ignores Belmonte's questions (Aria: \"Wer ein Liebchen hat gefunden\" – \"You may think, you've found a maiden\"). Belmonte tries to obtain news of his servant, Pedrillo, who has been captured with the women and is serving as a servant in the Pasha's palace. Osmin replies with insults and abuse (Duet: \"Verwünscht seist du samt deinem Liede!\" – \"The devil take you and your song, sir\"). Belmonte leaves in disgust. Pedrillo enters and Osmin rages at him, vowing to get him tortured and killed in many different ways (Aria: \"Solche hergelaufne Laffen\" – \"These young men who go a-spying\"). Osmin leaves and Belmonte enters and happily reunites with Pedrillo. Together, they resolve to rescue Konstanze and Blonde, who is Pedrillo's fiancée (Aria: \"Konstanze, Konstanze, dich wiederzusehen … O wie ängstlich\" – \"Konstanze, Konstanze, to see thee again … Oh what trembling\").",
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"plaintext": "Accompanied by a chorus of Janissaries (\"Singt dem großen Bassa Lieder\" – \"Sing to the mighty Pasha Selim\"), Pasha Selim appears with Konstanze, for whose love he strives in vain (Aria of Konstanze: \"Ach ich liebte\" – \"How I loved him\"). Pedrillo tricks the Pasha into hiring Belmonte as an architect. When Belmonte and Pedrillo try to enter the palace, Osmin bars their way, but they hurry past him anyway (Terzett: \"Marsch! Marsch! Marsch! Trollt euch fort!\" – \"March! March! March! Clear off!\").",
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"plaintext": "The Pasha has given Blonde to Osmin, to be his slave; however, she defiantly rebuffs her new master's rough lovemaking attempts (Aria: \"Durch Zärtlichkeit und Schmeicheln\" – \"With smiles and kind caresses\"), threatens to scratch out his eyes, and chases him out of the room (Duet: \"Ich gehe, doch rate ich dir\" – \"I'm going, but mark what I say\"). Konstanze enters in distress (Aria: \"Welcher Wechsel herrscht in meiner Seele … Traurigkeit ward mir zum Lose\" – \"Oh what sorrow overwhelms my spirit … Endless grief tortures my spirit\"). The Pasha enters, demands Konstanze's love, and threatens to use force, but she resolutely rejects him. (Aria: \"Martern aller Arten\" – \"Tortures unrelenting\") Left alone, he muses on her determination to remain chaste, which increases his desire for her.",
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"plaintext": "Pedrillo informs Blonde that Belmonte has come and is planning to rescue them, filling Blonde with joy. (Aria: \"Welche Wonne, welche Lust\" – \"Oh, the happy, happy day\"). After singing a short ditty to boost his courage (Aria: \"Frisch zum Kampfe\" – \"Now Pedrillo, now for battle!\"), Pedrillo invites Osmin to drink (Duet: \"Vivat Bacchus! Bacchus lebe!\" – \"Here's to Bacchus, long live Bacchus\"). Despite his religious prohibition against alcoholic beverages, Osmin drinks heavily and falls asleep. Konstanze joins Belmonte who declares his love (Aria: \"Wenn der Freude Tränen fließen\" – \"When tears of joy flow\"). The two couples reunite (Quartet, Belmonte, Konstanze, Pedrillo, Blonde: \"Ach Belmonte! Ach, mein Leben\" – \"Ah, Belmonte, ah my dear one!\"). After their initial expressions of love and joy, Belmonte and Pedrillo both question anxiously whether their respective fiancees have remained faithful during their forced separation; to their delight, the women respond with indignation and dismay, and Blonde slaps Pedrillo's face. The two men apologize for their lack of confidence; the women forgive them for their offensive questions.",
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"plaintext": "Belmonte and Pedrillo come to the garden with ladders (Aria, Belmonte: \"Ich baue ganz auf deine Stärke\" – \"Love, only love, can now direct me\"). Pedrillo attracts the attention of the women by singing a ballad about a rescue similar to the one he is planning (Romanze, Pedrillo: \"In Mohrenland gefangen war\" – \"In Moorish lands a maiden fair\"). However, Osmin enters, sees the ladders, and rouses the castle. Osmin exults in the prospect of seeing them all hanged (Aria: \"O, wie will ich triumphieren\" – \"My triumphant hour's approaching\"). Belmonte pleads for their lives and tells Pasha Selim that his father is a Spanish Grandee and Governor of Oran, named Lostados, and will pay a generous ransom. Unfortunately, Pasha Selim and Lostados are long-standing enemies. The Pasha rejoices in the opportunity to subject his enemy's son to a horrible death. He leaves Belmonte and Konstanze to bid each other a last farewell; they lovingly assure each other that being tortured to death will be a pleasure, so long as they get tortured to death together (Duet: \"Welch ein Geschick! O Qual der Seele.... Weh, du soltest für mich sterben\" – \"What dreadful fate conspires against us.... Woe, you will die because of me\"). However, the Pasha then decides that he can make a better point against Lostados by showing mercy and releasing Belmonte and his friends. All are set at liberty – much to the dismay of Osmin (Finale: \"Nie werd' ich deine Huld verkennen\" – \"Your noble mercy passes measure\").",
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"plaintext": "The Australian Broadcasting Commission made a TV production in 1961 as the English-language The Abduction from the Seraglio, using outdoor filming in addition to the stage setting.",
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"plaintext": "The American post-modernist writer Donald Barthelme wrote a surreal comic short story entitled \"The Abduction from the Seraglio\" (published in The New Yorker in January 1978, collected in Great Days, Farrar, Strous & Giroux 1979, and in Sixty Stories, 1981) in which Belmonte, as narrator, is reconfigured into a cowboy sculptor (whose arias are Country & Western songs), Constanze into his ex-lover, a counter-culture free spirit seduced by the Pasha, who in turn is a Plymouth automobile dealer worth five million dollars a year. Belmonte's rescue attempt fails as Constanze decides to stay with the Pasha, and he is left bereft.",
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"plaintext": "Music professor, composer, and humorist Peter Schickele claims to have \"discovered\" P. D. Q. Bach's The Abduction of Figaro (1984), a pastiche of the Entführung and Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro.",
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"plaintext": "The Finnish composer Aulis Sallinen wrote an opera called The Palace (first performed 1995); it contains characters whose names are adapted from Abduction and loosely uses elements of the plot of Mozart's opera as the starting point of a satirical fantasy.",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " [This is a recent edition of a much older work.]",
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"plaintext": "Melitz, Leo, The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, 1921 version. (Synopsis adapted from this source)",
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"plaintext": " Libretto, critical editions, diplomatic editions, source evaluation (German only), links to online DME recordings; Digital Mozart Edition",
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"plaintext": "Score at William and Gayle Cook Music Library at Indiana University",
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"plaintext": "Libretto (singing parts only)",
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"plaintext": "Complete libretto",
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"plaintext": "Synopsis, German/English libretto, Opera Folio",
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"plaintext": "Die Entführung aus dem Serail, IMDb",
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"plaintext": ", Salzburg Marionette Theatre; Rita Streich sings Blonde, Josef Greindl Osmin, RIAS Symphony Orchestra, Ferenc Fricsay, 1954",
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38,068 | 1,033,418,226 | Standby_High-Readiness_Brigade | [
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"plaintext": "The nations that contributed to SHIRBRIG had the right to opt out of any operation. For example, when the UNMEE was formed, Argentina and Romania opted out for financial reasons.",
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38,070 | 1,064,752,703 | Matthew_of_Kraków | [
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"plaintext": "In 1387 we first find documentary reference to him as professor of theology, and one manuscript speaks of him as \"city preacher of Prague\". About 1382 he headed an embassy from his university to Urban VI, before whom he delivered a dissertation in favour of reform. Accepting an invitation from the University of Heidelberg, he joined its professorial staff in 1395, and a year later was appointed rector. In 1395 he was named councillor to Rupert II, and the raising of Rupert III, Elector Palatine to the dignity of King of the Romans in 1400 marks the beginning of Matthew's career as a statesman.",
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"plaintext": "Frequently employed by the king both at court and on embassies, he appeared at Rome in 1403 to solicit Boniface IX's confirmation of Rupert's (Ruprecht's) claims. On the elevation of Innocent VII to the papal throne in 1404, Matthew greeted him on behalf of Rupert (Ruprecht). During the same year Matthew was appointed Bishop of Worms, but, beyond his settling of the dispute between the people and clergy of that city, we know little of his episcopal activity.",
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"plaintext": "That he continued to reside in Heidelberg is very probable, and also that he continued to act as professor. Gregory XII wished to name him Cardinal Priest of St. Cyriac in Thermis, but Matthew declined the honour. As ambassador of Rupert (Ruprecht) to the Council of Pisa, he displayed the greatest zeal on behalf of Gregory XII, whom he regarded as the legitimate occupant of the papal throne. He died at Pisa.",
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"plaintext": "He was a very prolific theological writer. Apart from Biblical commentaries, sermons, and works on current topics, the most important of his writings are: \"De consolatione theologiae\"; \"De modo confitendi\"; \"De puritate conscientiae\"; \"De corpore Christi\"; \"De celebratione Missae\". That he wrote \"De arte moriendi\" – to be distinguished from a similar work by Cardinal Capran – cannot be maintained with certainty.",
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"plaintext": "The work De praxi curiae Romanae or De squaloribus curiae Romanae from around 1405 is attributed to him, though this has been disputed.",
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"plaintext": "Matthew died in 1410 in Heidelberg.",
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"plaintext": "Richard Lossen, Staat und Kirche in der Pfalz im Ausgang des Mittelalters (1907), 45 sqq.",
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"plaintext": "In those who have had stones, prevention is by drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine are produced per day. If this is not effective enough, thiazide diuretic, citrate, or allopurinol may be taken. It is recommended that soft drinks containing phosphoric acid (typically colas) be avoided. When a stone causes no symptoms, no treatment is needed; otherwise, pain control is usually the first measure, using medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or opioids. Larger stones may be helped to pass with the medication tamsulosin or may require procedures such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, or percutaneous nephrolithotomy.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1% and 15% of people globally are affected by kidney stones at some point in their lives. In 2015, 22.1 million cases occurred, resulting in about 16,100 deaths. They have become more common in the Western world since the 1970s. Generally, more men are affected than women. Kidney stones have affected humans throughout history with descriptions of surgery to remove them dating from as early as 600 BC.",
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"plaintext": "The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This is due to the transfer of referred pain signals from the lower thoracic splanchnic nerves to the lumbar splanchnic nerves as the stone passes down from the kidney or proximal ureter to the distal ureter. This pain, known as renal colic, is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by urinary urgency, restlessness, hematuria, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by peristaltic contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone.",
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"plaintext": "The embryological link between the urinary tract, the genital system, and the gastrointestinal tract is the basis of the radiation of pain to the gonads, as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis. Postrenal azotemia and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters.",
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"plaintext": "Pain in the lower-left quadrant can sometimes be confused with diverticulitis because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter, and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the proximity of these two structures.",
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"plaintext": "Dehydration from low fluid intake is a major factor in stone formation. Individuals living in warm climates are at higher risk due to increased fluid loss. Obesity, immobility, and sedentary lifestyles are other leading risk factors.",
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"plaintext": "High dietary intake of animal protein, sodium, sugars including honey, refined sugars, fructose and high fructose corn syrup, and excessive consumption of fruit juices may increase the risk of kidney stone formation due to increased uric acid excretion and elevated urinary oxalate levels (whereas tea, coffee, wine and beer may decrease the risk).",
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"plaintext": "Kidney stones can result from an underlying metabolic condition, such as distal renal tubular acidosis, Dent's disease, hyperparathyroidism, primary hyperoxaluria, or medullary sponge kidney. 3–20% of people who form kidney stones have medullary sponge kidney.",
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"plaintext": "Kidney stones are more common in people with Crohn's disease; Crohn's disease is associated with hyperoxaluria and malabsorption of magnesium.",
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"plaintext": "A person with recurrent kidney stones may be screened for such disorders. This is typically done with a 24-hour urine collection. The urine is analyzed for features that promote stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium is one component of the most common type of human kidney stones, calcium oxalate. Some studies suggest that people who take calcium or vitamin D as a dietary supplement have a higher risk of developing kidney stones. In the United States, kidney stone formation was used as an indicator of excess calcium intake by the Reference Daily Intake committee for calcium in adults.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s, a study conducted for the Women's Health Initiative in the US found that postmenopausal women who consumed1000mg of supplemental calcium and 400international units of vitamin D per day for seven years had a 17% higher risk of developing kidney stones than subjects taking a placebo. The Nurses' Health Study also showed an association between supplemental calcium intake and kidney stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike supplemental calcium, high intakes of dietary calcium do not appear to cause kidney stones and may actually protect against their development. This is perhaps related to the role of calcium in binding ingested oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract. As the amount of calcium intake decreases, the amount of oxalate available for absorption into the bloodstream increases; this oxalate is then excreted in greater amounts into the urine by the kidneys. In the urine, oxalate is a very strong promoter of calcium oxalate precipitation—about 15 times stronger than calcium.",
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"plaintext": "A 2004 study found that diets low in calcium are associated with a higher overall risk for kidney stone formation. For most individuals, other risk factors for kidney stones, such as high intakes of dietary oxalates and low fluid intake, play a greater role than calcium intake.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium is not the only electrolyte that influences the formation of kidney stones. For example, by increasing urinary calcium excretion, high dietary sodium may increase the risk of stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Drinking fluoridated tap water may increase the risk of kidney stone formation by a similar mechanism, though further epidemiologic studies are warranted to determine whether fluoride in drinking water is associated with an increased incidence of kidney stones. High dietary intake of potassium appears to reduce the risk of stone formation because potassium promotes the urinary excretion of citrate, an inhibitor of calcium crystal formation.",
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"plaintext": "Kidney stones are more likely to develop, and to grow larger, if a person has low dietary magnesium. Magnesium inhibits stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Diets in Western nations typically contain a large proportion of animal protein. Eating animal protein creates an acid load that increases urinary excretion of calcium and uric acid and reduced citrate. Urinary excretion of excess sulfurous amino acids (e.g., cysteine and methionine), uric acid, and other acidic metabolites from animal protein acidifies the urine, which promotes the formation of kidney stones. Low urinary-citrate excretion is also commonly found in those with a high dietary intake of animal protein, whereas vegetarians tend to have higher levels of citrate excretion. Low urinary citrate, too, promotes stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "The evidence linking vitamin C supplements with an increased rate of kidney stones is inconclusive. The excess dietary intake of vitamin C might increase the risk of calcium-oxalate stone formation. The link between vitamin D intake and kidney stones is also tenuous.",
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"plaintext": "Excessive vitamin D supplementation may increase the risk of stone formation by increasing the intestinal absorption of calcium; correction of a deficiency does not.",
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"plaintext": "When the urine becomes supersaturated (when the urine solvent contains more solutes than it can hold in solution) with one or more calculogenic (crystal-forming) substances, a seed crystal may form through the process of nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation (where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation (where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface), because it requires less energy. Adhering to cells on the surface of a renal papilla, a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass. Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal, the stone-forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low.",
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"plaintext": "Supersaturation of the urine with respect to a calculogenic compound is pH-dependent. For example, at a pH of 7.0, the solubility of uric acid in urine is 158mg/100ml. Reducing the pH to 5.0 decreases the solubility of uric acid to less than 8mg/100ml. The formation of uric-acid stones requires a combination of hyperuricosuria (high urine uric-acid levels) and low urine pH; hyperuricosuria alone is not associated with uric-acid stone formation if the urine pH is alkaline. Supersaturation of the urine is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for the development of any urinary calculus. Supersaturation is likely the underlying cause of uric acid and cystine stones, but calcium-based stones (especially calcium oxalate stones) may have a more complex cause.",
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"plaintext": "While supersaturation of urine may lead to crystalluria, it does not necessarily promote the formation of a kidney stone because the particle may not reach the sufficient size needed for renal attachment. On the other hand, Randall's plaques, which were first identified by Alexander Randall in 1937, are calcium phosphate deposits that form in the papillary interstitium and are thought to be the nidus required for stone development. In addition to Randall's plugs, which form in the Duct of Bellini, these structures can generate reactive oxygen species that further enhance stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Some bacteria have roles in promoting stone formation. Specifically, urease-positive bacteria, such as Proteus mirabilis can produce the enzyme urease, which converts urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide. This increases the urinary pH and promotes struvite stone formation. Additionally, non-urease producing bacteria can provide bacteria components that can promote calcium oxalate crystallization, though this mechanism is poorly understood.",
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"plaintext": "Normal urine contains chelating agents, such as citrate, that inhibit the nucleation, growth, and aggregation of calcium-containing crystals. Other endogenous inhibitors include calgranulin (an S-100 calcium-binding protein), Tamm–Horsfall protein, glycosaminoglycans, uropontin (a form of osteopontin), nephrocalcin (an acidic glycoprotein), prothrombin F1 peptide, and bikunin (uronic acid-rich protein). The biochemical mechanisms of action of these substances have not yet been thoroughly elucidated. However, when these substances fall below their normal proportions, stones can form from an aggregation of crystals.",
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"plaintext": "Sufficient dietary intake of magnesium and citrate inhibits the formation of calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones; in addition, magnesium and citrate operate synergistically to inhibit kidney stones. The efficacy of magnesium in subduing stone formation and growth is dose-dependent.",
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"plaintext": "Hypocitraturia or low urinary-citrate excretion (defined as less than 320mg/day) can cause kidney stones in up to 2/3 of cases. The protective role of citrate is linked to several mechanisms; citrate reduces urinary supersaturation of calcium salts by forming soluble complexes with calcium ions and by inhibiting crystal growth and aggregation. Therapy with potassium citrate or magnesium potassium citrate is commonly prescribed in clinical practice to increase urinary citrate and to reduce stone formation rates.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of kidney stones is made on the basis of information obtained from the history, physical examination, urinalysis, and radiographic studies. Clinical diagnosis is usually made on the basis of the location and severity of the pain, which is typically colicky in nature (comes and goes in spasmodic waves). Pain in the back occurs when calculi produce an obstruction in the kidney. Physical examination may reveal fever and tenderness at the costovertebral angle on the affected side.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium-containing stones are relatively radiodense, and they can often be detected by a traditional radiograph of the abdomen that includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder (KUB film). KUB radiograph, although useful in monitoring size of stone or passage of stone in stone formers, might not be useful in the acute setting due to low sensitivity. Some 60% of all renal stones are radiopaque. In general, calcium phosphate stones have the greatest density, followed by calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate stones. Cystine calculi are only faintly radiodense, while uric acid stones are usually entirely radiolucent.",
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"plaintext": "In people with a history of stones, those who are less than 50 years of age and are presenting with the symptoms of stones without any concerning signs do not require helical CT scan imaging. A CT scan is also not typically recommended in children.",
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"plaintext": "Otherwise a noncontrast helical CT scan with sections is the diagnostic method to use to detect kidney stones and confirm the diagnosis of kidney stone disease. Near all stones are detectable on CT scans with the exception of those composed of certain drug residues in the urine, such as from indinavir.",
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"plaintext": "Where a CT scan is unavailable, an intravenous pyelogram may be performed to help confirm the diagnosis of urolithiasis. This involves intravenous injection of a contrast agent followed by a KUB film. Uroliths present in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder may be better defined by the use of this contrast agent. Stones can also be detected by a retrograde pyelogram, where a similar contrast agent is injected directly into the distal ostium of the ureter (where the ureter terminates as it enters the bladder).",
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"plaintext": "Renal ultrasonography can sometimes be useful, because it gives details about the presence of hydronephrosis, suggesting that the stone is blocking the outflow of urine. Radiolucent stones, which do not appear on KUB, may show up on ultrasound imaging studies. Other advantages of renal ultrasonography include its low cost and absence of radiation exposure. Ultrasound imaging is useful for detecting stones in situations where X-rays or CT scans are discouraged, such as in children or pregnant women. Despite these advantages, renal ultrasonography in 2009 was not considered a substitute for noncontrast helical CT scan in the initial diagnostic evaluation of urolithiasis. The main reason for this is that, compared with CT, renal ultrasonography more often fails to detect small stones (especially ureteral stones) and other serious disorders that could be causing the symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "On the contrary, a 2014 study suggested that ultrasonography should be used as the initial diagnostic imaging test, with further imaging studies be performed at the discretion of the physician on the basis of clinical judgment, and using ultrasonography rather than CT as an initial diagnostic test results in less radiation exposure and equally good outcome.",
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"plaintext": "Laboratory investigations typically carried out include",
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"plaintext": " microscopic examination of the urine, which may show red blood cells, bacteria, leukocytes, urinary casts, and crystals;",
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"plaintext": " urine culture to identify any infecting organisms present in the urinary tract and sensitivity to determine the susceptibility of these organisms to specific antibiotics;",
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"plaintext": " complete blood count, looking for neutrophilia (increased neutrophil granulocyte count) suggestive of bacterial infection, as seen in the setting of struvite stones;",
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"plaintext": " renal function tests to look for abnormally high blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia);",
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"plaintext": " 24hour urine collection to measure total daily urinary volume, magnesium, sodium, uric acid, calcium, citrate, oxalate, and phosphate;",
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"plaintext": " collection of stones (by urinating through a StoneScreen kidney stone collection cup or a simple tea strainer) is useful. Chemical analysis of collected stones can establish their composition, which in turn can help to guide future preventive and therapeutic management.",
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"plaintext": "By far, the most common type of kidney stones worldwide contains calcium. For example, calcium-containing stones represent about 80% of all cases in the United States; these typically contain calcium oxalate either alone or in combination with calcium phosphate in the form of apatite or brushite. Factors that promote the precipitation of oxalate crystals in the urine, such as primary hyperoxaluria, are associated with the development of calcium oxalate stones. The formation of calcium phosphate stones is associated with conditions such as hyperparathyroidism and renal tubular acidosis.",
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"plaintext": "Oxaluria is increased in patients with certain gastrointestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's disease or in patients who have undergone resection of the small bowel or small-bowel bypass procedures. Oxaluria is also increased in patients who consume increased amounts of oxalate (found in vegetables and nuts). Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare autosomal recessive condition that usually presents in childhood.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium oxalate crystals can come in two varieties. Calcium oxalate monohydrate can appear as 'dumbbells' or as long ovals that resemble the individual posts in a picket fence. Calcium oxalate dihydrate have a tetragonal “envelope” appearance.",
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"plaintext": "About 10–15% of urinary calculi are composed of struvite (ammonium magnesium phosphate, NH4MgPO4·6H2O). Struvite stones (also known as \"infection stones,\" urease, or triple-phosphate stones) form most often in the presence of infection by urea-splitting bacteria. Using the enzyme urease, these organisms metabolize urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. This alkalinizes the urine, resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones. Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Morganella morganii are the most common organisms isolated; less common organisms include Ureaplasma urealyticum and some species of Providencia, Klebsiella, Serratia, and Enterobacter. These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to urinary tract infections, such as those with spinal cord injury and other forms of neurogenic bladder, ileal conduit urinary diversion, vesicoureteral reflux, and obstructive uropathies. They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders, such as idiopathic hypercalciuria, hyperparathyroidism, and gout. Infection stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn (antler-shaped) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Struvite stones (triple-phosphate/magnesium ammonium phosphate) have a 'coffin lid' morphology by microscopy.",
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"plaintext": "About 5–10% of all stones are formed from uric acid. People with certain metabolic abnormalities, including obesity, may produce uric acid stones. They also may form in association with conditions that cause hyperuricosuria (an excessive amount of uric acid in the urine) with or without hyperuricemia (an excessive amount of uric acid in the serum). They may also form in association with disorders of acid/base metabolism where the urine is excessively acidic (low pH), resulting in precipitation of uric acid crystals. A diagnosis of uric acid urolithiasis is supported by the presence of a radiolucent stone in the face of persistent urine acidity, in conjunction with the finding of uric acid crystals in fresh urine samples.",
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"plaintext": "As noted above (section on calcium oxalate stones), people with inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis) tend to have hyperoxaluria and form oxalate stones. They also have a tendency to form urate stones. Urate stones are especially common after colon resection.",
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"plaintext": "Uric acid stones appear as pleomorphic crystals, usually diamond-shaped. They may also look like squares or rods which are polarizable.",
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"plaintext": "People with certain rare inborn errors of metabolism have a propensity to accumulate crystal-forming substances in their urine. For example, those with cystinuria, cystinosis, and Fanconi syndrome may form stones composed of cystine. Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction. People affected by xanthinuria often produce stones composed of xanthine. People affected by adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency may produce 2,8-dihydroxyadenine stones, alkaptonurics produce homogentisic acid stones, and iminoglycinurics produce stones of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline. Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use, with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as indinavir, sulfadiazine, and triamterene.",
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"plaintext": "Urolithiasis refers to stones originating anywhere in the urinary system, including the kidneys and bladder. Nephrolithiasis refers to the presence of such stones in the kidneys. Calyceal calculi are aggregations in either the minor or major calyx, parts of the kidney that pass urine into the ureter (the tube connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder). The condition is called ureterolithiasis when a calculus is located in the ureter. Stones may also form or pass into the bladder, a condition referred to as bladder stones.",
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"plaintext": "Stones less than in diameter pass spontaneously in up to 98% of cases, while those measuring in diameter pass spontaneously in less than 53% of cases.",
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"plaintext": "Stones that are large enough to fill out the renal calyces are called staghorn stones and are composed of struvite in a vast majority of cases, which forms only in the presence of urease-forming bacteria. Other forms that can possibly grow to become staghorn stones are those composed of cystine, calcium oxalate monohydrate, and uric acid.",
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"plaintext": "Preventative measures depend on the type of stones. In those with calcium stones, drinking plenty of fluids, thiazide diuretics and citrate are effective as is allopurinol in those with high uric acid levels in the blood or urine.",
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"plaintext": "Specific therapy should be tailored to the type of stones involved. Diet can have an effect on the development of kidney stones. Preventive strategies include some combination of dietary modifications and medications with the goal of reducing the excretory load of calculogenic compounds on the kidneys. Dietary recommendations to minimize the formation of kidney stones include",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " increasing total fluid intake to more than two liters per day of urine output;",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
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"plaintext": " limiting cola, including sugar-sweetened soft drinks; to less than one liter per week.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " limiting animal protein intake to no more than two meals daily (an association between animal protein and recurrence of kidney stones has been shown in men);",
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"plaintext": " increasing citric acid intake, including from lemon and lime juice.",
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"plaintext": "Maintenance of dilute urine by means of vigorous fluid therapy is beneficial in all forms of kidney stones, so increasing urine volume is a key principle for the prevention of kidney stones. Fluid intake should be sufficient to maintain a urine output of at least per day. A high fluid intake may reduce the likelihood of kidney stone recurrence or may increase the time between stone development without unwanted effects. However, the evidence supporting these findings is uncertain.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium binds with available oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby preventing its absorption into the bloodstream, and reducing oxalate absorption decreases kidney stone risk in susceptible people. Because of this, some doctors recommend chewing calcium tablets during meals containing oxalate foods. Calcium citrate supplements can be taken with meals if dietary calcium cannot be increased by other means. The preferred calcium supplement for people at risk of stone formation is calcium citrate because it helps to increase urinary citrate excretion.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from vigorous oral hydration and eating more dietary calcium, other prevention strategies include avoidance of large doses of supplemental and restriction of oxalate-rich foods such as leaf vegetables, rhubarb, soy products and chocolate. However, no randomized, controlled trial of oxalate restriction has been performed to test the hypothesis that oxalate restriction reduces stone formation. Some evidence indicates magnesium intake decreases the risk of symptomatic kidney stones.",
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"plaintext": "The mainstay for medical management of uric acid stones is alkalinization (increasing the pH) of the urine. Uric acid stones are among the few types amenable to dissolution therapy, referred to as chemolysis. Chemolysis is usually achieved through the use of oral medications, although in some cases, intravenous agents or even instillation of certain irrigating agents directly onto the stone can be performed, using antegrade nephrostomy or retrograde ureteral catheters. Acetazolamide is a medication that alkalinizes the urine. In addition to acetazolamide or as an alternative, certain dietary supplements are available that produce a similar alkalinization of the urine. These include sodium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, magnesium citrate, and Bicitra (a combination of citric acid monohydrate and sodium citrate dihydrate). Aside from alkalinization of the urine, these supplements have the added advantage of increasing the urinary citrate level, which helps to reduce the aggregation of calcium oxalate stones.",
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"plaintext": "Increasing the urine pH to around 6.5 provides optimal conditions for dissolution of uric acid stones. Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7.0 increases the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation. Testing the urine periodically with nitrazine paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range. Using this approach, stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around of stone radius per month.",
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"plaintext": "It decreases urinary calcium when combined with food rich in oxalic acid such as green leafy vegetables.",
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"plaintext": "One of the recognized medical therapies for prevention of stones is the thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics, such as chlorthalidone or indapamide. These drugs inhibit the formation of calcium-containing stones by reducing urinary calcium excretion. Sodium restriction is necessary for clinical effect of thiazides, as sodium excess promotes calcium excretion. Thiazides work best for renal leak hypercalciuria (high urine calcium levels), a condition in which high urinary calcium levels are caused by a primary kidney defect. Thiazides are useful for treating absorptive hypercalciuria, a condition in which high urinary calcium is a result of excess absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.",
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"plaintext": "For people with hyperuricosuria and calcium stones, allopurinol is one of the few treatments that have been shown to reduce kidney stone recurrences. Allopurinol interferes with the production of uric acid in the liver. The drug is also used in people with gout or hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels). Dosage is adjusted to maintain a reduced urinary excretion of uric acid. Serum uric acid level at or below 6mg/100ml is often a therapeutic goal. Hyperuricemia is not necessary for the formation of uric acid stones; hyperuricosuria can occur in the presence of normal or even low serum uric acid. Some practitioners advocate adding allopurinol only in people in whom hyperuricosuria and hyperuricemia persist, despite the use of a urine-alkalinizing agent such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium citrate.",
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"plaintext": "Stone size influences the rate of spontaneous stone passage. For example, up to 98% of small stones (less than in diameter) may pass spontaneously through urination within four weeks of the onset of symptoms, but for larger stones ( in diameter), the rate of spontaneous passage decreases to less than 53%. Initial stone location also influences the likelihood of spontaneous stone passage. Rates increase from 48% for stones located in the proximal ureter to 79% for stones located at the vesicoureteric junction, regardless of stone size. Assuming no high-grade obstruction or associated infection is found in the urinary tract, and symptoms are relatively mild, various nonsurgical measures can be used to encourage the passage of a stone. Repeat stone formers benefit from more intense management, including proper fluid intake and use of certain medications, as well as careful monitoring.",
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"plaintext": "Management of pain often requires intravenous administration of NSAIDs or opioids. NSAIDs appear somewhat better than opioids or paracetamol in those with normal kidney function. Medications by mouth are often effective for less severe discomfort. The use of antispasmodics does not have further benefit.",
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"plaintext": "The use of medications to speed the spontaneous passage of stones in the ureter is referred to as medical expulsive therapy. Several agents, including alpha adrenergic blockers (such as tamsulosin) and calcium channel blockers (such as nifedipine), may be effective. Alpha-blockers likely result in more people passing their stones, and they may pass their stones in a shorter time. People taking alpha-blockers may also use less pain medication and may not need to visit the hospital. Alpha-blockers appear to be more effective for larger stones (over 5mm in size) than smaller stones. However, use of alpha-blockers may be associated with a slight increase in serious, unwanted effects from this medication. A combination of tamsulosin and a corticosteroid may be better than tamsulosin alone. These treatments also appear to be useful in addition to lithotripsy.",
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"plaintext": "Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) is a noninvasive technique for the removal of kidney stones. Most ESWL is carried out when the stone is present near the renal pelvis. ESWL involves the use of a lithotriptor machine to deliver externally applied, focused, high-intensity pulses of ultrasonic energy to cause fragmentation of a stone over a period of around 30–60minutes. Following its introduction in the United States in February 1984, ESWL was rapidly and widely accepted as a treatment alternative for renal and ureteral stones. It is currently used in the treatment of uncomplicated stones located in the kidney and upper ureter, provided the aggregate stone burden (stone size and number) is less than and the anatomy of the involved kidney is normal.",
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"plaintext": "For a stone greater than , ESWL may not help break the stone in one treatment; instead, two or three treatments may be needed. Some 80-85% of simple renal calculi can be effectively treated with ESWL. A number of factors can influence its efficacy, including chemical composition of the stone, presence of anomalous renal anatomy and the specific location of the stone within the kidney, presence of hydronephrosis, body mass index, and distance of the stone from the surface of the skin.",
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"plaintext": "Common adverse effects of ESWL include acute trauma, such as bruising at the site of shock administration, and damage to blood vessels of the kidney. In fact, the vast majority of people who are treated with a typical dose of shock waves using currently accepted treatment settings are likely to experience some degree of acute kidney injury. ESWL-induced acute kidney injury is dose-dependent (increases with the total number of shock waves administered and with the power setting of the lithotriptor) and can be severe, including internal bleeding and subcapsular hematomas. On rare occasions, such cases may require blood transfusion and even lead to acute kidney failure. Hematoma rates may be related to the type of lithotriptor used; hematoma rates of less than 1% and up to 13% have been reported for different lithotriptor machines. Recent studies show reduced acute tissue injury when the treatment protocol includes a brief pause following the initiation of treatment, and both improved stone breakage and a reduction in injury when ESWL is carried out at slow shock wave rate.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the aforementioned potential for acute kidney injury, animal studies suggest these acute injuries may progress to scar formation, resulting in loss of functional renal volume. Recent prospective studies also indicate elderly people are at increased risk of developing new-onset hypertension following ESWL. In addition, a retrospective case-control study published by researchers from the Mayo Clinic in 2006 has found an increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus and hypertension in people who had undergone ESWL, compared with age and gender-matched people who had undergone nonsurgical treatment. Whether or not acute trauma progresses to long-term effects probably depends on multiple factors that include the shock wave dose (i.e., the number of shock waves delivered, rate of delivery, power setting, acoustic characteristics of the particular lithotriptor, and frequency of retreatment), as well as certain intrinsic predisposing pathophysiologic risk factors.",
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"plaintext": "To address these concerns, the American Urological Association established the Shock Wave Lithotripsy Task Force to provide an expert opinion on the safety and risk-benefit ratio of ESWL. The task force published a white paper outlining their conclusions in 2009. They concluded the risk-benefit ratio remains favorable for many people. The advantages of ESWL include its noninvasive nature, the fact that it is technically easy to treat most upper urinary tract calculi, and that, at least acutely, it is a well-tolerated, low-morbidity treatment for the vast majority of people. However, they recommended slowing the shock wave firing rate from 120pulses per minute to 60pulses per minute to reduce the risk of renal injury and increase the degree of stone fragmentation.",
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"plaintext": "Alpha-blockers are sometimes prescribed after shock wave lithotripsy to help the pieces of the stone leave the person's body. By relaxing muscles and helping to keep blood vessels open, alpha blockers may relax the ureter muscles to allow the kidney stone fragments to pass. When compared to usual care or placebo treatment, alpha blockers may lead to faster clearing of stones, a reduced need for extra treatment and fewer unwanted effects. They may also clear kidney stones in more adults than the standard shock wave lithotripsy procedure. The unwanted effects associated with alpha blockers are hospital emergency visits and return to hospital for stone-related issues, but these effects were more common in adults who did not receive alpha-blockers as a part of their treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Most stones under pass spontaneously. Prompt surgery may, nonetheless, be required in persons with only one working kidney, bilateral obstructing stones, a urinary tract infection and thus, it is presumed, an infected kidney, or intractable pain. Beginning in the mid-1980s, less invasive treatments such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy began to replace open surgery as the modalities of choice for the surgical management of urolithiasis. More recently, flexible ureteroscopy has been adapted to facilitate retrograde nephrostomy creation for percutaneous nephrolithotomy. This approach is still under investigation, though early results are favorable. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy or, rarely, anatrophic nephrolithotomy, is the treatment of choice for large or complicated stones (such as calyceal staghorn calculi) or stones that cannot be extracted using less invasive procedures.",
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"plaintext": "Ureteroscopy has become increasingly popular as flexible and rigid fiberoptic ureteroscopes have become smaller. One ureteroscopic technique involves the placement of a ureteral stent (a small tube extending from the bladder, up the ureter and into the kidney) to provide immediate relief of an obstructed kidney. Stent placement can be useful for saving a kidney at risk for postrenal acute kidney failure due to the increased hydrostatic pressure, swelling and infection (pyelonephritis and pyonephrosis) caused by an obstructing stone. Ureteral stents vary in length from and most have a shape commonly referred to as a \"double-J\" or \"double pigtail\", because of the curl at both ends. They are designed to allow urine to flow past an obstruction in the ureter. They may be retained in the ureter for days to weeks as infections resolve and as stones are dissolved or fragmented by ESWL or by some other treatment. The stents dilate the ureters, which can facilitate instrumentation, and they also provide a clear landmark to aid in the visualization of the ureters and any associated stones on radiographic examinations. The presence of indwelling ureteral stents may cause minimal to moderate discomfort, frequency or urgency incontinence, and infection, which in general resolves on removal. Most ureteral stents can be removed cystoscopically during an office visit under topical anesthesia after resolution of urolithiasis. Research is currently uncertain if placing a temporary stent during ureteroscopy leads to different outcomes than not placing a stent in terms of number of hospital visits for post operative problems, short or long term pain, need for narcotic pain medication, risk of UTI, need for a repeat procedure or narrowing of the ureter from scarring.",
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"plaintext": "More definitive ureteroscopic techniques for stone extraction (rather than simply bypassing the obstruction) include basket extraction and ultrasound ureterolithotripsy. Laser lithotripsy is another technique, which involves the use of a holmium:yttrium aluminium garnet (Ho:YAG) laser to fragment stones in the bladder, ureters, and kidneys.",
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"plaintext": "Ureteroscopic techniques are generally more effective than ESWL for treating stones located in the lower ureter, with success rates of 93–100% using Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy. Although ESWL has been traditionally preferred by many practitioners for treating stones located in the upper ureter, more recent experience suggests ureteroscopic techniques offer distinct advantages in the treatment of upper ureteral stones. Specifically, the overall success rate is higher, fewer repeat interventions and postoperative visits are needed, and treatment costs are lower after ureteroscopic treatment when compared with ESWL. These advantages are especially apparent with stones greater than in diameter. However, because ureteroscopy of the upper ureter is much more challenging than ESWL, many urologists still prefer to use ESWL as a first-line treatment for stones of less than 10mm, and ureteroscopy for those greater than 10mm in diameter. Ureteroscopy is the preferred treatment in pregnant and morbidly obese people, as well as those with bleeding disorders.",
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"plaintext": "Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The lifetime risk is about 10-15% in the developed world, but can be as high as 20-25% in the Middle East. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50% lower in calcium and 250% higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. In the Middle East, uric acid stones are more common than calcium-containing stones. The number of deaths due to kidney stones is estimated at 19,000 per year being fairly consistent between 1990 and 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In North America and Europe, the annual number of new cases per year of kidney stones is roughly 0.5%. In the United States, the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3.2% to 5.2% from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. In the United States, about 9% of the population has had a kidney stone.",
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"plaintext": "The total cost for treating urolithiasis was US$2billion in 2003. About 65–80% of those with kidney stones are men; most stones in women are due to either metabolic defects (such as cystinuria) or infections in the case of struvite stones. Urinary tract calculi disorders are more common in men than in women. Men most commonly experience their first episode between 30 and 40 years of age, whereas for women, the age at first presentation is somewhat later. The age of onset shows a bimodal distribution in women, with episodes peaking at 35 and 55 years. Recurrence rates are estimated at 50% over a 10-year and 75% over 20-year period, with some people experiencing ten or more episodes over the course of a lifetime.",
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"plaintext": "A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing.",
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"plaintext": "The existence of kidney stones was first recorded thousands of years ago, with various explanations given; Joseph Glanville's Saducismus Triumphatus, for example, gives a detailed description of Abraham Mechelburg's voiding of small stones through his penis' virga, attributing the issue to witchcraft.",
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"plaintext": "In 1901, a stone discovered in the pelvis of an ancient Egyptian mummy was dated to 4,800BC.",
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"plaintext": "Medical texts from ancient Mesopotamia, India, China, Persia, Greece, and Rome all mentioned calculous disease. Part of the Hippocratic Oath suggests there were practicing surgeons in ancient Greece to whom physicians were to defer for lithotomies, or the surgical removal of stones. The Roman medical treatise De Medicina by Aulus Cornelius Celsus contained a description of lithotomy, and this work served as the basis for this procedure until the 18th century.",
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"plaintext": "Examples of people who had kidney stone disease include Napoleon I, Epicurus, Napoleon III, Peter the Great, Louis XIV, George IV, Oliver Cromwell, Lyndon B. Johnson, Benjamin Franklin, Michel de Montaigne, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, Samuel Pepys, William Harvey, Herman Boerhaave, and Antonio Scarpa.",
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"plaintext": "New techniques in lithotomy began to emerge starting in 1520, but the operation remained risky. After Henry Jacob Bigelow popularized the technique of litholapaxy in 1878, the mortality rate dropped from about 24% to 2.4%. However, other treatment techniques continued to produce a high level of mortality, especially among inexperienced urologists. In 1980, Dornier MedTech introduced extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for breaking up stones via acoustical pulses, and this technique has since come into widespread use.",
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"plaintext": "The term renal calculus is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning \"kidneys\", and calculus, meaning \"pebble\". Lithiasis (stone formation) in the kidneys is called nephrolithiasis (), from nephro-, meaning kidney, + -lith, meaning stone, and -iasis, meaning disorder. A distinction between nephrolithiasis and urolithiasis can be made because not all urinary stones (uroliths) form in the kidney; they can also form in the bladder. But the distinction is often clinically irrelevant (with similar disease process and treatment either way) and the words are thus often used loosely as synonyms.",
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"plaintext": "Although kidney stones do not often occur in children, the incidence is increasing. These stones are in the kidney in two thirds of reported cases, and in the ureter in the remaining cases. Older children are at greater risk independent of whether or not they are male or female.",
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"plaintext": "As with adults, most pediatric kidney stones are predominantly composed of calcium oxalate; struvite and calcium phosphate stones are less common. Calcium oxalate stones in children are associated with high amounts of calcium, oxalate, and magnesium in acidic urine.",
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"plaintext": "Treatment of kidney stones in children are similar to treatments for adults including: shock wave lithotripsy, medication, and treatment using scope through the bladder, kidney or skin. Of these treatments, research is uncertain if shock waves are more effective than medication or a scope through the bladder, but it is likely less successful than a scope through skin into the kidney. When going in with a scope through the kidney, a regular and a mini-sized scope likely have similar success rates of stone removal. Alpha-blockers, a type of medication, may increase the successful removal of kidney stones when compared with a placebo and without ibuprofen.",
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"plaintext": "Metabolic syndrome and its associated diseases of obesity and diabetes as general risk factors for kidney stone disease are under research to determine if urinary excretion of calcium, oxalate and urate are higher than in people with normal weight or underweight, and if diet and physical activity have roles. Dietary, fluid intake, and lifestyle factors remain major topics for research on prevention of kidney stones, as of 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The gut microbiota has been explored as a contributing factor for stone disease, indicating that some bacteria may be different in people forming kidney stones. One bacterium, Oxalobacter formigenes, is potentially beneficial for mitigating calcium oxalate stones because of its ability to metabolize oxalate as its sole carbon source, but 2018 research suggests that it is instead part of a network of oxalate degrading bacteria. Additionally, one study found that oral antibiotic use, which alters the gut microbiota, can increase the odds of a person developing a kidney stone.",
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"plaintext": "Among ruminants, uroliths more commonly cause problems in males than in females; the sigmoid flexure of the ruminant male urinary tract is more likely to obstruct passage. Early-castrated males are at greater risk, because of lesser urethral diameter.",
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"plaintext": "Low Ca:P intake ratio is conducive to phosphatic (e.g. struvite) urolith formation. Incidence among wether lambs can be minimized by maintaining a dietary Ca:P intake ratio of 2:1.",
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"plaintext": "Alkaline (higher) pH favors formation of Composition. For domestic ruminants, dietary cation: anion balance is sometimes adjusted to assure a slightly acidic urine pH, for prevention of calculus formation.",
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"plaintext": "Differing generalizations regarding effects of pH on formation of silicate uroliths may be found. In this connection, it may be noted that under some circumstances, calcium carbonate accompanies silica in siliceous uroliths.",
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"plaintext": "Pelleted feeds may be conducive to formation of phosphate uroliths, because of increased urinary phosphorus excretion. This is attributable to lower saliva production where pelleted rations containing finely ground constituents are fed. With less blood phosphate partitioned into saliva, more tends to be excreted in urine. (Most saliva phosphate is fecally excreted.)",
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"plaintext": "Oxalate uroliths can occur in ruminants, although such problems from oxalate ingestion may be relatively uncommon. Ruminant urolithiasis associated with oxalate ingestion has been reported. However, no renal tubular damage or visible deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in kidneys was found in yearling wether sheep fed diets containing soluble oxalate at 6.5 percent of dietary dry matter for about 100 days.",
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"plaintext": "Conditions limiting water intake can result in stone formation.",
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"plaintext": "Various surgical interventions, e.g. amputation of the urethral process at its base near the glans penis in male ruminants, perineal urethrostomy, or tube cystostomy may be considered for relief of obstructive urolithiasis.",
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"plaintext": " Nephrocalcinosis",
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"plaintext": " Kidney disease",
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"plaintext": " Information from the European Urological Association",
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"plaintext": " Kidney Stone Guide Book – University of Chicago Kidney Stone Program",
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38,076 | 1,106,104,655 | Gender | [
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"plaintext": "Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (boys/men and girls/women); those who exist outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have specific genders besides \"man\" and \"woman\", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization.",
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"plaintext": "Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and \"gender role\" (which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity) in 1955 although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the \"socialized obverse of sex\", and Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory.",
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"plaintext": "Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO, make a distinction between gender and sex.",
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"plaintext": "In other contexts, the term gender is used to replace sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex. Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as \"a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation.\"",
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"plaintext": "The concept of gender, in the modern sense, is a recent invention in human history. The ancient world had no basis of understanding gender as it has been understood in the humanities and social sciences for the past few decades. The term gender had been associated with grammar for most of history and only started to move towards it being a malleable cultural construct in the 1950s and 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Before Sexologist John Money and colleagues introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role in 1955, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. For example, in a bibliography of 12,000 references on marriage and family from 1900 to 1964, the term gender does not even emerge once. Analysis of more than 30 million academic article titles from 1945 to 2001 showed that the uses of the term \"gender\", were much rarer than uses of \"sex\", was often used as a grammatical category early in this period. By the end of this period, uses of \"gender\" outnumbered uses of \"sex\" in the social sciences, arts, and humanities. It was in the 1970s that feminist scholars adopted the term gender as way of distinguishing \"socially constructed\" aspects of male–female differences (gender) from \"biologically determined\" aspects (sex).",
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"plaintext": "In the last two decades of the 20th century, the use of gender in academia has increased greatly, outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences. While the spread of the word in science publications can be attributed to the influence of feminism, its use as a synonym for sex is attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory, and the distinction has sometimes become blurred with the theory itself; David Haig stated, \"Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals, to use a more academic term, or to avoid the connotation of copulation.\"",
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"plaintext": "In legal cases alleging discrimination, sex is usually preferred as the determining factor rather than gender as it refers to biology rather than socially constructed norms which are more open to interpretation and dispute. Julie Greenberg writes that although gender and sex are separate concepts, they are interlinked in that gender discrimination often results from stereotypes based on what is expected of members of each sex. In J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B., United States Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia wrote:",
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"plaintext": "The word was still widely used, however, in the specific sense of grammatical gender (the assignment of nouns to categories such as masculine, feminine and neuter). According to Aristotle, this concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras.",
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"plaintext": "In 1926, Henry Watson Fowler stated that the definition of the word pertained to this grammar-related meaning: ",
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"plaintext": "Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role, and was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal. In a seminal 1955 paper he defined it as \"all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman.\"",
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"plaintext": "The modern academic sense of the word, in the context of social roles of men and women, dates at least back to 1945, and was popularized and developed by the feminist movement from the 1970s onwards (see § Feminism theory and gender studies below), which theorizes that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily constructed. In this context, matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled matters of gender.",
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"plaintext": "The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex (as a biological category) is also widespread, although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction. The American Heritage Dictionary (2000) uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference, noting that the distinction \"is useful in principle, but it is by no means widely observed, and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gender identity refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society. The term woman has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body, though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists.",
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"plaintext": "There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender; however, feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex. One's biological sex is directly tied to specific social roles and the expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity. Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category that creates a common culture among participants concerned. According to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter-group relationships impact significantly on individuals' self perception and behaviors. The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere.",
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"plaintext": "Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman, rather than being allowed to choose a section in between. Globally, communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are \"appropriate\" for men and women and determine their different access to rights, resources, power in society and health behaviors. Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the next, they still tend to typically favor men, creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities within most societies. Many cultures have different systems of norms and beliefs based on gender, but there is no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures. Social roles of men and women in relation to each other is based on the cultural norms of that society, which lead to the creation of gender systems. The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies, which include the separation of sexes, and the primacy of masculine norms.",
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"plaintext": "Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to \"complex strategical situation\". Because of this, \"power\" is what determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. For example, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and irrational, and incapable of actions attributed to a \"man\". Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female. \"I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly,\" she said. \"[This] is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does.\" More recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender.",
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"plaintext": "According to gender theorist Kate Bornstein, gender can have ambiguity and fluidity. There are two contrasting ideas regarding the definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is definable as below:",
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"plaintext": "The World Health Organization defines gender as the result of socially constructed ideas about the behavior, actions, and roles a particular sex performs. The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender roles as per the assigned gender.",
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"plaintext": "The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct. Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as \"masculine\" or \"feminine\". Although a person's sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that is identical in any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to a person's gender role as a man or a woman in society varies cross-culturally according to what things are considered to be masculine or feminine. These roles are learned from various, intersecting sources such as parental influences, the socialization a child receives in school, and what is portrayed in the local media. Learning gender roles starts from birth and includes seemingly simple things like what color outfits a baby is clothed in or what toys they are given to play with. However, a person's gender does not always align with what has been assigned at birth. Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender.",
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"plaintext": "Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955. The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy, man, girl or woman, respectively. Elements surrounding gender roles include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. In contrast to taxonomic approaches, some feminist philosophers have argued that gender \"is a vast orchestration of subtle mediations between oneself and others\", rather than a \"private cause behind manifest behaviours\".",
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"plaintext": "Historically, most societies have recognized only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, a binary of masculine and feminine, largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female. When a baby is born, society allocates the child to one gender or the other, on the basis of what their genitals resemble.",
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"plaintext": "However, some societies have historically acknowledged and even honored people who fulfill a gender role that exists more in the middle of the continuum between the feminine and masculine polarity. For example, the Hawaiian māhū, who occupy \"a place in the middle\" between male and female, or the Ojibwe ikwekaazo, \"men who choose to function as women\", or ininiikaazo, \"women who function as men\". In the language of the sociology of gender, some of these people may be considered third gender, especially by those in gender studies or anthropology. Contemporary Native American and FNIM people who fulfill these traditional roles in their communities may also participate in the modern, two-spirit community, however, these umbrella terms, neologisms, and ways of viewing gender are not necessarily the type of cultural constructs that more traditional members of these communities agree with.",
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"plaintext": "The hijras of India and Pakistan are often cited as third gender. Another example may be the muxe (pronounced ), found in the state of Oaxaca, in southern Mexico. The Bugis people of Sulawesi, Indonesia have a tradition that incorporates all the features above.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders, many cultures now recognize, to differing degrees, various non-binary gender identities. People who are non-binary (or genderqueer) have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine. They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities, having two or more genders, having no gender, having a fluctuating gender identity, or being third gender or other-gendered. Recognition of non-binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture, and non-binary people may face increased risk of assault, harassment, and discrimination.",
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"plaintext": "Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional nature of masculinity and femininity have dominated gender identity research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits), cross sex-typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits), androgynous (either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and feminine traits) or undifferentiated (either males or females who report themselves as low on both masculine and feminine traits). Twenge (1997) noted that men are generally more masculine than women and women generally more feminine than men, but the association between biological sex and masculinity/femininity is waning.",
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"plaintext": "Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto-Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological being and the social environment influence individuals' capacities.",
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"plaintext": "The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's experience of life: \"One is not born a woman, one becomes one.\" In context, this is a philosophical statement. However, it may be analyzed in terms of biology—a girl must pass puberty to become a woman—and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive.",
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"plaintext": "Within feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s. In the 1974 edition of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses \"innate gender\" and \"learned sex roles\", but in the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed.",
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"plaintext": "By 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted traits.",
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"plaintext": "In gender studies the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. In this context, gender explicitly excludes reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences. This emerged from a number of different areas: in sociology during the 1950s; from the theories of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan; and in the work of French psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, and American feminists such as Judith Butler. Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as \"performative\".",
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"plaintext": "Charles E. Hurst states that some people think sex will, \"...automatically determine one's gender demeanor and role (social) as well as one's sexual orientation (sexual attractions and behavior). Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for dealing with gender. For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender to fill the role properly, and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans \"are the results of many people embracing and acting on similar ideas\". People do this through everything from clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. Schwalbe believes that these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we see them. They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about them.",
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"plaintext": "Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in our legal system because of societal prejudices. Hurst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms, no matter what their sexual orientation is. He says that \"courts often confuse sex, gender, and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex\". This prejudice plays out in our legal system when a person is judged differently because they do not present themselves as the \"correct\" gender.",
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"plaintext": "Andrea Dworkin stated her \"commitment to destroying male dominance and gender itself\" while stating her belief in radical feminism.",
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"plaintext": "Political scientist Mary Hawkesworth addresses gender and feminist theory, stating that since the 1970s the concept of gender has transformed and been used in significantly different ways within feminist scholarship. She notes that a transition occurred when several feminist scholars, such as Sandra Harding and Joan Scott, began to conceive of gender \"as an analytic category within which humans think about and organize their social activity\". Feminist scholars in Political Science began employing gender as an analytical category, which highlighted \"social and political relations neglected by mainstream accounts\". However, Hawkesworth states \"feminist political science has not become a dominant paradigm within the discipline\".",
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"plaintext": "American political scientist Karen Beckwith addresses the concept of gender within political science arguing that a \"common language of gender\" exists and that it must be explicitly articulated in order to build upon it within the political science discipline. Beckwith describes two ways in which the political scientist may employ 'gender' when conducting empirical research: \"gender as a category and as a process.\" Employing gender as a category allows for political scientists \"to delineate specific contexts where behaviours, actions, attitudes and preferences considered masculine or feminine result in particular\" political outcomes. It may also demonstrate how gender differences, not necessarily corresponding precisely with sex, may \"constrain or facilitate political\" actors. Gender as a process has two central manifestations in political science research, firstly in determining \"the differential effects of structures and policies upon men and women,\" and secondly, the ways in which masculine and feminine political actors \"actively work to produce favorable gendered outcomes\".",
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"plaintext": "With regard to gender studies, Jacquetta Newman states that although sex is determined biologically, the ways in which people express gender is not. Gendering is a socially constructed process based on culture, though often cultural expectations around women and men have a direct relationship to their biology. Because of this, Newman argues, many privilege sex as being a cause of oppression and ignore other issues like race, ability, poverty, etc. Current gender studies classes seek to move away from that and examine the intersectionality of these factors in determining people's lives. She also points out that other non-Western cultures do not necessarily have the same views of gender and gender roles. Newman also debates the meaning of equality, which is often considered the goal of feminism; she believes that equality is a problematic term because it can mean many different things, such as people being treated identically, differently, or fairly based on their gender. Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what equality means or looks like, and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy.",
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"plaintext": "Sociologists generally regard gender as a social construct, and various researchers, including many feminists, consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction. For instance, sexologist John Money suggests the distinction between biological sex and gender as a role. Moreover, Ann Oakley, a professor of sociology and social policy, says \"the constancy of sex must be admitted, but so also must the variability of gender.\" The World Health Organization states, \"'[s]ex' refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women,\" and \"'gender' refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.\" Thus, sex is regarded as a category studied in biology (natural sciences), while gender is studied in humanities and social sciences. Lynda Birke, a feminist biologist, maintains \"'biology' is not seen as something which might change.\" Therefore, it is stated that sex is something that does not change, while gender can change according to social structure.",
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"plaintext": "However, there are scholars who argue that sex is also socially constructed. For example, gender theorist Judith Butler states that \"perhaps this construct called 'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all.\"",
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"plaintext": "She continues:It would make no sense, then, to define gender as the cultural interpretation of sex, if sex is itself a gender-centered category. Gender should not be conceived merely as the cultural inscription of meaning based on a given sex (a juridical conception); gender must also designate the very apparatus of production whereby the sexes themselves are established. [...] This production of sex as the pre-discursive should be understood as the effect of the apparatus of cultural construction designated by gender.",
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"plaintext": "Butler argues that \"bodies only appear, only endure, only live within the productive constraints of certain highly gendered regulatory schemas,\" and sex is \"no longer as a bodily given on which the construct of gender is artificially imposed, but as a cultural norm which governs the materialization of bodies.\"",
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"plaintext": "With regard to history, Linda Nicholson, a professor of history and women's studies, argues that the understanding of human bodies as sexually dimorphic was historically not recognised. She states that male and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the 18th century. At that time, female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals, and the difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree. In other words, there was a belief in a gradation of physical forms, or a spectrum. Scholars such as Helen King, Joan Cadden, and Michael Stolberg have criticized this interpretation of history. Cadden notes that the \"one-sex\" model was disputed even in ancient and medieval medicine, and Stolberg points out that already in the sixteenth century, medicine had begun to move towards a two-sex model.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, drawing from the empirical research of intersex children, Anne Fausto-Sterling, a professor of biology and gender studies, describes how the doctors address the issues of intersexuality. She starts her argument with an example of the birth of an intersexual individual and maintains \"our conceptions of the nature of gender difference shape, even as they reflect, the ways we structure our social system and polity; they also shape and reflect our understanding of our physical bodies.\" Then she adds how gender assumptions affects the scientific study of sex by presenting the research of intersexuals by John Money et al., and she concludes that \"they never questioned the fundamental assumption that there are only two sexes, because their goal in studying intersexuals was to find out more about 'normal' development.\" She also mentions the language the doctors use when they talk with the parents of the intersexuals. After describing how the doctors inform parents about the intersexuality, she asserts that because the doctors believe that the intersexuals are actually male or female, they tell the parents of the intersexuals that it will take a little bit more time for the doctors to determine whether the infant is a boy or a girl. That is to say, the doctors' behavior is formulated by the cultural gender assumption that there are only two sexes. Lastly, she maintains that the differences in the ways in which the medical professionals in different regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed. In her Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality, she introduces the following example: A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that aid in making steroid hormones. [...] In the United States and Europe, such children, because they have the potential to bear children later in life, are usually raised as girls. Saudi doctors trained in this European tradition recommended such a course of action to the Saudi parents of CAH XX children. A number of parents, however, refused to accept the recommendation that their child, initially identified as a son, be raised instead as a daughter. Nor would they accept feminizing surgery for their child. [...] This was essentially an expression of local community attitudes with [...] the preference for male offspring.",
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"plaintext": "Thus it is evident that culture can play a part in assigning gender, particularly in relation to intersex children.",
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"plaintext": "The article Adolescent Gender-Role Identity and Mental Health: Gender Intensification Revisited focuses on the work of Heather A. Priess, Sara M. Lindberg, and Janet Shibley Hyde on whether or not girls and boys diverge in their gender identities during adolescent years. The researchers based their work on ideas previously mentioned by Hill and Lynch in their gender intensification hypothesis in that signals and messages from parents determine and affect their children's gender role identities. This hypothesis argues that parents affect their children's gender role identities and that different interactions spent with either parents will affect gender intensification. Priess and among other's study did not support the hypothesis of Hill and Lynch which stated \"that as adolescents experience these and other socializing influences, they will become more stereotypical in their gender-role identities and gendered attitudes and behaviors.\" However, the researchers did state that perhaps the hypothesis Hill and Lynch proposed was true in the past but is not true now due to changes in the population of teens in respect to their gender-role identities.",
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"plaintext": "Authors of \"Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations\", Cecilia Ridgeway and Shelley Correll, argue that gender is more than an identity or role but is something that is institutionalized through \"social relational contexts.\" Ridgeway and Correll define \"social relational contexts\" as \"any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act.\" They also point out that in addition to social relational contexts, cultural beliefs plays a role in the gender system. The coauthors argue that daily people are forced to acknowledge and interact with others in ways that are related to gender. Every day, individuals are interacting with each other and comply with society's set standard of hegemonic beliefs, which includes gender roles. They state that society's hegemonic cultural beliefs sets the rules which in turn create the setting for which social relational contexts are to take place. Ridgeway and Correll then shift their topic towards sex categorization. The authors define sex categorization as \"the sociocognitive process by which we label another as male or female.\"",
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"plaintext": "The failure of an attempt to raise David Reimer from infancy through adolescence as a girl after his genitals were accidentally mutilated is cited as disproving the theory that gender identity is determined solely by parenting. Reimer's case is used by organizations such as the Intersex Society of North America to caution against needlessly modifying the genitals of unconsenting minors. Between the 1960s and 2000, many other male newborns and infants were surgically and socially reassigned as females if they were born with malformed penises, or if they lost their penises in accidents. At the time, surgical reconstruction of the vagina was more advanced than reconstruction of the penis, leading many doctors and psychologists, including John Money who oversaw Reimer's case, to recommend sex reassignment based on the idea that these patients would be happiest living as women with functioning genitalia. Available evidence indicates that in such instances, parents were deeply committed to raising these children as girls and in as gender-typical a manner as possible. A 2005 review of these cases found that about half of natal males reassigned female lived as women in adulthood, including those who knew their medical history, suggesting that gender assignment and related social factors has a major, though not determinative, influence on eventual gender identity.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a webinar series on gender, gender identity, gender expression, transgender, etc. In the first lecture Dr. Sherer explains that parents' influence (through punishment and reward of behavior) can influence gender expression but not gender identity. She cites a Smithsonian article that shows a photo of a 3 year old President Franklin D. Roosevelt with long hair, wearing a dress. Children as old as 6 wore gender neutral clothing, consisting of white dresses, until the 1940s. In 1927, Time magazine printed a chart showing sex-appropriate colors, which consisted of pink for boys and blue for girls. Dr. Sherer argued that kids will modify their gender expression to seek reward from their parents and society but this will not affect their gender identity (their internal sense of self).",
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"plaintext": "Some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure. This includes, for example, gender normative play, self-identification with a gender, and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior. Males of most mammals, including humans, exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior, which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels. These levels may also influence sexuality, with non-heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood.",
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"plaintext": "The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the late 20th century. One of the earliest areas of interest was what became known as \"gender identity disorder\" (GID) and which is now also described as gender dysphoria. Studies in this, and related areas, inform the following summary of the subject by John Money. He stated:",
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"plaintext": "Although causation from the biological—genetic and hormonal—to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete.",
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"plaintext": "There are studies concerning women who have a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex hormone, androgen. These women usually have ordinary female appearances (though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have corrective surgery performed on their genitals). However, despite taking hormone-balancing medication given to them at birth, these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero.",
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"plaintext": "According to biologist Michael J. Ryan, gender identity is a concept exclusively applied to humans. Also, in a letter Ellen Ketterson writes, \"[w]hen asked, my colleagues in the Department of Gender Studies agreed that the term gender could be properly applied only to humans, because it involves one's self-concept as man or woman. Sex is a biological concept; gender is a human social and cultural concept.\" However, notes that the question of whether behavioural similarities across species can be associated with gender identity or not is \"an issue of no easy resolution\", and suggests that mental states, such as gender identity, are more accessible in humans than other species due to their capacity for language. Polani suggests that the potential number of species with members possessing a gender identity must be limited due to the requirement for self-consciousness.",
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"plaintext": "Jacques Balthazart suggests that \"there is no animal model for studying sexual identity. It is impossible to ask an animal, whatever its species, to what sex it belongs.\" He notes that \"this would imply that the animal is aware of its own body and sex, which is far from proved\", despite recent research demonstrating sophisticated cognitive skills among non-human primates and other species. has also stated that whether or not non-human animals consider themselves to be feminine or masculine is a \"difficult, if not impossible, question to answer\", as this would require \"judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species\". Nonetheless, she asserts that \"non-human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species' behaviour is gender segregated.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite this, Poiani and Dixson emphasise the applicability of the concept of gender role to non-human animals such as rodents throughout their book. The concept of gender role has also been applied to non-human primates such as rhesus monkeys.",
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"plaintext": "Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender, gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field includes Women's studies (concerning women, feminity, their gender roles and politics, and feminism), Men's studies (concerning men, masculinity, their gender roles, and politics), and LGBT studies.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes Gender studies is offered together with Study of Sexuality.",
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"plaintext": "These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature and language, history, political science, sociology, anthropology, cinema and media studies, human development, law, and medicine.",
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"plaintext": "It also analyses race, ethnicity, location, nationality, and disability.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and social environments.",
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"plaintext": "A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it.",
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"plaintext": "Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality, with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender. The second wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains current in some literary theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new perspectives as recently as 2008.",
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"plaintext": "As the child grows, \"...society provides a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other,\" which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender. There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with gender shaping the individual's opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality, reproduction, authority, and to make an impact on the production of culture and knowledge. Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this perspective as deviant and improperly socialized.",
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"plaintext": "Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender. Joan Acker believes gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social processes:",
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"plaintext": " The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space",
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"plaintext": " The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions",
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"plaintext": " Interactions between men and women, women and women and men and men that involve any form of dominance and submission. Conversational theorists, for example, have studied the way that interruptions, turn taking and the setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk",
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"plaintext": " The way that the preceding three processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity, i.e., the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered self",
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"plaintext": " Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and conceptualising social structures.",
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"plaintext": "Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of power. Gender difference is merely a construct of society used to enforce the distinctions made between what is assumed to be female and male, and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the attribution of specific gender-related characteristics. \"The idea that men and women are more different from one another than either is from anything else, must come from something other than nature... far from being an expression of natural differences, exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex. Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes. These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social norms. Individuals are therefore socialized through their receipt of society's expectations of 'acceptable' gender attributes that are flaunted within institutions such as the family, the state and the media. Such a notion of 'gender' then becomes naturalized into a person's sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a sexed body.",
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"plaintext": "The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith Butler's theories of gender performativity. Butler argues that gender is not an expression of what one is, but rather something that one does. It follows then, that if gender is acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re-creating and effectively embedding itself within the social consciousness. Contemporary sociological reference to male and female gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them.",
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"plaintext": "The difference between the sociological and popular definitions of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus. For example, the sociological approach to \"gender\" (social roles: female versus male) focuses on the difference in (economic/power) position between a male CEO (disregarding the fact that he is heterosexual or homosexual) to female workers in his employ (disregarding whether they are straight or gay). However the popular sexual self-conception approach (self-conception: gay versus straight) focuses on the different self-conceptions and social conceptions of those who are gay/straight, in comparison with those who are straight (disregarding what might be vastly differing economic and power positions between female and male groups in each category). There is then, in relation to definition of and approaches to \"gender\", a tension between historic feminist sociology and contemporary homosexual sociology.",
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"plaintext": "A person's sex as male or female has legal significance—sex is indicated on government documents, and laws provide differently for men and women. Many pension systems have different retirement ages for men or women. Marriage is usually only available to opposite-sex couples; in some countries and jurisdictions there are same-sex marriage laws.",
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"plaintext": "The question then arises as to what legally determines whether someone is female or male. In most cases this can appear obvious, but the matter is complicated for intersex or transgender people. Different jurisdictions have adopted different answers to this question. Almost all countries permit changes of legal gender status in cases of intersexualism, when the gender assignment made at birth is determined upon further investigation to be biologically inaccurate—technically, however, this is not a change of status per se. Rather, it is recognition of a status deemed to exist but unknown from birth. Increasingly, jurisdictions also provide a procedure for changes of legal gender for transgender people.",
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"plaintext": "Gender assignment, when there are indications that genital sex might not be decisive in a particular case, is normally not defined by a single definition, but by a combination of conditions, including chromosomes and gonads. Thus, for example, in many jurisdictions a person with XY chromosomes but female gonads could be recognized as female at birth.",
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"plaintext": "The ability to change legal gender for transgender people in particular has given rise to the phenomena in some jurisdictions of the same person having different genders for the purposes of different areas of the law. For example, in Australia prior to the Re Kevin decisions, transsexual people could be recognized as having the genders they identified with under many areas of the law, including social security law, but not for the law of marriage. Thus, for a period, it was possible for the same person to have two different genders under Australian law.",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible in federal systems for the same person to have one gender under state or provincial law and a different gender under federal law.",
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"plaintext": "For intersex people, who according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, \"do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies\", access to any form of identification document with a gender marker may be an issue. For other intersex people, there may be issues in securing the same rights as other individuals assigned male or female; other intersex people may seek non-binary gender recognition.",
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"plaintext": "Some countries now legally recognize non-binary or third genders, including Canada, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, India and Pakistan. In the United States, Oregon was the first state to legally recognize non-binary gender in 2017, and was followed by California and the District of Columbia.",
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"plaintext": " Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. For example, the word for \"girl\" is muchacha (grammatically feminine) in Spanish, Mädchen (grammatically neuter) in German, and cailín (grammatically masculine) in Irish.",
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"plaintext": " The term \"grammatical gender\" is often applied to more complex noun class systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as well as some other non-gender features like animate, edible, manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter is found in the Dyirbal language. Other gender systems exist with no distinction between masculine and feminine; examples include a distinction between animate and inanimate things, which is common to, amongst others, Ojibwe, Basque and Hittite; and systems distinguishing between people (whether human or divine) and everything else, which are found in the Dravidian languages and Sumerian.",
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"plaintext": " A sample of the World Atlas of Language Structures by Greville G Corbett found that fewer than half of the 258 languages sampled have any system of grammatical gender. Of the remaining languages that feature grammatical gender, over half have more than the minimum requirement of two genders. Grammatical gender may be based on biological sex (which is the most common basis for grammatical gender), animacy, or other features, and may be based on a combination of these classes. One of the four genders of the Dyirbal language consists mainly of fruit and vegetables. Languages of the Niger-Congo language family can have as many as twenty genders, including plants, places, and shapes.",
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"plaintext": " Many languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men and women. Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more gender-neutral vocabulary in English and other languages.",
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"plaintext": " Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to differing degrees. See, for instance, Gender differences in Japanese. The oldest documented language, Sumerian, records a distinctive sub-language only used by female speakers. Conversely, many Indigenous Australian languages have distinctive registers with a limited lexicon used by men in the presence of their mothers-in-law (see Avoidance speech). As well, quite a few sign languages have a gendered distinction due to boarding schools segregated by gender, such as Irish Sign Language.",
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"plaintext": " Several languages such as Persian or Hungarian are gender-neutral. In Persian the same word is used in reference to men and women. Verbs, adjectives and nouns are not gendered. (See Gender-neutrality in genderless languages).",
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"plaintext": " Several languages employ different ways to refer to people where there are three or more genders, such as Navajo or Ojibwe.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate. Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century, women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields, such as home science, nursing, and child psychology. Women were also typically given tedious, low-paying jobs and denied opportunities for career advancement. This was often justified by the stereotype that women were naturally more suited to jobs that required concentration, patience, and dexterity, rather than creativity, leadership, or intellect. Although these stereotypes have been dispelled in modern times, women are still underrepresented in prestigious \"hard science\" fields such as physics, and are less likely to hold high-ranking positions, a situation global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 are trying to rectify.",
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"plaintext": "This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as gender of God and deities creation myths about human gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles especially ordination of women, sex segregation, gender equality, marriage, abortion, homosexuality).",
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"plaintext": "According to Kati Niemelä of the Church Research Institute, women are universally more religious than men. They believe that the difference in religiosity between genders is due to biological differences, for instance usually people seeking security in life are more religious, and as men are considered to be greater risk takers than women, they are less religious. Although religious fanaticism is more often seen in men than women.",
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"plaintext": "In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole.",
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"plaintext": "The male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and shining; the female principle corresponds to the moon: passive, shaded, and reflective. Male toughness was balanced by female gentleness, male action and initiative by female endurance and need for completion, and male leadership by female supportiveness.",
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"plaintext": "In Judaism, God is traditionally described in the masculine, but in the mystical tradition of the Kabbalah, the Shekhinah represents the feminine aspect of God's essence. However, Judaism traditionally holds that God is completely non-corporeal, and thus neither male nor female. Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding, traditional Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following Judaism's traditional gender roles, though many modern denominations of Judaism strive for greater egalitarianism. As well, traditional Jewish culture dictates that there are six genders.",
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"plaintext": "In Christianity, God is traditionally described in masculine terms and the Church has historically been described in feminine terms. On the other hand, Christian theology in many churches distinguishes between the masculine images used of God (Father, King, God the Son) and the reality they signify, which transcends gender, embodies all the virtues of both men and women perfectly, which may be seen through the doctrine of Imago Dei. In the New Testament, Jesus at several times mentions the Holy Spirit with the masculine pronoun i.e. John 15:26 among other verses. Hence, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (i.e. Trinity) are all mentioned with the masculine pronoun; though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the Christian triune God is contended.",
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"plaintext": "In Hinduism, one of the several forms of the Hindu God Shiva, is Ardhanarishwar (literally half-female God). Here Shiva manifests himself so that the left half is Female and the right half is Male. The left represents Shakti (energy, power) in the form of Goddess Parvati (otherwise his consort) and the right half Shiva. Whereas Parvati is the cause of arousal of Kama (desires), Shiva is the killer. Shiva is pervaded by the power of Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva.",
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"plaintext": "While the stone images may seem to represent a half-male and half-female God, the true symbolic representation is of a being the whole of which is Shiva and the whole of which is Shakti at the same time. It is a 3-D representation of only shakti from one angle and only Shiva from the other. Shiva and Shakti are hence the same being representing a collective of Jnana (knowledge) and Kriya (activity).",
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"plaintext": "Adi Shankaracharya, the founder of non-dualistic philosophy (Advaita–\"not two\") in Hindu thought says in his \"Saundaryalahari\"—Shivah Shaktayaa yukto yadi bhavati shaktah prabhavitum na che devum devona khalu kushalah spanditam api \" i.e., It is only when Shiva is united with Shakti that He acquires the capability of becoming the Lord of the Universe. In the absence of Shakti, He is not even able to stir. In fact, the term \"Shiva\" originated from \"Shva,\" which implies a dead body. It is only through his inherent shakti that Shiva realizes his true nature.",
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"plaintext": "This mythology projects the inherent view in ancient Hinduism, that each human carries within himself both female and male components, which are forces rather than sexes, and it is the harmony between the creative and the annihilative, the strong and the soft, the proactive and the passive, that makes a true person. Such thought, leave alone entail gender equality, in fact obliterates any material distinction between the male and female altogether. This may explain why in ancient India we find evidence of homosexuality, bisexuality, androgyny, multiple sex partners and open representation of sexual pleasures in artworks like the Khajuraho temples, being accepted within prevalent social frameworks.",
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"plaintext": "Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty. Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family. Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land, grinding grain, carrying water and cooking. Also, women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination, as men are more likely to receive higher pay, have more opportunities, and have overall more political and social capital then women. Approximately 75% of world's women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs. It shows that there are many women in the world's population but only a few represent world's wealth. In many countries, the financial sector largely neglects women even though they play an important role in the economy, as Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in D+C Development and Cooperation. In 1978 Diana M. Pearce coined the term feminization of poverty to describe the problem of women having higher rates of poverty. Women are more vulnerable to chronic poverty because of gender inequalities in the distribution of income, property ownership, credit, and control over earned income. Resource allocation is typically gender-biased within households, and continue on a higher level regarding state institutions.",
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"plaintext": "Gender and Development (GAD) is a holistic approach to give aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of not improving the social and economic development. It is a program focused on the gender development of women to empower them and decrease the level of inequality between men and women.",
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"plaintext": "The largest discrimination study of the transgender community, conducted in 2013, found that the transgender community is four times more likely to live in extreme poverty (income of less than $10,000 a year) than people who are cisgender.",
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"plaintext": "According to general strain theory, studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts. These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non-violent neighborhoods. By noticing the independent variables (neighborhood violence) and the dependent variable (individual violence), it's possible to analyze gender roles. The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus, which would create a negative effect (strain) within individual, which is either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment. Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically.",
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"plaintext": "Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger. Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead. Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety and depression. Women view anger as a sign that they've somehow lost control, and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and/or damage relationships. On the other end of the spectrum, men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity. According to the general strain theory, men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others.",
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"plaintext": "Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to international development issues. This often means a focus on gender-equality, ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community.",
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"plaintext": "Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science. Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender-differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization.",
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"plaintext": "Roehr notes that, while the United Nations officially committed to gender mainstreaming, in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies. This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men.",
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"plaintext": "Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in 'masculine' principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms 'epistemic injustice'.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, MacGregor attests that by framing climate change as an issue of 'hard' natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity.",
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"plaintext": "Gender roles and stereotypes have slowly started to change in society within the past few decades. These changes occur mostly in communication, but more specifically during social interactions. The ways in which people communicate and socialize have also started to change due to advancements in technology. One of the biggest reasons for this change is the growth of social media.",
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"plaintext": "Over the past few years, the use of social media globally has started to rise. This rise can be attributed to the abundance of technology available for use among youth. Recent studies suggest that men and women value and use technology differently. Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57% of Facebook users are women, which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media. On average women have 8% more friends and account for 62% of posts that are shared via Facebook. Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures, women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family. Hayat, Lesser and Samuel-Azran (2017) have further shown that while men write more posts in social networking sites, women commented on other people's posts more often. They further showed that women's posts enjoyed higher popularity than men's posts.",
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"plaintext": "Social media is more than just the communication of words. With social media increasing in popularity, pictures have come to play a large role in how many people communicate. Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57% of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention. Moreover, 58% of women and 45% of men don't look into the camera, which creates an illusion of withdrawal. Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways. Research has found that images shared online through social networking sites help establish personal self-reflections that individuals want to share with the world.",
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"plaintext": "According to recent research, gender plays a strong role in structuring our social lives, especially since society assigns and creates \"male\" and \"female\" categories. Individuals in society might be able to learn the similarities between gender rather than the differences. Social media helps create more equality, because every individual is able to self-express however they like. Every individual also has the right to express their opinion, even though some might disagree, but it still gives each gender an equal amount of power to be heard.",
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"plaintext": "Young adults in the U.S. frequently use social networking sites as a way to connect and communicate with one another, as well as to satisfy their curiosity. Adolescent girls generally use social networking sites as a tool to communicate with peers and reinforce existing relationships; boys on the other hand tend to use social networking sites as a tool to meet new friends and acquaintances. Furthermore, social networking sites have allowed individuals to truly express themselves, as they are able to create an identity and socialize with other individuals that can relate. Social networking sites have also given individuals access to create a space where they feel more comfortable about their sexuality. Recent research has indicated that social media is becoming a stronger part of younger individuals' media culture, as more intimate stories are being told via social media and are being intertwined with gender, sexuality, and relationships.",
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"plaintext": "Teens are avid internet and social media users in the United States. Research has found that almost all U.S. teens (95%) aged 12 through 17 are online, compared to only 78% of adults. Of these teens, 80% have profiles on social media sites, as compared to only 64% of the online population aged 30 and older. According to a study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, 11-to-18-year-olds spend on average over one and a half hours a day using a computer and 27 minutes per day visiting social network sites, i.e. the latter accounts for about one fourth of their daily computer use.",
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"plaintext": "Teen girls and boys differ in what they post in their online profiles. Studies have shown that female users tend to post more \"cute\" pictures, while male participants were more likely to post pictures of themselves in activities. Women in the U.S. also tend to post more pictures of friends, while men tend to post more about sports and humorous links. The study also found that males would post more alcohol and sexual references. The roles were reversed however, when looking at a teenage dating site: women made sexual references significantly more often than males.",
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"plaintext": "Boys share more personal information, such as their hometown and phone number, while girls are more conservative about the personal information they allow to go public on these social networking sites. Boys, meanwhile, are more likely to orient towards technology, sports, and humor in the information they post to their profile.",
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"plaintext": "Social media goes beyond the role of helping individuals express themselves, as it has grown to help individuals create relationships, particularly romantic relationships. A large number of social media users have found it easier to create relationships in a less direct approach, compared to a traditional approach of awkwardly asking for someone's number.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Gender and society",
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"plaintext": "Social media plays a big role when it comes to communication between genders. Therefore, it's important to understand how gender stereotypes develop during online interactions. Research in the 1990s suggested that different genders display certain traits, such as being active, attractive, dependent, dominant, independent, sentimental, sexy, and submissive, in online interaction. Even though these traits continue to be displayed through gender stereotypes, recent studies show that this isn't necessarily the case any more.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Gender and society",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Androcentrism",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
244119
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Anti-gender movement",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
64764584
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Biological determinism",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
49246
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coloniality of gender",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
36061852
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gender and politics",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
65930780
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gender bender",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1810753
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gender paradox",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
41332643
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gynocentrism",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
20291651
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Postgenderism",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3975826
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sexism",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
27165
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sex ratio",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
503581
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " GenPORT: Your gateway to gender and science resources",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Gender",
"Sociological_theories",
"Feminism"
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"plaintext": "The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński (UJ)) is a public research university in Kraków, Poland. Founded in 1364 by King Casimir III the Great, it is the oldest university in Poland and the 13th oldest university in continuous operation in the world. It is regarded as Poland's most prestigious academic institution. The university has been viewed as a guardian of Polish culture, particularly for continuing operations during the partitions of Poland and the two World Wars, as well as a significant contributor to the intellectual heritage of Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The campus of the Jagiellonian University is centrally located within the city of Kraków. The university consists of thirteen main faculties, in addition to three faculties composing the Collegium Medicum. It employs roughly 4,000 academics and provides education to more than 35,000 students who study in 166 fields. The main language of instruction is Polish, although around 30 degrees are offered in English and some in German. The university library is among the largest of its kind and houses a number of medieval manuscripts, including the landmark De Revolutionibus by alumnus Nicolaus Copernicus.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to Copernicus, the university's notable alumni include heads of state King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II, and Andrzej Duda; Polish prime ministers Beata Szydło and Józef Cyrankiewicz; renowned cultural figures Jan Kochanowski, Stanisław Lem, and Krzysztof Penderecki; and leading intellectuals and researchers such as Hugo Kołłątaj, Bronisław Malinowski, Carl Menger, Leo Sternbach, and Norman Davies. Four Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university, all in literature: Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska, who studied there, and Czesław Miłosz and Olga Tokarczuk, who taught there. Faculty and graduates of the university have been elected to the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Royal Society, the British Academy, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and other honorary societies.",
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"plaintext": "The Jagiellonian University is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. The CWTS Leiden Ranking, which reviews the scientific performance of more than 1,200 global universities, has placed the university at #1 in Poland, #74 regionally, and #250 globally.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-14th century, King Casimir III the Great realised that the nation needed a class of educated people, especially lawyers, who could arrange a better set of the country's laws and administer the courts and offices. His efforts to found an institution of higher learning in Poland were rewarded when Pope Urban V granted him permission to set up a university in Kraków. A royal charter of foundation was issued on 12 May 1364, and a simultaneous document was issued by the city council granting privileges to the Studium Generale.",
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"plaintext": "Development of the University of Kraków stalled upon the death of its founder (King Casimir), and lectures were held in various places across the city, including, amongst others, in professors' houses, churches and in the cathedral school on the Wawel Hill. It is believed that the construction of a building to house the Studium Generale began on Plac Wolnica in what is today the district of Kazimierz.",
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"plaintext": "After a period of low interest and lack of funds, the institution was restored in the 1390s by Jadwiga, king of Poland, the daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland. The royal couple, Jadwiga and her husband Władysław II Jagiełło decided that, instead of building new premises for the university, it would be better to buy an existing edifice; it was thus that a building on Żydowska Street, which had previously been the property of the Pęcherz family, was acquired in 1399. The Queen donated all of her personal jewelry to the university, allowing it to enroll 203 students. The faculties of astronomy, law and theology attracted eminent scholars: for example, John Cantius, Stanisław of Skarbimierz, Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Głogów, and Albert Brudzewski, who from 1491 to 1495 was one of Nicolaus Copernicus' teachers. The university was the first university in Europe to establish independent chairs in Mathematics and Astronomy. This rapid expansion in the university's faculty necessitated the purchase of larger premises in which to house them; it was thus that the building known today as the Collegium Maius, with its quadrangle and beautiful arcade, came into being towards the beginning of the 15th century. The Collegium Maius''' qualities, many of which directly contributed to the sheltered, academic atmosphere at the university, became widely respected, helping the university establish its reputation as a place of learning in Central Europe.",
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"plaintext": "For several centuries, almost the entire intellectual elite of Poland was educated at the university, where they enjoyed particular royal favors. While it was, and largely remains, Polish students who make up the majority of the university's students, it has, over its long history, educated thousands of foreign students from countries such as Lithuania, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia, Germany, and Spain. During the second half of the 15th century, over 40 percent of students came from the outside of the Kingdom of Poland.",
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"plaintext": "The first chancellor of the university was Piotr Wysz, and the first professors were Czechs, Germans and Poles, most of them trained at the Charles University in Prague. By 1520 Greek philology was introduced by Constanzo Claretti and Wenzel von Hirschberg; Hebrew was also taught. At this time, the Collegium Maius consisted of seven reading rooms, six of which were named for the great ancient scholars: Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Galen, Ptolemy, and Pythagoras. Furthermore, it was during this period that the faculties of Law, Medicine, Theology, and Philosophy were established in their own premises; two of these buildings, the Collegium Iuridicum and Collegium Minus, survive to this day. The golden era of the University of Kraków took place during the Polish Renaissance, between 1500 and 1535, when it was attended by 3,215 students in the first decade of the 16th century, and it was in these years that the foundations for the Jagiellonian Library were set, which allowed for the addition of a library floor to the Collegium Maius. The library's original rooms in which all books were chained to their cases in order to prevent theft are no longer used as such. However, they are still occasionally opened to host visiting lecturers' talks.",
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"plaintext": "As the university's popularity, along with that of the ever more provincial Kraków's, declined in later centuries, the number of students attending the university also fell and, as such, the attendance record set in the early 16th-century wasn't surpassed until the late 18th century. This phenomenon was recorded as part of a more general economic and political decline seen in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was suffering from the effects of poor governance and the policies of hostile neighbors at the time. In fact, despite a number of expansion projects during the late 18th century, many of the university's buildings had fallen into disrepair and were being used for a range of other purposes; in the university's archives, there is one entry which reads: 'Nobody lives in the building, nothing happens there. If the lecture halls underwent refurbishment they could be rented out to accommodate a laundry'. This period thus represents one of the darkest periods in the university's history and is almost certainly the one during which the closure of the institution seemed most imminent.",
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"plaintext": "After the third partition of Poland in 1795 and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars, Kraków became a free city under the protection of the Austrian Empire; this, however, was not to last long. In 1846, after the Kraków Uprising, the city and its university became part of the Austrian Empire. The Austrians were in many ways hostile to the institution and, soon after their arrival, removed many of the furnishings from the Collegium Maius' Auditorium Maximum in order to convert it into a grain store. However, the threat of closure of the University was ultimately dissipated by Ferdinand I of Austria's decree to maintain it. By the 1870s the fortunes of the university had improved so greatly that many scholars had returned. The liquefaction of nitrogen and oxygen was successfully demonstrated by professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski in 1883. Thereafter the Austrian authorities took on a new role in the development of the university and provided funds for the construction of a number of new buildings, including the neo-gothic Collegium Novum, which opened in 1887. It was, conversely, from this building that in 1918 a large painting of Kaiser Franz Joseph was removed and destroyed by Polish students advocating the reestablishment of an independent Polish state.",
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"plaintext": "For the 500th anniversary of the university's foundation, a monument to Copernicus was placed in the quadrangle of the Collegium Maius; this statue is now to be found in the direct vicinity of the Collegium Novum, outside the Collegium Witkowskiego, to where it was moved in 1953. Nevertheless, it was in the Grzegórzecka and the Kopernika areas that much of the university's expansion took place up to 1918; during this time the Collegium Medicum was relocated to a site just east of the centre, and was expanded with the addition of a number of modern teaching hospitals – this 'medical campus' remains to this day. By the late 1930s, the number of students at the university had increased dramatically to almost six thousand. Now a major centre for education in the independent Republic of Poland, the university attained government support for the purchase of building plots for new premises, as a result of which a number of residencies were built for students and professors alike. However, of all the projects begun during this era, the most important would have to be the creation of the Jagiellonian Library. The library's monumental building, construction of which began in 1931, was finally completed towards the end of the interwar period, which allowed the university's many varied literary collections to be relocated to their new home by the outbreak of war in 1939.",
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"plaintext": "On November 6, 1939, following the Nazi invasion of Poland, 184 professors were arrested and deported to Sachsenhausen concentration camp during an operation codenamed Sonderaktion Krakau (Special Operation Krakow). The university, along with the rest of Poland's higher and secondary education, was closed for the remainder of World War II. Despite the university's reopening after the cessation of hostilities in 1945, the new government of Poland was hostile to the teachings of the pre-war university and the faculty was suppressed by the Communists in 1954. By 1957 the Polish government decided that it would invest in the establishment of new facilities near Jordan Park and expansion of other smaller existing facilities. Construction work proved slow and many of the stated goals were never achieved; it was this poor management that eventually led a number of scholars to openly criticise the government for its apparent lack of interest in educational development and disregard for the university's future. A number of new buildings, such as the Collegium Paderevianum, were built with funds from the legacy of Ignacy Paderewski.",
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"plaintext": "By 1989 Poland had overthrown its Communist government. In that same year, the Jagiellonian University successfully completed the purchase of its first building plot in Pychowice, Kraków, where, from 2000, construction of a new complex of university buildings, the so-called Third Campus, began. The new campus, officially named the '600th Anniversary Campus', was developed in conjunction with the new LifeScience Park, which is managed by the Jagiellonian Centre for Innovation, the university's research consortium. Public funds earmarked for the project amounted to 946.5million zlotys, or 240million euros. Poland's entry into the European Union in 2004 has proved instrumental in improving the fortunes of the Jagiellonian University, which has seen huge increases in funding from both central government and European authorities, allowing it to develop new departments, research centres, and better support the work of its students and academics.",
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"plaintext": "The university's academic advancement in both Poland and abroad is illustrated by its widely recognized research achievements. The scientists and physicians from the Collegium Medicum carry out pioneer studies, e.g. in cardiac surgery, urology and neurology, often leading to the development of novel treatment methods. Their findings have been published in international journals such as European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Medicine, New England Journal of Medicine, and The Lancet. UJ archaeologists lead explorations of ancient sites in various parts of the world, including Egypt, Cyprus, Central America, South Asia and Altay. The astronomers take part in major international projects, including H.E.S.S. and VIPERS. The work of UJ bio-technologists has been published in journals, such as Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, Molecular Ecology Resources, and European Journal of Human Genetics.",
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"plaintext": "In the English-speaking world, the Jagiellonian University has international partnerships with the University of Cambridge, University of Melbourne, University of Chicago, University of California, Los Angeles, London School of Economics, University of Rochester, University of California, Irvine, Case Western Reserve University. In the French-speaking world, partner universities include the Sorbonne, University of Montpellier. UJ also maintains strong academic partnership with Heidelberg University, Germany's oldest university. The Jagiellonian University offers specializations in German law, in conjunction with Heidelberg University and Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz.",
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"plaintext": "Other cooperation agreements exist with Charles University Prague, University of Vienna, University of Tokyo, Saint Petersburg State University, Technical University of Munich, and Free University of Berlin.",
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"plaintext": "The university's main library, the Jagiellonian Library (Biblioteka Jagiellońska), is one of Poland's largest, with almost 6.5million volumes; it is a constituent of the Polish National Libraries system. It is home to a world-renowned collection of medieval manuscripts, which includes Copernicus' De Revolutionibus, the Balthasar Behem Codex and the Berlinka. The library also has an extensive collection of underground political literature (so-called drugi obieg or samizdat) from Poland's period of Communist rule between 1945 and 1989.",
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"plaintext": " Ludwik Rydygier (1850–1920), general surgeon",
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"plaintext": " Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz (1850–1921), pathologist, discovered the Artery of Adamkiewicz and the Adamkiewicz reaction",
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"plaintext": " Edmund Załęski (1863–1932), agrotechnician and chemist",
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"plaintext": "In 1851, the university's first student scientific association was founded. In 2021, over 70 student scientific associations exist at the Jagiellonian University, most of them affiliated with Collegium Medicum. Usually, their purpose is to promote students' scientific achievements by organizing lecture sessions, science excursions, and international student conferences, such as the International Workshop for Young Mathematicians, which is organized by the Zaremba Association of Mathematicians.",
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"plaintext": "List of medieval universities",
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38,079 | 1,107,851,154 | Narcotic | [
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"plaintext": "The best example is the definition of narcotics in the United Nations Conventions. Narcotics are substances and preparations that induce drowsiness, sleep, stupor, insensibility, etc., and that these effects (and their rate) are complicated to prove, e.g. during litigation. Thus, the legal definition of a narcotic is whether or not it is listed on the Schedules of the convention. If it is on some of the Schedules, it is narcotic.",
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"plaintext": "The term usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. In common parlance and legal usage, it is often used imprecisely to mean illicit drugs, irrespective of their pharmacology. For example, narcotics control legislation in Canada, the US, and certain other countries includes cocaine and cannabis as well as opioids (see also conventions, international drug). Because of this variation in usage, the term is best replaced by one with a more specific meaning (e.g. opioid).",
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"plaintext": "Section 1300.01 Definitions relating to controlled substances:",
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"plaintext": "expanded and revised definition of \"narcotic drug\", including within term poppy straw, cocaine, and ecgonine.",
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"plaintext": "608 F.2d 1135",
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"plaintext": "The term \"narcotic\" is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that numb or deaden, causing paralysis or loss of feeling. It is based on the Greek word ναρκωσις (narcosis), the term used by Hippocrates for the process of numbing or the numbed state. Galen listed mandrake root, altercus (eclata), seeds, and poppy juice (opium) as the chief examples. It originally referred to any substance that relieved pain, dulled the senses, or induced sleep. Now, the term is used in many ways. Some people might define narcotics as substances that bind at opioid receptors (cellular membrane proteins activated by substances like heroin or morphine), while others refer to any illicit substance as a narcotic. From a U.S. legal perspective, narcotics refer to opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes, though in U.S. law, due to its numbing properties, cocaine is also considered a narcotic.",
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"plaintext": "New forms of existing pain medications are being created regularly. The newest formulation to come out was in 2014 when zohydro, an increased dosage formula of hydrocodone, was released; this is so far the strongest hydrocodone formulation created for pain management, on par with a moderate dose of oxycodone .",
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"plaintext": "Analgesics are drugs that relieve pain. There are two main types: non-narcotic analgesics for mild pain, and narcotic analgesics for severe pain.",
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"plaintext": " Pharmer.org—A non-profit site providing detailed descriptions of most narcotic analgesics",
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"plaintext": " List of controlled substances, some of which are classified as \"narcotics\", in the U.S. Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Not all of the classified ones are chemically narcotic, as described at the top of this page.",
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"plaintext": "Although there was a pronouncement by NASA during the mission saying that the Viking lander results did not demonstrate conclusive biosignatures in soils at the two landing sites, the test results and their limitations are still under assessment. The validity of the positive 'Labeled Release' (LR) results hinged entirely on the absence of an oxidative agent in the Martian soil, but one was later discovered by the Phoenix lander in the form of perchlorate salts. It has been proposed that organic compounds could have been present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and Viking 2, but remained unnoticed due to the presence of perchlorate, as detected by Phoenix in 2008. Researchers found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars.",
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"plaintext": "The question of microbial life on Mars remains unresolved. Nonetheless, on April 12, 2012, an international team of scientists reported studies, based on mathematical speculation through complexity analysis of the Labeled Release experiments of the 1976 Viking Mission, that may suggest the detection of \"extant microbial life on Mars.\" In addition, new findings from re-examination of the Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) results were published in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "The leader of the imaging team was Thomas A. Mutch, a geologist at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. The camera uses a movable mirror to illuminate 12 photo diodes. Each of the 12 silicon diodes are designed to be sensitive to different frequences of light. Several diodes are placed to focus accurately at distances between six and 43 feet away from the lander.",
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"plaintext": "The cameras scanned at a rate of five vertical scan lines per second, each composed of 512 pixels. The 300 degree panorama images were composed of 9150 lines. The cameras’ scan was slow enough that in a crew shot taken during development of the imaging system several members show up several times in the shot as they moved themselves as the camera scanned.",
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"plaintext": "The Viking landers used a Guidance, Control and Sequencing Computer (GCSC) consisting of two Honeywell HDC 402 24-bit computers with 18K of plated-wire memory, while the Viking orbiters used a Command Computer Subsystem (CCS) using two custom-designed 18-bit serial processors.",
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"plaintext": "The two orbiters cost US$217million at the time, which is about $billion in dollars. The most expensive single part of the program was the lander's life-detection unit, which cost about $60 million then or $million in dollars. Development of the Viking lander design cost $357million. This was decades before NASA's \"faster, better, cheaper\" approach, and Viking needed to pioneer unprecedented technologies under national pressure brought on by the Cold War and the aftermath of the Space Race, all under the prospect of possibly discovering extraterrestrial life for the first time. The experiments had to adhere to a special 1971 directive that mandated that no single failure shall stop the return of more than one experimenta difficult and expensive task for a device with over 40,000 parts.",
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"plaintext": "The Viking camera system cost $27.3million to develop, or about $million in dollars. When the Imaging system design was completed, it was difficult to find anyone who could manufacture its advanced design. The program managers were later praised for fending off pressure to go with a simpler, less advanced imaging system, especially when the views rolled in. The program did however save some money by cutting out a third lander and reducing the number of experiments on the lander.",
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"plaintext": "Overall NASA says that $1billion in 1970s dollars was spent on the program, which when inflation-adjusted to dollars is about $billion.",
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"plaintext": "The craft all eventually failed, one by one, as follows:",
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"plaintext": "The Viking program ended on May 21, 1983. To prevent an imminent impact with Mars the orbit of Viking 1 orbiter was raised on August 7, 1980, before it was shut down 10 days later. Impact and potential contamination on the planet's surface is possible from 2019 onwards.",
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"plaintext": "The Viking 1 lander was found to be about 6 kilometers from its planned landing site by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in December 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Each Viking lander carried a tiny dot of microfilm containing the names of several thousand people who had worked on the mission. Several earlier space probes had carried message artifacts, such as the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record. Later probes also carried memorials or lists of names, such as the Perseverance rover which recognizes the almost 11 million people who signed up to include their names on the mission.",
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"plaintext": " Viking Orbiter Views of Mars",
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"plaintext": " Analytical Chemistry feature article about the Viking spacecraft's scientific mission",
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"plaintext": " Viking '75 spacecraft design and test summary. Volume 1 Lander design – NASA Report ",
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"plaintext": " NASA Mars Viking Mission",
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"plaintext": " Solar Views Project Viking Fact Sheet",
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"plaintext": " Viking Mission to Mars Video",
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"plaintext": " A diagram of the Viking and its flight profile",
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"plaintext": " Article at Smithsonian Air and Space Website",
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"plaintext": "The Viking Mars Missions Education & Preservation Project (VMMEPP) ",
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"plaintext": "VMMEPP Online exhibit",
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"plaintext": " 45 years ago: Viking 1 Touches Down on Mars",
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38,088 | 1,107,034,487 | Powaqqatsi | [
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"plaintext": "Powaqqatsi (or Powaqqatsi: Life in Transformation) is a 1988 American non-narrative film directed by Godfrey Reggio and the sequel to Reggio's experimental 1982 film, Koyaanisqatsi. It is the second film in the Qatsi trilogy.",
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"plaintext": "Powaqqatsi is a Hopi neologism coined by Reggio meaning \"parasitic way of life\" or \"life in transition\". While Koyaanisqatsi focused on modern life in industrial countries, Powaqqatsi, which similarly has no dialogue, focuses more on the conflict in Third World countries between traditional ways of life and the new ways of life introduced with industrialization. As with Koyaanisqatsi and the third and final part of the 'Qatsi' trilogy, Naqoyqatsi, the film is strongly related to its soundtrack, written by Philip Glass.",
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"plaintext": "In the beginning chapter, Serra Pelada, men from Serra Pelada (a gold mine in Brazil) are seen carrying bags of dirt up to a destination. In the middle of the chapter, various shots outside of Serra Pelada are shown. Near the end of the chapter, a few men are carrying another man who was struck by a falling rock (mentioned in the \"Impact of Progress\" feature on the DVD/Blu-ray) uphill along a procession of workers who are carrying dirt-filled sacks. After that, several discordant layered exposures of the dirt carriers are shown. The scene cross fades to show the image of a head, with multiple exposures of the same head rapidly rotating and layered upon to give a manifold appearance. This is an apparent allusion to Janus, the god of beginnings, endings and transitions, keeping with the film's central themes of progress and change.",
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"plaintext": "In Anthem: Part 1, the sun rises up above an African village. Later, a man raises a sail for a boat. The next chapter, That Place, starts zooming out from a waterfall. Children can be heard laughing. Villages are shown as well as children and upside down water reflections. Anthem: Part 2 has various shots of villages and islands shown.",
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"plaintext": "Mosque and Temple shows various natural shots as well as religious scenes. Some of these scenes are a transparent inside a church with someone walking by, a man praying, a monk sitting while a bird flies off his stick, the same monk walking by the river, a bird flying by a sunset, more children, crows flying above a river, two men rowing their boat in that river, a woman praying in the Ganges river, two men practicing yoga, another monk, and a temple in Nepal.",
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"plaintext": "Anthem: Part 3 shows masses of people in motion, working together and celebrating traditional rituals, in Africa and South America, all in slow-motion.",
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"plaintext": "Video Dream blends together colorful television advertisements and news programs from the US, Western Europe, the Soviet Union and Japan.",
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"plaintext": "New Cities In Ancient Lands has views of people on the move, and traffic in three parts: China, Africa and India.",
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"plaintext": "The Unutterable/Caught! People in large groups in the developing world, moving together, at work; views of traffic from above.",
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"plaintext": "Mr. Suso / From Egypt Sometimes-unfocused people in motion, to the muezzin's call, ghostly double-images of traffic, close-ups of faces, reflections in water.",
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"plaintext": "A soundtrack was produced in 1988 that was composed by Philip Glass.",
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"plaintext": "Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63% out of 8 reviews were positive with the average score of 6.8 out of 10 and said it \"wasn't as eagerly embraced by viewers and critics as its popular predecessor.\"",
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"plaintext": "The New York Times said \"There are two kinds of dirt to be found in Powaqqatsi: good dirt and bad. ... [the director] magnifies this distinction until it achieves mountainous proportions, yet still he manages to see it in starkly one-dimensional terms.\" Roger Ebert said \"There are images of astonishing beauty in Godfrey Reggio's \"Powaqqatsi,\" sequences when we marvel at the sights of the Earth, and yet when the film is over there is the feeling that we are still waiting for it to begin. ... Reggio seemed to think that man himself is some kind of virus infecting the planet - that we would enjoy Earth more, in other words, if we weren't here.\" On Siskel and Ebert at the Movies with he and Gene Siskel each agreed to give the film a thumbs down, he also called it a \"New Age music video\".",
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"plaintext": "Time Out said that it is \"visually stunning, but undermined by a fairly serious flaw. ... At best the message is a fairly obvious criticism of First World domination of the Third, and at worst a hippy celebration of the Dignity of Labour.\" Greg Klymkiw said \"... the trilogy, [of which Powaqqatsi is the second part] while a stoner experience of the first order, can be equally appreciated by those who remain straight. Much of it is mind-blowingly mind-fucking without mind-altering substances.\"",
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"plaintext": " The music from Anthem: Part 2 was used in and is now best associated with the 1998 film The Truman Show. it was also used in several film trailers, including that of Dead Man Walking.",
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"plaintext": " The Criterion Collection released it as part of the Qatsi trilogy set.",
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"plaintext": " Footage from the film — the same that was used for its poster — was used in the 1990 television special The Earth Day Special during a sequence in which Dr. Emmett Brown from the Back to the Future shows Doogie Howser, M.D. what the Earth's future looks like unless something is done about pollution.",
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"plaintext": " Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance (1982)",
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"plaintext": " Chronos (1985)",
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"plaintext": " Naqoyqatsi: Life as War (2002)",
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"plaintext": " Baraka (1992)",
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"plaintext": "The Qatsi Trilogy: Geologic Scale and Human Scale an essay by Bill McKibben at the Criterion Collection",
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"plaintext": "Official trailer",
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38,089 | 1,092,678,751 | Gender_changer | [
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"plaintext": "An example is a cable connector shell with either two female or two male connectors on it (male-to-male or female-to-female), used to correct the mismatches that result when interconnecting two devices or cables with the same gender of connector. ",
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"plaintext": "Gender changers are used for RS-232C ports in either the original DB-25 or the IBM AT DE-9 format. They are also used when extending any sort of cable that normally has plugs on both ends (rather than a socket on one and plug on the other), however in this case it is usually called just an \"extender\", such as with F connectors, BNC connectors, and various RJ connectors used in telephony and computer networking.",
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"plaintext": "Gender changers are used in professional audio to adapt XLR connectors, RCA connectors, Speakon connectors and TRS phone connectors.",
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38,090 | 1,106,484,941 | Così_fan_tutte | [
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"plaintext": " (All Women Do It, or The School for Lovers), K. 588, is an opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna, Austria. The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte who also wrote Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is commonly held that was written and composed at the suggestion of the Emperor Joseph II, recent research does not support this idea. There is evidence that Mozart's contemporary Antonio Salieri tried to set the libretto but left it unfinished. In 1994, John Rice uncovered two terzetti by Salieri in the Austrian National Library.",
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"plaintext": "The short title, Così fan tutte, literally means \"So do they all\", using the feminine plural (tutte) to indicate women. It is usually translated into English as \"Women are like that\". The words are sung by the three men in act 2, scene 3, just before the finale; this melodic phrase is also quoted in the overture to the opera. Da Ponte had used the line \"Così fan tutte le belle\" earlier in Le nozze di Figaro (in act 1, scene 7).",
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"plaintext": "The first performance of Mozart's setting took place at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 26 January 1790. It was given only five times before the run was stopped by the death of the Emperor Joseph II and the resulting period of court mourning. It was performed twice in June 1790 with the composer conducting the second performance, and again in July (twice) and August (once). After that it was not performed in Vienna during Mozart's lifetime. The first British performance was in May 1811 at the King's Theatre, London. Così fan tutte was not performed in the United States until 1922, when it was given at the Metropolitan Opera.",
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"plaintext": "According to William Mann, Mozart disliked prima donna Adriana Ferrarese del Bene, da Ponte's arrogant mistress for whom the role of Fiordiligi had been created. Knowing her idiosyncratic tendency to drop her chin on low notes and throw back her head on high ones, Mozart filled her showpiece aria \"Come scoglio\" with constant leaps from low to high and high to low in order to make Ferrarese's head \"bob like a chicken\" onstage.",
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"plaintext": "The subject matter (see synopsis below) did not offend Viennese sensibilities of the time, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries was considered risqué, vulgar, and even immoral. The opera was rarely performed, and when it did appear it was presented in one of several bowdlerised versions.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II it regained a place in the standard operatic repertoire and is now frequently performed.",
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"plaintext": "A reworking of the music, (also using other music by Mozart) was carried out by Finnish National Opera in their 2020 production, Covid fan tutte.",
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"plaintext": "While the use of modern fach titles and voice categories for these roles has become customary, Mozart was far more general in his own descriptions of the voice types: Fiordiligi (soprano), Dorabella (soprano), Guglielmo (bass), Ferrando (tenor), Despina (soprano), and Don Alfonso (bass). Occasionally these modern voice types are varied in performance practice. Don Alfonso is more frequently performed by baritones such as Thomas Allen and Bo Skovhus and Dorabella is almost always performed by a mezzo-soprano. In the ensembles, Guglielmo's music lies lower than Alfonso's, and accordingly has been performed by basses such as James Morris and Wladimiro Ganzarolli, and Despina is occasionally (though far less often than the other three instances cited here) performed by a mezzo, such as Cecilia Bartoli, Frederica von Stade, Agnes Baltsa and Ann Murray. Ferrando and Fiordiligi, however, can only be sung by a tenor and a soprano because of the high tessitura of their roles.",
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"plaintext": " Woodwinds: 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons. Fiordiligi's aria \"Per pietà, ben mio, perdona\", act 2, contains a rare instance of clarinets in B-natural (key of the aria is E major which transposes to F major for the clarinet part, explaining the use of B clarinets). In most modern editions this is made into a part for A clarinets. The NMA keeps the notation for the B clarinet. There is evidence that some of the clarinet writing was intended for basset clarinet due to its low range.",
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"plaintext": " Brass: 2 horns, 2 clarini.",
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"plaintext": " Strings: first violins, second violins, violas, violoncellos, double basses.",
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"plaintext": " Basso continuo in secco recitatives of harpsichord and violoncello (period performance practice often uses a fortepiano only).",
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"plaintext": "Mozart and Da Ponte use the theme of \"fiancée swapping\", which dates back to the 13th century; notable earlier versions are found in Boccaccio's Decameron and Shakespeare's play Cymbeline. Elements from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice and The Taming of the Shrew are also present. Furthermore, it incorporates elements of the myth of Procris as found in Ovid's Metamorphoses, vii.",
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"plaintext": "Place: Naples",
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"plaintext": "Time: the 18th century",
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"plaintext": "In a cafe, Ferrando and Guglielmo (two officers) express certainty that their fiancées (Dorabella and Fiordiligi, respectively) will be eternally faithful. Don Alfonso expresses skepticism and claims that there is no such thing as a faithful woman. He lays a wager with the two officers, claiming he can prove in a day's time that those two, like all women, are fickle. The wager is accepted: the two officers will pretend to have been called off to war; soon thereafter they will return in disguise and each attempt to seduce the other's lover. The scene shifts to the two women, who are praising their men (duet: \"Ah guarda sorella\"—\"Ah look sister\"). Alfonso arrives to announce the bad news: the officers have been called off to war. Ferrando and Guglielmo arrive, brokenhearted, and bid farewell (quintet: \"Sento, o Dio, che questo piede è restio\"—\"I feel, oh God, that my foot is reluctant\"). As the boat with the men sails off to sea, Alfonso and the sisters wish them safe travel (trio: \"Soave sia il vento\"—\"May the wind be gentle\"). Alfonso, left alone, gloatingly predicts that the women (like all women) will prove unfaithful (arioso: \"Oh, poverini, per femmina giocare cento zecchini?\"—\"Oh, poor little ones, to wager 100 sequins on a woman\").",
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"plaintext": "Despina, the maid, arrives and asks what is wrong. Dorabella bemoans the torment of having been left alone (aria: \"Smanie implacabili\"—\"Torments implacable\"). Despina mocks the sisters, advising them to take new lovers while their betrotheds are away (aria: \"In uomini, in soldati, sperare fedeltà?\"—\"In men, in soldiers, you hope for faithfulness?\"). After they leave, Alfonso arrives. He fears Despina will recognize the men through their disguises, so he bribes her into helping him to win the bet. The two men then arrive, dressed as mustachioed Albanians (sextet: \"Alla bella Despinetta\"—\"Meet the pretty Despinetta\"). The sisters enter and are alarmed by the presence of strange men in their home. The \"Albanians\" tell the sisters that they were led by love to them (the sisters). However, the sisters refuse to give in. Fiordiligi asks the \"Albanians\" to leave and pledges to remain faithful (aria: \"Come scoglio\"—\"Like a rock\"). The \"Albanians\" continue the attempt to win over the sisters' hearts, Guglielmo going so far as to point out all of his manly attributes (aria: \"Non siate ritrosi\"—\"Don't be shy\"), but to no avail. Ferrando, left alone and sensing victory, praises his love (aria: \"Un'aura amorosa\"—\"A loving breath\").",
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"plaintext": "The sisters are still pining. Despina has asked Don Alfonso to let her take over the seduction plan. Suddenly, the \"Albanians\" burst in the scene and threaten to poison themselves if they are not allowed the chance to woo the sisters. As Alfonso tries to calm them, they drink the \"poison\" and pretend to pass out. Soon thereafter, a \"doctor\" (Despina in disguise) arrives on the scene and, using magnet therapy, is able to revive the \"Albanians\". The men, pretending to hallucinate, demand a kiss from Dorabella and Fiordiligi (whom the \"Albanians\" call goddesses) who stand before them. The sisters refuse, even as Alfonso and the doctor (Despina) urge them to acquiesce.",
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"plaintext": "Despina urges them to succumb to the \"Albanians overtures (aria: \"Una donna a quindici anni\"—\"A fifteen year old woman\"). After she leaves, Dorabella confesses to Fiordiligi that she is tempted, and the two agree that a mere flirtation will do no harm and will help them pass the time while they wait for their lovers to return (duet: \"Prenderò quel brunettino\"—\"I will take the brunette one\").",
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"plaintext": "Dorabella and the disguised Guglielmo pair off, as do the other two. The conversation is haltingly uncomfortable, and Ferrando departs with Fiordiligi. Now alone, Guglielmo attempts to woo Dorabella. She does not resist strongly, and soon she has given him a medallion (with Ferrando's portrait inside) in exchange for a heart-shaped locket (duet: \"Il core vi dono\"—\"I give you my heart\"). Ferrando is less successful with Fiordiligi (Ferrando's aria: \"Ah, lo veggio\"—\"Ah, I see it\" and Fiordiligi's aria: \"Per pietà, ben mio, perdona\"—\"Please, my beloved, forgive\"), so he is enraged when he later finds out from Guglielmo that the medallion with his portrait has been so quickly given away to a new lover. Guglielmo at first sympathises with Ferrando (aria: \"Donne mie, la fate a tanti\"—\"My ladies, you do it to so many\"), but then gloats, because his betrothed is faithful.",
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"plaintext": "Dorabella admits her indiscretion to Fiordiligi (\"È amore un ladroncello\"—\"Love is a little thief\"). Fiordiligi, upset by this development, decides to go to the army and find her betrothed. Before she can leave, though, Ferrando arrives and continues his attempted seduction. Fiordiligi finally succumbs and falls into his arms (duet: \"Fra gli amplessi\"—\"In the embraces\"). Guglielmo is distraught while Ferrando turns Guglielmo's earlier gloating back on him. Alfonso, winner of the wager, tells the men to forgive their fiancées. After all: \"Così fan tutte\"—\"All women are like that\".",
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"plaintext": "The scene begins as a double wedding for the sisters and their \"Albanian\" grooms. Despina, in disguise as a notary, presents the marriage contract, which only the ladies sign. (The men, of course, realise that this wedding is a sham, and are only playing along with it in order to teach their unfaithful lovers a lesson.) Directly thereafter, military music is heard in the distance, indicating the return of the officers. Alfonso confirms the sisters' fears: Ferrando and Guglielmo are on their way to the house. The \"Albanians\" hurry off to hide (actually, to change out of their disguises). They return as the officers, professing their love. Alfonso drops the marriage contract in front of the officers, and, when they read it, they become enraged. They then depart and return moments later, half in Albanian disguise, half as officers. Despina has been revealed to be the notary, and the sisters realize they have been duped. All is ultimately forgiven, as the entire group praises the ability to accept life's unavoidable good times and bad times.",
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"plaintext": " List of operas by Mozart",
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"plaintext": " Coronation Mass in C major (Così fan tutte pasticcio), setting of the Mass using reworked music from Così fan tutte",
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"plaintext": " Così, a 1992 play by Louis Nowra, based on the staging of Così fan tutte in a psychiatric hospital",
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"plaintext": "Covid fan tutte, a 2020 comic opera depicting life during the first several months of the COVID-19 pandemic",
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"plaintext": "Citations",
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"plaintext": " Whitfield, Sarah (2011), \"Così fan tutte: Brilliance or Buffoonery?\", Musical Offerings: Vol. 2: No. 2, Article 1. ",
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"plaintext": " Libretto, critical editions, diplomatic editions, source evaluation (German only), links to online DME recordings; Digital Mozart Edition",
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"plaintext": " Full score, dlib.indiana.edu",
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"plaintext": " \"Mozart at the Met\", Time, 7 January 1952",
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"Cosi fan tutte",
"Thus Do They All, or The School for Lovers",
"Thus Do They All",
"So do they all",
"Women are like that"
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38,091 | 1,105,188,433 | Charles_University | [
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"plaintext": "The university was opened in 1349. The university was sectioned into parts called nations: the Bohemian, Bavarian, Polish and Saxon. The Bohemian natio included Bohemians, Moravians, southern Slavs, and Hungarians; the Bavarian included Austrians, Swabians, natives of Franconia and of the Rhine provinces; the Polish included Silesians, Poles, Ruthenians; the Saxon included inhabitants of the Margravate of Meissen, Thuringia, Upper and Lower Saxony, Denmark, and Sweden. Ethnically Czech students made 16–20% of all students. Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice took an active part in the foundation by obliging the clergy to contribute and became a chancellor of the university (i.e., director or manager).",
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"plaintext": "The first graduate was promoted in 1359. The lectures were held in the colleges, of which the oldest was named for the king the Carolinum, established in 1366. In 1372 the Faculty of Law became an independent university.",
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"plaintext": "In 1402 Jerome of Prague in Oxford copied out the Dialogus and Trialogus of John Wycliffe. The dean of the philosophical faculty, Jan Hus, translated Trialogus into the Czech language. In 1403 the university forbade its members to follow the teachings of Wycliffe, but his doctrine continued to gain in popularity.",
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"plaintext": "In the Western Schism, the Bohemian natio took the side of king Wenceslaus and supported the Council of Pisa (1409). The other nationes of the university declared their support for the side of Pope Gregory XII, thus the vote was 1:3 against the Bohemians. Hus and other Bohemians, though, took advantage of Wenceslaus' opposition to Gregory. By the Decree of Kutná Hora () on 18 January 1409, the king subverted the university constitution by granting the Bohemian masters three votes. Only a single vote was left for all other three nationes combined, compared to one vote per each natio before. The result of this coup was the emigration of foreign (mostly German) professors and students, founding the University of Leipzig in May 1409. Before that, in 1408, the university had about 200 doctors and magisters, 500 bachelors, and 30,000 students ; it now lost a large part of this number, accounts of the loss varying from 5000 to 20,000 including 46 professors.",
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"plaintext": "In the autumn of 1409, Hus was elected rector of the now Czech-dominated rump university. The standing of the university declined, and it became merely a regional institution with a very low status. Soon, in 1419, the faculties of theology and law disappeared, and only the faculty of arts remained in existence.",
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"plaintext": "The faculty of arts became a centre of the Hussite movement, and the chief doctrinal authority of the Utraquists. No degrees were given in the years 1417–30; at times there were only eight or nine professors. Emperor Sigismund, son of Charles IV, took what was left into his personal property and some progress was made. The emperor Ferdinand I called the Jesuits to Prague and in 1562 they opened an academy—the Clementinum. From 1541 till 1558 the Czech humanist (1516–1566) was a professor of Greek language. Some progress was made again when the emperor Rudolph II took up residence in Prague. In 1609 the obligatory celibacy of the professors was abolished. In 1616 the Jesuit Academy became a university. (It could award academic degrees.)",
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"plaintext": "Jesuits were expelled 1618–1621 during the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, which was started in Prague by anti-Catholic and anti-Imperial Bohemians. By 1622, the Jesuits had a predominant influence over the emperor. An Imperial decree of 19 September 1622 gave the Jesuits supreme control over the entire school system of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. The last four professors at the Carolinum resigned, and all of the Carolinum and nine colleges went to the Jesuits. The right of handing out degrees, of holding chancellorships, and of appointing the secular professors was also granted to the Jesuits.",
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"plaintext": "Cardinal Ernst Adalbert von Harrach actively opposed the union of the university with another institution, the withdrawal of the archiepiscopal right to the chancellorship, and prevented the drawing up of the Golden Bull for the confirmation of the grant to Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst funded the Collegium Adalbertinum, and in 1638, Emperor Ferdinand III limited the teaching monopoly enjoyed by the Jesuits. He took from them the rights, properties and archives of the Carolinum making the university once more independent under an imperial protector. During the last years of the Thirty Years' War the Charles Bridge in Prague was courageously defended by students of the Carolinum and Clementinum. Since 1650, those who received any degrees took an oath to maintain the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, which has been renewed annually.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 February 1654 emperor Ferdinand III merged Carolinum and Clementinum and created a single university with four faculties—Charles-Ferdinand University. Carolinum had at that time only the faculty of arts, as the only faculty surviving the period of the Hussite Wars. Starting at this time, the university designated itself Charles-Ferdinand University (). The dilapidated Carolinum was rebuilt in 1718 at the expense of the state.",
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"plaintext": "The rebuilding and the bureaucratic reforms of universities in the Habsburg monarchy in 1752 and 1754 deprived the university of many of its former privileges. In 1757 a Dominican and an Augustinian were appointed to give theological instruction. However, there was a gradual introduction of enlightened reforms, and this process culminated at the end of the century when even non-Catholics were granted the right to study. On 29 July 1784, German replaced Latin as the language of instruction. For the first time Protestants were allowed, and soon after Jews. The university acknowledged the need for a Czech language and literature chair. Emperor Leopold II established it by a courtly decree on 28 October 1791. On 15 May 1792, scholar and historian was named the professor of the chair. He started his lectures on 13 March 1793.",
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"plaintext": "In the revolution of 1848, German and Czech students fought for the addition of the Czech language at the Charles-Ferdinand University as a language of lectures. Due to the demographic changes of the 19th century, Prague ceased to have a German-language majority around 1860. By 1863, 22 lecture courses were held in Czech, the remainder (out of 187) in German. In 1864, Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected this because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions.",
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"plaintext": "It soon became clear that neither the German-speaking Bohemians nor the Czechs were satisfied with the bilingual arrangement that the university arranged after the revolutions of 1848. The Czechs also refused to support the idea of the reinstitution of the 1349 student nations, instead declaring their support for the idea of keeping the university together, but dividing it into separate colleges, one German and one Czech. This would allow both Germans and Czechs to retain the collective traditions of the university. German-speakers, however, quickly vetoed this proposal, preferring a pure German university: they proposed to split Charles-Ferdinand University into two separate institutions.",
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"plaintext": "After long negotiations, Charles-Ferdinand was divided into a German Charles-Ferdinand University () and a Czech Charles-Ferdinand University () by an act of the Cisleithanian Imperial Council, which Emperor Franz Joseph sanctioned on 28 February 1882. Each section was entirely independent of the other, and enjoyed equal status. The two universities shared medical and scientific institutes, the old insignia, aula, library, and botanical garden, but common facilities were administrated by the German University. The first rector of the Czech University became .",
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"plaintext": "In 1890, the Royal and Imperial Czech Charles Ferdinand University had 112 teachers and 2,191 students and the Royal and Imperial German Charles Ferdinand University had 146 teachers and 1,483 students. Both universities had three faculties; the Theological Faculty remained the common until 1891, when it was divided as well. In the winter semester of 1909–10 the German Charles-Ferdinand University had 1,778 students; these were divided into: 58 theological students, for both the secular priesthood and religious orders; 755 law students; 376 medical; 589 philosophical. Among the students were about 80 women. The professors were divided as follows: theology, 7 regular professors, 1 assistant professor, 1 docent; law, 12 regular professors, 2 assistant professors, 4 docents; medicine, 15 regular professors, 19 assistant, 30 docents; philosophy, 30 regular professors, 8 assistant, 19 docents, 7 lecturers. The Czech Charles-Ferdinand University in the winter semester of 1909–10 included 4,319 students; of these 131 were theological students belonging both to the secular and regular clergy; 1,962 law students; 687 medical; 1,539 philosophical; 256 students were women. The professors were divided as follows: theological faculty, 8 regular professors, 2 docents; law, 12 regular, 7 assistant professors, 12 docents; medicine, 16 regular professors, 22 assistant, 24 docents; philosophy, 29 regular, 16 assistant, 35 docents, 11 lecturers.",
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"plaintext": "The high point of the German University was the era preceding the First World War, when it was home to world-renowned scientists such as physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, Moritz Winternitz and Albert Einstein. In addition, the German-language students included prominent individuals such as future writers Max Brod, Franz Kafka, and Johannes Urzidil. The \"Lese- und Redehalle der deutschen Studenten in Prag\" (\"Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students in Prague\"), founded in 1848, was an important social and scientific centre. Their library contained in 1885 more than 23,519 books and offered 248 scientific journals, 19 daily newspapers, 49 periodicals and 34 papers of entertainment. Regular lectures were held to scientific and political themes.",
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"plaintext": "Even before the Austro-Hungarian Empire was abolished in late 1918, to be succeeded by Czechoslovakia, Czech politicians demanded that the insignia of 1348 were exclusively to be kept by the Czech university. The Act No. 197/1919 Sb. z. a n. established the Protestant Theological Faculty, but not as a part of the Charles University. (That changed on 10 May 1990, when it finally became a faculty of the university.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1920, the so-called Lex Mareš (No. 135/1920 Sb. z. a n.) was issued, named for its initiator, professor of physiology František Mareš, which determined that the Czech university was to be the successor to the original university. Dropping the Habsburg name Ferdinand, it designated itself Charles University, while the German university was not named in the document, and then became officially called the German University in Prague ().",
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"plaintext": "In 1921 the German-speaking Bohemians considered moving their university to Liberec (), in northern Bohemia. In 1930, about 42,000 inhabitants of Prague spoke German as their native language, while millions lived in northern, southern and western Bohemia, in Czech Silesia and parts of Moravia near the borders with Austria and Germany.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1932, after Naegle's death, the Czechs started again a controversy over the insignia. Ethnic tensions intensified, although some professors of the German University were members of the Czechoslovak government. Any agreement to use the insignia for both the universities was rejected. On 21 November 1934, the German University had to hand over the insigniae to the Czechs. The German University senate sent a delegation to Minister of Education Krčmář to protest the writ. At noon on 24 November 1934, several thousand students of the Czech University protested in front of the German university building. The Czech rector Karel Domin gave a speech urging the crowd to attack, while the outnumbered German students tried to resist. Under the threat of violence, on 25 November 1934 rector (1873–1951) handed over the insigniae. These troubles of 1934 harmed relations between the two universities and nationalities.",
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"plaintext": "The tide turned in 1938 when, following the Munich Agreement, German troops entered the border areas of Czechoslovakia (the so-called Sudetenland), as did Polish and Hungarian troops elsewhere. On 15 March 1939 Germans forced Czecho-Slovakia to split apart and the Czech lands were occupied by Nazis as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Reichsprotektor Konstantin von Neurath handed the historical insigniae to the German University, which was officially renamed Deutsche Karls-Universität in Prag. On 1 September 1939 the German University was subordinated to the Reich Ministry of Education in Berlin and on 4 November 1939 it was proclaimed to be Reichsuniversität.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 October 1939, during a demonstration, Jan Opletal was shot. His burial on 15 November 1939 became another demonstration. On 17 November 1939 (now marked as International Students' Day) the Czech University and all other Czech institutions of higher learning were closed, remaining closed until the end of the War. Nine student leaders were executed and about 1,200 Czech students were interned in Sachsenhausen and not released until 1943. About 20 or 35 interned students died in the camp. On 8 May 1940 the Czech University was officially renamed Czech Charles University () by government regulation 188/1940 Coll.",
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"plaintext": "World War II marks the end of the coexistence of the two universities in Prague.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945 the insignia of the university (the rector's chain, the scepters of the individual faculties, the university seal and also the founding documents and other historical documents) were stolen by the Nazis. None of these historical objects have been found to this day.",
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"plaintext": "Although the university began to recover rapidly after 1945, it did not enjoy academic freedom for long. After the communist coup in 1948, the new regime started to arrange purges and repress all forms of disagreement with the official ideology, and continued to do so for the next four decades, with the second wave of purges during the \"normalization\" period in the beginning of the 1970s. Only in the late 1980s did the situation start to improve; students organized various activities and several peaceful demonstrations in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989 abroad. This initiated the \"Velvet Revolution\" in 1989, in which both students and faculty of the university played a large role. Václav Havel, a writer, dramatist and philosopher, was recruited from the independent academic community and appointed president of the republic in December 1989.",
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"plaintext": "Charles University does not have one joint campus. The academic facilities occupy many locations throughout the city of Prague and three of the faculties are located in other cities (two of them in Hradec Králové, one in Plzeň). The historical main building from the 14th century called Carolinum is situated in the Old Town of Prague and constitutes the university's center. It is the seat of the rector and of the Academic Senate of Charles university. Carolinum is also the venue for official academic ceremonies such as matriculations or graduations.",
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"plaintext": "Its academic publishing house is Karolinum Press and the university also operates several museums. The Botanical Garden of Charles University, maintained by its Faculty of Science, is located in the New Town.",
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"plaintext": "Among the four original faculties of Charles University were: the faculty of law, medicine, art (philosophy) and theology (now catholic theology). Today, Charles University consists of 17 faculties, based primarily in Prague, two houses in Hradec Králové and one in Plzeň.",
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"plaintext": "There are also such programs as Egyptology (Czech Institute of Egyptology), Addictology and Criminology.",
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"plaintext": "According to Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), Charles University ranked in the upper 1.5 percent of the world's best universities in 2011. It came 201st to 300th out of 17,000 universities worldwide. It is the best university in the Czech Republic and one of the best universities in Central and Eastern Europe only overtaken by Russian Lomonosov Moscow State University at 74th place. It was placed 31st in Times BRICS & Emerging Economies Rankings 2014 (after 23rd University of Warsaw).",
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"plaintext": "It was ranked in 2013 as 201–300 best in the World among 500 universities evaluated by Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), 233rd among 500 in QS World University Rankings, 351–400 among 400 universities in Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 485th in CWTS Leiden Ranking of 500 universities. Earlier rankings are presented in following table:",
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"plaintext": "Rector of the University Václav Hampl said in 2008: \"I am very pleased that Charles University achieved such a great success and I would like to thank to all who have contributed to it. An overwhelming majority of schools with a similar placement like Charles University have incomparably better financing and therefore this success is not only a reflection of professional qualities of our academics but also their personal efforts and dedication.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to the QS Subject Ranking Charles University is among the 51–100 best universities in the world in geography and linguistics.",
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"plaintext": "In Germany the Charles University in Prague cooperates with the Goethe-University in Frankfurt/Main. Both cities are linked by a long-lasting partnership agreement.",
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"plaintext": " CDE Podebrady",
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"plaintext": " F. Čapka: Dějiny zemí Koruny české v datech ",
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"plaintext": " KDO BYL KDO v našich dějinách do roku 1918 ",
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"plaintext": " Digitální parlamentní knihovna ",
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"plaintext": " Historické senátní tisky ",
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"plaintext": " (with a lot of factual mistakes)",
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"plaintext": " Ludmila Hlaváčková: Německá lékařská fakulta v Praze (1883–1945) ",
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"plaintext": " 17. listopad 1939 je opředen mýty, říká historik Petr Koura ",
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"plaintext": " Littera fundationis Universitatis Carolinae Pragensis. 7. Aprilis 1348 ",
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"plaintext": " Album, seu Matricula Facultatis juridicae, 1372–1418 ",
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"plaintext": " History of Charles University DOC file with pictures",
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"plaintext": " Measuring Health and Disability in Europe ",
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"plaintext": " Hruška Emil, Nacisté a české poklady. Praha: Epocha, 2016. ISBN 978-80-7557-005-5.",
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"plaintext": " Chad Bryant: Prague in Black. Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism. Harvard Press",
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"plaintext": " : The Caroline University of Prague. A short history",
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"plaintext": " Peter Demetz: Prague in Black and Gold. Scenes from the Life of European City",
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38,092 | 1,106,579,687 | Don_Giovanni | [
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni (; K. 527; Vienna (1788) title: , literally The Rake Punished, or Don Giovanni) is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to an Italian libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte. Its subject is a centuries-old Spanish legend about a libertine as told by playwright Tirso de Molina in his 1630 play El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra. It is a dramma giocoso blending comedy, melodrama and supernatural elements (although the composer entered it into his catalogue simply as opera buffa). It was premiered by the Prague Italian opera at the National Theater (of Bohemia), now called the Estates Theatre, on 29 October 1787. Don Giovanni is regarded as one of the greatest operas of all time and has proved a fruitful subject for commentary in its own right; critic Fiona Maddocks has described it as one of Mozart's \"trio of masterpieces with librettos by Da Ponte\".",
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"plaintext": "The opera was commissioned after the success of Mozart's trip to Prague in January and February 1787. The subject may have been chosen because the sub-genre of Don Juan opera had originated in that city. Lorenzo Da Ponte's libretto is based on Giovanni Bertati's for the opera Don Giovanni Tenorio, which premiered in Venice early in 1787. In two aspects he copied Bertati: by opening with the Commendatore's murder and by avoiding mention of Seville (for Bertati the setting was Villena, Spain; Da Ponte simply writes \"city in Spain\").",
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"plaintext": "The opera was supposed to premiere on 14 October 1787 for Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria’s visit, but it was not ready in time and Le nozze di Figaro was substituted. Mozart recorded its completion, finally, on 28 October, the night before the premiere (29 October).",
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"plaintext": "The opera was rapturously received, as was often true of Mozart's work in Prague. The Prager Oberpostamtzeitung reported, \"Connoisseurs and musicians say that Prague has never heard the like\", and \"the opera ... is extremely difficult to perform.\" The Provincialnachrichten of Vienna reported, \"Herr Mozart conducted in person and was welcomed joyously and jubilantly by the numerous gathering.\"",
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"plaintext": "The score calls for double woodwinds, two horns, two trumpets, three trombones (alto, tenor, bass), timpani, basso continuo for the recitatives, and the usual string section. The composer also specified occasional special musical effects. For the ballroom scene at the end of the first act, Mozart calls for two onstage ensembles to play separate dance music in synchronization with the pit orchestra, each of the three groups playing in its own metre (a 3/4 minuet, a 2/4 contradanse and a fast 3/8 peasant dance), accompanying the dancing of the principal characters. In act 2, Giovanni is seen to play the mandolin, accompanied by pizzicato strings. In the same act, two of the Commendatore's interventions (\"\" and \"\") are accompanied by a wind chorale of oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and trombones (with cellos and basses playing from the string section).",
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"plaintext": "Mozart also supervised the Vienna premiere of the work, which took place on 7 May 1788. For this production, he wrote two new arias with corresponding recitatives – Don Ottavio's aria \"\" (K.540a, composed on 24 April for the tenor Francesco Morella), Elvira's aria \"\" (K.540c, composed on 30 April for the soprano Caterina Cavalieri) – and the duet between Leporello and Zerlina \"\" (K.540b, composed on 28 April). He also made some cuts in the Finale in order to make it shorter and more incisive, the most important of which is the section where Anna and Ottavio, Elvira, Zerlina and Masetto, Leporello reveal their plans for the future (\"\"). In order to connect \"\" (\"It must have been the ghost she met\") directly to the moral of the story \"\" (\"This is the end which befalls to evildoers\"), Mozart composed a different version of \"\" (\"So the wretch can stay down there with Proserpina and Pluto!\"). These cuts are very seldom performed in theatres or recordings.",
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"plaintext": "The opera's final ensemble was generally omitted until the early 20th century, a tradition that apparently began very early on. According to the 19th-century Bohemian memoirist Wilhelm Kuhe, the final ensemble was only presented at the very first performance in Prague, then never heard again during the original run. It does not appear in the Viennese libretto of 1788; thus the ending of the first performance in Vienna without the ensemble as depicted in the film Amadeus may be an accurate portrayal. Nonetheless, the final ensemble is almost invariably performed in full today.",
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"plaintext": "Modern productions sometimes include both the original aria for Don Ottavio, \"\", and its replacement from the first production in Vienna that was crafted to suit the capabilities of the tenor Francesco Morella, \"\". Elvira's \"\" is usually retained as well. The duet \"\" and the whole accompanying scene involving Zerlina and Leporello from the Viennese version is almost never included.",
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"plaintext": "Although the same singer played both Masetto and the Commendatore roles in both the Prague and Vienna premieres, in modern-day productions, the roles are typically taken by different singers (unless limited by such things as finance or rehearsal time and space). The final scene's chorus of demons after the Commendatore's exit gives the singer time for a costume change before entering as Masetto for the sextet, though not much time.",
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"plaintext": "The instrumentation is:",
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"plaintext": " Basso continuo in secco recitatives of harpsichord and violoncello (period performance practice often uses a fortepiano only)",
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"plaintext": " Mandolin",
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni, a young, arrogant, and sexually promiscuous nobleman, abuses and outrages everyone else in the cast until he encounters something he cannot kill, beat up, dodge, or outwit.",
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"plaintext": "The overture begins with a thundering D minor cadence, followed by a short sequence which leads into a light-hearted D major allegro.",
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"plaintext": "The garden of the Commendatore",
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"plaintext": "Leporello, Don Giovanni's servant, grumbles about his demanding master and daydreams about being free of him (\"\" – \"Night and day I slave away\"). He is keeping watch while Don Giovanni is in the Commendatore's house attempting to seduce or rape the Commendatore's daughter, Donna Anna. Don Giovanni enters the garden from inside the house, pursued by Donna Anna. Don Giovanni is masked and Donna Anna tries to hold him and to unmask him, shouting for help. (Trio: \"\" – \"Do not hope, unless you kill me, that I shall ever let you run away!\"). He breaks free and she runs off as the Commendatore enters the garden. The Commendatore blocks Don Giovanni's path and forces him to fight a duel. Don Giovanni kills the Commendatore with his sword and escapes with Leporello. Donna Anna, returning with her fiancé, Don Ottavio, is horrified to see her father lying dead in a pool of his own blood. She makes Don Ottavio swear vengeance against the unknown murderer. (Duet: \"\" – \"Ah, swear to avenge that blood if you can!\")",
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"plaintext": "A public square outside Don Giovanni's palace",
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"plaintext": "Leporello tells Don Giovanni that he (Giovanni) is leading a rotten life; Don Giovanni reacts angrily. They hear a woman (Donna Elvira) singing of having been abandoned by her lover, on whom she is seeking revenge (\"\" – \"Ah, who could ever tell me\"). Don Giovanni starts to flirt with her, but it turns out he is the former lover she is seeking. The two recognize each other and she reproaches him bitterly. He shoves Leporello forward, ordering him to tell Donna Elvira the truth about him, and then hurries away.",
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"plaintext": "Leporello tells Donna Elvira that Don Giovanni is not worth her feelings for him. He is unfaithful to everyone; his conquests include 640 women and girls in Italy, 231 in Germany, 100 in France, 91 in Turkey, but in Spain, 1,003 (\"Madamina, il catalogo è questo\" – \"My dear lady, this is the catalogue\"). In a frequently cut recitative, Donna Elvira vows vengeance.",
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"plaintext": "The open country",
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"plaintext": "A marriage procession with Masetto and Zerlina enters. Don Giovanni and Leporello arrive soon after. Don Giovanni is immediately attracted to Zerlina, and he attempts to remove the jealous Masetto by offering to host a wedding celebration at his castle. On realizing that Don Giovanni means to remain behind with Zerlina, Masetto becomes angry (\"\" – \"I understand! Yes, my lord!\") but is forced to leave. Don Giovanni and Zerlina are soon alone and he immediately begins his seductive arts (Duet: \"Là ci darem la mano\" – \"There we will entwine our hands\").",
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"plaintext": "Donna Elvira arrives and thwarts the seduction (\"\" – \"Flee from the traitor!\"). She leaves with Zerlina. Don Ottavio and Donna Anna enter, plotting vengeance on the still unknown murderer of Donna Anna's father. Donna Anna, unaware that she is speaking to her attacker, pleads for Don Giovanni's help. Don Giovanni, relieved that he is unrecognised, readily promises it, and asks who has disturbed her peace. Before she can answer, Donna Elvira returns and tells Donna Anna and Don Ottavio that Don Giovanni is a false-hearted seducer. Don Giovanni tries to convince Don Ottavio and Donna Anna that Donna Elvira is insane (Quartet: \"\" – \"Don't trust him, oh sad one\"). As Don Giovanni leaves, Donna Anna suddenly recognizes him as her father's murderer and tells Don Ottavio the story of his intrusion, claiming that she was deceived at first because she was expecting a night visit from Don Ottavio himself, but managed to fight Don Giovanni off after discovering the impostor (long recitative exchange between Donna Anna and Don Ottavio). She repeats her demand that he avenge her and points out that he will be avenging himself as well (aria: \"Or sai chi l'onore Rapire a me volse\" – \"Now you know who wanted to rob me of my honour\"). In the Vienna version, Don Ottavio, not yet convinced (Donna Anna having only recognised Don Giovanni's voice, not seen his face), resolves to keep an eye on his friend (\"\" – \"On her peace my peace depends\").",
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"plaintext": "Leporello informs Don Giovanni that all the guests of the peasant wedding are in Don Giovanni's house and that he distracted Masetto from his jealousy, but that Zerlina, returning with Donna Elvira, made a scene and spoiled everything. However, Don Giovanni remains cheerful and tells Leporello to organize a party and invite every girl he can find. (Don Giovanni's \"Champagne Aria\": \"\" – \"Till they are tipsy\"). They hasten to his palace.",
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"plaintext": "A garden outside Don Giovanni's palace",
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"plaintext": "Zerlina follows the jealous Masetto and tries to pacify him (\"\" – \"Beat, O beat me, handsome Masetto\"), but just as she manages to persuade him of her innocence, Don Giovanni's voice from offstage startles and frightens her. Masetto hides, resolving to see for himself what Zerlina will do when Don Giovanni arrives. Zerlina tries to hide from Don Giovanni, but he finds her and attempts to continue the seduction, until he stumbles upon Masetto's hiding place. Confused but quickly recovering, Don Giovanni reproaches Masetto for leaving Zerlina alone, and returns her temporarily to him. Don Giovanni then leads both offstage to his ballroom. Three masked guests – the disguised Don Ottavio, Donna Anna, and Donna Elvira – enter the garden. From a balcony, Leporello invites them to his master's party. They accept the invitation and Leporello leaves the balcony. Alone, Don Ottavio and Donna Anna pray for protection, Donna Elvira for vengeance (Trio: \"\" – \"May the just heavens protect us\").",
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni's ballroom",
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"plaintext": "As the merriment, featuring three separate chamber orchestras on stage, proceeds, Leporello distracts Masetto by dancing with him, while Don Giovanni leads Zerlina offstage to a private room and tries to assault her. When Zerlina screams for help, Don Giovanni drags Leporello onstage from the room, accuses Leporello of assaulting Zerlina himself, and threatens to kill him. The others are not fooled. Don Ottavio produces a pistol and points it at Don Giovanni, and the three guests unmask and declare that they know all. But despite being denounced and menaced from all sides, Don Giovanni remains calm and escapes – for the moment.",
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"plaintext": "Outside Donna Elvira's house",
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"plaintext": "Leporello threatens to leave Don Giovanni, but his master calms him with a peace offering of money (Duet: \"Eh via buffone\" – \"Go on, fool\"). Wanting to seduce Donna Elvira's maid, and believing that she will trust him better if he appears in lower-class clothes, Don Giovanni orders Leporello to exchange cloak and hat with him. Donna Elvira comes to her window (Trio: \"Ah taci, ingiusto core\" – \"Ah, be quiet unjust heart\"). Seeing an opportunity for a game, Don Giovanni hides and sends Leporello out in the open wearing Don Giovanni's cloak and hat. From his hiding place Don Giovanni sings a promise of repentance, expressing a desire to return to her and threatening to kill himself if she does not take him back, while Leporello poses as Don Giovanni and tries to keep from laughing. Donna Elvira, convinced, descends to the street. Leporello, continuing to pose as Don Giovanni, leads her away to keep her occupied while Don Giovanni serenades her maid with his mandolin. (\"Deh, vieni alla finestra\" – \"Ah, come to the window\").",
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"plaintext": "Before Don Giovanni can complete his seduction of the maid, Masetto and his friends arrive, looking for Don Giovanni in order to kill him. Don Giovanni poses as Leporello (whose clothes he is still wearing) and joins the posse, pretending that he also hates Don Giovanni. After cunningly dispersing Masetto's friends (Don Giovanni aria: \"Metà di voi qua vadano\" – \"Half of you go this way. the others, go that way\"), Don Giovanni takes Masetto's weapons away, beats him up, and runs off, laughing. Zerlina arrives and consoles the bruised and battered Masetto (\"Vedrai carino\" – \"You'll see, dear one\").",
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"plaintext": "A dark courtyard",
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"plaintext": "Leporello abandons Donna Elvira. (Sextet: \"Sola, sola in buio loco\" – \"All alone in this dark place\"). As he tries to escape, he bumps into Don Ottavio and Donna Anna. Zerlina and Masetto also enter the scene. Everyone mistakes Leporello for Don Giovanni, whose clothes he is still wearing. They surround Leporello and threaten to kill him. Donna Elvira tries to protect the man who she thinks is Don Giovanni, claiming him as her husband and begging the others to spare him. Leporello takes off Don Giovanni's cloak and reveals his true identity. He begs for mercy and, seeing an opportunity, runs off (Leporello aria: \"Ah pietà signori miei\" – \"Ah, have mercy, my lords\"). Don Ottavio is now convinced that Don Giovanni murdered Donna Anna's father (the deceased Commendatore). He swears vengeance (\"Il mio tesoro\" – \"My treasure\" – though in the Vienna version this was cut).",
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"plaintext": "In the Vienna production of the opera, Zerlina follows Leporello and recaptures him. Threatening him with a razor, she ties him to a stool. He attempts to sweet-talk her out of hurting him. (Duet: \"Per queste tue manine\" – \"For these hands of yours\"). Zerlina goes to find Masetto and the others; Leporello escapes again before she returns. This scene, marked by low comedy, is rarely performed today. Also in the Vienna production, Donna Elvira is still furious at Don Giovanni for betraying her, but she also feels sorry for him. (\"Mi tradì quell'alma ingrata\" – \"That ungrateful wretch betrayed me\").",
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"plaintext": "A graveyard with the statue of the Commendatore",
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni wanders into a graveyard. Leporello happens along and the two reunite. Leporello tells Don Giovanni of his brush with danger, and Don Giovanni laughingly taunts him, saying that he took advantage of his disguise as Leporello by trying to seduce one of Leporello's girlfriends. The voice of the statue interrupts and warns Don Giovanni that his laughter will not last beyond sunrise. At the command of his master, Leporello reads the inscription upon the statue's base: \"Here am I waiting for revenge against the scoundrel who killed me\" (\"Dell'empio che mi trasse al passo estremo qui attendo la vendetta\"). The servant trembles, but Don Giovanni scornfully orders him to invite the statue to dinner, and threatens to kill him if he does not. Leporello makes several attempts to invite the statue to dinner, but is too frightened to complete the invitation (Duet: \"O, statua gentilissima\" – \"Oh most noble statue\"). Don Giovanni invites the statue to dinner himself. Much to his surprise, the statue nods its head and responds affirmatively.",
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"plaintext": "Donna Anna's room",
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"plaintext": "Don Ottavio pressures Donna Anna to marry him, but she thinks it is inappropriate so soon after her father's death. He accuses her of being cruel, and she assures him that she loves him, and is faithful (\"Non mi dir\" – \"Tell me not\").",
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni's chambers",
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"plaintext": "Don Giovanni revels in the luxury of a great meal, served by Leporello, and musical entertainment during which the orchestra plays music from popular (at the time) late-18th-century operas: \"O quanto un sì bel giubilo\" from Vicente Martín y Soler's Una cosa rara (1786), \"Come un agnello\" from Giuseppe Sarti's Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode (1782), and finally \"Non più andrai\" from Mozart's own The Marriage of Figaro (1786). Leporello comments that he is all too familiar with the final tune – likely a joke understandable for the original audience, as Felice Ponziani, who sang Leporello's part at the premiere, also sang Figaro's part (including \"Non più andrai\") earlier in Prague. (Finale \"Già la mensa preparata\" – \"Already the table is prepared\"). Donna Elvira enters, saying that she no longer feels resentment against Don Giovanni, only pity for him. (\"L'ultima prova dell'amor mio\" – \"The final proof of my love\"). Don Giovanni, surprised, asks what she wants, and she begs him to change his life. Don Giovanni taunts her and then turns away, praising wine and women as the \"support and glory of humankind\" (sostegno e gloria d'umanità). Hurt and angry, Donna Elvira gives up and leaves. Offstage, she screams in sudden terror. Don Giovanni orders Leporello to see what has upset her; when he does, he also cries out, and runs back into the room, stammering that the statue has appeared as promised. An ominous knocking sounds at the door. Leporello, paralyzed by fear, cannot answer it, so Don Giovanni opens it himself, revealing the statue of the Commendatore. With the rhythmic chords of the overture, now reharmonized with diabolic diminished sevenths accompanying the Commendatore (\"Don Giovanni! A cenar teco m'invitasti\" – \"Don Giovanni! You invited me to dine with you\"), the statue asks if Don Giovanni will now accept his invitation to dinner. Don Giovanni brazenly accepts, and shakes the statue's proffered hand, only to collapse as he is overcome by sudden chills. The statue offers him a final chance to repent as death draws near, but Don Giovanni adamantly refuses. The statue disappears and Don Giovanni cries out in pain and terror as he is surrounded by a chorus of demons, who carry him down to Hell. Leporello, watching from under the table, also cries out in fear.",
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"plaintext": "Donna Anna, Don Ottavio, Donna Elvira, Zerlina, and Masetto arrive, searching for the villain. They find instead Leporello hiding under the table, shaken by the supernatural horror he has witnessed. He assures them that no one will ever see Don Giovanni again. The remaining characters announce their plans for the future: Donna Anna and Don Ottavio will marry when Donna Anna's year of mourning is over; Donna Elvira will withdraw from society for the rest of her life; Zerlina and Masetto will finally go home for dinner; and Leporello will go to the tavern to find a better master.",
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"plaintext": "The concluding ensemble delivers the moral of the opera – \"Such is the end of the evildoer: the death of a sinner always reflects his life\" (Questo è il fin di chi fa mal, e de' perfidi la morte alla vita è sempre ugual). As mentioned above, productions for over a century – beginning with the original run in Prague – customarily omitted the final ensemble, but it frequently reappeared in the 20th century and productions of the opera now usually include it. The return to D major and the innocent simplicity of the last few bars conclude the opera.",
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"plaintext": "Paul Czinner directed a filming of the Salzburg Festival presentation in 1954. A screen adaptation was directed by Joseph Losey in 1979.",
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"plaintext": "The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote a long essay in his book Enten – Eller in which he argues, writing under the pseudonym of his character \"A\", that \"among all classic works Don Giovanni stands highest.\" Charles Gounod wrote that Mozart's Don Giovanni is \"a work without blemish, of uninterrupted perfection.\" The finale, in which Don Giovanni refuses to repent, has been a captivating philosophical and artistic topic for many writers including George Bernard Shaw, who in Man and Superman parodied the opera (with explicit mention of the Mozart score for the finale scene between the Commendatore and Don Giovanni). Gustave Flaubert called Don Giovanni, along with Hamlet and the sea, \"the three finest things God ever made.\" E. T. A. Hoffmann also wrote a short story derived from the opera, , in which the narrator meets Donna Anna and describes Don Juan as an aesthetic hero rebelling against God and society.",
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"plaintext": "In some Germanic and other languages, Leporello's \"Catalogue Aria\" provided the name \" list\" for concertina-folded printed matter, as used for brochures, photo albums, computer printouts and other continuous stationery.",
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"plaintext": "Playwright Peter Shaffer used Don Giovanni for a pivotal plot point in his play Amadeus, a fictional biography of its composer. In it, Antonio Salieri notices how Mozart composed the opera while tortured after the death of his imposing father Leopold, and uses the information to psychologically torture Mozart even further.",
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"plaintext": "The sustained popularity of Don Giovanni has resulted in extensive borrowings and arrangements of the original. The most famous and probably the most musically substantial is the operatic fantasy, Réminiscences de Don Juan by Franz Liszt. The minuet from the finale of act 1, transcribed by Moritz Moszkowski, also makes an incongruous appearance in the manuscript of Liszt's Fantasy on Themes from Mozart's Figaro and Don Giovanni, and Sigismond Thalberg uses the same minuet, along with \"\", in his , Op.42. \"\" also makes an appearance in the Klavierübung of Ferruccio Busoni, under the title (Variation study after Mozart). Chopin wrote Variations on \"Là ci darem la mano\" (the duet between Don Giovanni and Zerlina) for piano and orchestra. Beethoven and Danzi also wrote variations on the same theme. And Beethoven, in his Diabelli Variations, cites Leporello's aria \"\" in variation 22. The turkeys in Chabrier's \"Ballade des gros dindons\" (1889) finish each verse imitating the mandolin accompaniment of the Serenade.",
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"plaintext": "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky always regarded Don Giovanni – and its composer – with awe. In 1855, Mozart's original manuscript had been purchased in London by the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, who was the teacher of Tchaikovsky's one-time unofficial fiancée Désirée Artôt (whom Viardot may have persuaded not to go through with her plan to marry the composer). Viardot kept the manuscript in a shrine in her Paris home, where it was visited by many people. Tchaikovsky visited her when he was in Paris in June 1886, and said that when looking at the manuscript, he was \"in the presence of divinity\". So it is not surprising that the centenary of the opera in 1887 would inspire him to write something honouring Mozart. Instead of taking any themes from Don Giovanni, however, he took four lesser known works by Mozart and arranged them into his fourth orchestral suite, which he called Mozartiana. The baritone who sang the title role in the centenary performance of Don Giovanni in Prague that year was Mariano Padilla y Ramos, the man Désirée Artôt married instead of Tchaikovsky.",
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"plaintext": "Michael Nyman's popular, short band piece In Re Don Giovanni (1981, with later adaptations and revisions) is constructed on a prominent 15-bar phrase in the accompaniment to Leporello's catalogue aria.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to instrumental works, allusions to Don Giovanni also appear in a number of operas: Nicklausse of Offenbach's The Tales of Hoffmann sings a snatch of Leporello's \"\", and Rossini quotes from the same aria in the duettino between Selim and Fiorilla following the former's cavatina in act 1 of Il turco in Italia.",
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"plaintext": "Ramón Carnicer's opera (1822) is a peculiar reworking of Mozart's opera to adapt it to Rossinian fashion. It comprises new music by Carnicer on a new text (e.g. the first half of act 1), new music on Da Ponte's text (e.g. Leporello's aria) or on a mixture of both (e.g. the new trio for the scene in the cemetery); the whole collated with extensive quotations or entire sections borrowed directly from Mozart (e.g. Finale 1 and Finale 2, and even some music from Le nozze di Figaro), though usually slightly reworked and re-orchestrated.",
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"plaintext": " List of operas by Mozart",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "References",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Sources",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " Allanbrook, W. J. (1983). Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni Chicago. (reviewed in Platoff, John. \"Untitled.\" The Journal of Musicology, vol. 4, no. 4 (1986). pp.535–538).",
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"plaintext": " Da Ponte, Lorenzo. Mozart's Don Giovanni. Dover Publications, New York, 1985. (reviewed in G. S. \"Untitled.\" Music & Letters, vol 19, no. 2 (April 1938). pp.216–218)",
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"plaintext": " Kaminsky, Peter (1996). \"How to Do things with Words and Music: Towards an Analysis of Selected ensembles in Mozart's Don Giovanni.\" Theory and Practice",
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"plaintext": " Rushton, Julian G. (1981). W. A. Mozart: Don Giovanni\" Cambridge. (reviewed in Sternfeld, F. W. \"Untitled.\" Music & Letters, vol. 65, no. 4 (October 1984) pp.377–378)",
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"plaintext": "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas () is a classic science fiction adventure novel by French writer Jules Verne.",
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"plaintext": "The novel was originally serialized from March 1869 through June 1870 in Pierre-Jules Hetzel's fortnightly periodical, the . A deluxe octavo edition, published by Hetzel in November 1871, included 111 illustrations by Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou. The book was widely acclaimed on its release and remains so; it is regarded as one of the premier adventure novels and one of Verne's greatest works, along with Around the World in Eighty Days and Journey to the Center of the Earth. Its depiction of Captain Nemo's underwater ship, the Nautilus, is regarded as ahead of its time, since it accurately describes many features of today's submarines, which in the 1860s were comparatively primitive vessels.",
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"plaintext": "A model of the French submarine Plongeur (launched in 1863) figured at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, where Jules Verne examined it and was inspired by it when writing his novel.",
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"plaintext": "The title refers to the distance traveled under the various seas: 20,000 metric leagues (80,000km, over 40,000 nautical miles), nearly twice the circumference of the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Ned Land – a Canadian harpooner, described as having \"no equal in his dangerous trade.\"",
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"plaintext": "During the year 1866, ships of various nationalities sight a mysterious sea monster, which, it is later suggested, might be a gigantic narwhal. The U.S. government assembles an expedition in New York City to find and destroy the monster. Professor Pierre Aronnax, a French marine biologist and the story's narrator, is in town at the time and receives a last-minute invitation to join the expedition; he accepts. Canadian whaler and master harpooner Ned Land and Aronnax's faithful manservant Conseil are also among the participants.",
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"plaintext": "The novel's later pages suggest that Captain Nemo went into undersea exile after his homeland was conquered and his family slaughtered by a powerful imperialist nation. Following the episode of the devilfish, Nemo largely avoids Aronnax, who begins to side with Ned Land. Ultimately, the Nautilus is attacked by a warship from the mysterious nation that has caused Nemo such suffering. Carrying out his quest for revenge, Nemo— whom Aronnax dubs an \"archangel of hatred\"— rams the ship below her waterline and sends her to the bottom, much to the professor's horror. Afterward, Nemo kneels before a portrait of his deceased wife and children, then sinks into a deep depression.",
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"plaintext": "Circumstances aboard the submarine change drastically: watches are no longer kept, and the vessel wanders about aimlessly. Ned becomes so reclusive that Conseil fears for the harpooner's life. One morning, however, Ned announces that they are in sight of land and have a chance to escape. Professor Aronnax is more than ready to leave Captain Nemo, who now horrifies him, yet he is still drawn to the man. Fearing that Nemo's very presence could weaken his resolve, he avoids contact with the captain. Before their departure, however, the professor eavesdrops on Nemo and overhears him calling out in anguish, \"O almighty God! Enough! Enough!\" Aronnax immediately joins his companions, and they carry out their escape plans, but as they board the submarine's skiff, they realize that the Nautilus has seemingly blundered into the ocean's deadliest whirlpool, the Moskenstraumen, more commonly known as the \"Maelstrom\". Nevertheless, they manage to escape and find refuge on an island off the coast of Norway. The submarine's ultimate fate, however, remains unknown.",
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"plaintext": "Captain Nemo's assumed name recalls Homer's Odyssey, when Odysseus encounters the monstrous Cyclops Polyphemus in the course of his wanderings. Polyphemus asks Odysseus his name, and Odysseus replies that it is Outis () 'no one', translated into Latin as \"Nemo\". Like Captain Nemo, Odysseus wanders the seas in exile (though only for 10 years) and similarly grieves the tragic deaths of his crewmen.",
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"plaintext": "The novel repeatedly mentions the U.S. Naval Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury, an oceanographer who investigated the winds, seas, and currents, collected samples from the depths, and charted the world's oceans. Maury was internationally famous, and Verne may have known of his French ancestry.",
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"plaintext": "The novel alludes to other Frenchmen, including Lapérouse, the celebrated explorer whose two sloops of war vanished during a voyage of global circumnavigation; Dumont d'Urville, a later explorer who found the remains of one of Lapérouse's ships; and Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal and nephew of the sole survivor of Lapérouse's ill-fated expedition. The Nautilus follows in the footsteps of these men: she visits the waters where Lapérouse's vessels disappeared; she enters Torres Strait and becomes stranded there, as did d'Urville's ship, the Astrolabe; and she passes beneath the Suez Canal via a fictitious underwater tunnel joining the Red Sea to the Mediterranean.",
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"plaintext": "In possibly the novel's most famous episode, the above-cited battle with a school of giant squid, one of the monsters captures a crew member. Reflecting on the battle in the next chapter, Aronnax writes: \"To convey such sights, it would take the pen of our most renowned poet, Victor Hugo, author of The Toilers of the Sea.\" A bestselling novel in Verne's day, The Toilers of the Sea also features a threatening cephalopod: a laborer battles with an octopus, believed by critics to be symbolic of the Industrial Revolution. Certainly Verne was influenced by Hugo's novel, and, in penning this variation on its octopus encounter, he may have intended the symbol to also take in the Revolutions of 1848.",
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"plaintext": "Other symbols and themes pique modern critics. Margaret Drabble, for instance, argues that Verne's masterwork also anticipated the ecology movement and influenced French avant-garde imagery. As for additional motifs in the novel, Captain Nemo repeatedly champions the world's persecuted and downtrodden. While in Mediterranean waters, the captain provides financial support to rebels resisting Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869, proving to Professor Aronnax that he hadn't severed all relations with terrestrial mankind. In another episode, Nemo rescues an East Indian pearl diver from a shark attack, then gives the fellow a pouch full of pearls, more than the man could have gathered after years of his hazardous work. Nemo remarks later that the diver, as a native of British India, \"lives in the land of the oppressed\".",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, the novel has an under-the-counter political vision, hinted at in the character and background of Captain Nemo himself. In the book's final form, Nemo says to professor Aronnax, \"That Indian, sir, is an inhabitant of an oppressed country; and I am still, and shall be, to my last breath, one of them!\" In the novel's initial drafts, the mysterious captain was a Polish nobleman, whose family and homeland were slaughtered by Russian forces during the Polish January Uprising of 1863. However, these specifics were suppressed during the editing stages at the insistence of Verne's publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel, believed responsible by today's scholars for many modifications of Verne's original manuscripts. At the time France was a putative ally of the Russian Empire, hence Hetzel demanded that Verne suppress the identity of Nemo's enemy, not only to avoid political complications but also to avert lower sales should the novel appear in Russian translation. Hence Professor Aronnax never discovers Nemo's origins.",
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"plaintext": "Even so, a trace remains of the novel's initial concept, a detail that may have eluded Hetzel: its allusion to an unsuccessful rebellion under a Polish hero, Tadeusz Kościuszko, leader of the uprising against Russian and Prussian control in 1794; Kościuszko mourned his country's prior defeat with the Latin exclamation \"Finis Poloniae!\" (\"Poland is no more!\").",
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"plaintext": "Five years later, and again at Hetzel's insistence, Captain Nemo was revived and revamped for another Verne novel The Mysterious Island. It alters the captain's nationality from Polish to East Indian, changing him into a fictional descendant of Tipu Sultan, a prominent ruler of Mysore who fought against the British East India Company in the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Thus, Nemo's unnamed enemy is converted into France's traditional antagonist, the British Empire. Born as an East Indian aristocrat, one Prince Dakkar, Nemo participated in a major 19th century uprising, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which was ultimately quashed by the British. After his family were killed by the British, Nemo fled beneath the seas, then made a final reappearance in the later novel's concluding pages.",
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"plaintext": "The diving gear used by passengers on the Nautilus is presented as a combination of two existing systems: 1) the surface-supplied hardhat suit, which was fed oxygen from the shore through tubes; 2) a later, self-contained apparatus designed by Benoit Rouquayrol and Auguste Denayrouze in 1865. Their invention featured tanks fastened to the back, which supplied air to a facial mask via the first-known demand regulator. The diver didn't swim but walked upright across the seafloor. This device was called an aérophore (Greek for \"air-carrier\"). Its air tanks could hold only thirty atmospheres, however Nemo claims that his futuristic adaptation could do far better: \"The Nautilus'''s pumps allow me to store air under considerable pressure ... my diving equipment can supply breathable air for nine or ten hours.\"",
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"plaintext": "As noted above, Hetzel and Verne generated a sequel of sorts to this novel: L'Île mystérieuse (The Mysterious Island, 1874), which attempts to round off narratives begun in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas and Captain Grant's Children, a.k.a. In Search of the Castaways. While The Mysterious Island attempts to provide additional background on Nemo (or Prince Dakkar), it is muddled by irreconcilable chronological discrepancies between the two books and even within The Mysterious Island itself.",
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"plaintext": "Verne returned to the theme of an outlaw submarine captain in his much later Facing the Flag (1896). This novel's chief villain, Ker Karraje, is simply an unscrupulous pirate acting purely for personal gain, completely devoid of the saving graces that gave Captain Nemo some nobility of character. Like Nemo, Ker Karraje plays \"host\" to unwilling French guests— but unlike Nemo, who manages to elude all pursuers— Karraje's criminal career is decisively thwarted by the combination of an international task force and the resistance of his French captives. Though also widely published and translated, Facing the Flag never achieved the lasting popularity of Twenty Thousand Leagues.",
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"plaintext": "Closer in approach to the original Nemo— though offering less detail and complexity of characterization— is the rebel aeronaut Robur in Robur the Conqueror and its sequel Master of the World. Instead of the sea, Robur's medium is the sky: In these two novels he develops a pioneering helicopter and later a seaplane on wheels.",
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"plaintext": "The novel was first translated into English in 1873 by Reverend Lewis Page Mercier. Mercier cut nearly a quarter of Verne's French text and committed hundreds of translating errors, sometimes drastically distorting Verne's original (including uniformly mistranslating the French scaphandre— properly \"diving suit\"— as \"cork-jacket\", following a long-obsolete usage as \"a type of lifejacket\"). Some of these distortions may have been perpetrated for political reasons, such as Mercier's omitting the portraits of freedom fighters on the wall of Nemo's stateroom, a collection originally including Daniel O'Connell among other international figures. Nevertheless, Mercier's text became the standard English translation, and some later \"re-translations\" continued to recycle its mistakes, including mistranslating the title as \"...under the Sea\", rather than \"...under the Seas\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1962, Anthony Bonner published a fresh, essentially complete translation of the novel with Bantam Classics. This edition also included a special introduction written by the sci-fi author Ray Bradbury, comparing Captain Nemo to Captain Ahab of Moby-Dick.",
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"plaintext": "A significant modern revision of Mercier's translation appeared in 1966, prepared by Walter James Miller and published by Washington Square Press. Miller addressed many of Mercier's errors in the volume's preface and restored a number of his deletions in the text. In 1993, Miller collaborated with his fellow Vernian Frederick Paul Walter to produce \"The Completely Restored and Annotated Edition\", published in 1993 by the Naval Institute Press. Its text took advantage of Walter's unpublished translation, which Project Gutenberg later made available online.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, William Butcher issued a new, annotated translation with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas, published by Oxford University Press (). Butcher includes detailed notes, a comprehensive bibliography, appendices and a wide-ranging introduction studying the novel from a literary perspective. In particular, his original research on the two manuscripts studies the radical changes to the plot and to the character of Nemo urged on Verne by Hetzel, his publisher.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010 Frederick Paul Walter issued a fully revised, newly researched translation, 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas: A World Tour Underwater. Complete with an extensive introduction, textual notes, and bibliography, it appeared in an omnibus of five of Walter's Verne translations titled Amazing Journeys: Five Visionary Classics and published by State University of New York Press ().",
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"plaintext": "The science fiction writer Theodore L. Thomas criticized the novel in 1961, claiming that \"there is not a single bit of valid speculation\" in the book and that \"none of its predictions has come true\". He described its depictions of Nemo's diving gear, underwater activities, and the Nautilus as \"pretty bad, behind the times even for 1869 ... In none of these technical situations did Verne take advantage of knowledge readily available to him at the time.\" However, the notes to the 1993 translation point out that the errors noted by Thomas were in fact in Mercier's translation, not in the original.",
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"plaintext": "Despite his criticisms, Thomas conceded: \"Put them all together with the magic of Verne's story-telling ability, and something flames up. A story emerges that sweeps incredulity before it\".",
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"plaintext": "Captain Nemo's nationality is presented in many feature film and video realizations as European. However, he's depicted as East Indian by Omar Sharif in the 1973 European miniseries The Mysterious Island. Nemo also appears as an East Indian in the 1916 silent film version of the novel (which adds elements from The Mysterious Island). Indian actor Naseeruddin Shah plays Captain Nemo in the film The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen. The character is portrayed as an East Indian in the graphic novel. In Walt Disney's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), a live-action Technicolor film of the novel, Captain Nemo seems European, albeit dark-complected. In the Disney adaptation, he's played by British actor James Mason, with — as in the novel itself — no mention of his being East Indian. Disney's filmscript elaborates on background hints in Verne's original: in an effort to acquire Nemo's scientific secrets, his wife and son were tortured to death by an unnamed government overseeing the fictional prison camp of Rorapandi. This is the captain's motivation for sinking warships in the film. Also, Nemo's submarine confines her activities to a defined, circular section of the Pacific Ocean, unlike the movements of the original Nautilus.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, Nemo is again depicted as East Indian in the Soviet 3-episode TV film Captain Nemo (1975), which also includes some plot details from The Mysterious Island.",
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"plaintext": "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas, trans. by F. P. Walter in 1991, made available by Project Gutenberg.",
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"plaintext": " , obsolete translation by Lewis Mercier, 1872",
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"plaintext": "Vingt Mille Lieues Sous Les Mers'' 1871 French edition at the digital library of the National Library of France",
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"plaintext": " Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, audio version ",
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"plaintext": " Manuscripts of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea in gallica.bnf.fr",
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"plaintext": "The M551 \"Sheridan\" AR/AAV (Armored Reconnaissance/Airborne Assault Vehicle) was a light tank developed by the United States and named after General Philip Sheridan, of American Civil War fame. It was designed to be landed by parachute and to swim across rivers. It was armed with the technically advanced but troublesome M81/M81 Modified/M81E1 152mm gun/launcher, which fired both conventional ammunition and the MGM-51 Shillelagh guided anti-tank missile.",
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"plaintext": "The M551 Sheridan entered service with the United States Army in 1967. At the urging of General Creighton Abrams, the U.S. Commander, Military Assistance Command Vietnam, at the time, the M551 was rushed into combat service to South Vietnam in January 1969. Later that year, M551s were deployed to units in Europe and South Korea. The Sheridan saw extensive combat in the Vietnam War, where problems with the platform became evident, particularly its poor survivability and reliability.",
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"plaintext": "Based on its experiences in Vietnam, the Army realized the shortcomings of the Sheridan, and after the war in 1975 began to eliminate the vehicle from its units in 1979. A modest fleet of vehicles remained in the 82nd Airborne Division and the National Guard. Various improvement programs were successfully undertaken to improve the Sheridan's reliability. Problems persisted with the 152mm gun/launcher, and various efforts explored to replace it with a more conventional model. The Sheridan went on to serve in the invasion of Panama and the Gulf War. The Army sought to replace the Sheridan with the M8 Armored Gun System, but this was canceled in 1996, late in its development. The Sheridan was retired without a designated replacement in 1996. The Army acquired the M1128 Mobile Gun System to fulfill a similar requirement, but this is being retired in 2022. The Army current light tank acquisition program is Mobile Protected Firepower.",
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"plaintext": "A large bulk of Sheridans were retained in service at the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California and as Armor Officer Basic training at Armor Training Center, then located at Fort Knox, Kentucky. They worked as simulated Soviet armored opposition force (OPFOR) to train U.S. military units on simulated tank on tank armored combat to test on combat effectiveness in a desert environment. They were finally retired from the NTC in 2003.",
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"plaintext": "In the immediate post-World War II era, the U.S. Army introduced the M41 Walker Bulldog into service to fill the role of a light tank. The lifespan of the M41 was fairly short; at 25 tons it was considered too heavy to be a true light tank, and had a rather short cruising range. Plans were started to build an even lighter replacement mounting the same gun, the T71 and T92. The T92 appeared to be the more promising of the two. However, as the prototypes were entering testing, information about the new Soviet PT-76 light tank became available. The PT-76 was amphibious, and soon there were demands that any U.S. light tank should be able to swim as well. The T92 could not be easily refitted for this role, so the Army canceled the program in 1958.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1959, the first concept studies were initiated for the armored reconnaissance/airborne assault vehicle. By October 1959, 12 proposals had been received by the Ordnance Tank Automotive Command. Two proposals were downselected in December: One from Cadillac Motor Car Division of General Motors Corporation, and a joint venture of AAI Corporation and Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company. Mockups of both proposals were evaluated in May 1960.",
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"plaintext": "The AAI candidate had three crewmen, and weighed the closest to the 10-ton weight limit specified in the requirements. The Cadillac design was only slightly heavier, with four crew. The three-man turret of the Cadillac proposal was considered more effective than the two-man turret proposed by AAI. The weight limit was reset at 15 tons. In June 1960, Cadillac Motor Car Division signed a contract to develop their concept further, which was designated as the AR/AAV XM551. In August 1961, the Secretary of the Army approved the name \"Sheridan,\" after Major General Philip Sheridan.",
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"plaintext": "A test bed underwent operations at Cleveland Tank Plant in December 1961. The decision to use the 152mm caliber XM81 gun-launcher instead of a more conventional gun was driven by the desire to save weight. The XM81 weighed about half as much as the 105mm caliber M68, and could fire both conventional and missile rounds. Testing of the XM81 began at Erie Army Depot in late 1961.",
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"plaintext": "By 1962, the Army realized that the MGM-51 Shillelagh missile system would not immediately be ready for the Sheridan, and so considered several alternative gun systems. These including conventional 76mm, 90mm and 105mm options, as well as missile systems such as ENTAC and TOW. The Army ultimately decided to arm the Sheridan with just 152mm conventional rounds until the Shillelagh was ready.",
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"plaintext": "The first of 12 pilots was delivered in June 1962. Pilots 1–3 comprised the first generation. With the second generation pilots 4–6, the band track was replaced with single-pin, link type tracks. An XM551 test bed turret with gun-launcher was mated to an M41 chassis, which began firing tests in August 1962 at Aberdeen Proving Ground. The third generation of pilots, starting with pilot 7, eliminated the water jet propulsion. Pilots 9–11 were delivered in 1964, and pilot 12 was delivered in February 1965.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s the Army was also developing the MBT-70 main battle tank with West Germany. The U.S. Army no longer used the heavy, medium, and light tank classifications. In 1960, with the deactivation of its last (M103) heavy tank battalion, and the fielding of the new M60 series tank, the U.S. Army had adopted a main battle tank (MBT) doctrine; a single tank filling all combat roles. The U.S. Army still retained the M41 Walker Bulldog light tank in the Army National Guard, but other than the units undergoing the transitional process, the regular army consisted of MBTs. Fearing Congress would balk at funding two developmental tank programs, the Army chose to designate the Sheridan as an armored reconnaissance vehicle rather than a light tank. The Army also believed \"tank\" too much evoked the main battle tank, a different role altogether, so the new project was instead officially classified as an \"Armored Reconnaissance/Airborne Assault Vehicle.\"",
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"plaintext": "In April 1965 the Army awarded a four-year $114.5 million contract to the Cadillac Gage division of the General Motors (GM) for the production of the M109 howitzer and the XM551 General Sheridan. Limited production was approved in May, and then classified as \"Standard A\" in May 1966. Production took place at Cleveland Army Tank Automotive Plant. The first two production units were delivered to the Army in July. During development, the Marine Corps evaluated the Sheridan as a possible replacement for the M50 Ontos. The Corps determined that the Sheridan would be too costly.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan entered service in June 1967 with 1st Battalion, 63rd Armor Regiment at Fort Riley. 2,426 Sheridans were planned. In the end, 1,662 Sheridans were built between 1966 and November 1970. Total cost of the M551 program was $1.3 billion. The M81 gun had problems with cracks developing near the breech after repeated firing, a problem that was later tracked to the \"key\" on the missiles that ran in a slot cut into the barrel. Most field units were modified to help address the problem, but later the modified M81E1 was introduced with a shallower slot, along with a matching modification to the missile, that cured the problem. The gun also has been criticized for having too much recoil for the vehicle weight, the second and even third road wheels coming clear off the ground when the main gun fired. In March 1967, a 105mm howitzer XM103E7 and then a 76mm gun was installed in the turret of an M551 at Rock Island Arsenal. Neither configuration was adopted.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1969 two squadrons (54 Sheridans) were deployed to the Republic of South Vietnam and assigned to the 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry and one squadron of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment for combat testing. In March 1969, after the Army invoked secrecy in declining to disclose program costs, a Government Accountability Office (GAO) official said that development costs had reached $1.3 billion. Congressman Samuel S. Stratton criticized Army officials for the program's high costs, and accused officials of concealing cost figures to cover up for their own \"bumbling ineptness.\" A GAO report leaked in May revealed the Army had fast-tracked the program to avoid budgetary scrutiny, despite indications by May 1966 that the tank's caseless ammunition was prone to cooking off. The problem had since then been resolved by a compressed-air system that forced hot ammunition residue from the breech, the Army told Congress. The Army said the Sheridan had performed well enough that it was planning to send hundreds more. A Congressional report in July identified $1.2 billion wasted on the M60 and Sheridan. The report attributed several Vietnam War casualties to Sheridan design faults, and said that the tank had been wholly unready for combat there \"without extensive and costly retrofits.\"",
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"plaintext": "The vehicle designed to mount the gun had a steel turret and aluminum hull. Although the hull could deflect heavy machine gun fire of up to 12.7mm AP, it was easily penetrated by rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), which could destroy the vehicle if the spalling contacted the caseless main gun rounds. Like the M113 armored personnel carrier, it was also vulnerable to mines.",
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"plaintext": "Swimming capability was provided by a flotation screen, similar to that used by the World War II, amphibious DD Tanks. The front armor was overlain by a wooden \"surfboard\", actually three folded layers, hinged together. This could be opened up into a sloping vertical surface in front of the driver providing a bow of a boat hull, about level with the top of the turret. Fabric formed the rest of the water barrier, folding up from compartments lining the upper corner where the side met the top of the hull, and held up at the back with poles. The front of the \"hull\" was provided with a plastic window, but in practice it was found that water splashing onto it made it almost useless, and the driver instead usually had to take steering directions from the vehicle commander. The M2 Bradley adopted a similar solution, but dropped it with upgraded armor.",
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"plaintext": "In the Vietnam War, firing the gun often adversely affected the delicate electronics, which were at the early stages of the transition to solid state devices, so the missile and its guidance system was omitted from vehicles deployed to South Vietnam. The expensive missile was fired in anger only in the Persian Gulf War's Operation Desert Storm, despite a production run of 88,000 units.",
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"plaintext": "In 1971, Frankford Arsenal awarded Hughes Aircraft Corporation a contract to begin producing the AN/VVG-1 laser rangefinder for the M551A1 upgrade.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army staff in Washington had been recommending since 1966 to the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, General Westmoreland, that the Sheridan should be used there. However, since the main gun ammunition was not available, he argued that it was simply a $300,000 machine gun platform. By 1968, the new, or soon to be, U.S. commander in South Vietnam, General Creighton Abrams, had been notified that the 152mm shells were now available for the Sheridan. However, as General Abrams began to make preparations for the equipping of U.S. cavalry squadrons for the vehicle, the affected squadrons expressed their concerns that the new aluminum tanks were not only highly vulnerable to mines and anti-tank rocket fire, but they would not be as capable of \"jungle busting\" as the M48A3 medium tanks.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1968, General Abrams met with Colonel George S. Patton IV - the son of World War II General Patton - commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment (11th ACR), the only full regiment of cavalry in South Vietnam. When Abrams mentioned the cavalry's concerns over the new vehicle, Patton recommended that the Sheridans be combat tested by a divisional cavalry squadron as well as a squadron from his own regiment; as the squadrons had completely different missions.",
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"plaintext": "The first Sheridans to arrive in South Vietnam did so in January 1969 and were accompanied by their factory representatives, instructors and evaluators as the new vehicles were issued to the 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment, and the 1st Squadron of the 11th ACR. By the end of 1970, there were more than 200 Sheridans in South Vietnam, and they stayed in the field until the last U.S. armored cavalry unit, the 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment prepared for re-deployment back to the United States in April 1972. By the end of its combat debut in 1972, the Sheridan had seen extensive action in the Vietnam War, being assigned to nearly all armored cavalry squadrons involved in that conflict. In 1969, armored cavalry units (minus the 11th ACR, which retained its M48 tank companies) began replacing their M48 Patton tanks, which in turn were normally transferred to the Army of South Vietnam. The opinions of crews on Vietnam-era M551s were mixed at best and assessments from senior commanders were often negative. This was due largely to the high loss rate of Sheridans and casualty rates among crews; landmines and RPGs that would damage an M48 Patton tank, tended to destroy a Sheridan and either kill or wound most of its crew.",
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"plaintext": "A 1969 evaluation of the vehicles found that the M551 was employed in reconnaissance, night patrol and road clearing, accumulating 39,455 road miles and 520 combat missions, with a ready rate of 81.3 percent. Despite vulnerability to rockets and mines, it was judged worthy of applying modifications and equipping all cavalry squadrons with the Sheridan.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the problems presented by aluminum construction, the Sheridan had a defect that no other common armored vehicle possessed: it fired caseless 152mm main gun rounds. These rounds were \"fixed\", meaning that, unlike the artillery, the warhead was factory attached to the propellant, and if the warhead separated from the propellant during loading, which was not uncommon, the crewmen were instructed not to load the round. Sometimes, these unspent propellant charges remained on the turret floor due to the emergencies at the time, and in either case, all of the remaining serviceable 152mm shells still remained caseless, albeit attached to their warheads, and sleeved into a re-usable white nine-ply nylon bag, which was form-fitted to hold the propellant portion of the shell. The white/silver-colored bag had a strap attached to the bottom, which the loader would grab and pull off prior to gently inserting the shell into the breech. Once a mine or RPG-type weapon created the spark, smoke and fire became imminent, and it became a matter of Standing Operating Procedure to abandon the tank immediately. On 15 February 1969, just one month after the Sheridan's arrival in South Vietnam, an M551 from the 3/4th Cavalry detonated a 25-pound pressure-triggered land mine, which ruptured its hull and ignited the 152mm shells, resulting in a secondary explosion that destroyed the tank. In late 1969, nine Sheridans from the 4th Squadron, 12th Cavalry Regiment were fording a river near the DMZ, when three of the M551s detonated mines, completely destroying them. In March 1971, five Sheridans from the 11th ACR were lost in one day to RPG fire; all five vehicles burst into flames and were totally destroyed. It became a common scene to observe melted Sheridan hulls with their sunken steel turrets sitting at odd angles with their gun tubes pointing towards the sky in various parts of the country, either awaiting final disposition, or simply forgotten.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan had several advantages: it did not get stuck in the mud as often as the 52-ton M48 did, nor did it throw its track off as often. This alone was enough to win the tank crews' favor. The light weight and high mobility proved their worth, and the gun proved an effective anti-personnel weapon when used with either the M657 HE shell or the M625 canister round, which used thousands of flechettes as projectiles.",
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"plaintext": "The reliability of the engine system and gun of the tank was, however, not fully up to the task. Of 74 M551 sent to Vietnam in February 1969, by May there were recorded 16 serious mechanical faults, 41 failed shots, 140 defective ammunitions and 25 burned engines; the turret itself had 125 electric faults, several recoil system faults and instances of blown up guns. An additional problem was that much of the carried machine-gun ammunition had to be stored outside the turret as the internal space was extremely limited.",
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"plaintext": "Although an average M48 crew could fire as many as seventeen 90mm shells during a \"mad minute\" (60 seconds with all guns firing-on command), the Sheridan was known to put out only two 152mm shells during the same time frame. While the M48's 90mm cannon fired fixed metallic cased rounds, the 152mm was caseless. The caseless rounds needed air vents to clear the gun tube and breech prior to loading another round, while the M48 breech block opened as the used shell was ejected and closed as the new shell was shoved in. The faster the loader, the faster the Patton's gun could be fired. For the Sheridan, the loader had to wait for the mechanism. After firing, the loader would have to wait, as the breech slowly opened rearward then turned downward. After another instrument indicated that all turret systems were still operational, the loader would gently push the 152mm fixed round into the breech and watch the breech block slowly rotate upward, then forward into the breech, then again, wait for the lights.",
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"plaintext": "Over 200 Sheridans were shipped to Vietnam. The Sheridan was much appreciated by the infantry, who were desperate for direct-fire support, and generally served in armored cavalry units along with ACAVs (M113s). Armor units consisted solely of tanks (minus headquarters company) and mechanized infantry units consisted solely of M113s. In this role, the real problem with the Sheridan was its limited ammunition load; normally, only 20 rounds and 8 missiles; although, as the M551s in Vietnam service were not equipped with missiles or their guidance equipment, this increased the basic load of conventional rounds. Sheridan losses were heavy during normal operations, largely due to land mines and anti-armor weapons, but were especially heavy after the start of the Cambodian Campaign in May 1970 in which, among other cavalry squadrons, the 11th ACR was thrown into the fight. The second heaviest losses were during the U.S. Army's final offensive of the war, operation Dewey Canyon II, when the Cavalry's remaining Sheridan squadrons met near disaster on the Laos border during the early months of 1971, in particular the 1/1st Cavalry.",
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"plaintext": "A common field-modification was to mount a large steel shield, known as an \"ACAV set\" (Armored Cavalry Assault Vehicle), around the commander's 50-cal. (12.7mm) gun, allowing it to be fired with some level of protection. The driver has an unusual rotating hatch which has vision blocks when rotated forward. Included with the set was an extra layer of steel belly armor which was bolted onto the vehicle's bottom, although only covering from the front to half way to the end, possibly due to weight reasons.",
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"plaintext": "A standard modification made during the mid-70s was the addition of the \"Cereal Bowl\" commander's cupola. This mod came about due to the \"broken rib\" effect that occurred when the Sheridan fired conventional rounds; the recoil would pitch the commander against the armor plating, resulting in cracked ribs.",
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"plaintext": "The Army began to phase out the Sheridan in 1978, although at the time there was no real replacement. Nevertheless, the 82d Airborne Division was able to keep them until 1996. The Sheridan was the only \"rapidly\" air-deployable tank in the inventory. Their units were later upgraded to the M551A1 TTS model, including a thermal sighting system for the commander and gunner.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1980s, the M551A1 was fitted with a visual modification kit to resemble Warsaw Pact vehicles from Soviet BMP-1, ZSU-23, T-55 to T-80s, at the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, California. These modified vehicles were used in part of the U.S. Army's Soviet opposition forces (OPFOR) by providing realistic ground training to U.S. military units about Soviet combat doctrine in a desert environment. The OPFOR Sheridans no longer fulfill that role, having been retired at the end of 2003 and subsequently scrapped or made available as \"hard targets\" or, in a few cases, as museum pieces. Many were dumped to create artificial reefs.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan's only air drop in combat occurred during the United States invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause) in 1989, when 14 M551s were deployed with C Company, 3/73rd Armor, 82nd Airborne Division. Four M551s were secretly delivered to Howard Air Force Base in Panama aboard a C-5 Galaxy in December 1989, days before the invasion. They were attached to TF Bayonet (193rd Infantry Brigade), and attached down further to TF Gator. These Sheridans took part in the attack on the Comandancia, initially supported by fire from Quarry Heights, and later displacing forward into the city. As part of Team Armor, these Sheridans later provided support to JSOC elements as they secured high-value targets throughout Panama City. The remaining 10 Sheridans were delivered via C-141 low-velocity airdrop (LVAD) to Torrijos-Tocumen Airport some hours after H-hour. One of these was destroyed after its parachutes failed to deploy, while another was damaged. As of 2009, this marked the first and only combat air-drop of tanks in history.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan was praised for its performance in Panama. A U.S. after-action report noted that the Sheridan's \"extreme psychological effect on enemy forces\" who were apparently deterred from firing at U.S. forces reinforced by tanks.",
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"plaintext": "In the early days of Desert Shield, Sheridans were airlanded in Saudi Arabia before coalition heavy armor arrived by ship. The first Sheridans sent were the M551A1 model. The Army hastily sent 60 M551A1 TTS models with the thermal sight upgrade to replace the older models. The 3/73rd used the Sheridan as part of a flanking force in Operation Desert Storm, and saw tank-on-tank combat. Their role was limited to reconnaissance due to their age and light armor. It is likely that no more than six Shillelagh missiles were fired at Iraqi anti-tank guns or T-55s; this was the only occasion in which Shillelagh missiles were fired in anger, from the inventory of 88,000 missiles produced. Other than some overheating problems in the summer months of the buildup, the Sheridan suffered no mechanical breakdowns in combat and performed extremely well.",
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"plaintext": "During 1967 and 1968 the Australian Army trialled two Sheridans to determine if the type met a requirement for light armored fighting vehicles to serve with the Royal Australian Armoured Corps newly formed cavalry regiments. The main trials took place in the tropical Innisfail area of north Queensland between January and June 1968. In January 1969 the Minister for the Army announced that Australia would not purchase any Sheridans as the tanks did not meet the Army's requirements. The main shortcoming revealed in the trials concerned the safety of the combustible case. The two Sheridans were returned to the U.S. Army in early 1969, and the Australian Army met its requirement by fitting turrets from Alvis Saladin armoured cars to M113 armored personnel carriers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, TRADOC commander General Donn A. Starry met with Army Chief of Staff General Edward C. Meyer to convince him that the service should retire the Sheridan. Starry had commanded the 11th ACR in Vietnam, and knew the vehicle's shortcomings. Starry's arguments prevailed over those of Army Material Command commander General John R. Guthrie, a Sheridan defender, and Meyer agreed the Sheridan would be retired. The Army decided on the M60A1 as the service's interim successor until the M3 Bradley was ready. At the time, 567 Sheridans existed in USAREUR, 535 in the continental U.S., and 41 in the Pacific. The Army began converting units in Europe in 1978, and in the rest of the service by 1980. The Army sustained 140 Sheridans in the 82nd Airborne Division and the National Guard. Some Sheridans were kept in pre-positioned reserve.",
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"plaintext": "Several attempts to improve or replace the Sheridan have been made over the years since it was introduced. In 1976, DARPA (followed by TACOM) initiated the High Mobility/Agility (HIMAG) program. Several concepts were pursued, including the High Survivability Test Vehicle – Light and the Elevated Kinetic Energy gun system. The latter was trialled on a Sheridan hull in 1982. Following the Iran hostage crisis, the Rapid Deployment Force concept was pursued by both the Army and the Marine Corps. The Marine Corps initiated the Mobile Protected Weapon System (MPWS) program. In 1983, the Naval Surface Weapons Research Center Laboratory mounted a 105 mm caliber gun onto a Sheridan chassis. The Army initiated the Mobile Protected Gun program, and announced plans to modify Sheridans with 105 mm or 120mm caliber guns. Neither program was pursued further; The Army project was canceled in 1985.",
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"plaintext": "From 1978 to 1980, under the joint Army–Marine Corps Advanced Antiarmor Vehicle Evaluation (ARMVAL), TACOM rebuilt 10 Sheridans with the General Motors 8V53T diesel engine and improved suspension. The vehicle's armament and some armor was removed. The uprated engine and improved suspension improved the power-to-weight ratio and cross-country mobility. The Army also evaluated a fully stabilized Staget sighting system.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, the Army tested a version of the LAV-25, classified as the M1047. The Army determined that these were unsuitable for LAPES, and could not match the firepower of the Sheridan. Congress did not favor the M1047, though a few were deployed with the 3/73rd Armor in the Gulf War. The Marine Corps also developed the LAV-105 to meet its requirements, but later canceled that project as well. In 1992, the Army selected FMC Corporation to produce the Armored Gun System (AGS), later type classified as the M8 Armored Gun System. The AGS was canceled in 1996 by the Pentagon before it could enter production. United Defense proposed the AGS as its mobile gun system variant in the Interim Armored Vehicle program. In 2000, the Army instead selected a variant of the General Dynamics' LAV III, later type-classified as the M1128 Mobile Gun System. The Mobile Gun System's problematic service history led to the vehicle's planned retirement in 2022. The Army has initiated development of a light tank acquisition program called Mobile Protected Firepower.",
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"plaintext": "Building a vehicle lighter than the T92 required an innovative solution for the main armament. A gun firing kinetic energy penetrators to defeat modern tanks at reasonable range was too large for the XM551; gun weight was typically dependent on caliber and muzzle velocity. This was solved by arming the XM551 with a 152mm M81 gun firing low velocity M409 HEAT rounds. The large caliber ensured it would produce a powerful shaped charge effect capable of penetrating tank armor, since velocity has no effect on shaped charge penetration, while the short gun would reduce overall weight.",
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"plaintext": "The gun was ideal for infantry support. The large, low velocity gun could fire a large explosive shell or canister shot. In comparison, high-velocity anti-tank guns over-penetrated soft targets, while smaller caliber weapons could not carry as great a payload.",
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"plaintext": "The M81E1 was not ideal in medium- and long-range tank engagements as its low velocity produced extended flight times, and made it difficult to lead moving targets. Therefore, the gun was also designed to fire MGM-51 Shillelagh anti-tank missiles. The low launch velocity against longer-ranged targets was not an issue for the missile. However, the MGM-51 was considered a risky project.",
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"plaintext": "A number of existing vehicles already mounted only ATGMs, or alternately recoilless rifles like the M50 Ontos, but these typically had limited utility in the infantry support role, or in the case of Ontos could not be reloaded from within the vehicle. The XM551 appeared to offer a superior balance between anti-tank and infantry support.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan was powered by a large 300-hp (224kW) Detroit Diesel 6V53T diesel engine, and a flat track (no support rollers). The XM551 thus had an excellent power-to-weight ratio and mobility, able to run at speeds up to 72km/h (45mph). However, the vehicle proved to be very noisy and unreliable under combat conditions.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan could swim across a river that was about 46 m (50 yards) wide. Tanks in the Patton series (M46, M47, M48), as well as the M60 tank could not perform these operations; they would have to crawl along the river bottoms using snorkels. Not by design, it was found that the swimming hardware acted to reduce the effectiveness of RPG hits, but it was rarely used in Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridan can be rigged for low-velocity airdrop from C-130 (19,000kg, 42,000lb max load), C-141 aircraft (17,460kg, 38,500lb max load), and the C-5. Many films exist showing the Sheridan being pulled out of a C-130 Hercules transport by brake chutes and skidding to a stop. The Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES) is a somewhat risky maneuver that allows accurate delivery onto a field when landing is not possible, and the practice was stopped in the late 1990s. The tank is strapped down to a special pallet which absorbs most of the landing impact. The crew does not ride in the tank during extraction, but parachutes from another plane. On landing, they go to their tank, release the lines, and drive it away.",
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"plaintext": " XM551/M551 - The M551 was the basic production model, beginning production in 1967. The XM551 had been a limited run pre-production model produced in 1965.",
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"plaintext": " \"Two Box\" M551 - With the obvious shortcomings of the Shillelagh missile, all but two of the guidance and fire control components of the missile system were removed (the power supply and rate sensor were retained. These were needed for stabilized turret operation.). The resulting additional space was filled with two separate boxes, one for 7.62×51mm NATO ammunition (coaxial machine gun), and one for 12.7×99mm NATO (.50 BMG) ammunition, and the missile stowage was redesigned to accept conventional rounds.",
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"plaintext": " M551A1 - Upgraded M551 with AN/VVG-1 laser rangefinder.",
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"plaintext": " M551A1 TTS - Tank Thermal Sight, fitted with the AN/VSG-2B thermal sight unit, similar to the unit used on the M60A3 MBT. This later became standard to all M551A1s.",
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"plaintext": " M551 NTC - National Training Center. Using M551 hulls, the NTC created a number of mock vehicles for training exercises resembling common Soviet/Warsaw pact types. They were also known as 'vismods', short for VISually MODified. They have since been retired in favor of similarly converted M113s and M1 Abrams.",
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"plaintext": " Armored Tracked Recovery Vehicle (ATRV) - Prototype.",
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"plaintext": " Camp Joseph T. Robinson, Arkansas National Guard Museum",
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"plaintext": " Fort Benning, static display on Tower Branch of U.S. Army Airborne School across from Maneuver Center of Excellence.",
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"plaintext": " First Division Museum at Cantigny, an example of the M551A1 is on display in the tank park outside the First Division Museum at Cantigny in Wheaton, Illinois",
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"plaintext": " Antioch, Illinois has a veterans monument displaying a M551A1 across the street from the police station. ",
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"plaintext": " Fort Irwin/NTC, has one vehicle on display at the 11th Cavalry Regiment museum.",
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"plaintext": " Fort Polk, a \"T-72\" VISMOD is on display on Mississippi Avenue near the headquarters of 1st Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment.",
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"plaintext": " The Museum of American Armor, Old Bethpage, NY on static display.",
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"plaintext": " Gowen Field, Idaho Army National Guard",
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"plaintext": " Hardwood Range, an example is on static display at the visitor center at Hardwood Air-to-Ground Weapons Range in Finley, Wisconsin.",
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"plaintext": " The Ontario Regiment Museum, in Oshawa, has two Sheridan tanks on display. One is in not operating condition and the other has been restored with its original 11th Cavalry markings.",
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"plaintext": " Camp Perry, near Port Clinton, Ohio, has an M551 on display as part of a static display.",
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"plaintext": "Airborne & Special Operations Museum, Fayetetteville, NC",
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"plaintext": " The American Armoured Foundation's Tank and Ordnance War Memorial Museum, Danville, VA. M551A1 deployed in Desert Shield/Storm. Markings: 3rd Battalion 73 Regiment, Co. B, 2nd platoon, attached to the 82nd Airborne Division.",
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"plaintext": " Fort Hunter Liggett on static display at the entrance.",
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"plaintext": " The American Heritage Museum, Stow, Massachusetts has an M551 that is in operating condition.",
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"plaintext": " American Society of Military History and Museums, South El Monte, Ca. 2 non running exhibits and a running, ex-vismod unit.",
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"plaintext": " Fort Knox, Kentucky. Static display at Wilson Road entrance",
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"plaintext": " Ike Skelton Missouri National Guard Training Facility, Jefferson City Missouri Ike Skelton Training Facility has a M551 in their outside museum",
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"plaintext": " Fort Bliss, static display at Sheridan Gate entrance.",
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"plaintext": " Yad La-Shiryon Israel",
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"plaintext": "Camp Beauregard in Pineville, LA static display outside of the post museum.",
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"plaintext": " Museum of Missouri Military History, on static display outside the museum",
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"plaintext": " Watervliet Arsenal",
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"plaintext": " Yuma Proving Ground in Yuma, AZ. On static display outside range control.",
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"plaintext": "Mott's Military Museum in Groveport, Ohio has an M551 on display outside with other various vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Vietnam Veterans of America, in Baltimore, MD has an M551A1 on display outside of the building at 6401 Beckley St.",
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"plaintext": " Fort Bragg, NC Outdoor exhibit at the 82d Airborne Division War Memorial Museum",
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"plaintext": " List of \"M\" series military vehicles",
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"plaintext": " List of vehicles of the U.S. Armed Forces",
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"plaintext": " M60A2, which used a similar 152mm gun-launcher",
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"plaintext": " M3 Bradley, a modern AFV that sometimes covers the same roles",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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},
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"plaintext": "Bibliography",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hunnicutt, R.P. Abrams, A History of the American Main Battle Tank. Vol. 2. Presidio Press 1990.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vietnam-Germany-Fort Irwin: the Eaglehorse and the M551 Sheridan - an in-depth history of the M551 Sheridan",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " M551 at AFV Database",
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},
{
"plaintext": " M551A1 at Global Security",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tanques y Blindados: Historia del carro de combate",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " XM551, M551 & M551A1 Photos",
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{
"plaintext": " The Sheridan",
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"Light_tanks_of_the_United_States",
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38,095 | 1,106,120,871 | MGM-51_Shillelagh | [
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"plaintext": "The Ford MGM-51 Shillelagh (pronounced ) was an American anti-tank guided missile designed to be launched from a conventional gun (cannon). It was originally intended to be the medium-range portion of a short, medium, and long-range system for armored fighting vehicles in the 1960s and '70s to defeat future armor without an excessively large gun. Developing a system that could fire both shells and missiles reliably proved complex and largely unworkable.",
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"plaintext": "It was originally developed for the experimental but never produced MBT-70 tank and served most notably as a primary weapon of the M551 Sheridan light tank, but the missile system was not issued to units serving in Vietnam and was retired in 1996. It was also used on the M60A2 \"Starship\", which was phased out by 1981. Ultimately, very few of the 88,000 rounds produced were ever fired in combat, and the system was largely succeeded by the later BGM-71 TOW wire-guided missile, which was first produced in 1970. Western forces largely gave up on the gun launched missile concept, although it remains in use on former Soviet Union designs.",
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"plaintext": "With the rapid increase in armor thickness during World War II, tanks were becoming increasingly able to survive rounds fired from even the largest of World War II-era anti-tank guns. A new generation of guns, notably the British 105mm Royal Ordnance L7, were able to cope with newer tanks, but it appeared that in another generation the guns needed would be too large to be practical.",
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"plaintext": "To overcome this potential difficulty, the US Army began to favor high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT), or shaped charge rounds in the 1950s. A shaped charge's penetration is not strongly dependent on the speed of the round, allowing rounds to be fired at much lower velocities, and thus from much lighter guns. They also work better at larger diameters, and a large-diameter low-velocity gun makes for an excellent assault gun that can be mounted on light or medium-weight vehicles. However, the low speed of the round makes it hard to aim over longer distances. The US Army sought to overcome this problem by developing guided missiles that had shaped charge warheads and were accurate beyond a few hundred yards.",
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"plaintext": "In 1958, the Army thought that existing knowledge was sufficient to begin work on a guided missile with a HEAT warhead, and in June 1959 Sperry and Ford Aeronutronic were asked for designs to fill the shorter range role. Ford won the contract and started work on the XM13. The first test shots were fired in 1960, and limited production started in 1964. The missile was then known as the MGM-51A.",
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"plaintext": "The basic system was quite advanced for its day. The missile body consisted of a long tube with fold-out fins at the extreme rear, which was propelled from the new M81 gun with a small charge strapped on the rear. Once clear of the gun, the fins popped open and the engine ignited. To keep the missile from spinning while in the gun due to the rifling, a small \"key\" fitted into a straight groove in the rifled gun. Aiming the missile was simple; the gunner simply kept his gunsight on the target, while electronics in the sighting system tracked the missile optically and sent corrections through an IR link (similar to a TV remote control). In general the gunners were able to achieve excellent hit rates.",
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"plaintext": "The main problem with the system is firing the main gun with a projectile vs. a missile. The recoil from the gun throws all the missile optics off. Limiting the use of the M551 to either anti-tank or bunker buster.",
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"plaintext": "Because the system was so advanced, the development of the Shillelagh was fraught with problems. Ford Aeronutronic underestimated the complexity of the task of designing a missile as advanced as this, and there were major problems with the propellant, igniter, tracker and infrared command link of the missile.",
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"plaintext": "The M81/MGM-51 was first installed on the M551 Sheridan. The Sheridan was a light aluminum-armored AFV designed to be air transportable and provide antitank support for airborne forces. In 1966, the US Army began pressing General Westmoreland to field the tank in South Vietnam, but he declined, stating that with no main gun ammunition, the Sheridan was basically nothing more than a $300,000 machine gun platform. In 1968, 152mm main gun ammo became available, and the Sheridan was deployed to South Vietnam for combat operations in January 1969. Shillelagh missiles did not prove to be a problem in the Vietnam War: they were not used.",
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"plaintext": "The Sheridans' 152mm main guns were used in combat operations in Vietnam but proved troublesome. The combustible casings of the 152mm caseless ammunition rounds did not burn completely, requiring a complicated and slow gas-driven scavenging system. They were also liable to detonate if the vehicle was hit. Firing the gun caused such a large recoil as to result in failures in the delicate missile firing electronics on the tank. These problems, in combination with the lack of suitable targets, resulted in their deployment without the complex missile system.",
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"plaintext": "The Shillelagh was considerably larger than a conventional round, so only a small number could be carried. Typical loads consisted of only nine missiles and twenty M409 HEAT rounds for short-range use. In addition, the missile proved to have a very long minimum range. Due to the layout of the vehicle, the missile did not come into the sight of the gun/tracker system until it was from the vehicle, at which point it could start to be guided. Because of its maximum range of about , the system was only effective within a fairly narrow span of combat distances.",
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"plaintext": "While the maximum range of was acceptable, the Army thought that it could and should be improved. Ford received a contract to develop a longer range version in 1963, and returned a slightly larger design the next year. Test firing of the new MGM-51B started the next May, and production began in October 1966. Besides the changes to the missile, the gun was modified. In testing it was found that the key slot in the gun led to cracking after firing only a few shells. After further study, a version with a shallower slot and new barrel was selected, creating the M81E1/MGM-51C.",
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"plaintext": "The new missile was about long, about in diameter, and weighed . It remained in production until 1971, by which time 88,000 had been produced, probably in anticipation of use by main battle tanks (below). Nearly a half dozen missiles were fired at bunkers by Sheridans during Operation Desert Storm (Iraq/Kuwait) in January and February 1991. This was the only time the missile system was fired in combat.",
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"plaintext": "Even with its problems, the system had shown that it could be used by an airborne tank to destroy a main battle tank. The question of whether or not it could fill its original role as the main armament of all tanks was still open. The Army had originally started development of a low-profile turret with a short barrel for their existing M60 tanks in the 1960s, but did not place an order for delivery until 1971, when the main problems with the system had been resolved. The Shillelagh-equipped M60A2s entered service in 1974, but were hampered by reliability problems, and were phased out in 1980. The final revision of the M60A3 used the same 105 mm gun and turret as the M60A1.",
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"plaintext": "The most ambitious project based on the Shillelagh was the MBT-70, an advanced US-German tank. Design work on the MBT-70 began in 1963. The tank mounted a huge auto-loader turret on top of a very short chassis, so short that there was no room for a driver in the front hull. Instead of being located in the conventional position, the driver was seated in the turret with the other crew members, in a rotating cupola that kept him facing forward. The gun was a new longer-barreled design, the XM-150, which extended range and performance to the point where it was useful for sabot type rounds as well. However, the project dragged on, and in 1969 the estimated unit cost had risen fivefold. Germany pulled out of the project. The Army proposed a \"cut-down\" version of the system, the XM-803, but Congress cancelled it in November 1971. It initiated and issued funds to the M1 Abrams project the next month. The M1 design incorporated a conventional gun.",
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"plaintext": "List of gun-launched missiles",
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"plaintext": "XM1111 Mid-Range Munition, U.S. unpowered 120mm guided munition canceled in 2009",
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"plaintext": "References",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
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"plaintext": "Starry, Donn A., General. Mounted Combat in Vietnam. Department of the Army, Washington D.C. 1978.",
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"plaintext": "Ford M13/MGM-51 Shillelagh - Designation Systems",
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}
] | [
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38,099 | 1,105,125,900 | Giovanni_Battista_Pergolesi | [
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"plaintext": "Giovanni Battista Draghi (; 4 January 1710 – 16 or 17 March 1736), often referred to as Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (), was an Italian Baroque composer, violinist, and organist. His best-known works include his Stabat Mater and the opera La serva padrona (The Maid Turned Mistress). His compositions include operas and sacred music. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 26.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Jesi in what is now the Province of Ancona (but was then part of the Papal States), he was commonly given the nickname \"Pergolesi\", a demonym indicating in Italian the residents of Pergola, Marche, the birthplace of his ancestors. He studied music in Jesi under a local musician, Francesco Santi, before going to Naples in 1725, where he studied under Gaetano Greco and Francesco Feo among others. ",
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"plaintext": "On leaving the conservatory in 1731, he won some renown by performing the oratorio in two parts (\"The Phoenix on the Pyre, or The Death of Saint Joseph\"), and the dramma sacro in three acts, Li prodigi della divina grazia nella conversione e morte di san Guglielmo duca d’Aquitania (\"The Miracles of Divine Grace in the Conversion and Death of Saint William, Duke of Aquitaine\"). He spent most of his brief life working for aristocratic patrons such as Ferdinando Colonna, Prince of Stigliano, and Domenico Marzio Carafa, Duke of Maddaloni.",
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"plaintext": "Among Pergolesi's other operatic works are his first opera seria La Salustia (1732), Lo frate 'nnamorato (The brother in love, 1732, to a text in the Neapolitan language), L'Olimpiade (January 1735) and Il Flaminio (1735, to a text in the Neapolitan language). All his operas were premiered in Naples, apart from L'Olimpiade, which was first given in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Pergolesi's Salve Regina is a highlighted performance in the movie Farinelli (1994), in which Farinelli also performs Stabat Mater Dolorosa in the only duet.",
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"plaintext": "Many talented BMX riders go on to other cycling sports like downhill, including Australian Olympian Jared Graves, Eric Carter and youth BMX racer Aaron Gwin. Multiple world and Olympic champion track sprinter Chris Hoy also began as a BMX rider.",
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"plaintext": " Dirt jumping",
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"plaintext": " Glossary of cycling",
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"plaintext": " List of BMX bicycle manufacturers",
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38,106 | 1,098,942,968 | Actual_infinity | [
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"plaintext": "In the philosophy of mathematics, the abstraction of actual infinity involves the acceptance (if the axiom of infinity is included) of infinite entities as given, actual and completed objects. These might include the set of natural numbers, extended real numbers, transfinite numbers, or even an infinite sequence of rational numbers. Actual infinity is to be contrasted with potential infinity, in which a non-terminating process (such as \"add 1 to the previous number\") produces a sequence with no last element, and where each individual result is finite and is achieved in a finite number of steps. As a result, potential infinity is often formalized using the concept of limit.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Greek term for the potential or improper infinite was apeiron (unlimited or indefinite), in contrast to the actual or proper infinite aphorismenon. Apeiron stands opposed to that which has a peras (limit). These notions are today denoted by potentially infinite and actually infinite, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Anaximander (610–546BC) held that the apeiron was the principle or main element composing all things. Clearly, the 'apeiron' was some sort of basic substance. Plato's notion of the apeiron is more abstract, having to do with indefinite variability. The main dialogues where Plato discusses the 'apeiron' are the late dialogues Parmenides and the Philebus.",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle sums up the views of his predecessors on infinity as follows:",
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"plaintext": "\"Only the Pythagoreans place the infinite among the objects of sense (they do not regard number as separable from these), and assert that what is outside the heaven is infinite. Plato, on the other hand, holds that there is no body outside (the Forms are not outside because they are nowhere), yet that the infinite is present not only in the objects of sense but in the Forms also.\" (Aristotle)",
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"plaintext": "The theme was brought forward by Aristotle's consideration of the apeiron—in the context of mathematics and physics (the study of nature):",
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"plaintext": "\"Infinity turns out to be the opposite of what people say it is. It is not 'that which has nothing beyond itself' that is infinite, but 'that which always has something beyond itself'.\" (Aristotle)Belief in the existence of the infinite comes mainly from five considerations:",
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"plaintext": " From the nature of time – for it is infinite.",
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"plaintext": " From the division of magnitudes – for the mathematicians also use the notion of the infinite.",
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"plaintext": " If coming to be and passing away do not give out, it is only because that from which things come to be is infinite.",
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"plaintext": " Because the limited always finds its limit in something, so that there must be no limit, if everything is always limited by something different from itself.",
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"plaintext": " Most of all, a reason which is peculiarly appropriate and presents the difficulty that is felt by everybody – not only number but also mathematical magnitudes and what is outside the heaven are supposed to be infinite because they never give out in our thought. (Aristotle)",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle postulated that an actual infinity was impossible, because if it were possible, then something would have attained infinite magnitude, and would be \"bigger than the heavens.\" However, he said, mathematics relating to infinity was not deprived of its applicability by this impossibility, because mathematicians did not need the infinite for their theorems, just a finite, arbitrarily large magnitude.",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle handled the topic of infinity in Physics and in Metaphysics. He distinguished between actual and potential infinity. Actual infinity is completed and definite, and consists of infinitely many elements. Potential infinity is never complete: elements can be always added, but never infinitely many. ",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle distinguished between infinity with respect to addition and division.",
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"plaintext": "\"As an example of a potentially infinite series in respect to increase, one number can always be added after another in the series that starts 1,2,3,... but the process of adding more and more numbers cannot be exhausted or completed.\"With respect to division, a potentially infinite sequence of divisions might start, for example, 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, but the process of division cannot be exhausted or completed.",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle also argued that Greek mathematicians knew the difference among the actual infinite and a potential one, but they \"do not need the [actual] infinite and do not use it\" (Phys. III 2079 29).",
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"plaintext": "The overwhelming majority of scholastic philosophers adhered to the motto Infinitum actu non datur. This means there is only a (developing, improper, \"syncategorematic\") potential infinity but not a (fixed, proper, \"categorematic\") actual infinity. There were exceptions, however, for example in England. ",
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"plaintext": "It is well known that in the Middle Ages all scholastic philosophers advocate Aristotle's \"infinitum actu non datur\" as an irrefutable principle. (G. Cantor)",
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"plaintext": "Actual infinity exists in number, time and quantity. (J. Baconthorpe [9, p.96])",
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"plaintext": "During the Renaissance and by early modern times the voices in favor of actual infinity were rather rare.",
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"plaintext": "The continuum actually consists of infinitely many indivisibles (G. Galilei [9, p.97])",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "I am so in favour of actual infinity. (G.W. Leibniz [9, p.97])",
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"plaintext": "However, the majority of pre-modern thinkers agreed with the well-known quote of Gauss:",
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"plaintext": "I protest against the use of infinite magnitude as something completed, which is never permissible in mathematics. Infinity is merely a way of speaking, the true meaning being a limit which certain ratios approach indefinitely close, while others are permitted to increase without restriction. (C.F. Gauss [in a letter to Schumacher, 12 July 1831])",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Actual infinity is now commonly accepted. The drastic change was initialized by Bolzano and Cantor in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "Bernard Bolzano, who introduced the notion of set (in German: Menge), and Georg Cantor, who introduced set theory, opposed the general attitude. Cantor distinguished three realms of infinity: (1) the infinity of God (which he called the \"absolutum\"), (2) the infinity of reality (which he called \"nature\") and (3) the transfinite numbers and sets of mathematics.",
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"plaintext": "A multitude which is larger than any finite multitude, i.e., a multitude with the property that every finite set [of members of the kind in question] is only a part of it, I will call an infinite multitude. (B. Bolzano [2, p.6])",
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"plaintext": "Accordingly I distinguish an eternal uncreated infinity or absolutum, which is due to God and his attributes, and a created infinity or transfinitum, which has to be used wherever in the created nature an actual infinity has to be noticed, for example, with respect to, according to my firm conviction, the actually infinite number of created individuals, in the universe as well as on our earth and, most probably, even in every arbitrarily small extended piece of space. (Georg Cantor) (G. Cantor [8, p.252])",
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"plaintext": "The numbers are a free creation of human mind. (R. Dedekind [3a, p.III])",
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"plaintext": "One proof is based on the notion of God. First, from the highest perfection of God, we infer the possibility of the creation of the transfinite, then, from his all-grace and splendor, we infer the necessity that the creation of the transfinite in fact has happened. (G. Cantor [3, p.400])",
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"plaintext": "Cantor distinguished two types of actual infinity; the transfinite and the absolute, about which he affirmed:",
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"plaintext": "These concepts are to be strictly differentiated, insofar the former is, to be sure, infinite, yet capable of increase, whereas the latter is incapable of increase and is therefore indeterminable as a mathematical concept. This mistake we find, for example, in Pantheism. (G. Cantor, Über verschiedene Standpunkte in bezug auf das aktuelle Unendliche, in Gesammelte Abhandlungen mathematischen und philosophischen Inhalts, pp. 375, 378)",
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"plaintext": "Actual infinity is now commonly accepted, because mathematicians have learned how to construct algebraic statements using it. For example, one may write down a symbol, , with the verbal description that \" stands for completed (countable) infinity\". This symbol may be added as an ur-element to any set. One may also provide axioms that define addition, multiplication and inequality; specifically, ordinal arithmetic, such that expressions like can be interpreted as \"any natural number is less than completed infinity\". Even \"common sense\" statements such as are possible and consistent. The theory is sufficiently well developed, that rather complex algebraic expressions, such as , and even can be interpreted as valid algebraic expressions, can be given a verbal description, and can be used in a wide variety of theorems and claims in a consistent and meaningful fashion. The ability to define ordinal numbers in a consistent, meaningful way, renders much of the debate moot; whatever personal opinion one may hold about infinity or constructability, the existence of a rich theory for working with infinities using the tools of algebra and logic is clearly in hand.",
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"plaintext": "The mathematical meaning of the term \"actual\" in actual infinity is synonymous with definite, completed, extended or existential, but not to be mistaken for physically existing. The question of whether natural or real numbers form definite sets is therefore independent of the question of whether infinite things exist physically in nature.",
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"plaintext": "Proponents of intuitionism, from Kronecker onwards, reject the claim that there are actually infinite mathematical objects or sets. Consequently, they reconstruct the foundations of mathematics in a way that does not assume the existence of actual infinities. On the other hand, constructive analysis does accept the existence of the completed infinity of the integers.",
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"plaintext": "For intuitionists, infinity is described as potential; terms synonymous with this notion are becoming or constructive. For example, Stephen Kleene describes the notion of a Turing machine tape as \"a linear 'tape', (potentially) infinite in both directions.\" To access memory on the tape, a Turing machine moves a read head along it in finitely many steps: the tape is therefore only \"potentially\" infinite, since while there is always the ability to take another step, infinity itself is never actually reached.",
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"plaintext": "Mathematicians generally accept actual infinities. Georg Cantor is the most significant mathematician who defended actual infinities, equating the Absolute Infinite with God. He decided that it is possible for natural and real numbers to be definite sets, and that if one rejects the axiom of Euclidean finiteness (that states that actualities, singly and in aggregates, are necessarily finite), then one is not involved in any contradiction.",
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"plaintext": "The present-day conventional finitist interpretation of ordinal and cardinal numbers is that they consist of a collection of special symbols, and an associated formal language, within which statements may be made. All such statements are necessarily finite in length. The soundness of the manipulations is founded only on the basic principles of a formal language: term algebras, term rewriting, and so on. More abstractly, both (finite) model theory and proof theory offer the needed tools to work with infinities. One does not have to \"believe\" in infinity in order write down algebraically valid expressions employing symbols for infinity.",
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"plaintext": "The philosophical problem of actual infinity concerns whether the notion is coherent and epistemically sound.",
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"plaintext": "Classical set theory accepts the notion of actual, completed infinities. However, some finitist philosophers of mathematics and constructivists object to the notion.If the positive number n becomes infinitely great, the expression 1/n goes to naught (or gets infinitely small). In this sense one speaks of the improper or potential infinite. In sharp and clear contrast the set just considered is a readily finished, locked infinite set, fixed in itself, containing infinitely many exactly defined elements (the natural numbers) none more and none less. (A. Fraenkel [4, p.6])Thus the conquest of actual infinity may be considered an expansion of our scientific horizon no less revolutionary than the Copernican system or than the theory of relativity, or even of quantum and nuclear physics. (A. Fraenkel [4, p.245])",
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"plaintext": "To look at the universe of all sets not as a fixed entity but as an entity capable of \"growing\", i.e., we are able to \"produce\" bigger and bigger sets. (A. Fraenkel et al. [5, p.118])",
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"plaintext": "(Brouwer) maintains that a veritable continuum which is not denumerable can be obtained as a medium of free development; that is to say, besides the points which exist (are ready) on account of their definition by laws, such as e, pi, etc. other points of the continuum are not ready but develop as so-called choice sequences. (A. Fraenkel et al. [5, p.255])",
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"plaintext": "Intuitionists reject the very notion of an arbitrary sequence of integers, as denoting something finished and definite as illegitimate. Such a sequence is considered to be a growing object only and not a finished one. (A. Fraenkel et al. [5, p.236])",
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"plaintext": "Until then, no one envisioned the possibility that infinities come in different sizes, and moreover, mathematicians had no use for “actual infinity.” The arguments using infinity, including the Differential Calculus of Newton and Leibniz, do not require the use of infinite sets. (T. Jech )",
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"plaintext": "Owing to the gigantic simultaneous efforts of Frege, Dedekind and Cantor, the infinite was set on a throne and revelled in its total triumph. In its daring flight the infinite reached dizzying heights of success. (D. Hilbert [6, p.169])",
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"plaintext": "One of the most vigorous and fruitful branches of mathematics [...] a paradise created by Cantor from which nobody shall ever expel us [...] the most admirable blossom of the mathematical mind and altogether one of the outstanding achievements of man's purely intellectual activity. (D. Hilbert on set theory [6])",
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"plaintext": "Finally, let us return to our original topic, and let us draw the conclusion from all our reflections on the infinite. The overall result is then: The infinite is nowhere realized. Neither is it present in nature nor is it admissible as a foundation of our rational thinking – a remarkable harmony between being and thinking. (D. Hilbert [6, 190])",
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"plaintext": "Infinite totalities do not exist in any sense of the word (i.e., either really or ideally). More precisely, any mention, or purported mention, of infinite totalities is, literally, meaningless. (A. Robinson [10, p.507])",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, I think that there is a real need, in formalism and elsewhere, to link our understanding of mathematics with our understanding of the physical world. (A. Robinson)",
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"plaintext": "Georg Cantor's grand meta-narrative, Set Theory, created by him almost singlehandedly in the span of about fifteen years, resembles a piece of high art more than a scientific theory. (Y. Manin )",
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"plaintext": "Thus, exquisite minimalism of expressive means is used by Cantor to achieve a sublime goal: understanding infinity, or rather infinity of infinities. (Y. Manin )",
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"plaintext": "There is no actual infinity, that the Cantorians have forgotten and have been trapped by contradictions. (H. Poincaré [Les mathématiques et la logique III, Rev. métaphys. morale 14 (1906) p.316])",
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"plaintext": "When the objects of discussion are linguistic entities [...] then that collection of entities may vary as a result of discussion about them. A consequence of this is that the \"natural numbers\" of today are not the same as the \"natural numbers\" of yesterday. (D. Isles )",
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"plaintext": "There are at least two different ways of looking at the numbers: as a completed infinity and as an incomplete infinity... regarding the numbers as an incomplete infinity offers a viable and interesting alternative to regarding the numbers as a completed infinity, one that leads to great simplifications in some areas of mathematics and that has strong connections with problems of computational complexity. (E. Nelson )",
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"plaintext": "During the renaissance, particularly with Bruno, actual infinity transfers from God to the world. The finite world models of contemporary science clearly show how this power of the idea of actual infinity has ceased with classical (modern) physics. Under this aspect, the inclusion of actual infinity into mathematics, which explicitly started with G. Cantor only towards the end of the last century, seems displeasing. Within the intellectual overall picture of our century ... actual infinity brings about an impression of anachronism. (P. Lorenzen)",
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"plaintext": " Limit (mathematics)",
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"plaintext": " Cardinality of the continuum",
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"plaintext": " \"Infinity\" at The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, treating the history of the notion of infinity, including the problem of actual infinity.",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " Aristotle, Physics ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " Bernard Bolzano, 1851, Paradoxien des Unendlichen, Reclam, Leipzig.",
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"plaintext": " Bernard Bolzano 1837, Wissenschaftslehre, Sulzbach.",
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"plaintext": " Georg Cantor in E. Zermelo (ed.) 1966, Gesammelte Abhandlungen mathematischen und philosophischen Inhalts, Olms, Hildesheim.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " Richard Dedekind in 1960 Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen?, Vieweg, Braunschweig.",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Adolf Abraham Fraenkel 1923, Einleitung in die Mengenlehre, Springer, Berlin.",
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"plaintext": " Adolf Abraham Fraenkel, Y. Bar-Hillel, A. Levy 1984, Foundations of Set Theory, 2nd edn., North Holland, Amsterdam New York.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Stephen C. Kleene 1952 (1971 edition, 10th printing), Introduction to Metamathematics, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam New York. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [
28805
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"plaintext": " H. Meschkowski 1981, Georg Cantor: Leben, Werk und Wirkung (2. Aufl.), BI, Mannheim.",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " H. Meschkowski, W. Nilson (Hrsg.) 1991, Georg Cantor – Briefe, Springer, Berlin.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Abraham Robinson 1979, Selected Papers, Vol. 2, W.A.J. Luxemburg, S. Koerner (Hrsg.), North Holland, Amsterdam.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"Metaphysics",
"Philosophy_of_mathematics"
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38,114 | 1,100,309,646 | Keep_the_Aspidistra_Flying | [
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"plaintext": "Keep the Aspidistra Flying, first published in 1936, is a socially critical novel by George Orwell. It is set in 1930s London. The main theme is Gordon Comstock's romantic ambition to defy worship of the money-god and status, and the dismal life that results.",
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"plaintext": "Orwell wrote the book in 1934 and 1935, when he was living at various locations near Hampstead in London, and drew on his experiences in these and the preceding few years. At the beginning of 1928 he lived in lodgings in Portobello Road from where he started his tramping expeditions, sleeping rough and roaming the poorer parts of London. At this time he wrote a fragment of a play in which the protagonist Stone needs money for a life-saving operation for his child. Stone would prefer to prostitute his wife rather than prostitute his artistic integrity by writing advertising copy.",
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"plaintext": "Orwell's early writings appeared in The Adelphi, a left-wing literary journal edited by Sir Richard Rees, a wealthy and idealistic baronet who made Orwell one of his protégés. The character of Ravelston, the wealthy publisher in Keep the Aspidistra Flying, has a lot in common with Rees. Ravelston is acutely self-conscious about his upper-class status and defensive about his unearned income. Comstock speculates that Ravelston receives nearly two thousand pounds a year after tax—a very comfortable sum in those days—and Rees, in a volume of autobiography published in 1963, wrote: \"I have never had the spending of much less than £1,000 a year of unearned income, and sometimes considerably more. ... Before the war, this was wealth, especially for an unmarried man. Many of my socialist and intellectual friends were paupers compared to me ...\" In quoting this, Orwell's biographer Michael Shelden comments that \"One of these 'paupers'—at least in 1935—was Orwell, who was lucky if he made £200 that year. ... He appreciated Rees's editorial support at the Adelphi and sincerely enjoyed having him as a friend, but he could not have avoided feeling some degree of resentment toward a man who had no real job but who enjoyed an income four or five times greater than his.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1932 Orwell took a job as a teacher in a small school in West London. From there he visited Burnham Beeches and other places in the countryside. There are allusions to Burnham Beeches and walks in the country in Orwell's correspondence at this time with Brenda Salkeld and Eleanor Jacques.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1934, after Orwell had spent nine months at his parents' home in Southwold, his aunt Nellie Limouzin found him a job as a part-time assistant in Booklovers' Corner, a second-hand bookshop in Hampstead run by Francis and Myfanwy Westrope. The Westropes, who were friends of Nellie in the Esperanto movement, had an easygoing outlook and provided Orwell with comfortable accommodation at Warwick Mansions, Pond Street. He was job sharing with Jon Kimche who also lived with the Westropes. Orwell worked at the shop in the afternoons, having the mornings free to write and the evenings to socialise. He was at Booklovers' Corner for fifteen months. His essay \"Bookshop Memories\", published in November 1936, recalled aspects of his time at the bookshop, and in Keep the Aspidistra Flying \"he described it, or revenged himself upon it, with acerbity and wit and spleen.\" In their study of Orwell the writers Stansky & Abrahams remarked upon the improvement on the \"stumbling attempts at female portraiture in his first two novels: the stereotyped Elizabeth Lackersteen in Burmese Days and the hapless Dorothy in A Clergyman's Daughter\" and contended that, in contrast, \"Rosemary is a credible female portrait\". Through his work in the bookshop Orwell was in a position to become acquainted with women, \"first as a clerk, then as a friend\", and found that, \"if circumstances were favourable, he might eventually embark upon a 'relationship' ... This, for Orwell the author and Blair the man, was the chief reward of working at Booklovers' Corner.\" In particular, Orwell met Sally Jerome, who was then working for an advertising agency (like Rosemary in Keep the Aspidistra Flying), and Kay Ekevall, who ran a small typing and secretarial service that worked for the Adelphi.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of February 1935 Orwell had moved into a flat in Parliament Hill; his landlady, Rosalind Obermeyer, was studying at the University of London. It was through a joint party with his landlady that Orwell met his future wife, Eileen O'Shaughnessy. In August Orwell moved into a flat in Kentish Town, which he shared with Michael Sayers and Rayner Heppenstall. Over this period he was working on Keep the Aspidistra Flying, and had two novels, Burmese Days and A Clergyman's Daughter, published. At the beginning of 1936 Orwell was dealing with pre-publication issues for Keep the Aspidistra Flying while he was touring the North of England collecting material for The Road to Wigan Pier. The novel was published by Victor Gollancz Ltd on 20 April 1936.",
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"plaintext": "The aspidistra is a hardy, long-living plant that is used as a house plant in England, and which can grow to an impressive, even unwieldy size. It was especially popular in the Victorian era, in large part because it could tolerate not only weak sunlight but also the poor indoor air quality that resulted from the use of oil lamps and, later, coal gas lamps. They had fallen out of favour by the 20th century, following the advent of electric lighting. Their use had been so widespread among the middle class that they had become a music hall joke appearing in songs such as \"Biggest Aspidistra in the World\", of which Gracie Fields made a recording.",
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"plaintext": "In the titular phrase, Orwell uses the aspidistra, a symbol of the stuffiness of middle-class society, in conjunction with the locution \"to keep the flag (or colours) flying.\" The title can thus be interpreted as a sarcastic exhortation in the sense of \"Hooray for the middle class!\"",
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"plaintext": "Orwell also used the phrase in his previous novel A Clergyman's Daughter (1935), where a character sings the words to the tune of the German national anthem.",
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"plaintext": "In subsequent adaptions and translations, the original title has frequently been altered; in German, to \"The Joys of the Aspidistra\", in Spanish to \"Don't Let the Aspidistra Die\", in Italian to \"May the Aspidistra Bloom\", in Dutch to \"Keep the Sanseveria High\". The 1997 movie adaptation was released in the United States as A Merry War.",
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"plaintext": "\"Keep the aspidistra flying!\" is the final line of Nexus by Henry Miller, published in 1959. Orwell owned some of Miller's works while he was working at Booklovers' Corner. The books were banned in the U.K. at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Gordon Comstock has 'declared war' on what he sees as an 'overarching dependence' on money by leaving a promising job as a copywriter for an advertising company called 'New Albion'—at which he shows great dexterity—and taking a low-paying job instead, ostensibly so he can write poetry. Coming from a respectable family background in which the inherited wealth has now become dissipated, Gordon resents having to work for a living. The 'war' (and the poetry), however, aren't going particularly well and, under the stress of his 'self-imposed exile' from affluence, Gordon has become absurd, petty and deeply neurotic.",
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"plaintext": "Comstock lives without luxuries in a bedsit in London, which he affords by working in a small bookshop owned by a Scot, McKechnie. He works intermittently at a magnum opus he plans to call 'London Pleasures', describing a day in London; meanwhile, his only published work, a slim volume of poetry entitled Mice, collects dust on the remainder shelf. He is simultaneously content with his meagre existence and also disdainful of it. He lives without financial ambition and the need for a 'good job,' but his living conditions are uncomfortable and his job is boring.",
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"plaintext": "Comstock is 'obsessed' by what he sees as a pervasion of money (the 'Money God', as he calls it) behind social relationships, feeling sure that women would find him more attractive if he were better off. At the beginning of the novel, he senses that his girlfriend Rosemary Waterlow, whom he met at New Albion and who continues to work there, is dissatisfied with him because of his poverty. An example of his financial embarrassment is when he is desperate for a pint of beer at his local pub, but has run out of pocket money and is ashamed to cadge a drink off his fellow lodger, Flaxman.",
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"plaintext": "One of Comstock's last remaining friends, Philip Ravelston, a Marxist who publishes a magazine called Anti-Christ, agrees with Comstock in principle, but is comfortably well-off himself and this causes strains when the practical miseries of Comstock's life become apparent. He does, however, endeavour to publish some of Comstock's work and his efforts, unbeknownst to Comstock, had resulted in Mice being published via one of his publisher contacts.",
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"plaintext": "Gordon and Rosemary have little time together—she works late and lives in a hostel, and his 'bitch of a landlady' forbids female visitors to her tenants. Then one evening, having headed southward and having been thinking about women—this women business in general, and Rosemary in particular—he happens to see Rosemary in a street market. Rosemary won't have sex with him but she wants to spend a Sunday with him, right out in the country, near Burnham Beeches. At their parting, as he takes the tram from Tottenham Court Road back to his bedsit, he is happy and feels that somehow it is agreed between them that Rosemary is going to be his mistress. However, what was intended as a pleasant day out away from London's grime turns into a disaster when, though hungry, they opt to pass by a 'rather low-looking' pub, and then, not able to find another pub, are forced to eat an unappetising lunch at a fancy, overpriced hotel. Gordon has to pay the bill with all the money he had set aside for their jaunt and worries about having to borrow money from Rosemary. Out in the countryside again, they are about to have sex for the first time when she violently pushes him back—he wasn't going to use contraception. He rails at her; \"Money again, you see! ... You say you 'can't' have a baby. ... You mean you daren't; because you'd lose your job and I've got no money and all of us would starve.\"",
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"plaintext": "Having sent a poem to an American publication, Gordon suddenly receives from them a cheque worth ten pounds—a considerable sum for him at the time. He intends to set aside half for his sister Julia, who has always been there to lend him money and support. He treats Rosemary and Ravelston to dinner, which begins well, but the evening deteriorates as it proceeds. Gordon, drunk, tries to force himself upon Rosemary but she angrily rebukes him and leaves. Gordon continues drinking, drags Ravelston with him to visit a pair of prostitutes, and ends up broke and in a police cell the next morning. He is guilt-ridden over the thought of being unable to pay his sister back the money he owes her, because his £5 note is gone, given to, or stolen by, one of the prostitutes.",
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"plaintext": "Ravelston pays Gordon's fine after a brief appearance before the magistrate, but a reporter hears about the case, and writes about it in the local paper. The ensuing publicity results in Gordon losing his job at the bookshop, and, consequently, his relatively 'comfortable' lifestyle. As Gordon searches for another job, his life deteriorates, and his poetry stagnates. After living with his friend Ravelston, Gordon ends up working, this time in Lambeth, at another book shop and cheap two-penny lending library owned by the sinister Mr. Cheeseman, where he's paid an even smaller wage of 30 shillings a week. This is 10 shillings less than he was earning before, but Gordon is satisfied; \"The job would do. There was no trouble about a job like this; no room for ambition, no effort, no hope.\" Determined to sink to the lowest level of society Gordon takes a furnished bed-sitting-room in a filthy alley parallel to Lambeth Cut. Both Julia and Rosemary, \"in feminine league against him\", seek to get Gordon to go back to his 'good' job at the New Albion advertising agency.",
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"plaintext": "Rosemary, having avoided Gordon for some time, suddenly comes to visit him one day at his dismal lodgings. Despite his terrible poverty and shabbiness, they have sex but it is without any emotion or passion. Later, Rosemary drops in one day unexpectedly at the library, having not been in touch with Gordon for some time, and tells him that she is pregnant. Gordon is presented with the choice between leaving Rosemary to a life of social shame at the hands of her family—since both of them reject the idea of an abortion—or marrying her and returning to a life of respectability by taking back the job he once so deplored at the New Albion with its £4 weekly salary.",
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"plaintext": "He chooses Rosemary and respectability and then experiences a feeling of relief at having abandoned his anti-money principles with such comparative ease. After two years of abject failure and poverty, he throws his poetic work 'London Pleasures' down a drain, marries Rosemary, resumes his advertising career, and plunges into a campaign to promote a new product to prevent foot odour. In his lonely walks around mean streets, aspidistras seem to appear in every lower-middle class window. As the book closes, Gordon wins an argument with Rosemary to install an aspidistra in their new small but comfortable flat off the Edgware Road.",
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"plaintext": " Gordon Comstock– a \"well-educated and reasonably intelligent\" young man possessed of a minor 'talent for writing'.",
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"plaintext": " Rosemary Waterlow– Comstock's girlfriend, whom he met at the advertising agency, who lives in a women's hostel and who has a forgiving nature, but about whom little else is revealed.",
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"plaintext": " Philip Ravelston– the wealthy left-wing publisher and editor of the magazine Antichrist who supports and encourages Comstock.",
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"plaintext": " Julia Comstock– Gordon's sister, who is as poor as he is and who, having always made sacrifices for him, continues to do so: \"A tall, ungainly girl [–] her nature was simple and affectionate.\"",
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"plaintext": " Mrs. Wisbeach– landlady of the lodging house in Willowbed Road who imposes strict rules on her tenants, including Comstock.",
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"plaintext": " Mr Flaxman– Comstock's fellow lodger, a travelling salesman for the Queen of Sheba Toilet Requisites Co. who is temporarily separated from his wife.",
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"plaintext": " Mr McKechnie– the lazy, white-haired and white-bearded, teetotal and snuff-taking Scot who owns the first bookshop.",
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"plaintext": " Mr Cheeseman– the sinister and suspicious owner of the second bookshop.",
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"plaintext": " Mr Erskine– a large, slow-moving man with a broad, healthy, expressionless face who is the managing director of the advertising agency, the New Albion Publicity Company, and promotes Gordon to a position as a copywriter.",
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"plaintext": "No need to repeat the blasphemous comments which everyone who had known Gran'pa Comstock made on that last sentence. But it is worth pointing out that the chunk of granite on which it was inscribed weighed close on five tons and was quite certainly put there with the intention, though not the conscious intention, of making sure that Gran'pa Comstock shouldn't get up from underneath it. If you want to know what a dead man's relatives really think of him, a good rough test is the weight of his tombstone.",
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"plaintext": "Gordon and his friends had quite an exciting time with their 'subversive ideas'. For a whole year they ran an unofficial monthly paper called the Bolshevik, duplicated with jellygraph. It advocated Socialism, free love, the dismemberment of the British Empire, the abolition of the Army and Navy, and so on and so forth. It was great fun. Every intelligent boy of sixteen is a Socialist. At that age one does not see the hook sticking out of the rather stodgy bait.",
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"plaintext": "Gordon put his hand against the swing door. He even pushed it open a few inches. The warm fog of smoke and beer slipped through the crack. A familiar, reviving smell; nevertheless as he smelled it his nerve failed him. No! Impossible to go in. He turned away. He couldn't go shoving into that saloon bar with only fourpence halfpenny in his pocket. Never let other people buy your drinks for you! The first commandment of the moneyless. He made off down the dark pavement.",
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"plaintext": "Hermione always yawned at the mention of Socialism, and refused even to read Antichrist. 'Don't talk to me about the lower classes,' she used to say. 'I hate them. They smell.' And Ravelston adored her.",
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"plaintext": "This woman business! What a bore it is! What a pity we can't cut it right out, or at least be like the animals—minutes of ferocious lust and months of icy chastity. Take a cock pheasant, for example. He jumps up on the hen's backs without so much as a with your leave or by your leave. And no sooner is it over than the whole subject is out of his mind. He hardly even notices his hens any longer; he ignores them, or simply pecks them if they come too near his food.",
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"plaintext": "Before, he had fought against the money code, and yet he had clung to his wretched remnant of decency. But now it was precisely from decency that he wanted to escape. He wanted to go down, deep down, into some world where decency no longer mattered; to cut the strings of his self-respect, to submerge himself—to sink, as Rosemary had said. It was all bound up in his mind with the thought of being under ground. He liked to think of the lost people, the under-ground people: tramps, beggars, criminals, prostitutes... He liked to think that beneath the world of money there is that great sluttish underworld where failure and success have no meaning; a sort of kingdom of ghosts where all are equal ... It comforted him somehow to think of the smoke-dim slums of South London sprawling on and on, a huge graceless wilderness where you could lose yourself forever.",
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"plaintext": "Cyril Connolly wrote two reviews at the time of the novel's publication. In the Daily Telegraph he described it as a \"savage and bitter book\", and wrote that \"the truths which the author propounds are so disagreeable that one ends by dreading their mention.\" In the New Statesman he wrote that it gave \"a harrowing and stark account of poverty\", and referred to its \"clear and violent language, at times making the reader feel he is in a dentist's chair with the drill whirring\".",
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"plaintext": "For an edition of the BBC Television show Omnibus, (The Road to the Left, broadcast 10 January 1971), Melvyn Bragg interviewed Norman Mailer. Bragg said he \"just assumed Mailer had read Orwell. In fact he's mad on him.\" Of Keep the Aspidistra Flying Mailer said: \"It is perfect from the first page to the last.\"",
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"plaintext": "Orwell wrote in a letter to George Woodcock dated 28 September 1946 that Keep the Aspidistra Flying was one of the two or three of his books that he was ashamed of because it \"was written simply as an exercise and I oughtn't to have published it, but I was desperate for money. At that time I simply hadn't a book in me, but I was half starved and had to turn out something to bring in £100 or so.\" Like A Clergyman's Daughter, Orwell did not want the book reprinted during his lifetime. Orwell's biographer Jeffrey Meyers found the novel flawed by weaknesses in plot, style and characterisation, but praised \"a poignant and moving quality that comes from Orwell's perceptive portrayal of the alienation and loneliness of poverty, and from Rosemary's tender response to Gordon's mean misery\". The novel has won other admirers besides Mailer, notably Lionel Trilling, who called it \"a summa of all the criticisms of a commercial civilization that have ever been made\".",
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"plaintext": "Tosco Fyvel, literary editor of Tribune from 1945 to 1949, and a friend and colleague of Orwell's during the last ten years of Orwell's life, found it interesting that \"through Gordon Comstock Orwell expressed violent dislike of London's crowded life and mass advertising—a foretaste here of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Orwell has Gordon reacting to a poster saying Corner Table Enjoys His Meal With Bovex in a manner already suggesting that of the later novel:",
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"plaintext": "\"Gordon examined the thing with the intimacy of hatred.... Corner Table grins at you, seemingly optimistic, with a flash of false teeth. But what is behind the grin? Desolation, emptiness, prophecies of doom. —For can you not see [—] Behind that slick self-satisfaction, that tittering fat-bellied triviality, there's nothing but a frightful emptiness, a secret despair? And the reverberations of future wars.\"",
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"plaintext": "Catherine Blount pointed also to the theme of a London couple needing to go into the countryside in order to find a private place to have sex, which has a significant place in the plot of \"Aspidistra\" and which is taken up prominently in \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\". Orwell biographer D. J. Taylor said of Comstock, \"Like Dorothy in A Clergyman’s Daughter and like Winston Smith in Nineteen Eighty-Four, he rebels against the system and is ultimately swallowed up by it ... Like Winston Smith, he rebels, the rebellion fails, and he has to reach an accommodation with a world he’d previously disparaged\".",
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"plaintext": "A film adaptation of the same name was released in 1997. It, was directed by Robert Bierman, and stars Richard E. Grant and Helena Bonham Carter. The film was released in North America and New Zealand under the alternative title of A Merry War.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion is a method of capital punishment in which the victim is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross or beam and left to hang until eventual death from exhaustion and asphyxiation. It was used as a punishment by the Romans, among others. Crucifixion has been used in parts of the world as recently as the twentieth century.",
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"plaintext": "The crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth is central to Christianity, and the cross (sometimes depicting Jesus nailed to it) is the main religious symbol for many Christian churches.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: (), from (which in today's Greek only means \"cross\" but which in antiquity was used of any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and () \"crucify on a plank\", together with ( \"impale\"). In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts usually means \"impale\".",
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"plaintext": "The Greek used in the Christian New Testament uses four verbs, three of them based upon (), usually translated \"cross\". The most common term is (), \"to crucify\", occurring 46 times; (), \"to crucify with\" or \"alongside\" occurs five times, while (), \"to crucify again\" occurs only once at the Epistle to the Hebrews 6. (), \"to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify\" occurs only once at the Acts of the Apostles 23.",
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"plaintext": "The English term cross derives from the Latin word , which classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to refer specifically to a cross. The related term crucifix, derives from the Latin or , past participle passive of or , meaning \"to crucify\" or \"to fasten to a cross\".",
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"plaintext": "The gibbet on which crucifixion was carried out could be of many shapes. Josephus says that the Roman soldiers who crucified the many prisoners taken during the Siege of Jerusalem under Titus diverted themselves by nailing them to the crosses in different ways; and Seneca the Younger recounts: \"I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet.\"",
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"plaintext": "At times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex. This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned. Frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T (crux commissa) or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism (crux immissa). The most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion depicts an individual on a T-shaped cross. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of Trajan or Hadrian (late 1st century to early 2nd century AD).",
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"plaintext": "Second-century writers who speak of the execution cross describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched, not attached to a single stake: Lucian speaks of Prometheus as crucified \"above the ravine with his hands outstretched\". He also says that the shape of the letter T (the Greek letter tau) was that of the wooden instrument used for crucifying. Artemidorus, another writer of the same period, says that a cross is made of posts (plural) and nails and that the arms of the crucified are outstretched. Speaking of the generic execution cross, not specifically of that on which Jesus died, Irenaeus (c. 130–202), a Christian writer, describes it as composed of an upright and a transverse beam, sometimes with a small projection in the upright.",
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"plaintext": "The New Testament writings about the crucifixion of Jesus do not specify the shape of that cross, but the early writings that do speak of its shape liken it to the letter T. William Barclay notes that, because the letter T is shaped exactly like the crux commissa and because the Greek letter T represented the number 300, \"wherever the fathers came across the number 300 in the Old Testament they took it to be a mystical prefiguring of the cross of Christ\". The earliest example, possibly of the late first century, is the Epistle of Barnabas. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) is another early writer who gives the same interpretation of the numeral used for 300. Justin Martyr (c. 100–165) sees the cross of Christ represented in the crossed spits used in roasting the Passover Lamb: \"That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb.\"",
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"plaintext": "In popular depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus (possibly because in translations of the wounds are described as being \"in his hands\"), Jesus is shown with nails in his hands. But in Greek the word \"χείρ\", usually translated as \"hand\", could refer to the entire portion of the arm below the elbow, and to denote the hand as distinct from the arm some other word could be added, as \"ἄκρην οὔτασε χεῖρα\" (he wounded the end of the χείρ, i.e., \"he wounded her in the hand\".",
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"plaintext": "A possibility that does not require tying is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, through the soft tissue, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna).",
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"plaintext": "A foot-rest (suppedaneum) attached to the cross, perhaps for the purpose of taking the person's weight off the wrists, is sometimes included in representations of the crucifixion of Jesus but is not discussed in ancient sources. Some scholars interpret the Alexamenos graffito, the earliest surviving depiction of the Crucifixion, as including such a foot-rest. Ancient sources also mention the sedile, a small seat attached to the front of the cross, about halfway down, which could have served a similar purpose.",
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"plaintext": "In 1968, archaeologists discovered at Giv'at ha-Mivtar in northeast Jerusalem the remains of one Jehohanan, who had been crucified in the 1st century. The remains included a heel bone with a nail driven through it from the side. The tip of the nail was bent, perhaps because of striking a knot in the upright beam, which prevented it being extracted from the foot. A first inaccurate account of the length of the nail led some to believe that it had been driven through both heels, suggesting that the man had been placed in a sort of sidesaddle position, but the true length of the nail, 11.5cm (4.53inches), suggests instead that in this case of crucifixion the heels were nailed to opposite sides of the upright. The skeleton from Giv'at ha-Mivtar is currently the only confirmed example of ancient crucifixion in the archaeological record. A second set of skeletal remains with holes transverse through the calcaneum heel bones was found in 2007. This could be a second archaeological record of crucifixion. The find in Cambridgeshire (United Kingdom) in November 2017 of the remains of the heel bone of a (probably enslaved) man with an iron nail through it, is believed by the archeologists to confirm the use of this method in ancient Rome.",
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"plaintext": "The length of time required to reach death could range from hours to days depending on method, the victim's health, and the environment. A literature review by Maslen and Mitchell identified scholarly support for several possible causes of death: cardiac rupture, heart failure, hypovolemic shock, acidosis, asphyxia, arrhythmia, and pulmonary embolism. Death could result from any combination of those factors or from other causes, including sepsis following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the scourging that often preceded crucifixion, eventual dehydration, or animal predation.",
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"plaintext": "A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that, when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He wrote that the condemned would have severe difficulty inhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the chest muscles and lungs. The condemned would therefore have to draw himself up by the arms, leading to exhaustion, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. When no longer able to lift himself, the condemned would die within a few minutes. Some scholars, including Frederick Zugibe, posit other causes of death. Zugibe suspended test subjects with their arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical. The test subjects had no difficulty breathing during experiments, but did suffer rapidly increasing pain, which is consistent with the Roman use of crucifixion to achieve a prolonged, agonizing death. However, Zugibe's positioning of the test subjects' feet is not supported by any archaeological or historical evidence.",
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"plaintext": "Since death does not follow immediately on crucifixion, survival after a short period of crucifixion is possible, as in the case of those who choose each year As a devotional practice to be non-lethally crucified.",
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"plaintext": "There is an ancient record of one person who survived a crucifixion that was intended to be lethal, but was interrupted. Josephus recounts: \"I saw many captives crucified, and remembered three of them as my former acquaintances. I was very sorry at this in my mind, and went with tears in my eyes to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down, and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their recovery; yet two of them died under the physician's hands, while the third recovered.\" Josephus gives no details of the method or duration of the crucifixion of his three friends before their reprieve.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion (or impalement), in one form or another, was used by Persians, Carthaginians, and among the Greeks, the Macedonians.",
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"plaintext": "The Greeks were generally opposed to performing crucifixions. However, in his Histories, ix.120–122, the Greek writer Herodotus describes the execution of a Persian general at the hands of Athenians in about 479 BC: \"They nailed him to a plank and hung him up... this Artayctes who suffered death by crucifixion.\" The Commentary on Herodotus by How and Wells remarks: \"They crucified him with hands and feet stretched out and nailed to cross-pieces; cf. vii.33. This barbarity, unusual on the part of Greeks, may be explained by the enormity of the outrage or by Athenian deference to local feeling.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some Christian theologians, beginning with Paul of Tarsus writing in 13, have interpreted an allusion to crucifixion in Deuteronomy . This reference is to being hanged from a tree, and may be associated with lynching or traditional hanging. However, Rabbinic law limited capital punishment to just 4 methods of execution: stoning, burning, strangulation, and decapitation, while the passage in Deuteronomy was interpreted as an obligation to hang the corpse on a tree as a form of deterrence. The fragmentary Aramaic Testament of Levi (DSS 4Q541) interprets in column 6: \"God ... (partially legible)-will set ... right errors. ... (partially legible)-He will judge ... revealed sins. Investigate and seek and know how Jonah wept. Thus, you shall not destroy the weak by wasting away or by ... (partially legible)-crucifixion ... Let not the nail touch him.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Jewish king Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea from 103 BC to 76 BC, crucified 800 rebels, said to be Pharisees, in the middle of Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "Alexander the Great is reputed to have crucified 2,000 survivors from his siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's lifelong friend Hephaestion. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration.",
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"plaintext": "In Carthage, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on generals for suffering a major defeat.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest crucifixion may be a post-mortem one mentioned by Herodotus. Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, was put to death in 522 BC by Persians, and his dead body was then crucified.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek and Latin words corresponding to \"crucifixion\" applied to many different forms of painful execution, including being impaled on a stake, or affixed to a tree, upright pole (a crux simplex), or to a combination of an upright (in Latin, stipes) and a crossbeam (in Latin, patibulum). Seneca the Younger active in the first century c.e. wrote: \"I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet\".",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion was generally performed within Ancient Rome as a means to dissuade others from perpetrating similar crimes, with victims sometimes left on display after death as a warning. Crucifixion was intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful (hence the term excruciating, literally \"out of crucifying\"), gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and period.",
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"plaintext": "One hypothesis suggested that the Ancient Roman custom of crucifixion may have developed out of a primitive custom of arbori suspendere—hanging on an arbor infelix (\"inauspicious tree\") dedicated to the gods of the nether world. This hypothesis is rejected by William A. Oldfather, who shows that this form of execution (the supplicium more maiorum, punishment in accordance with the custom of our ancestors) consisted of suspending someone from a tree, not dedicated to any particular gods, and flogging him to death. Tertullian mentions a 1st-century AD case in which trees were used for crucifixion, but Seneca the Younger earlier used the phrase infelix lignum (unfortunate wood) for the transom (\"patibulum\") or the whole cross. Plautus and Plutarch are the two main sources for accounts of criminals carrying their own patibula to the upright stipes.",
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"plaintext": "Notorious mass crucifixions followed the Third Servile War in 73–71 BC (the slave rebellion under Spartacus), other Roman civil wars in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Crassus ordered the crucifixion of 6,000 of Spartacus' followers who had been hunted down and captured after his defeat in battle. Josephus says that in the siege that led to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the Roman soldiers crucified Jewish captives before the walls of Jerusalem and out of anger and hatred amused themselves by nailing them in different positions.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 135kg (300lb), but the crossbeam would not be as burdensome, weighing around 45kg (100lb). The Roman historian Tacitus records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the Esquiline Gate, and had a specific area reserved for the execution of slaves by crucifixion. Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned person perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post.",
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"plaintext": "The person executed may have been attached to the cross by rope, though nails and other sharp materials are mentioned in a passage by the Judean historian Josephus, where he states that at the Siege of Jerusalem (70), \"the soldiers out of rage and hatred, nailed those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest\". Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities.",
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"plaintext": "While a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have traditionally depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals, the person being crucified was usually stripped naked. Writings by Seneca the Younger state some victims suffered a stick forced upwards through their groin. Despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape criticism by some eminent Roman orators. Cicero, for example, described crucifixion as \"a most cruel and disgusting punishment\", and suggested that \"the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen's body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears\". Elsewhere he says, \"It is a crime to bind a Roman citizen; to scourge him is a wickedness; to put him to death is almost parricide. What shall I say of crucifying him? So guilty an action cannot by any possibility be adequately expressed by any name bad enough for it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Frequently, the legs of the person executed were broken or shattered with an iron club, an act called crurifragium, which was also frequently applied without crucifixion to slaves. This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses.",
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"plaintext": "Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire in 337 out of veneration for Jesus Christ, its most famous victim.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most painful and humiliating death imaginable. It was used to punish slaves, pirates, and enemies of the state. It was originally reserved for slaves (hence still called \"supplicium servile\" by Seneca), and later extended to citizens of the lower classes (humiliores). The victims of crucifixion were stripped naked and put on public display while they were slowly tortured to death so that they would serve as a spectacle and an example.",
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"plaintext": "According to Roman law, if a slave killed his or her master, all of the master's slaves would be crucified as punishment. Both men and women were crucified. Tacitus writes in his Annals that when Lucius Pedanius Secundus was murdered by a slave, some in the Senate tried to prevent the mass crucifixion of four hundred of his slaves because there were so many women and children, but in the end tradition prevailed and they were all executed. Although not conclusive evidence for female crucifixion by itself, the most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion may depict a crucified woman, whether real or imaginary. Crucifixion was such a gruesome and humiliating way to die that the subject was somewhat of a taboo in Roman culture, and few crucifixions were specifically documented. One of the only specific female crucifixions we have documented is that of Ida, a freedwoman (former slave) who was crucified by order of Tiberius.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and his soldiers. First, the condemned would be stripped naked and scourged. This would cause the person to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross.",
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"plaintext": "During the death march, the prisoner, probably still nude after the scourging, would be led through the most crowded streets bearing a titulus – a sign board proclaiming the prisoner's name and crime. Upon arrival at the place of execution, selected to be especially public, the convict would be stripped of any remaining clothing, then nailed to the cross naked. If the crucifixion took place in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) might be permanently embedded in the ground. In this case, the condemned person's wrists would first be nailed to the patibulum, and then he or she would be hoisted off the ground with ropes to hang from the elevated patibulum while it was fastened to the stipes. Next the feet or ankles would be nailed to the upright stake. The 'nails' were tapered iron spikes approximately long, with a square shaft across. The titulus would also be fastened to the cross to notify onlookers of the person's name and crime as they hung on the cross, further maximizing the public impact.",
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"plaintext": "There may have been considerable variation in the position in which prisoners were nailed to their crosses and how their bodies were supported while they died. Seneca the Younger recounts: \"I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet.\" One source claims that for Jews (apparently not for others), a man would be crucified with his back to the cross as is traditionally depicted, while a woman would be nailed facing her cross, probably with her back to onlookers, or at least with the stipes providing some semblance of modesty if viewed from the front. Such concessions were \"unique\" and not made outside a Jewish context. Several sources mention some sort of seat fastened to the stipes to help support the person's body, thereby prolonging the person's suffering and humiliation by preventing the asphyxiation caused by hanging without support. Justin Martyr calls the seat a cornu, or \"horn,\" leading some scholars to believe it may have had a pointed shape designed to torment the crucified person. This would be consistent with Seneca's observation of victims with their private parts impaled.",
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"plaintext": "In Roman-style crucifixion, the condemned could take up to a few days to die, but death was sometimes hastened by human action. \"The attending Roman guards could leave the site only after the victim had died, and were known to precipitate death by means of deliberate fracturing of the tibia and/or fibula, spear stab wounds into the heart, sharp blows to the front of the chest, or a smoking fire built at the foot of the cross to asphyxiate the victim.\" The Romans sometimes broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial. On the other hand, the person was often deliberately kept alive as long as possible to prolong their suffering and humiliation, so as to provide the maximum deterrent effect. Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals.",
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"plaintext": "Islam spread in a region where many societies, including the Persian and Roman empires, had used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels, robbers and criminal slaves. The Qur'an refers to crucifixion in six passages, of which the most significant for later legal developments is verse 5:33:",
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"plaintext": "The corpus of hadith provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to Muhammad himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph Umar (applied to two slaves who murdered their mistress). Classical Islamic jurisprudence applies the verse 5:33 chiefly to highway robbers, as a hadd (scripturally prescribed) punishment. The preference for crucifixion over the other punishments mentioned in the verse or for their combination (which Sadakat Kadri has called \"Islam's equivalent of the hanging, drawing and quartering that medieval Europeans inflicted on traitors\") is subject to \"complex and contested rules\" in classical jurisprudence. Most scholars required crucifixion for highway robbery combined with murder, while others allowed execution by other methods for this scenario. The main methods of crucifixion are:",
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"plaintext": " Exposure of the culprit's body after execution by another method, ascribed to \"most scholars\" and in particular to Ibn Hanbal and Al-Shafi'i; or Hanbalis and Shafi'is.",
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"plaintext": " Crucifying the culprit alive, then executing him with a lance thrust or another method, ascribed to Malikis, most Hanafis and most Twelver Shi'is; the majority of the Malikis; Malik, Abu Hanifa, and al-Awza'i; or Malikis, Hanafis, and Shafi'is.",
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"plaintext": " Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites.",
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"plaintext": "Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days. Crucifixion involves affixing or impaling the body to a beam or a tree trunk. Various minority opinions also prescribed crucifixion as punishment for a number of other crimes. Cases of crucifixion under most of the legally prescribed categories have been recorded in the history of Islam, and prolonged exposure of crucified bodies was especially common for political and religious opponents.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion was introduced into Japan during the Sengoku period (1467–1573), after a 350-year period with no capital punishment. It is believed to have been suggested to the Japanese by the introduction of Christianity into the region, although similar types of punishment had been used as early as the Kamakura period. Known in Japanese as , crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. Several related crucifixion techniques were used. Petra Schmidt, in \"Capital Punishment in Japan\", writes:",
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"plaintext": "In 1597 twenty-six Christian Martyrs were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were Saints Paulo Miki, Philip of Jesus and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines. The executions marked the beginning of a long history of persecution of Christianity in Japan, which continued until its decriminalization in 1871.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion was used as a punishment for prisoners of war during World War II. Ringer Edwards, an Australian prisoner of war, was crucified for killing cattle, along with two others. He survived 63 hours before being let down.",
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"plaintext": "In Burma, crucifixion was a central element in several execution rituals. Felix Carey, a missionary in Burma from 1806 to 1812, wrote the following:",
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"plaintext": "During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified a Canadian soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the 1st Canadian Division. Two investigations, one a post-war official investigation, and the other an independent investigation by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, concluded that there was no evidence to support the story. However, British documentary maker Iain Overton in 2001 published an article claiming that the story was true, identifying the soldier as Harry Band. Overton's article was the basis for a 2002 episode of the Channel 4 documentary show Secret History.",
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"plaintext": "It has been reported that crucifixion was used in several cases against the German civil population of East Prussia when it was occupied by Soviet forces at the end of the Second World War.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Roman historians Josephus and Appian refer to the crucifixion of thousands of Jews by the Romans, there are few actual archaeological remains. An exception is the crucified body of a Jew dating back to the first century CE which was discovered at Givat HaMivtar, Jerusalem in 1968. The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man's name on it, 'Jehohanan, the son of Hagakol'. Nicu Haas, from the Hebrew University Medical School, examined the ossuary and discovered that it contained a heel bone with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the man had been crucified. The position of the nail relative to the bone suggests the feet had been nailed to the cross from their side, not from their front; various opinions have been proposed as to whether they were both nailed together to the front of the cross or one on the left side, one on the right side. The point of the nail had olive wood fragments on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olive wood or on an olive tree.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, a piece of acacia wood was located between the bones and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the condemned from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken, possibly to hasten his death. It is thought that because in earlier Roman times iron was valuable, the nails were removed from the dead body to conserve costs. According to Haas, this could help to explain why only one nail has been found, as the tip of the nail in question was bent in such a way that it could not be removed. Haas had also identified a scratch on the inner surface of the right radius bone of the forearm, close to the wrist. He deduced from the form of the scratch, as well as from the intact wrist bones, that a nail had been driven into the forearm at that position. ",
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"plaintext": "Many of Haas' findings have, however, been challenged. For instance, it was subsequently determined that the scratches in the wrist area were non-traumatic – and, therefore, not evidence of crucifixion – while reexamination of the heel bone revealed that the two heels were not nailed together, but rather separately to either side of the upright post of the cross.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, a possible case of a crucified body, with a round hole in a heel bone, possibly caused by a nail, was discovered in the Po Valley near Rovigo, in northern Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017 part of a crucified body, with a nail in the heel, was additionally discovered at Fenstanton in the United Kingdom. Further studies suggested that the remains may be those of a slave, because at that time that the crucifixion is estimated as happened it was banned in Roman law for citizens, although not necessarily for slaves.",
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"plaintext": "Crucifixion is still used as a rare method of execution in Saudi Arabia. The punishment of crucifixion (șalb) imposed in Islamic law is variously interpreted as exposure of the body after execution, crucifixion followed by stabbing in the chest, or crucifixion for three days, survivors of which are allowed to live.",
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"plaintext": "Several people have been subjected to crucifixion in Saudi Arabia in the 2000s, although on occasion they were first beheaded and then crucified. In March 2013, a robber was set to be executed by being crucified for three days. However, the method was changed to death by firing squad. The Saudi Press Agency reported that the body of another individual was crucified after his execution in April 2019 as part of a crackdown on charges of terrorism.",
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"plaintext": "Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 years old for taking part in an anti-government protests in Saudi Arabia during the Arab Spring. In May 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to be publicly beheaded and crucified.",
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"plaintext": "Theoretically, crucifixion is still one of the Hadd punishments in Iran. If a crucified person were to survive three days of crucifixion, that person would be allowed to live. Execution by hanging is described as follows: \"In execution by hanging, the prisoner will be hung on a hanging truss which should look like a cross, while his (her) back is toward the cross, and (s)he faces the direction of Mecca [in Saudi Arabia], and his (her) legs are vertical and distant from the ground.\"",
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"plaintext": "Sudan's penal code, based upon the government's interpretation of shari'a, includes execution followed by crucifixion as a penalty. When, in 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes, Amnesty International wrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, the Ministry of Justice in the United Arab Emirates issued a statement that a court had sentenced two murderers to be crucified, to be followed by their executions the next day. A Ministry of Justice official later stated that the crucifixion sentence should be considered cancelled. The crucifixions were not carried out, and the convicts were instead executed by firing squad.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 February 2015, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) reported that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) had committed \"several cases of mass executions of boys, as well as reports of beheadings, crucifixions of children and burying children alive\".",
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"plaintext": "On 30 April 2014, a total of seven public executions were carried out in Raqqa, northern Syria. The pictures, originally posted to Twitter by a student at Oxford University, were retweeted by a Twitter account owned by a known member of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) causing major media outlets to incorrectly attribute the origin of the post to the militant group. In most of these cases of crucifixion the victims are shot first then their bodies are displayed but there have also been reports of crucifixion preceding shootings or decapitations as well as a case where a man was said to have been \"crucified alive for eight hours\" with no indication of whether he died.",
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"plaintext": "The human rights group Karen Women Organization documented a case of Tatmadaw forces crucifying several Karen villagers in 2000 in the Dooplaya District in Burma's Kayin State.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 January 2014, Dmytro Bulatov, an anti-government activist and member of AutoMaidan, claimed to have been kidnapped by unknown persons \"speaking in Russian accents\" and tortured for a week. His captors kept him in the dark, beat him, cut off a piece of his ear, and nailed him to a cross. His captors ultimately left him in a forest outside Kyiv after forcing him to confess to being an American spy and accepting money from the US Embassy in Ukraine to organize protests against then-President Viktor Yanukovych. Bulatov said he believed Russian secret services were responsible.",
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"plaintext": "The Catholic Church frowns upon self-crucifixion as a form of devotion: \"Penitential practices leading to self-crucifixion with nails are not to be encouraged.\" Despite this, the practice persists in the Philippines, where some Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday to imitate the sufferings of Christ. Pre-sterilised nails are driven through the palm of the hand between the bones, while there is a footrest to which the feet are nailed. Rolando del Campo, a carpenter in Pampanga, vowed to be crucified every Good Friday for 15 years if God would carry his wife through a difficult childbirth, while in San Pedro Cutud, Ruben Enaje has been crucified 33 times. The Filipino Catholic Church has repeatedly voiced disapproval of crucifixions and self-flagellation, while the government has noted that it cannot deter devotees. The Department of Health recommends that participants in the rites should have tetanus shots and that the nails used should be sterilized.",
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"plaintext": "In other cases, a crucifixion is only simulated within a passion play, as in the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833, and in the more famous Oberammergau Passion Play. Also, since at least the mid-19th century, a group of flagellants in New Mexico, called Hermanos de Luz (\"Brothers of Light\"), have annually conducted reenactments of Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross.",
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"plaintext": "In a reported case from July 1805 a man named Mattio Lovat attempted to crucify himself at a public street in Venice, Italy. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was sent to an asylum, where he died a year later.",
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"plaintext": "The rebel slaves of the Third Servile War: Between 73 BC and 71 BC a band of slaves, eventually numbering about 120,000, under the (at least partial) leadership of Spartacus were in open revolt against the Roman republic. The rebellion was eventually crushed and, while Spartacus himself most likely died in the final battle of the revolt, approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200km Appian Way between Capua and Rome as a warning to any other would-be rebels.",
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"plaintext": " Jehohanan: Jewish man who was crucified around the same time as Jesus of Nazareth and it is widely accepted that his ankles were nailed to the side of the stipes of the cross ",
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"plaintext": "Jesus of Nazareth: his death by crucifixion under Pontius Pilate (c. AD 30 or 33), recounted in the four 1st-century canonical Gospels, is referred to repeatedly as something well known in the earlier letters of Saint Paul, for instance, five times in his First Letter to the Corinthians, written in 57 AD (1:13, 1:18, 1:23, 2:2, 2:8). Pilate was the Roman governor of Judaea province at the time, and he is explicitly linked with the condemnation of Jesus not only by the Gospels but also by Tacitus (see Responsibility for the death of Jesus for details). The civil charge was a claim to be King of the Jews.",
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"plaintext": "Saint Peter: Christian apostle, who according to tradition was crucified upside-down at his own request (hence the Cross of St. Peter), because he did not feel worthy enough to die the same way as Jesus.",
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"plaintext": "Saint Andrew: Christian apostle and Saint Peter's brother, who is traditionally said to have been crucified on an X-shaped cross (hence the St. Andrew's Cross).",
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"plaintext": "Simeon of Jerusalem: second Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified in either 106 or 107 AD.",
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"plaintext": "Eulalia of Barcelona was venerated as a saint. According to her hagiography, she was stripped naked, tortured, and ultimately crucified on an X-shaped cross.",
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"plaintext": "Wilgefortis was venerated as a saint and represented as a crucified woman, however her legend comes from a misinterpretation of a full-clothed crucifix known as the Volto Santo of Lucca.",
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38,117 | 1,101,122,432 | Gerry_Adams | [
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"plaintext": "Gerard Adams (; born 6 October 1948) is an Irish republican politician who was the president of Sinn Féin between 13 November 1983 and 10 February 2018, and served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for Louth from 2011 to 2020. From 1983 to 1992 and from 1997 to 2011, he followed the policy of abstentionism as a Member of Parliament (MP) of the British Parliament for the Belfast West constituency.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, Adams was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt by several gunmen from the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), including John Gregg. From the late 1980s onwards, he was an important figure in the Northern Ireland peace process, initially following contact by Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) leader John Hume and then subsequently with the Irish and British governments. In 1986, he convinced Sinn Féin to change its traditional policy of abstentionism towards the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Republic of Ireland. In 1998, it also took seats in the power-sharing (D'Hondt method) Northern Ireland Assembly. In 2005, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) stated that its armed campaign was over and that it was exclusively committed to peaceful politics.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Adams was held for four days by the Police Service of Northern Ireland for questioning in connection with the 1972 abduction and murder of Jean McConville. He was released without charge and a file was sent to the Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland, which later stated there was insufficient evidence to charge him. Adams announced in November 2017 that he would step down as leader of Sinn Féin in 2018, and that he would not stand for re-election to his seat in Dáil Éireann in 2020. He was succeeded by Mary Lou McDonald at a special ardfheis (party conference) on 10 February 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Adams was born in the Ballymurphy district of Belfast on 6 October 1948. His parents, Anne (née Hannaway) and Gerry Adams Sr., came from republican backgrounds. His grandfather, also named Gerry Adams, was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) during the Irish War of Independence. Two of his uncles, Dominic and Patrick Adams, had been interned by the governments in Belfast and Dublin. In J. Bowyer Bell's book The Secret Army, Bell states that Dominic was a senior figure in the IRA of the mid-1940s. Gerry Adams Sr. joined the IRA at age 16. In 1942, he participated in an IRA ambush on a Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) patrol but was himself shot, arrested and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment. Adams's maternal great-grandfather, Michael Hannaway, was also a member of the IRB during its bombing campaign in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Michael's son, Billy, was election agent for Éamon de Valera at the 1918 Irish general election in West Belfast. ",
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"plaintext": "Adams was active in rioting at this time and later became involved in the republican movement. In August 1971, internment was reintroduced to Northern Ireland under the Special Powers Act 1922. Adams was captured by British soldiers in March 1972 and in a Belfast Telegraph report on Adams' capture he was said to be \"one of the most wanted men in Belfast\". Adams was interned on , but on the Provisional IRA's insistence was released in June to take part in secret, but abortive talks in London. The IRA negotiated a short-lived truce with the British government and an IRA delegation met with British Home Secretary William Whitelaw at Cheyne Walk in Chelsea. The delegation included Adams, Martin McGuinness, Sean Mac Stiofain (IRA Chief of Staff), Daithi O'Conaill, Seamus Twomey, Ivor Bell and Dublin solicitor Myles Shevlin. Adams was re-arrested in July 1973 and interned at the Maze prison. After taking part in an IRA-organised escape attempt, he was sentenced to a period of imprisonment. During this time, he wrote articles in the paper An Phoblacht under the by-line \"Brownie\", where he criticised the strategy and policy of Sinn Féin president Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and Billy McKee, the IRA's officer commanding in Belfast. He was also highly critical of a decision taken by McKee to assassinate members of the rival Official IRA, who had been on ceasefire since 1972. In 2020, the UK Supreme Court quashed Adams' convictions for attempting to escape on Christmas Eve in 1973 and again in July 1974.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1981 hunger strike, which saw the emergence of his party as a political force, Adams played an important policy-making role. In 1983, he was elected president of Sinn Féin and became the first Sinn Féin MP elected to the British House of Commons since Phil Clarke and Tom Mitchell in the mid-1950s. Following his election as MP for Belfast West, the British government lifted a ban on his travelling to Great Britain. In line with Sinn Féin policy, he refused to take his seat in the House of Commons.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 March 1984 in central Belfast, Adams was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt when several Ulster Defence Association (UDA) gunmen fired about 20 shots into the car in which he was travelling. He was hit in the neck, shoulder and arm. He was rushed to the Royal Victoria Hospital, where he underwent surgery to remove three bullets. John Gregg and his team were apprehended almost immediately by a British Army patrol that opened fire on them before ramming their car. The attack had been known in advance by security forces due to a tip-off from informants within the UDA; Adams and his co-passengers had survived in part because Royal Ulster Constabulary officers, acting on the informants' information, had replaced much of the ammunition in the UDA's Rathcoole weapons dump with low-velocity bullets. An Ulster Defence Regiment NCO subsequently received the Queen's Gallantry Medal for chasing and arresting an assailant.",
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"plaintext": "Adams has stated repeatedly that he has never been a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). However, journalists such as Ed Moloney, Peter Taylor and Mark Urban, and historian Richard English have all named Adams as part of the IRA leadership since the 1970s. Moloney and Taylor state Adams became the IRA's Chief of Staff following the arrest of Seamus Twomey in early December 1977, remaining in the position until 18 February 1978 when he, along with twenty other republican suspects, was arrested following the La Mon restaurant bombing. He was charged with IRA membership and remanded to Crumlin Road Gaol. He was released seven months later when the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland Robert Lowry ruled there was insufficient evidence to proceed with the prosecution. Moloney and English state Adams had been a member of the IRA Army Council since 1977, remaining a member until 2005 according to Irish Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell. ",
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"plaintext": "On 30 April 2014, Adams was arrested by detectives from the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) Serious Crime Branch, under the Terrorism Act 2000, in connection with the murder of Jean McConville in 1972. He had previously voluntarily arranged to be interviewed by police regarding the matter, and maintained he had no involvement. Fellow Sinn Féin politician Alex Maskey claimed that the timing of the arrest, \"three weeks into an election\", was evidence of a \"political agenda [...] a negative agenda\" by the PSNI. Jean McConville's family had campaigned for the arrest of Adams over the murder. Jean McConville's son Michael said that his family did not think the arrest of Adams would ever happen, but were \"quite glad\" that the arrest took place. Adams was released without charge after four days in custody and it was decided to send a file to the Public Prosecution Service, which would decide if criminal charges should be brought.",
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"plaintext": "At a press conference after his release, Adams also criticised the timing of his arrest, while reiterating Sinn Féin's support for the PSNI and saying: \"The IRA is gone. It is finished\". Adams has denied that he had any involvement in the murder or was ever a member of the IRA, and has said the allegations against him came from \"enemies of the peace process\". On 29 September 2015 the Public Prosecution Service announced Adams would not face charges, due to insufficient evidence, as had been expected ever since a BBC report dated 6 May 2014 (2 days after the BBC reported his release), which was widely repeated elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, Adams became joint vice-president of Sinn Féin and a key figure in directing a challenge to the Sinn Féin leadership of President Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and joint vice-president Dáithí Ó Conaill. The 1975 IRA-British truce is often viewed as the event that began the challenge to the original Provisional Sinn Féin leadership, which was dominated by southerners like Ó Brádaigh and Ó Conaill.",
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"plaintext": "One of the reasons that the Provisional IRA and Provisional Sinn Féin were founded, in December 1969 and January 1970, respectively, was that people like Ó Brádaigh, Ó Conaill and McKee opposed participation in constitutional politics. The other reason was the failure of the Cathal Goulding leadership to provide for the defence of Irish nationalist areas during the 1969 Northern Ireland riots. When, at the December 1969 IRA convention and the January 1970 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis, the delegates voted to participate in the Dublin (Leinster House), Belfast (Stormont) and London (Westminster) parliaments, the organisations split. Adams, who had joined the republican movement in the early 1960s, sided with the Provisionals.",
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"plaintext": "In Long Kesh in the mid-1970s, writing under the pseudonym \"Brownie\" in Republican News, Adams called for increased political activity among republicans, especially at local level. The call resonated with younger Northern people, many of whom had been active in the Provisional IRA but few of whom had been active in Sinn Féin. In 1977, Adams and Danny Morrison drafted the address of Jimmy Drumm at the annual Wolfe Tone commemoration at Bodenstown. The address was viewed as watershed in that Drumm acknowledged that the war would be a long one and that success depended on political activity that would complement the IRA's armed campaign. For some, this wedding of politics and armed struggle culminated in Danny Morrison's statement at the 1981 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in which he asked \"Who here really believes we can win the war through the ballot box? But will anyone here object if, with a ballot paper in one hand and the Armalite in the other, we take power in Ireland?\" For others, however, the call to link political activity with armed struggle had already been defined in Sinn Féin policy and in the presidential addresses of Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, but this had not resonated with young Northerners.",
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"plaintext": "Even after the election of Bobby Sands as MP for Fermanagh and South Tyrone, a part of the mass mobilisation associated with the 1981 Irish Hunger Strike by republican prisoners in the H blocks of the Maze Prison (known as Long Kesh by republicans), Adams was cautious that the level of political involvement by Sinn Féin could lead to electoral embarrassment. Charles Haughey, the Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland, called an election for June 1981. At an Ard Chomhairle meeting, Adams recommended that they contest only four constituencies which were in border counties. Instead, H-Block/Armagh candidates contested nine constituencies and elected two TDs. This, along with the election of Sands, was a precursor to an electoral breakthrough in elections in 1982 to the 1982 Northern Ireland Assembly. Adams, Danny Morrison, Martin McGuinness, Jim McAllister, and Owen Carron were elected as abstentionists. The Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) had announced before the election that it would not take any seats and so its 14 elected representatives also abstained from participating in the Assembly and it was a failure. The 1982 election was followed by the 1983 Westminster election, in which Sinn Féin's vote increased and Adams was elected, as an abstentionist, as MP for Belfast West. It was in 1983 that Ruairí Ó Brádaigh resigned as President of Sinn Féin and was succeeded by Adams.",
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"plaintext": "Many republicans had long claimed that the only legitimate Irish state was the Irish Republic declared in the 1916 Proclamation of the Republic. In their view, the legitimate government was the IRA Army Council, which had been vested with the authority of that Republic in 1938 (prior to the Second World War) by the last remaining anti-Treaty deputies of the Second Dáil. In his 2005 speech to the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in Dublin, Adams explicitly rejected this view. \"But we refuse to criminalise those who break the law in pursuit of legitimate political objectives. ... Sinn Féin is accused of recognising the Army Council of the IRA as the legitimate government of this island. That is not the case. [We] do not believe that the Army Council is the government of Ireland. Such a government will only exist when all the people of this island elect it. Does Sinn Féin accept the institutions of this state as the legitimate institutions of this state? Of course we do.\"",
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"plaintext": "As a result of this non-recognition, Sinn Féin had abstained from taking any of the seats they won in the British or Irish parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin delegates passed a resolution to amend the rules and constitution that would allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House). At this, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh led a small walkout, just as he and Sean Mac Stiofain had done sixteen years earlier with the creation of Provisional Sinn Féin. This minority, which rejected dropping the policy of abstentionism, now distinguishes itself from Sinn Féin by using the name Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach), and maintains that they are the true Sinn Féin.",
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"plaintext": "Adams' leadership of Sinn Féin was supported by a Northern-based cadre that included people like Danny Morrison and Martin McGuinness. Over time, Adams and others pointed to republican electoral successes in the early and mid-1980s, when hunger strikers Bobby Sands and Kieran Doherty were elected to the British House of Commons and Dáil Éireann respectively, and they advocated that Sinn Féin become increasingly political and base its influence on electoral politics rather than paramilitarism. The electoral effects of this strategy were shown later by the election of Adams and McGuinness to the House of Commons.",
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"plaintext": "Adams's prominence as an Irish republican leader was increased by the 1988–94 British broadcasting voice restrictions, which were imposed by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to \"starve the terrorist and the hijacker of the oxygen of publicity on which they depend\".<ref>Edgerton, Gary Quelling the \"Oxygen of Publicity\": British Broadcasting and \"The Troubles\" During the Thatcher Years, The Journal of Popular Culture, Volume 30, Issue 1, pp. 115–32.</ref> Thatcher was moved to act after BBC interviews of Martin McGuinness and Adams had been the focus of a row over an edition of After Dark, a proposed Channel 4 discussion programme which in the event was never made. While the ban covered 11 Irish political parties and paramilitary organisations, in practice it mostly affected Sinn Féin, the most prominent of these bodies.",
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"plaintext": "A similar ban, known as Section 31, had been law in the Republic of Ireland since the 1970s. However, media outlets soon found ways around the bans. In the UK, this was initially by the use of subtitles, but later and more often by an actor reading words accompanied by video footage of the banned person speaking. Actors who voiced Adams included Stephen Rea and Paul Loughran. This loophole could not be used in the Republic, as word-for-word broadcasts were not allowed. Instead, the banned speaker's words were summarised by the newsreader, over video of them speaking.",
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"plaintext": "These bans were lampooned in cartoons and satirical TV shows, such as Spitting Image, and in The Day Today, and were criticised by freedom of speech organisations and media personalities, including BBC Director General John Birt and BBC foreign editor John Simpson. The Republic's ban was allowed to lapse in January 1994, and the British ban was lifted by Prime Minister John Major in September 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Sinn Féin continued its policy of refusing to sit in the Westminster Parliament after Adams won the Belfast West constituency. He lost his seat to Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in the 1992 general election, regaining it at the following 1997 election. Under Adams, Sinn Féin moved away from being a political voice of the Provisional IRA to becoming a professionally organised political party in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "SDLP leader John Hume identified the possibility that a negotiated settlement might be possible and began secret talks with Adams in 1988. These discussions led to unofficial contacts with the British Northern Ireland Office under the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Brooke, and with the government of the Republic under Charles Haughey– although both governments maintained in public that they would not negotiate with terrorists. These talks provided the groundwork for what was later to be the Belfast Agreement, preceded by the milestone Downing Street Declaration and the Joint Framework Document.",
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"plaintext": "These negotiations led to the IRA ceasefire in August 1994. Taoiseach Albert Reynolds, who had replaced Haughey and who had played a key role in the Hume/Adams dialogue through his Special Advisor Martin Mansergh, regarded the ceasefire as permanent. However, the slow pace of developments contributed in part to the (wider) political difficulties of the British government of John Major. His consequent reliance on Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) votes in the House of Commons led to him agreeing with the UUP demand to exclude Sinn Féin from talks until the IRA had decommissioned its weapons. Sinn Féin's exclusion led the IRA to end its ceasefire and resume its campaign.",
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"plaintext": "After the 1997 United Kingdom general election, the new Labour government had a majority in the House of Commons and was not reliant on unionist votes. The subsequent dropping of the insistence led to another IRA ceasefire, as part of the negotiations strategy, which saw teams from the British and Irish governments, the UUP, the SDLP, Sinn Féin, and representatives of loyalist paramilitary organisations, under the chairmanship of former United States Senator George Mitchell, produce the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. Under the Agreement, structures were created reflecting the Irish and British identities of the people of Ireland, creating a British-Irish Council and a Northern Ireland Legislative Assembly.",
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"plaintext": "Articles 2 and 3 of the Republic's constitution, which claimed sovereignty over all of Ireland, were reworded, and a power-sharing Executive Committee was provided for. As part of their deal, Sinn Féin agreed to abandon its abstentionist policy regarding a \"six-county parliament\", as a result taking seats in the new Stormont-based Assembly and running the education and health and social services ministries in the power-sharing government.",
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"plaintext": "On 15 August 1998, four months after the signing of the Good Friday Agreement, the Omagh bombing by the Real IRA, killed 29 people and injured 220, from many communities. Adams said in reaction to the bombing \"I am totally horrified by this action. I condemn it without any equivocation whatsoever.\" Prior to this, Adams had not used the word \"condemn\" in relation to IRA or their splinter groups' actions.",
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"plaintext": "When Sinn Féin came to nominate its two ministers to the Northern Ireland Executive, for tactical reasons the party, like the SDLP and the DUP, chose not to include its leader among its ministers. When later the SDLP chose a new leader, it selected one of its ministers, Mark Durkan, who then opted to remain in the committee.",
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"plaintext": "Adams was re-elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly on 8 March 2007, and on 26 March 2007, he met with DUP leader Ian Paisley face-to-face for the first time. These talks led to the St Andrews Agreement, which brought about the return of the power-sharing Executive in Northern Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2009, Adams attended the United States presidential inauguration of Barack Obama as a guest of US Congressman Richard Neal.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 May 2010, Adams was re-elected as MP for West Belfast, garnering 71.1% of the vote. In 2010, Adams announced that he would be seeking election as a TD (member of Irish Parliament) for the constituency of Louth at the 2011 Irish general election. He subsequently resigned his West Belfast Assembly seat on 7 December 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Following the announcement of the 2011 Irish general election, Adams resigned his seat at the House of Commons. He was elected to the Dáil, topping the Louth constituency poll with 15,072 (21.7%) first preference votes. He succeeded Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin as Sinn Féin parliamentary leader in Dáil Éireann. In December 2013, Adams was a member of the Guard of Honour at Nelson Mandela's funeral.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 May 2015, while on an official royal trip to Ireland, Prince Charles shook Adams' hand in what was described as a highly symbolic gesture of reconciliation. The meeting, described as \"historic\", took place in Galway.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2017, Adams said he would allow his name to go forward for a one-year term as president of Sinn Féin at the November ardfheis, at which point Sinn Féin would begin a \"planned process of generational change, including [Adams'] own future intentions\". This resulted in speculation in the Irish and British media that Adams was preparing to stand down as party leader, and that he might run for President of Ireland in the next election. At the ardfheis on 18 November, Adams was re-elected for another year as party president, but announced that he would step down at some point in 2018, and would not seek re-election as TD for Louth.",
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"plaintext": "Adams' presidency of Sinn Féin ended on 10 February 2018, with his stepping down, and the election of Mary Lou McDonald as the party's new president.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 July 2018, a home-made bomb was thrown at Adams' home in West Belfast, damaging a car parked in his driveway. Adams escaped injury and claimed that his two grandchildren were standing in the driveway only 10 minutes before the blast. Another bomb was set off that same evening at the nearby home of former IRA volunteer and Sinn Féin official Bobby Storey. In a press conference the following day, Adams said he thought the attacks were linked to the riots in Derry, and asked that those responsible \"come and sit down\" and \"give us the rationale for this action\".",
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38,121 | 1,100,847,714 | Peperomia | [
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"plaintext": "Peperomia flowers are typically unnoticeable, growing in cordlike spikes, although there are some exceptions such as P. fraseri. Most peperomia flowers seem odorless to humans but some carry a musty or even unpleasant odor, such as P. graveolens. The fruit is a berry that eventually dries out and shows the tiny pepper-like seed.",
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"plaintext": "Peperomias are found in tropical and sub-tropical regions around the world. Northern South America and Central America host the largest number of species, but peperomias can also be found in Africa, southern Asia, and Oceania. The exact number of peperomia species continues to change as new plants are discovered and some distinct plant names, perhaps catalogued in separate geographical regions, are realised to describe the same species. Therefore the table below gives a only a rough overall impression of the worldwide distribution.",
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"plaintext": "Note that many peperomias are found in wide overlapping regions, for example everywhere in tropical America or Asia, and so may have not been included in the species count for individual areas.",
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"plaintext": "Peperomias are often grown for their ornamental foliage and many species are considered easy to grow in homes and greenhouses. Several species have been given the Award of Garden Merit by the Royal Horticultural Society. Peperomias are largely considered non-toxic and are often recommended for households with children or animals.",
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"plaintext": "Out of the 1,000+ peperomia species, currently only about 40 to 50 are commonly used as houseplants, although specialists might of course have larger collections. These peperomias fare well in average home conditions and can relatively easily be found in stores and garden centers. Species in this basic group include P. alata, P. albovittata, P. argyreia, P. axillaris, P. blanda, P. boivinii, P. caperata, P. clusiifolia, P. columella, P. dolabriformis, P. ferreyrae, P. fraseri, P. glabella, P. graveolens, P. griseoargentea, P. hoffmannii, P. incana, P. japonica, P. kimnachii, P. maculosa, P. metallica, P. nitida (often sold as P. scandens), P. nivalis, P. obtusifolia, P. pellucida, P. perciliata, P. pereskiifolia, P. polybotrya, P. prostrata, P. quadrangularis (syn. P. angulata), P. rotundifolia, P. rubella, P. rugosa, P. tetragona (syn. P. puteolata), P. tetraphylla, P. turboensis, P. urocarpa, P. verschaffeltii, P. verticillata, and P. wheeleri.",
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"plaintext": "There can be, however, several cultivars available from each species. Identifying species can be challenging as plants are often sold under marketing names, older synonyms, or under names that have not been officially accepted. This is the case, for example, with so called Peperomia orba (often sold as Peperomia 'Pixie') and Peperomia viridis. In addition to natural species and their cultivars, some artificial hybrid varieties can also be found on the market, such as Peperomia 'Hope' (a cross between P. deppeana and P. quadrifolia). ",
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"plaintext": "Most species need airy, well-draining substrate and want to dry out to some extent or even completely between waterings. A typical reason for losing a peperomia is through root rot caused by over-watering. The tropical, decorative foliage plants, typically enjoy shadier conditions with more humidity. Some might even require a terrarium or a bottle garden to maintain high humidity. The arid climate succulent types should be treated similarly to cacti and other succulents: they can tolerate more light and will survive a dry cold period, during which they are watered only seldomly. The geophytic peperomias are used to experiencing a cold resting period once a year.",
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"plaintext": "Many peperomias are herbs in the sense that their leaves carry a spicy flavour and, when crushed, emit a strong odour. Because of this some species, such as Peperomia pellucida are used in salads and cooking, or to flavour drinks. Some, including Peperomia inaequalifolia and Peperomia congona, are also used in herbal medicine as digestives, for their anti-inflammatory and wound-healing qualities, or as drops against otitis and conjunctivitis. ",
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"plaintext": "While such folk medicine usage is common in Peru and elsewehere the possible medicinal qualities of peperomias remain poorly investigated, although there has been a growing interest for the subject recently. For the moment, it is advised that people should not try to eat the peperomias sold as houseplants.",
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"plaintext": "These plants can be propagated by seeds, by cuttings, or by dividing. Peperomia cuttings of many species root easily.",
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"plaintext": "Plants can be divided and repotted. They are removed and separated into smaller pieces, each with a few roots attached. Leaf or stem cuttings can also be taken in the spring or summer. The lower leaves of the shoots are removed and a cut is made below the bottom node (joint). They are then laid on a bench for an hour or two to allow a protective callus tissue to form over the cuts. They are then inserted in a propagating case with bottom heat of . It is best not to seal the top completely, as the plants are semi-succulent in nature and excessive humidity is detrimental. When enough roots have formed, cuttings can be planted in pots or in hanging baskets.",
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"plaintext": " List of Peperomia species",
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"plaintext": " List of Peperomia diseases",
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"plaintext": " Internet Peperomia Reference by botanist Guido Mathieu",
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"plaintext": " Examples of geophytic Peperomias",
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38,123 | 1,106,221,647 | Herbie_Hancock | [
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"plaintext": "Through his teens, Hancock never had a jazz teacher; however, he developed his ear and sense of harmony. He was also influenced by records of the vocal group the Hi-Lo's. In his words:",
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"plaintext": "Hancock graduated from Grinnell College in 1960 with degrees in electrical engineering and music. Hancock then moved to Chicago, and began working with Donald Byrd and Coleman Hawkins. During this time he also took courses at Roosevelt University. Grinnell also awarded him an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree in 1972. Byrd was attending the Manhattan School of Music in New York at the time and suggested that Hancock study composition with Vittorio Giannini (which he did for a short time in 1960). The pianist quickly earned a reputation, and played subsequent sessions with Oliver Nelson and Phil Woods.",
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"plaintext": "He recorded his first solo album Takin' Off for Blue Note Records in 1962. \"Watermelon Man\" (from Takin' Off) was to provide Mongo Santamaría with a hit single, but more importantly for Hancock, Takin' Off caught the attention of Miles Davis, who was at that time assembling a new band. Hancock was introduced to Davis by the young drummer Tony Williams, a member of the new band.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock received considerable attention when, in May 1963, he joined Davis's Second Great Quintet. Davis personally sought out Hancock, whom he saw as one of the most promising talents in jazz. The rhythm section Davis organized was young but effective, comprising bassist Ron Carter, 17-year-old drummer Williams, and Hancock on piano. After George Coleman and Sam Rivers each took a turn at the saxophone spot, the quintet gelled with Wayne Shorter on tenor saxophone. This quintet is often regarded as one of the finest jazz ensembles yet.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, Hancock also composed the score to Michelangelo Antonioni's film Blowup (1966), the first of many film soundtracks he recorded in his career. As well as feature film soundtracks, Hancock recorded a number of musical themes used on American television commercials for such then-well-known products as Pillsbury's Space Food Sticks, Standard Oil, Tab diet cola and Virginia Slims cigarettes. Hancock also wrote, arranged and conducted a spy type theme for a series of F. William Free commercials for Silva Thins cigarettes. Hancock liked it so much he wished to record it as a song but the ad agency would not let him. He rewrote the harmony, tempo and tone and recorded the piece as the track \"He Who Lives in Fear\" from his The Prisoner album of 1969.",
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"plaintext": "Under the pretext that he had returned late from a honeymoon in Brazil, Hancock was dismissed from Davis's band. In the summer of 1968 Hancock formed his own sextet. However, although Davis soon disbanded his quintet to search for a new sound, Hancock, despite his departure from the working band, continued to appear on Davis records for the next few years. Appearances included In a Silent Way, A Tribute to Jack Johnson and On the Corner.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock left Blue Note in 1969, signing with Warner Bros. Records. In 1969, Hancock composed the soundtrack for Bill Cosby's animated prime-time television special Hey, Hey, Hey, It's Fat Albert. Music from the soundtrack was later included on Fat Albert Rotunda (1969), an R&B-inspired album with strong jazz overtones. One of the jazzier songs on the record, the moody ballad \"Tell Me a Bedtime Story\", was later re-worked as a more electronic sounding song for the Quincy Jones album Sounds...and Stuff Like That!! (1978).",
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"plaintext": "Hancock's next album, Dis Is da Drum, released in 1994, saw him return to acid jazz. Also in 1994, he appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album Red Hot + Cool. The album, meant to raise awareness and funds in support of the AIDS epidemic in relation to the African-American community, was heralded as \"Album of the Year\" by Time Magazine.",
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"plaintext": "A 1997 duet album with Shorter, entitled 1+1, was successful; the song \"Aung San Suu Kyi\" winning the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition. Hancock also achieved great success in 1998 with his album Gershwin's World, which featured readings of George and Ira Gershwin standards by Hancock and a plethora of guest stars, including Wonder, Joni Mitchell and Shorter. Hancock toured the world in support of Gershwin's World with a sextet that featured Cyro Baptista, Terri Lynne Carrington, Ira Coleman, Eli Degibri and Eddie Henderson.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock, a longtime associate and friend of Mitchell, released a 2007 album, The Joni Letters, that paid tribute to her work, with Norah Jones and Tina Turner adding vocals to the album, as did Corinne Bailey Rae. Leonard Cohen contributed a spoken piece set to Hancock's piano. Mitchell herself also made an appearance. The album was released on September 25, 2007, simultaneously with the release of Mitchell's newest album at that time: Shine. River won the 2008 Album of the Year Grammy Award. The album also won a Grammy for Best Contemporary Jazz Album, and the song \"Both Sides Now\" was nominated for Best Instrumental Jazz Solo. That was only the second time in history that a jazz album won those two Grammy Awards.",
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"plaintext": "On June 14, 2008, Hancock performed with others at Rhythm on the Vine at the South Coast Winery in Temecula, California, for Shriners Hospitals for Children. The event raised $515,000 for Shriners Hospital.",
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"plaintext": "On January 18, 2009, Hancock performed at the We Are One concert, marking the start of inaugural celebrations for American President Barack Obama. Hancock also performed Rhapsody in Blue at the 2009 Classical BRIT Awards with classical pianist Lang Lang. Hancock was named as the Los Angeles Philharmonic's creative chair for jazz for 2010–12.",
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"plaintext": "On June 5, 2010, he received an Alumni Award from his alma mater Grinnell College. On July 22, 2011, at a ceremony in Paris, he was named UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for the promotion of Intercultural Dialogue. In 2013, Hancock joined the University of California, Los Angeles faculty as a professor in the UCLA music department teaching jazz music.",
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38,124 | 1,105,626,809 | Mystery_play | [
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"plaintext": "The plays originated as simple tropes, verbal embellishments of liturgical texts, and slowly became more elaborate. At an early period chants from the service of the day were added to the prose dialogue. As these liturgical dramas increased in popularity, vernacular forms emerged, as travelling companies of actors and theatrical productions organized by local communities became more common in the later Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "The Quem quaeritis? is the best known early form of the dramas, a dramatised liturgical dialogue between the angel at the tomb of Christ and the women who are seeking his body. These primitive forms were later elaborated with dialogue and dramatic action. Eventually the dramas moved from church to the exterior - the churchyard and the public marketplace. These early performances were given in Latin, and were preceded by a vernacular prologue spoken by a herald who gave a synopsis of the events. The writers and directors of the earliest plays were probably monks. Religious drama flourished from about the ninth century to the sixteenth.",
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"plaintext": "In 1210, suspicious of the growing popularity of miracle plays, Pope Innocent III issued a papal edict forbidding clergy from acting on a public stage. This had the effect of transferring the organization of the dramas to town guilds, after which several changes followed. Vernacular texts replaced Latin, and non-Biblical passages were added along with comic scenes, for example in the Secunda Pastorum of the Wakefield Cycle. Acting and characterization became more elaborate.",
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"plaintext": "These vernacular religious performances were, in some of the larger cities in England such as York, performed and produced by guilds, with each guild taking responsibility for a particular piece of scriptural history. From the guild control originated the term mystery play or mysteries, from the Latin ministerium meaning \"occupation\" (i.e. that of the guilds). The genre was again banned, following the Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England in 1534.",
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"plaintext": "The mystery play developed, in some places, into a series of plays dealing with all the major events in the Christian calendar, from the Creation to the Day of Judgment. By the end of the 15th century, the practice of acting these plays in cycles on festival days was established in several parts of Europe. Sometimes, each play was performed on a decorated pageant cart that moved about the city to allow different crowds to watch each play as well as provided actors with a dressing room as well as a stage The entire cycle could take up to twenty hours to perform and could be spread over a number of days. Taken as a whole, these are referred to as Corpus Christi cycles. These cycles were often performed during the Feast of Corpus Christi and their overall design drew attention to Christ's life and his redemption for all of mankind.",
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"plaintext": "The plays were performed by a combination of professionals and amateurs and were written in highly elaborate stanza forms; they were often marked by the extravagance of the sets and 'special effects', but could also be stark and intimate. There was a wide variety of theatrical and poetic styles, even in a single cycle of plays.",
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"plaintext": "There are four complete or nearly complete extant English biblical collections of plays; although these collections are sometimes referred to as \"cycles,\" it is now believed that this term may attribute to these collections more coherence than they in fact possess. The most complete is the York cycle of forty-eight pageants; there are also the Towneley plays of thirty-two pageants, once thought to have been a true 'cycle' of plays acted at Wakefield; the Ludus Coventriae, now generally agreed to be a redacted compilation of at least three older, unrelated plays, and the Chester cycle of twenty-four pageants, now generally agreed to be an Elizabethan reconstruction of older medieval traditions. Also extant are two pageants from a New Testament cycle acted at Coventry and one pageant each from Norwich and Newcastle upon Tyne. Additionally, a fifteenth-century play of the life of Mary Magdalene, The Brome Abraham and Isaac and a sixteenth-century play of the Conversion of Saint Paul exist, all hailing from East Anglia. Besides the Middle English drama, there are three surviving plays in Cornish known as the Ordinalia, and several cyclical plays survive from continental Europe.",
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"plaintext": "These biblical plays differ widely in content. Most contain episodes such as the Fall of Lucifer, the Creation and Fall of Man, Cain and Abel, Noah and the Flood, Abraham and Isaac, the Nativity, the Raising of Lazarus, the Passion, and the Resurrection. Other pageants included the story of Moses, the Procession of the Prophets, Christ's Baptism, the Temptation in the Wilderness, and the Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin. In given cycles, the plays came to be sponsored by the newly emerging Medieval craft guilds. The York mercers, for example, sponsored the Doomsday pageant. Other guilds presented scenes appropriate to their trade: the building of the Ark from the carpenters' guild; the five loaves and fishes miracle from the bakers; and the visit of the Magi, with their offerings of gold, frankincense and myrrh, from the goldsmiths. The guild associations are not, however, to be understood as the method of production for all towns. While the Chester pageants are associated with guilds, there is no indication that the N-Town plays are either associated with guilds or performed on pageant wagons. Perhaps the most famous of the mystery plays, at least to modern readers and audiences, are those of Wakefield. Unfortunately, we cannot know whether the plays of the Towneley manuscript are actually the plays performed at Wakefield but a reference in the Second Shepherds' Play to Horbery Shrogys is strongly suggestive. In \"The London Burial Grounds\" by Mrs Basil Holmes (1897), the author claims that the Holy Priory Church, next to St Katherine Cree on Leadenhall Street, London was the location of miracle plays from the tenth to the sixteenth century. Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London (c 1500 - 1569) stopped this in 1542.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous plays of the Towneley collection are attributed to the Wakefield Master, an anonymous playwright who wrote in the fifteenth century. The epithet \"Wakefield Master\" was first applied to this individual by the literary historian Gayley. The Wakefield Master gets his name from the geographic location where he lived, the market-town of Wakefield in Yorkshire. He may have been a highly educated cleric there, or possibly a friar from a nearby monastery at Woodkirk, four miles north of Wakefield. It was once thought that this anonymous author wrote a series of 32 plays (each averaging about 384 lines) called the Towneley Cycle. The Master's contributions to this collection are still much debated, and some scholars believe he may have written fewer than ten of them. These works appear in a single manuscript, currently found in the Huntington Library of California. It shows signs of Protestant editing references to the Pope and the sacraments are crossed out, for instance. Likewise, twelve manuscript leaves were ripped out between the two final plays because of Catholic references. This evidence strongly suggests the play was still being read and performed as late as 1520, perhaps as late in Renaissance as the final years of King Henry VIII's reign.",
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"plaintext": "The best known pageant in the Towneley manuscript is The Second Shepherds' Pageant, a burlesque of the Nativity featuring Mak the sheep stealer and his wife Gill, which more or less explicitly compares a stolen lamb to Jesus Christ. The Harrowing of Hell, derived from the apocryphal Acts of Pilate, was a popular part of the York and Wakefield cycles.",
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"plaintext": "The Misteri d'Elx (in English, the Elx Mystery Play or Mystery Play of Elx) is a liturgical drama dating from the Middle Ages which has been enacted and celebrated every year without any known interruptions. Commemorating the Assumption of Mary, it is played on every 14 and 15 August in the Basilica de Santa María in the city of Elx (also known as Elche). The prohibition of theatrical plays in churches by the Council of Trent eventually threatened to interrupt the yearly performance of the Misteri, but in 1632 Pope Urban VIII issued a special permit for its continuation. In 2001, UNESCO declared it one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest liturgical drama (12th century) written already in old Spanish language was a codex found in the library of the Toledo Cathedral. The Auto de los Reyes Magos belongs to the Christmas cycle. It is a play about the Biblical Magi, three wise men from the East who followed a star and visited the baby Jesus in Bethlehem. It is believed to have been based on an earlier liturgical Latin play written in France.",
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"plaintext": "Miracle plays, or Saint's plays, are now distinguished from mystery plays as they specifically re-enacted miraculous interventions by the saints, particularly St. Nicholas or St. Mary, into the lives of ordinary people, rather than biblical events; however both of these terms are more commonly used by modern scholars than they were by medieval people, who used a wide variety of terminology to refer to their dramatic performances. Robert Chambers, writing in the 19th century, notes that \"especially in England, miracle [came] to stand for religious play in general\".",
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"plaintext": "Cornish language miracle plays were performed in plain-an-gwarrys. To capture the attention of the audience, \"the plays were often noisy, bawdy and entertaining\".",
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"plaintext": "Mystery plays are still produced regularly throughout the United Kingdom. The local cycles were revived in both York and Chester in 1951 as part of the Festival of Britain, and are still performed by the local guilds. The N-Town cycle was revived in 1978 as the Lincoln mystery plays,",
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"plaintext": " Anderson Magalhães, Le Comédies bibliques di Margherita di Navarra, tra evangelismo e mistero medievale, in La mujer: de los bastidores al proscenio en el teatro del siglo XVI, ed. de I. Romera Pintor y J. L. Sirera, Valencia, Publicacions de la Universitat de València, 2011, pp.171–201.",
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"plaintext": " The n-Town cycle modernised by Stanley J. Kahrl and Alexandra F. Johnston",
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"plaintext": " The Chester Cycle in middle English",
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38,125 | 989,790,326 | Bullhead | [
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38,128 | 1,107,818,148 | Cauchy–Schwarz_inequality | [
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"plaintext": "By taking the square root of both sides of the above inequality, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality can be written in its more familiar form:",
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"plaintext": "Sedrakyan's inequality, also called Bergström's inequality, Engel's form, the T2 lemma, or Titu's lemma, states that for positive reals:",
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"plaintext": "It is a direct consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, obtained by using the dot product on upon substituting This form is especially helpful when the inequality involves fractions where the numerator is a perfect square.",
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"plaintext": "The real vector space denotes the 2-dimensional plane. It is also the 2-dimensional Euclidean space where the inner product is the dot product. ",
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"plaintext": "If and then the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes:",
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"plaintext": "where is the angle between and ",
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"plaintext": "The form above is perhaps the easiest in which to understand the inequality, since the square of the cosine can be at most 1, which occurs when the vectors are in the same or opposite directions. It can also be restated in terms of the vector coordinates as",
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"plaintext": "where equality holds if and only if the vector is in the same or opposite direction as the vector or if one of them is the zero vector.",
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"plaintext": "In Euclidean space with the standard inner product, which is the dot product, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes:",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality can be proved using only ideas from elementary algebra in this case. ",
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"plaintext": "Consider the following quadratic polynomial in ",
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"plaintext": "Since it is nonnegative, it has at most one real root for hence its discriminant is less than or equal to zero. That is,",
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"plaintext": "If with and (where and ) and if the inner product on the vector space is the canonical complex inner product (defined by where the bar notation is used for complex conjugation), then the inequality may be restated more explicitly as follows: ",
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"plaintext": "That is,",
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"plaintext": "For the inner product space of square-integrable complex-valued functions, the following inequality:",
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"plaintext": "The Hölder inequality is a generalization of this.",
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"plaintext": "In any inner product space, the triangle inequality is a consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, as is now shown: ",
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"plaintext": "Taking square roots gives the triangle inequality:",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality is used to prove that the inner product is a continuous function with respect to the topology induced by the inner product itself.",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality allows one to extend the notion of \"angle between two vectors\" to any real inner-product space by defining:",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality proves that this definition is sensible, by showing that the right-hand side lies in the interval and justifies the notion that (real) Hilbert spaces are simply generalizations of the Euclidean space. It can also be used to define an angle in complex inner-product spaces, by taking the absolute value or the real part of the right-hand side, as is done when extracting a metric from quantum fidelity.",
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"plaintext": "Let and be random variables, then the covariance inequality: is given by",
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"plaintext": "After defining an inner product on the set of random variables using the expectation of their product,",
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"plaintext": "the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes",
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"plaintext": "To prove the covariance inequality using the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, let and then",
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"plaintext": "where denotes variance and denotes covariance.",
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"plaintext": "There are many different proofs of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality other than those given below. ",
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"plaintext": "When consulting other sources, there are often two sources of confusion. First, some authors define to be linear in the second argument rather than the first. ",
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"plaintext": "Second, some proofs are only valid when the field is and not ",
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"plaintext": "This section gives proofs of the following theorem:",
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"plaintext": "In all of the proofs given below, the proof in the trivial case where at least one of the vectors is zero (or equivalently, in the case where ) is the same. It is presented immediately below only once to reduce repetition. It also includes the easy part of the proof the Characterization of Equality in Cauchy-Schwarz given above; that is, it proves that if and are linearly dependent then ",
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"plaintext": "By definition, and are linearly dependent if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other. ",
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"plaintext": "If where is some scalar then ",
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"plaintext": "which shows that equality holds in the . ",
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"plaintext": "The case where for some scalar is very similar, with the main difference between the complex conjugation of ",
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"plaintext": "If at least one of and is the zero vector then and are necessarily linearly dependent (just scalar multiply the non-zero vector by the number to get the zero vector; for example, if then let so that ), which proves the converse of this characterization in this special case; that is, this shows that if at least one of and is then the Characterization of Equality in Cauchy-Schwarz holds. ",
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"plaintext": "If which happens if and only if then and so that in particular, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality holds because both sides of it are ",
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"plaintext": "The proof in the case of is identical. ",
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"plaintext": "Consequently, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality only needs to be proven only for non-zero vectors and also only the non-trivial direction of the Characterization of Equality in Cauchy-Schwarz must be shown. ",
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"plaintext": "The special case of was proven above so it is henceforth assumed that ",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz equality (and the rest of the theorem) is an almost immediate corollary of the following : ",
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"plaintext": "Equality is readily verified by elementarily expanding (via the definition of the norm) and then simplifying:",
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"plaintext": "This expansion does not require to be non-zero; however, must be non-zero in order to divide both sides by and to deduce the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality from it. ",
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"plaintext": "Swapping and gives rise to:",
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"plaintext": "and thus",
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"plaintext": "The special case of was proven above so it is henceforth assumed that ",
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"plaintext": "Let",
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"plaintext": "It follows from the linearity of the inner product in its first argument that:",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, is a vector orthogonal to the vector (Indeed, is the projection of onto the plane orthogonal to ) We can thus apply the Pythagorean theorem to",
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"plaintext": "which gives",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality follows by multiplying by and then taking the square root. ",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, if the relation in the above expression is actually an equality, then and hence the definition of then establishes a relation of linear dependence between and The converse was proved at the beginning of this section, so the proof is complete. ",
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"plaintext": "Let be a real inner product space. Consider an arbitrary pair and the function defined by ",
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"plaintext": "Since the inner product is positive-definite, only takes non-negative values. On the other hand, can be expanded using the bilinearity of the inner product and using the fact that for real inner products:",
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"plaintext": "Thus, is a polynomial of degree (unless which is a case that can be independently verified). Since the sign of does not change, the discriminant of this polynomial must be non-positive:",
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"plaintext": "The conclusion follows.",
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"plaintext": "For the equality case, notice that happens if and only if If then and hence ",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality in the case where the inner product is the dot product on is now proven.",
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"plaintext": "The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality may be rewritten as or equivalently, for which expands to:",
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"plaintext": "To simplify, let ",
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"plaintext": "so that the statement that remains to be to proven can be written as which can be rearranged to The discriminant of the quadratic equation is ",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, to complete the proof it is sufficient to prove that this quadratic either has no real roots or exactly one real root, because this will imply: ",
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"plaintext": "Substituting the values of into gives:",
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"plaintext": "which is a sum of terms that are each by the trivial inequality: for all ",
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"plaintext": "This proves the inequality and so to finish the proof, it remains to show that equality is achievable.",
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"plaintext": "The equality is the equality case for Cauchy-Schwarz after inspecting ",
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"plaintext": "which proves that equality is achievable. ",
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"plaintext": "Various generalizations of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality exist. Hölder's inequality generalizes it to norms. More generally, it can be interpreted as a special case of the definition of the norm of a linear operator on a Banach space (Namely, when the space is a Hilbert space). Further generalizations are in the context of operator theory, e.g. for operator-convex functions and operator algebras, where the domain and/or range are replaced by a C*-algebra or W*-algebra.",
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"plaintext": "An inner product can be used to define a positive linear functional. For example, given a Hilbert space being a finite measure, the standard inner product gives rise to a positive functional by Conversely, every positive linear functional on can be used to define an inner product where is the pointwise complex conjugate of In this language, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes",
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"plaintext": "which extends verbatim to positive functionals on C*-algebras:",
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"plaintext": "The next two theorems are further examples in operator algebra.",
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"plaintext": "This extends the fact when is a linear functional. The case when is self-adjoint, that is, is sometimes known as Kadison's inequality.",
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"plaintext": "Another generalization is a refinement obtained by interpolating between both sides of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality: ",
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"plaintext": "This theorem can be deduced from Hölder's inequality. There are also non commutative versions for operators and tensor products of matrices.",
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"plaintext": "A survey of matrix versions of Cauchy-Schwarz and Kantorovich inequalities is available.",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " Earliest Uses: The entry on the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality has some historical information.",
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"plaintext": " Example of application of Cauchy–Schwarz inequality to determine Linearly Independent Vectors Tutorial and Interactive program.",
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"Inequalities",
"Linear_algebra",
"Operator_theory",
"Articles_containing_proofs",
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] | 190,546 | 27,480 | 145 | 55 | 0 | 0 | Cauchy–Schwarz inequality | a useful inequality encountered in many different settings, such as linear algebra, analysis, probability theory, vector algebra and other areas. It is considered to be one of the most important inequalities in all of mathematics | [
"Cauchy–Bunyakovsky–Schwarz inequality",
"Cauchy–Schwarz–Bunyakovsky inequality"
] |
38,130 | 1,105,235,664 | HM_Prison_Maze | [
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"plaintext": "Her Majesty's Prison Maze (previously Long Kesh Detention Centre, and known colloquially as The Maze or H-Blocks) was a prison in Northern Ireland that was used to house alleged paramilitary prisoners during the Troubles from August 1971 to September 2000.",
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"plaintext": "It was situated at the former Royal Air Force station of Long Kesh, on the outskirts of Lisburn. This was in the townland of Maze, about southwest of Belfast. The prison and its inmates were involved in such events as the 1981 hunger strike. The prison was closed in 2000 and demolition began on 30 October 2006, but on 18 April 2013 it was announced by the Northern Ireland Executive that the remaining buildings would be redeveloped into a peace centre.",
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"plaintext": "Following the introduction of internment in 1971, Operation Demetrius was implemented by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and British Army with raids for 452 suspects on 9 August 1971. The RUC and army arrested 342 Irish nationalists, but key Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) members had been tipped off and 104 of those arrested were released when it emerged they had no paramilitary connections. Those behind Operation Demetrius were accused of bungling, by arresting many of the wrong people and using out-of-date information. Following nationalist protests, some Ulster loyalists were also arrested. By 1972, there were 924 internees and by the end of internment on 5 December 1975, 1,981 people had been detained; 1,874 (94.6%) of whom were Catholic/Irish nationalist and 107 (5.4%) Ulster Protestants/loyalists.",
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"plaintext": "Initially, the internees were housed, with different paramilitary groups separated from each other, in Nissen huts at a disused RAF airfield that became the Long Kesh Detention Centre. The internees and their supporters agitated for improvements in their conditions and status; they saw themselves as political prisoners rather than common criminals. In July 1972, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, William Whitelaw introduced Special Category Status for those sentenced for crimes relating to the civil violence. There were 1,100 Special Category Status prisoners at that time.",
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"plaintext": "Special Category Status for convicted paramilitary-linked prisoners gave them the same privileges previously available only to internees. These privileges included free association between prisoners, extra visits, food parcels and the right to wear their own clothes rather than prison uniforms.",
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"plaintext": "However, Special Category Status was short-lived. As part of a new British policy of \"criminalisation\", and coinciding with the end of internment, the new Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Merlyn Rees, ended Special Category Status from 1 March 1976. Those convicted of \"scheduled terrorist offences\" after that date were housed in the eight new \"H-Blocks\" that had been constructed at Long Kesh, now officially named Her Majesty's Prison Maze (HMP Maze). Existing prisoners remained in separate compounds and retained their Special Category Status with the last prisoner to hold this status being released in 1986. Some prisoners changed from being Special Category Status prisoners to being common criminals. Brendan Hughes, an IRA prisoner, had been imprisoned with Special Category Status in Cage 11, but was alleged to have been involved in a fight with warders. He was taken to court and convicted then returned to the jail as a common prisoner and incarcerated in the H-Blocks as an ordinary prisoner, all within the space of several hours.",
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"plaintext": "Prisoners convicted of scheduled offences after 1 March 1976 were housed in the \"H-Blocks\" that had been constructed. Prisoners without Special Category Status began protesting for its return immediately after they were transferred to the H-Blocks. Their first act of defiance, initiated by Kieran Nugent, was to refuse to wear the prison uniforms, stating that convicted criminals, and not political prisoners, wear uniforms. Not allowed their own clothes, they wrapped themselves in bedsheets. Prisoners participating in the protest were \"on the blanket\". By 1978, more than 300 men had joined the protest. The British government refused to back down. In March 1978, some prisoners refused to leave their cells to shower or use the lavatory because they were being beaten when they did, and were provided with wash-hand basins in their cells. Prisoners \"on the blanket\" reported that one of the things that caused the most stress was \"...waiting for the moment the cell door would open and they would be dragged out, naked and defenseless, and then pounded into semi-consciousness before being thrown back in again\". Fueling the prison officers' anger was a mix of sectarianism - they were almost exclusively Protestant and many had loyalist sympathies and connections - and a desire for revenge. In 1978, the British Government was found guilty and censured by the European Court of Human Rights for \"cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment in the interrogation procedures\".",
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"plaintext": "The prisoners requested that showers be installed in their cells; and when this request was turned down, they refused to use the wash-hand basins. At the end of April 1978, a fight occurred between a prisoner and a prison officer in H-Block 6. The prisoner was taken away to solitary confinement, and rumours spread across the wing that the prisoner had been badly beaten. The prisoners responded by smashing the furniture in their cells, forcing the prison authorities to remove the remaining furniture from the cells, leaving only blankets and mattresses. The prisoners responded by refusing to leave their cells and, as a result, the prison officers were unable to clear them. This resulted in the blanket protest escalating into the dirty protest, as the prisoners would not leave their cells to \"slop out\" (i.e., empty their chamber pots), and started smearing excrement on the walls of their cells to \"mitigate the spread of maggots\".",
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"plaintext": "Republicans outside the prison took the battle to the media and both sides fought for public support. Inside the prison, the prisoners took another step and organised a hunger strike.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 October 1980, seven republican prisoners refused food and demanded political status. The Conservative government led by Margaret Thatcher did not initially give in. In December, the prisoners called off the hunger strike when the government appeared to concede to their demands. However, the government immediately reverted to their previous stance, in the belief that the prisoners would not start another strike. Bobby Sands, the leader of the Provisional IRA prisoners, began a second action on 1 March 1981. Outside the prison, in a major publicity coup, Sands was nominated for Parliament and won the Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election. But the British government still resisted and on 5 May, after 66 days on hunger strike, Sands died. More than 100,000 people attended Sands' funeral in Belfast. Another nine hunger strikers (members of both the IRA and the INLA) died by the end of August before the hunger strike was called off in October.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 September 1983, the Maze saw the largest breakout of prisoners from a British prison. Thirty-eight prisoners hijacked a prison meals lorry and smashed their way out. During the breakout, four prison officers were stabbed, including one, James Ferris, who died of a heart attack. Another officer was shot in the head by Gerry Kelly, and several other officers were injured by the escapees. Nineteen of the prisoners were soon recaptured, but the other nineteen escaped.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1997, an IRA escape attempt was foiled when a tunnel was found. The tunnel led from H-Block 7 and was short of the perimeter wall.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1997, IRA prisoner Liam Averill escaped dressed as a woman during a Christmas party for prisoners' children. Averill, who was jailed for life after committing two murders, was not recaptured, and was instead given amnesty in early 2001 when he was one of a number of republican escapees to present themselves to the authorities in a two-week period.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s, the British government slowly introduced changes, granting what some would see as political status in all but name. Republican and loyalist prisoners were housed according to group. They organised themselves along military lines and exercised wide control over their respective H-Blocks. The Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) leader Billy Wright was shot dead in December 1997 by two Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "The prisoners also played a significant role in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 9 January 1998, the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Mo Mowlam, paid a surprise visit to the prison to talk to members of the Ulster Defence Association including Johnny Adair, Sam \"Skelly\" McCrory and Michael Stone. They had voted for their political representatives to pull out of talks. Shortly after Mowlam's visit, they changed their minds, allowing their representatives to continue talks that would lead to the Good Friday Agreement of 10 April 1998. Afterwards, the prison was emptied of its paramilitary prisoners as the groups they represented agreed to the ceasefire. In the two years following the agreement, 428 prisoners were released. On 29 September 2000, the remaining four prisoners at the Maze were transferred to other prisons in Northern Ireland and the Maze Prison was closed.",
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"plaintext": "A monitoring group was set up on 14 January 2003 to debate the future of the site. With close motorway and rail links, there were many proposals, including a museum, a multi-purpose sports stadium and an office, hotel and leisure village.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2006, the government unveiled a masterplan for the site incorporating many of these proposals, including a 45,000 seat national multi-sport stadium for football, rugby and Gaelic games. The Government's infrastructure organisation, the Strategic Investment Board (SIB), was tasked with taking forward the proposed stadium idea and appointed one of its senior advisers, Tony Whitehead, to manage the project. The capacity of the proposed stadium was later adjusted to first 35,000 and then 38,000 and the organising bodies of all three sports – Irish FA, Ulster Rugby and Ulster GAA – agreed in principle to support the integrated scheme. In October 2006, demolition work started in preparation for construction on the site.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2009, plans to build the new multi-purpose stadium on the site of the prison were cancelled, with the Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure, Gregory Campbell, citing a lack of support and concerns for a net loss to the economy.",
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"plaintext": "Discussion is still ongoing as to the listed status of sections of the old prison. The hospital and part of the H-Blocks are currently listed buildings, and would remain as part of the proposed site redevelopment as a \"conflict transformation centre\" with support from republicans such as Martin McGuinness and opposition from unionists, who consider that this risks creating \"a shrine to the IRA\".",
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"plaintext": "In January 2013, plans were approved by the Northern Ireland environment minister Alex Attwood for the site to be redeveloped as showgrounds as the result of an application by the Royal Ulster Agricultural Society with the objective of relocating Balmoral Show from its current location in Belfast. The site is now known as Balmoral Park.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2019, the European Union withdrew £18m that had been approved to develop a peace centre, due to disagreements between Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionist Party.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2020, the former prison was reportedly under consideration for conversion into a temporary hospital during the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Olusegun Adeola Samuel (born 19 February 1963), known professionally as Seal, is a British singer. He has sold over 20 million records worldwide. These include hit songs \"Crazy\" and \"Killer\", the latter of which went to number one in the UK, and his most celebrated song, \"Kiss from a Rose\", which was released in 1994. Seal is renowned for his distinctive soulful singing voice. ",
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"plaintext": "Seal has won multiple awards throughout his career, including three Brit Awards; he won Best British Male in 1992. He has also won four Grammy Awards and an MTV Video Music Award. As a songwriter, Seal received two Ivor Novello Awards for Best Song Musically and Lyrically from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors for \"Killer\" (1990) and \"Crazy\" (1991).",
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"plaintext": "Henry Olusegun Adeola Samuel was born on 19 February 1963 at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, to a Nigerian mother, Adebisi Ogundeji, and an Afro-Brazilian father, Francis Samuel. He was raised by a foster family in Westminster, London. He received a two-year diploma in architecture and had various jobs in the London area.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, Seal spent a short time singing in local clubs and bars. In 1987, he joined Push, a British funk band, and toured with them in Japan. In Thailand, he joined a blues band for a while before separating from the group and journeying throughout India on his own. He returned to England, sleeping on the couch of friend Julian Bunster, then a model. He sometimes asked him, \"do I sing well?\", to which he often received the response that he sang better than most current artists. He performed vocals on the 1988 S-Express song Superfly Guy. This led to a collaboration with producer Adamski in which Seal provided lyrics and vocals on Adamski's single \"Killer\".",
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"plaintext": "\"Killer\" eventually reached number one in the UK. Seal subsequently signed to ZTT Records and released his self-titled début album (produced by Trevor Horn) in 1991. Two versions of the album are known to be in circulation: the original \"premix\" version and a second, more common version with an updated mix. This is attributed to the demand for a produced single rushing the final album edit, and as Seal puts it, producer Horn's \"inability to let go\".",
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"plaintext": "Seal was positively received by critics. The singles \"Crazy\", \"Future Love Paradise\", and his own rendition of \"Killer\" performed well on the charts. In particular, \"Crazy\" became an international hit in 1991, reaching number two in the UK Singles Chart and number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US. Seal stole the show at the 1992 Brit Awards held at the Hammersmith Odeon, London, with the first hat-trick of wins in the history of the event. He won in three categories: Best British Male, Best British Video (\"Killer\"), and Best British Album (Seal).",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, Seal appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation CD Red Hot + Dance, contributing an exclusive track \"Crazy (If I Was Trev Mix)\". The album, featuring George Michael and Madonna among others, raised money and awareness in support of the AIDS epidemic by donating all proceeds to AIDS charities.",
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"plaintext": "After Seal regrouped with Trevor Horn, his second album, also self-titled, was released in 1994. A success, the album featured the singles \"Prayer for the Dying\" and \"Newborn Friend\", and later received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. \"Prayer for the Dying\" became a minor pop hit in the US, peaking at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100. A third single, \"Kiss from a Rose\", performed modestly when released, but was later featured to much wider popularity when it was remixed for the soundtrack to Batman Forever. \"Kiss from a Rose\" won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year and Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 1996, becoming Seal's best-performing single on the US market (it topped the Billboard Hot 100 in late August 1995) and hit number four in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, Seal released Human Being. The album was the product of a turbulent time in his life, including a split and later reconciliation with producer Horn, as well as Seal's parting with ZTT Records and his signing with Warner Bros. Records in 1997. The record was panned upon its release. It received gold record certification by the RIAA just two months after its release date. The album provided three singles, \"Human Beings\", \"Latest Craze\", and \"Lost My Faith\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, fans awaited the arrival of a new album, announced as Togetherland. After a protracted postproduction period, the album was cancelled. The official word was that Seal simply did not think it made the grade, although this conflicts with other reports, that said the album was turned down by the label because producers felt the album would not be commercially successful. Even so, one single was released from the album; \"This Could Be Heaven\" was released in the US and featured on The Family Man soundtrack. Since December 2006, Seal has indicated that he has plans to excerpt cuts from Togetherland and make them available for streaming download. Meanwhile, Seal co-wrote and provided vocals for the hit single \"My Vision\" from Jakatta in 2002. He also recorded a successful duet with French singer Mylène Farmer called \"Les Mots\" during that same period. Also in 2002, Seal lent his vocals to the song \"You Are My Kind\", the fourth track on Santana's album Shaman.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Seal released his fourth album Seal IV. Although it never achieved the sales figures of either of his first two albums, this release brought him back into the public eye in the United States and continental Europe. Singles from the album include \"Waiting for You\", \"Get It Together\", and \"Love's Divine\" – this single was released in 2004 and was a big hit in several European countries.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, a greatest-hits album entitled Seal: Best 1991–2004 was released, including a cover of the Bacharach/David classic \"Walk On By\" and a cover of Echo & the Bunnymen's song \"Lips Like Sugar\". An edition of the album was available that included an extra CD with acoustic versions of some of Seal's hits.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2004, Seal performed shows at the Olympia Theatre in Paris. The show of 6 July 2004 was recorded and released about one year after as a CD/DVD package, simply titled Live in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2005, Seal recorded a concert which was subsequently released in 2006, entitled One Night to Remember, as a CD/DVD combination. The DVD includes a \"making of\" documentary in addition to the live performance. Recorded in a historic steel mill, the Altes Kesselhaus (\"old boiler house\"), in Düsseldorf, Germany, this performance includes a version of Brahms' Lullaby which Seal sings in German and then in English. Unlike earlier recordings in which Seal is accompanied by his band, a full orchestra and choir of 52 musicians accompanies the singer.",
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"plaintext": "System was released in the UK on 12 November 2007 and in the US on 13 November 2007. Seal describes the album as more dance-oriented, apparently a return to the roots of his first album. On the track titled \"Wedding Day\", Seal sings a duet with his then wife, model Heidi Klum. The album's first single, \"Amazing\", was released on 25 September 2007, and was nominated for the \"Best Male Pop Vocal Performance\" Grammy at the 2007 50th Annual Grammy Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Seal performed \"Amazing\" and the Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds\" at the 2007 Royal Variety Performance.",
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"plaintext": "Seal also performed \"Amazing\" at the 2007 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in December, as well as the duet \"Wedding Day\" with his wife. Other performers at the 2007 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show include the Spice Girls and will.i.am of the Black Eyed Peas. He appeared on the American Idol season-seven finale, singing with third-place contestant Syesha Mercado.",
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"plaintext": "Seal's sixth studio album, Soul, was released on 3 November 2008 internationally and on 11 November 2008 in the US. It contains 11 soul classics produced by David Foster. The first single was a cover of Sam Cooke song \"A Change Is Gonna Come\".",
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"plaintext": "On 14 March 2009, Seal performed a song from the album and coached the participants on the \"Top 9-Show\" of the sixth season of the German TV show Deutschland sucht den Superstar (German Idol).",
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"plaintext": "On 4 December 2009, Hits, a compilation album, was released. It contains two new tracks, \"I Am Your Man\" and \"Thank You\".",
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"plaintext": "Seal's seventh studio album, Seal 6: Commitment was released on 20 September 2010 internationally and 28 September 2010 in the US. The first single \"Secret\" was released 10 August 2010 on iTunes in the US and in the UK on 13 September 2010. This album was said to be inspired by his wife, Heidi. On 7 November 2011, Seal released his second cover album of classic soul songs, Soul 2 through Reprise Records.",
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"plaintext": "Seal soon after began work on a new album, initially entitled Let Yourself, produced again by Horn. In February 2015, Horn said the album was nearly finished. Seal later re-signed to Perfect Songs and had a two-week writing period in Horn's Los Angeles studio booked for October 2012. Stewart Copeland (formerly of the Police) said that month on his Twitter feed that Trevor Horn and Lol Crème were working with Seal on a project. In April 2013, Seal said on Twitter that the new album would be released in about June (which did not eventuate), and that tracks to be included were \"Let Yourself\", \"Do You Ever\", and \"Laying with an Angel\". The album was later retitled Beautifully Scarred.",
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"plaintext": "Seal released the album Standards in November 2017. The album was produced by classical crossover composer Nick Patrick. It received a nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album at the 2018 Annual Grammy Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Jeff Beck and Seal performed a cover of \"Manic Depression\" for the 1993 album A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix. Seal also contributed vocals to a cover of John Lennon's \"Imagine\" for the 2010 Herbie Hancock album, The Imagine Project along with P!nk, India.Arie, Jeff Beck, Konono Nº1, Oumou Sangaré and others.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, Seal was one of the four vocal coaches in the first season of the Australian version of the reality singing competition The Voice. He was the coach of the series winner Karise Eden. Seal returned to The Voice season two, which debuted on 7 April 2013, where he became the winning coach once again, coaching eventual winner Harrison Craig. He did not return for the third season in 2014 with the Nine Network stating that Seal \"will take a break from the third season of The Voice to focus on music and material for a new album.\" Channel NINE announced on 8 November 2016 that Seal would be returning alongside Delta Goodrem to The Voice as a coach in 2017, replacing Jessie J after a three-year hiatus.",
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"plaintext": "On 15 November 2014, Seal joined the charity group Band Aid 30 along with other British and Irish pop acts, recording the latest version of the track \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in West Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Seal first began dating German model Heidi Klum in February 2004, shortly after she announced her pregnancy and end of relationship with Italian Formula One team manager Flavio Briatore. Seal proposed to Klum on 23 December 2004 in a quinzee he had built on a glacier in Whistler, British Columbia. On 10 May 2005, the couple married on a beach in Mexico near Seal's home on Costa Careyes. Every year during their marriage, Seal and Klum renewed their vows on their anniversary with close friends and family. About these renewals, Seal said in 2010, \"Each year, Heidi and I get remarried. It's a great party, but for about an hour, we go off on our own down to a private beach. We sit there with the kids and read vows to each other as the sun sets. It's a very special moment to us.\" In November 2009, Klum officially adopted Seal's surname and became legally known as Heidi Samuel.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 June 2009, Seal, on tour with his new album Soul, revealed, \"It is nice to be in newspapers and magazines for something other than my marriage\". He said his marriage to Klum may take away the attention, but does not detract from what he loves doing: making music. In February 2011, Klum praised Seal for his good parenting skills.",
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"plaintext": "Klum gave birth to Briatore's daughter in May 2004 in New York City with Seal at her side. According to Klum, Briatore is not involved in fathering duties, and Klum has stated emphatically that Seal is the girl's father. Seal is her only father figure and he has praised Briatore for keeping his distance. In late 2009, Seal officially adopted Klum's daughter, and her last name was changed to Samuel. The couple have three other children: two sons Henry Günther Ademola Dashtu Samuel (born September 2005) and Johan Riley Fyodor Taiwo Samuel (born November 2006); and a daughter named Lou born in October 2009.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 January 2012, Seal and Klum announced that they were separating after nearly seven years of marriage. Klum filed for divorce from Seal on 6 April 2012. Their divorce was finalised on 14 October 2014.",
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"Henry Olusegun Adeola Samuel",
"Samuel Sealhenry"
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38,136 | 1,105,747,156 | Seal_(emblem) | [
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"plaintext": "A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, or to prevent interference with a package or envelope by applying a seal which had to be broken to open the container (hence the modern English verb \"to seal\", which implies secure closing without an actual wax seal).",
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"plaintext": "The seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die; the imprint it creates as the seal impression (or, more rarely, the sealing). If the impression is made purely as a relief resulting from the greater pressure on the paper where the high parts of the matrix touch, the seal is known as a dry seal; in other cases ink or another liquid or liquefied medium is used, in another color than the paper.",
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"plaintext": "In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the seal matrix is in intaglio (cut below the flat surface) and therefore the design on the impressions made is in relief (raised above the surface). The design on the impression will reverse (be a mirror-image of) that of the matrix, which is especially important when script is included in the design, as it very often is. This will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were often carved in relief, called cameo in this context, giving a \"counter-relief\" or intaglio impression when used as seals. The process is essentially that of a mould.",
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"plaintext": "Most seals have always given a single impression on an essentially flat surface, but in medieval Europe two-sided seals with two matrices were often used by institutions or rulers (such as towns, bishops and kings) to make two-sided or fully three-dimensional impressions in wax, with a \"tag\", a piece of ribbon or strip of parchment, running through them. These \"pendent\" seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached (single-sided seals were treated in the same way).",
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"plaintext": "Some jurisdictions consider rubber stamps or specified signature-accompanying words such as \"seal\" or \"L.S.\" (abbreviation of locus sigilli, \"place of the seal\") to be the legal equivalent of, i.e., an equally effective substitute for, a seal.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the word \"seal\" is sometimes assigned to a facsimile of the seal design (in monochrome or color), which may be used in a variety of contexts including architectural settings, on flags, or on official letterheads. Thus, for example, the Great Seal of the United States, among other uses, appears on the reverse of the one-dollar bill; and several of the seals of the U.S. states appear on their respective state flags. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the seal design in its entirety rarely appears as a graphical emblem and is used mainly as originally intended: as an impression on documents.",
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"plaintext": "The study of seals is known as sigillography or sphragistics.",
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"plaintext": "Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of considerable importance in archaeology and art history. In ancient Mesopotamia carved or engraved cylinder seals in stone or other materials were used. These could be rolled along to create an impression on clay (which could be repeated indefinitely), and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck. Many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. From ancient Egypt seals in the form of , including some with the names of kings, have been found; these tend to show only names in hieroglyphics.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, seals have come to light in South Arabia datable to the Himyarite age. One example shows a name written in Aramaic (Yitsḥaq bar Ḥanina) engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression.",
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"plaintext": "From the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In the Early Minoan age these were formed of soft stone and ivory and show particular characteristic forms. By the Middle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs and materials appear. Hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. The Late Bronze Age is the time par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring, which continued into the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods, in the form of pictorial engraved gems. These were a major luxury art form and became keenly collected, with King Mithridates VI of Pontus the first major collector according to Pliny the Elder. His collection fell as booty to Pompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome. Engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century. Pliny also explained the significance of the signet ring, and how over time this ring was worn on the little finger.",
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"plaintext": "Known as yinzhang () in Greater China, injang in Korea, inshō in Japan, ấn triện (or ấn chương) in Vietnam, seals have been used in East Asia as a form of written identification since the Qin dynasty (221 BC–). The seals of the Han dynasty were impressed in a soft clay, but from the Tang dynasty a red ink made from cinnabar was normally used. Even in modern times, seals, often known as \"chops\" in local colloquial English, are still commonly used instead of handwritten signatures to authenticate official documents or financial transactions. Both individuals and organizations have official seals, and they often have multiple seals in different sizes and styles for different situations. East Asian seals usually bear the names of the people or organizations represented, but they can also bear poems or personal mottoes. Sometimes both types of seals, or large seals that bear both names and mottoes, are used to authenticate official documents. Seals are so important in East Asia that foreigners who frequently conduct business there also commission the engraving of personal seals.",
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"plaintext": "East Asian seals are carved from a variety of hard materials, including wood, soapstone, sea glass and jade. East Asian seals are traditionally used with a red oil-based paste consisting of finely ground cinnabar, which contrasts with the black ink traditionally used for the ink brush. Red chemical inks are more commonly used in modern times for sealing documents. Seal engraving is considered a form of calligraphy in East Asia. Like ink-brush calligraphy, there are several styles of engraving. Some engraving styles emulate calligraphy styles, but many styles are so highly stylized that the characters represented on the seal are difficult for untrained readers to identify. Seal engravers are considered artists, and, in the past, several famous calligraphers also became famous as engravers. Some seals, carved by famous engravers, or owned by famous artists or political leaders, have become valuable as historical works of art.",
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"plaintext": "Because seals are commissioned by individuals and carved by artists, every seal is unique, and engravers often personalize the seals that they create. The materials of seals and the styles of the engraving are typically matched to the personalities of the owners. Seals can be traditional or modern, or conservative or expressive. Seals are sometimes carved with the owners' zodiac animals on the tops of the seals. Seals are also sometimes carved with images or calligraphy on the sides.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is a utilitarian instrument of daily business in East Asia, westerners and other non-Asians seldom see Asian seals except on Asian paintings and calligraphic art. All traditional paintings in China, Japan, Korea, and the rest of East Asia are watercolor paintings on silk, paper, or some other surface to which the red ink from seals can adhere. East Asian paintings often bear multiple seals, including one or two seals from the artist, and the seals from the owners of the paintings.",
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"plaintext": "East Asian seals are the predecessors to block printing.",
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"plaintext": "There is a direct line of descent from the seals used in the ancient world, to those used in medieval and post-medieval Europe, and so to those used in legal contexts in the western world to the present day. Seals were historically most often impressed in sealing wax (often simply described as \"wax\"): in the Middle Ages, this generally comprised a compound of about two-thirds beeswax to one-third of some kind of resin, but in the post-medieval period the resin (and other ingredients) came to dominate. During the early Middle Ages seals of lead, or more properly \"bullae\" (from the Latin), were in common use both in East and West, but with the notable exception of documents (\"bulls\") issued by the Papal Chancery these leaden authentications fell out of favour in western Christendom. Byzantine Emperors sometimes issued documents with gold seals, known as Golden Bulls.",
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"plaintext": "Wax seals were being used on a fairly regular basis by most western royal chanceries by about the end of the 10th century. In England, few wax seals have survived of earlier date than the Norman Conquest, although some earlier matrices are known, recovered from archaeological contexts: the earliest is a gold double-sided matrix found near Postwick, Norfolk, and dated to the late 7th century; the next oldest is a mid-9th-century matrix of a Bishop Ethilwald (probably Æthelwold, Bishop of East Anglia). The practice of sealing in wax gradually moved down the social hierarchy from monarchs and bishops to great magnates, to petty knights by the end of the 12th century, and to ordinary freemen by the middle of the 13th century. They also came to be used by a variety of corporate bodies, including cathedral chapters, municipalities, monasteries etc., to validate the acts executed in their name.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional wax seals continue to be used on certain high-status and ceremonial documents, but in the 20th century they were gradually superseded in many other contexts by inked or dry embossed seals and by rubber stamps.",
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"plaintext": "While many instruments formerly required seals for validity (e.g. deeds or covenants) it is now unusual in most countries in the west for private citizens to use seals. In Central and Eastern Europe, however, as in East Asia, a signature alone is considered insufficient to authenticate a document of any kind in business, and all managers, as well as many book-keepers and other employees, have personal seals, normally just containing text, with their name and their position. These are applied to all letters, invoices issued, and similar documents. In Europe these are today plastic self-inking stamps.",
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"plaintext": "Notaries also still use seals on a daily basis. At least in Britain, each registered notary has an individual personal seal, registered with the authorities, which includes his or her name and a pictorial emblem, often an animal—the same combination found in many seals from ancient Greece.",
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"plaintext": "Seals are used primarily to authenticate documents, specifically those which carry some legal import. There are two main ways in which a seal may be attached to a document. It may be applied directly to the face of the paper or parchment (an applied seal); or it may hang loose from it (a pendent seal). A pendent seal may be attached to cords or ribbons (sometimes in the owner's livery colors), or to the two ends of a strip (or tag) of parchment, threaded through holes or slots cut in the lower edge of the document: the document is often folded double at this point (a plica) to provide extra strength. Alternatively, the seal may be attached to a narrow strip of the material of the document (again, in this case, usually parchment), sliced and folded down, as a tail or tongue, but not detached. The object in all cases is to help ensure authenticity by maintaining the integrity of the relationship between document and seal, and to prevent the seal's reuse. If a forger tries to remove an applied seal from its document, it will almost certainly break. A pendent seal is easily detached by cutting the cords or strips of parchment, but the forger would then have great difficulty in attaching it to another document (not least because the cords or parchment are normally knotted inside the seal), and would again almost certainly break it.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, the majority of seals were pendent. They were attached both to legal instruments and to letters patent (i.e. open letters) conferring rights or privileges, which were intended to be available for all to view. In the case of important transactions or agreements, the seals of all parties to the arrangement as well as of witnesses might be attached to the document, and so once executed it would carry several seals. Most governments still attach pendent seals to letters patent.",
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"plaintext": "Applied seals, by contrast, were originally used to seal a document closed: that is to say, the document would be folded and the seal applied in such a way that the item could not be opened without the seal being broken. Applied seals were used on letters close (letters intended only for the recipient) and parcels to indicate whether or not the item had been opened or tampered with since it had left the sender, as well as providing evidence that the item was actually from the sender and not a forgery. In the post-medieval period, seals came to be commonly used in this way for private letters. A letter writer would fold the completed letter, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page, and then impress a ring or other seal matrix. Governments sometimes sent letters to citizens under the governmental seal for their eyes only, known as letters secret. Wax seals might also be used with letterlocking techniques to ensure that only the intended recipient would read the message. In general, seals are no longer used in these ways except for ceremonial purposes. However, applied seals also came to be used on legal instruments applied directly to the face of the document, so that there was no need to break them, and this use continues.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the majority of seals were circular in design, although ovals, triangles, shield-shapes and other patterns are also known. The design generally comprised a graphic emblem (sometimes, but not always, incorporating heraldic devices), surrounded by a text (the legend) running around the perimeter. The legend most often consisted merely of the words \"The seal of [the name of the owner]\", either in Latin or in the local vernacular language: the Latin word Sigillum was frequently abbreviated to a simple S:. Occasionally, the legend took the form of a motto.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages it became customary for the seals of women and of ecclesiastics to be given a vesica (pointed oval) shape. The central emblem was often a standing figure of the owner, or (in the case of ecclesiastical seals) of a saint. Medieval townspeople used a wide variety of different emblems but some had seals that included an image relating to their work.",
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"plaintext": "Sealing wax was naturally yellowish or pale brownish in tone, but could also be artificially colored red or green (with many intermediary variations). In some medieval royal chanceries, different colours of wax were customarily used for different functions or departments of state, or to distinguish grants and decrees made in perpetuity from more ephemeral documents.",
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"plaintext": "The matrices for pendent seals were sometimes accompanied by a smaller counter-seal, which would be used to impress a small emblem on the reverse of the impression. In some cases the seal and counter-seal would be kept by two different individuals, in order to provide an element of double-checking to the process of authentication. Sometimes, a large official seal, which might be in the custody of chancery officials, would need to be counter-sealed by the individual in whose name it had been applied (the monarch, or the mayor of a town): such a counter-seal might be carried on the person (perhaps secured by a chain or cord), or later, take the form of a signet ring, and so would be necessarily smaller. Other pendent seals were double-sided, with elaborate and equally-sized obverses and reverses. The impression would be formed by pressing a \"sandwich\" of matrices and wax firmly together by means of rollers or, later, a lever-press or a screw press. Certain medieval seals were more complex still, involving two levels of impression on each side of the wax which would be used to create a scene of three-dimensional depth.",
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"plaintext": "On the death of a seal-holder, as a sign of continuity, a son and heir might commission a new seal employing the same symbols and design-elements as those used by his father. It is likely that this practice was a factor in the emergence of hereditary heraldry in western Europe in the 12th century.",
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"plaintext": "Ecclesiastical seals are frequently mandorla-shaped, as in the shape of an almond, also known as vesica-shaped. The use of a seal by men of wealth and position was common before the Christian era, but high functionaries of the Church adopted the habit. ",
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"plaintext": "An incidental allusion in one of St. Augustine's letters (217 to Victorinus) indicates that he used a seal. The practice spread, and it seems to be taken for granted by King Clovis I at the very beginning of the Merovingian dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "Later ecclesiastical synods require that letters under the bishop's seal should be given to priests when for some reason they lawfully quit their own proper diocese. Such a ruling was enacted at Chalon-sur-Saône in 813. Pope Nicholas I in the same century complained that the bishops of Dôle and Reims had, \"contra morem\" (contrary to custom), sent their letters to him unsealed. The custom of bishops possessing seals may from this date be assumed to have been pretty general.",
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"plaintext": "In the British Museum collection the earliest bishop's seals preserved are those of William de St-Calais, Bishop of Durham (1081–96) and of St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109).",
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"plaintext": "Seals are also affixed on architectural or engineering construction documents, or land survey drawings, to certify the identity of the licensed professional who supervised the development. Depending on the authority having jurisdiction for the project, these seals may be embossed and signed, stamped and signed, or in certain situations a computer generated facsimile of the original seal validated by a digital certificate owned by the professional may be attached to a security protected computer file. The identities on the professional seals determine legal responsibility for any errors or omissions, and in some cases financial responsibility for their correction as well as the territory of their responsibility, e.g.: \"State of Minnesota\".",
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"plaintext": "In some jurisdictions, especially in Canada, it is a legal requirement for a professional engineer to seal documents in accordance with the Engineering Profession Act and Regulations. Professional engineers may also be legally entitled to seal any document they prepare. The seal identifies work performed by, or under the direct supervision of, a licensed professional engineer, and assures the document's recipient that the work meets the standards expected of experienced professionals who take personal responsibility for their judgments and decisions.",
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"plaintext": "The importance of the seal as a means of authentication necessitated that when authority passed into new hands the old seal should be destroyed and a new one made. When the pope dies it is the first duty of the Cardinal Camerlengo to obtain possession of the Ring of the Fisherman, the papal signet, and to see that it is broken up. A similar practice prevailed in the Middle Ages and it is often alluded to by historians, as it seems to have been a matter of some ceremony. For example, on the death of Robert of Holy Island, Bishop of Durham, in 1283, the chronicler Robert Greystones reports: \"After his burial, his seal was publicly broken up in the presence of all by Master Robert Avenel.\" Matthew Paris gives a similar description of the breaking of the seal of William of Trumpington, Abbot of St Albans, in 1235.",
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"plaintext": "The practice is less widely attested in the case of medieval laypeople, but certainly occurred on occasion, particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries. Silver seal matrices have been found in the graves of some of the 12th-century queens of France. These were probably deliberately buried as a means of cancelling them.",
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"plaintext": "When King James II of England was dethroned in the Glorious Revolution of 1688/9, he is supposed to have thrown the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames before his flight to France in order to ensure that the machinery of government would cease to function. It is unclear how much truth there is to this story, but certainly the seal was recovered: James's successors, William III and Mary used the same Great Seal matrix, fairly crudely adapted – possibly quite deliberately, in order to demonstrate the continuity of government.",
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"plaintext": "A related practice of destruction is found among blacksmiths: their touchmark (a stamp used on the hot metal to show who made it) is destroyed upon their death.",
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"plaintext": "A signet ring is a ring bearing on its flat top surface the equivalent of a seal. A typical signet ring has a design, often a family or personal crest, created in intaglio so that it will leave a raised (relief) impression of the design when the ring is pressed onto liquid sealing wax. The design is often made out of agate, carnelian, or sardonyx which tend not to bind with the wax. Most smaller classical engraved gems were probably originally worn as signet rings, or as seals on a necklace.",
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"plaintext": "The wearing of signet rings (from Latin \"signum\" meaning \"sign\" or \"mark\") dates back to ancient Egypt: the seal of a pharaoh is mentioned in the Book of Genesis. Genesis 41:42: \"Removing his signet ring from his hand, Pharaoh put it on Joseph's hand; he arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain around his neck.\"",
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"plaintext": "Because it is used to attest to the authority of its bearer, the ring has also been seen as a symbol of power, which is why it is included in the regalia of certain monarchies. After the death of a Pope, the destruction of his signet ring is a prescribed act clearing the way for the sede vacante and subsequent election of a new Pope.",
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"plaintext": "Signet rings are also used as souvenir or membership attribute, e.g., class ring (typically bear the coat of arms or crest of the school), as an alternative to one with a stone. One may also have their initials engraved as a sign of their personal stature.",
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"plaintext": "The less noble classes began wearing and using signet rings as early as the 13th century. In the 17th century, signet rings fell out of favor in the upper levels of society, replaced by other means for mounting and carrying the signet. In the 18th century, though, signet rings again became popular, and by the 19th century, men of all classes wore them.",
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"plaintext": "Since at least the 16th century there have also been pseudo-signet rings where the engraving is not reversed (mirror image), as it should be if the impression is to read correctly.",
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"plaintext": "Rings have been used since antiquity as spy identification and in espionage. During World War II, US Air Force personnel would privately purchase signet rings with a hidden compartment that would hold small compass or hidden message. MI9 purchased a number of signet rings from Regent Street jewelers that were used to conceal compasses.",
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"plaintext": "In modern use, seals are used to tamper-proof equipment. For example, to prevent gas and electricity meters from being interfered with to show lower chargeable readings, they may be sealed with a lead or plastic seal with a government marking, typically fixed to a wire that passes through part of the meter housing. The meter cannot be opened without cutting the wire or damaging the seal.",
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"plaintext": "Specially-made tamper-evident labels are available which are destroyed if the protected container or equipment is opened, functionally equivalent to a wax seal. They are used to protect things which must not be tampered with such as pharmaceuticals, equipment whose opening voids a manufacturer's warranty, etc.",
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"plaintext": " Seal of the Confessional",
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"plaintext": " Record sealing",
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"plaintext": "The expression \"seal of approval\" refers to a formal approval, regardless whether it involves a seal or other external marking, by an authoritative person or institute.",
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"plaintext": "It is also part of the formal name of certain quality marks, such as:",
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"plaintext": " Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval of the Good Housekeeping Institute",
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"plaintext": " Good Netkeeping Seal of Approval",
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"plaintext": " Company seal",
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"plaintext": " Keeper of the seal",
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"plaintext": " King of Na gold seal, the first seal in Japan",
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"plaintext": " Knights Templar Seal used to validate documents approved by the order",
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"plaintext": " Manu propria",
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"plaintext": " Privy seal",
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"plaintext": " Accessible on Wikisource",
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"plaintext": " God's Regents on Earth: A Thousand Years of Byzantine Imperial Seals, from the Dumbarton Oaks Collection",
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"plaintext": " UK National Archives on seals",
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"plaintext": " Not All Online Authority Seals are Credible - Harvard's Ben Edelman says \"Suppose users have seen a seal on dozens of sites that turn out to be legitimate. Dubious sites can present that same seal to encourage more users to buy, register, or download.\"",
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"plaintext": " Signet ring article - Berganza, London: ",
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"plaintext": " (database of Byzantine Seal impressions from Prosopography of the Byzantine World project (PBW)",
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"plaintext": " Photographic reproductions of medieval seals in the Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden searchable via the verteillte Bildarchiv prometheus",
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] | [
"Authentication_methods",
"Seals_(insignia)",
"Rings_(jewellery)"
] | 162,919 | 10,964 | 1,054 | 146 | 0 | 0 | seal | mark of a personal distinctive emblem intended to guarantee the authenticity of the author of a document onto which it is printed, embossed or affixed | [] |
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"plaintext": "Saxony-Anhalt ( ; ) is a state of Germany, bordering the states of Brandenburg, Saxony, Thuringia and Lower Saxony. It covers an area of ",
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"plaintext": "Saxony-Anhalt is one of 16 constituent states of Germany. It is located in the western part of eastern Germany. By size, it is the 8th largest state in Germany and by population, it is the 11th largest.",
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"plaintext": "The metropolitan area of Halle (Saale) forms an agglomeration with Leipzig in Saxony. This area is known for its highly developed chemical industry (the Chemiedreieck – chemical triangle), with major production plants at Leuna, Schkopau (Buna-Werke) and Bitterfeld. Finally, in the east, Dessau-Roßlau and Wittenberg are situated on the Elbe (as is the capital Magdeburg) in the Anhalt-Wittenberg region.",
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"plaintext": "The capital of Saxony-Anhalt is Magdeburg. It is the second-largest city in the state, closely after Halle (Saale). From 1994 to 2003, the state was divided into three regions (Regierungsbezirke), Dessau, Halle and Magdeburg and, below the regional level, 21 districts (Landkreise). Since 2004, however, this system has been replaced by 11 rural districts and three urban districts.",
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"plaintext": "The counties are:",
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"plaintext": " Altmarkkreis Salzwedel",
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"plaintext": " Anhalt-Bitterfeld",
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"plaintext": " Börde",
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"plaintext": " Burgenlandkreis",
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"plaintext": " Harz",
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"plaintext": " Jerichower Land",
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"plaintext": " Mansfeld-Südharz",
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"plaintext": " Saalekreis",
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"plaintext": " Salzlandkreis",
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"plaintext": " Stendal",
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"plaintext": " Wittenberg",
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"plaintext": "The independent cities are:",
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"plaintext": " Dessau-Roßlau",
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"plaintext": "Saxony-Anhalt is a federal state with a relatively short history, if compared to other German federal states. It was formed in 1945 out of former Prussian territories and mainly consists of three distinct historical regions: the area around Magdeburg, the formerly independent Anhalt and a southern part which once was part of Saxony but had been annexed by Prussia in the 19th century. This historical origin can still be seen in the coat of arms of the federal state.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1945 the US Army took control of most of the western and northern area of the future Saxony-Anhalt. The U.S. Group Control Council, Germany (a precursor of the OMGUS) appointed the first non-Nazi officials in leading positions in the area. Erhard Hübener, put on leave by the Nazis, was reappointed Landeshauptmann (state governor). By early July the US Army withdrew from the former Prussian Province of Saxony to make way for the Red Army to take it as part of the Soviet occupation zone, as agreed by the London Protocol in 1944.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 July the Soviet SVAG ordered the merger of the Free State of Anhalt, Halle-Merseburg, the governorate of Magdeburg (in its then borders), Allstedt (before Thuringia) and some Brunswickian eastern exclaves and salients (Calvörde and the eastern part of the former Blankenburg district) with the Province of Saxony. The previously Saxon Erfurt governorate had become a part of Thuringia.",
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"plaintext": "Anhalt takes its name from Anhalt Castle near Harzgerode; the origin of the name of the castle remains unknown. Anhalt was once an independent German federal state dating back for centuries.",
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"plaintext": "The SVAG appointed Hübener as president of the provincial Saxon administration, a newly created function. The administration was seated in Halle an der Saale, which became the capital, also of later Saxony-Anhalt until 1952. On 3 September 1945 the new administration enacted by Soviet-inspired ordinance the mass expropriations, mostly hitting holders of large real estates, often of noble descent.",
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"plaintext": "On the occasion of the first (and one and only) election in the Soviet zone, allowing parties truly to compete for seats in provincial and state parliaments, on 20 October 1946, the Province of Saxony was renamed as the Province of Saxony-Anhalt (), taking the prior merger into account. On 3 December 1946 the members of the new provincial parliament elected Hübener the first minister-president of Saxony-Anhalt with the votes of CDU and Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDPD). Thus he became the only governor in the Soviet zone, who was not a member of the communist Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). He was an inconvenient governor for the Soviet rulers.",
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"plaintext": "After the official Allied decision to dissolve the Free State of Prussia, which had remained in limbo since the Prussian coup of 1932, its former provinces, in as far as they still existed, achieved statehood, thus the province emerged into the State of Saxony-Anhalt on 6 October 1947. It became part of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in 1949. From 1952 on the East German states were dissolved, and Saxony-Anhalt's territory was divided into the East German districts of Halle and Magdeburg, except that the territory around Torgau was assigned to Leipzig. In 1990, in the course of German reunification, the districts were reintegrated as a state. But, territory around Torgau did not return to the state and joined Saxony. Now, Torgau is the centre of Nordsachsen district (since 2008).",
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"plaintext": "In 2015 the skeletal remains of an ancient inhabitant of Karsdorf dated from the Early Neolithic (7200 BP) were analysed; he turned out to belong to the paternal T1a-M70 lineage and maternal lineage H1.",
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"plaintext": "Since German reunification, there has been a continuous downward trend in the population of Saxony-Anhalt. This is partly due to outward migration and partly because the death rate exceeds the birth rate. Although the birth rate has been steady since 1994, the net reproduction rate is only approximately 70%. However, the total fertility rate reached 1.50 in 2014, the highest value since 1990.",
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"plaintext": "The region has historically been associated with the Lutheran faith, but under Communist rule, church membership was strongly discouraged and much of the population disassociated itself from any religious body. Saxony-Anhalt contains many sites tied to Martin Luther's life, including Lutherstadt Eisleben and Lutherstadt Wittenberg.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the majority of citizens in Saxony-Anhalt were irreligious and more were leaving the churches than entering them – in fact, Saxony-Anhalt is the most irreligious state in Germany. 15.2% of the Saxon-Anhaltish adhered to the major denominations of Christianity (11.9% were members of the Evangelical Church in Germany and 3.3% were Catholics), 2% were members of other religions (mostly Islam, Judaism, the New Apostolic Church and Mandeism). 82.8% of the citizens of Saxony-Anhalt were religiously unaffiliated. As of July 2019 there were 1,892 Jehovah's Witnesses (publishers) in Sachsen-Anhalt. Originally their branch office for Germany was in Magdeburg. When World War II ended in 1945, the property in Magdeburg, then part of East Germany, was returned and the branch was reestablished. But on 30 August 1950 Communist police stormed the facilities and arrested the workers, and the Jehovah's Witnesses in the German Democratic Republic (DDR) were banned.",
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"plaintext": "The percentage of foreigners in Saxony-Anhalt was 4.9 percent by 31 December 2018, the third lowest among the 16 states of Germany (together with Saxony and Thuringia).",
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"plaintext": "The largest foreign resident groups by 31 December 2019 were:",
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"plaintext": "Minister-president Reiner Haseloff (CDU) retained his position in a coalition with former partner SPD and newly the FDP. Before the election the coalition had consisted of the CDU, SPD and Greens.",
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"plaintext": "The gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 62.7 billion euros in 2018, which accounts for 1.9% of Germany's total economic output and ranks 13th among the 16 German states. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,000 euros or 86% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 88% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the second lowest of all German states.",
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"plaintext": "Saxony-Anhalt was part of the communist German Democratic Republic. After the breakdown of communism and the German reunification in 1990, the collapse of non-competitive former GDR industries temporarily caused severe economic problems. In 2000, Saxony-Anhalt had the highest unemployment rate of all German states, at 20.2%.",
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"plaintext": "However, the process of economic transformation towards a modern market economy seems to be completed. Massive investments in modern infrastructure have taken place since 1990, and the remaining and newly created businesses are highly competitive. For example, the industry has doubled its share of international revenue from 13 percent in 1995 to 26 percent in 2008. Meanwhile, the unemployment rate has fallen considerably. By 2010 the GDP of Saxony-Anhalt was almost two and a half times higher than it was in 1991.",
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"plaintext": "Even though part of this recovery was induced by the quite good performance of the Germany economy, Saxony-Anhalt did not only follow the national trend, but clearly outperformed other German states. For example, it got ahead of three German states in terms of unemployment (10.8%, as of September 2011): the German capital and city-state of Berlin (12.7%), the city-state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (11.3%) and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (11%).",
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"plaintext": "The unemployment began to fall under 10% in 2016 and stood at 7.1% in October 2018.",
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"plaintext": " The chemical industry is quite important, with almost 25,500 employees across 214 plants in 2010. One of the biggest chemical producing areas can be found around the city of Bitterfeld-Wolfen. Because of the chemical industry, Saxony-Anhalt attracts more foreign direct investments than any other state in eastern Germany.",
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"plaintext": " The state is the location of numerous wind farms producing wind-turbine energy.",
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"plaintext": " Saxony-Anhalt is also famous for its good soil. Hence, the food industry has an important role with almost 19,500 employees across 190 plants in 2010. Some of the best known products are Baumkuchen from Salzwedel and Halloren chocolate globes from Germany's oldest chocolate factory in Halle.",
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"plaintext": "Saxony-Anhalt has seven World Heritage Sites, the highest number of all states in Germany.",
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"plaintext": " Lied für Sachsen-Anhalt (\"Song for Saxony-Anhalt\")",
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"plaintext": "Many technologies are available for wide area network links. Examples include circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission, and optical fiber. New developments have successively increased transmission rates. In ca. 1960, a line was normal on the edge of the WAN, while core links of 56 or 64kbit/s were considered fast. Today, households are connected to the Internet with dial-up, asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable, WiMAX, cellular network or fiber. The speeds that people can currently use range from 28.8kbit/s through a 28K modem over a telephone connection to speeds as high as 100Gbit/s using 100 Gigabit Ethernet.",
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"plaintext": "AT&T conducted trials in 2017 for business use of 400-gigabit Ethernet. Researchers Robert Maher, Alex Alvarado, Domaniç Lavery, and Polina Bayvel of University College London were able to increase networking speeds to 1.125 terabits per second. Christos Santis, graduate student Scott Steger, Amnon Yariv, Martin and Eileen Summerfield developed a new laser that potentially quadruples transfer speeds with fiber optics.",
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38,144 | 1,092,872,707 | Milford_H._Wolpoff | [
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"plaintext": "Milford Howell Wolpoff is a paleoanthropologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan and its museum of Anthropology. He is the leading proponent of the multiregional evolution hypothesis that explains the evolution of Homo sapiens as a consequence of evolutionary processes and gene flow across continents within a single species. Wolpoff authored the widely-used textbook Paleoanthropology (1980 and 1999 eds.), and co-authored Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal Attraction, which reviews the scientific evidence and conflicting theories about the interpretation of human evolution, and biological anthropology's relationship to views about race.",
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"plaintext": "Wolpoff was born in 1942 to Ruth (Silver) and Ben Wolpoff, in Chicago. He received an A.B. in 1964 with a major in anthropology and a minor in mathematics, and a Ph.D. in 1969 in physical anthropology, with minors in zoology and archaeology, from the University of Illinois in Urbana, Illinois. His research advisor and intellectual mentor was Eugene Giles. He joined the faculty of the University of Michigan in 1971, and became a professor of anthropology in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Wolpoff was trained primarily as a paleoanthropologist at the University of Illinois under Eugene Giles. With his multidisciplinary training, he brings to the study of the human and non-human primate fossil record a background that combines evolutionary theory, population genetics, and biomechanics. With over 50 grants funded by the National Science Foundation, National Academy of Sciences, and the University of Michigan, Wolpoff has visited the museums where human and primate fossils are stored and has studied in detail and at length all the materials addressing the fossil evidence for human evolution across Europe, Asia, and Africa. His research foci have included the evolution and fate of the European Neandertals, the role of culture in early hominid evolution, the nature and explanation of allometry, robust australopithecine evolution, the distribution and explanation of sexual dimorphism, hominid origins, the pattern and explanation of Australasian hominid evolution, the contributions and role of genetics in paleoanthropological research, and the taxonomy of the genus Homo. In addition, he is a primary describer of many hominid fossil remains. Since 1976 Wolpoff has graduated more than 20 Ph.D students. ",
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"plaintext": "Drawing on this background and research experience, Wolpoff's continuing research in the last 15 years has been the development, articulation, and defense of his multiregional model of human evolution. He suggests that after an African origin of Homo sapiens (including Homo ergaster/Homo erectus) and the subsequent migration of H. erectus throughout much of the globe (Africa, Europe, Asia), local evolutionary events took place, and when they were advantageous, they spread everywhere else. According to Wolpoff, populations of Homo evolved together as a single species. Change in Pleistocene populations did not involve speciation (the splitting of one species into two): all this time, the geographically distinct populations maintained small amounts of gene flow. This idea directly challenges the Out of Africa model, which claims Homo sapiens evolved recently as a new species in Africa, and then dispersed throughout the Old World, replacing the existing human populations without mixing with them.",
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"plaintext": "His theory evoked rivalry with the proponents of punctuated equilibrium, Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge, who endorsed H. erectus as a model of their theory. In an earlier example of punctuated evolution preceding the global diffusion of Homo sapiens genes from Africa, some two million years ago, Wolpoff points to evidence of an earlier 'genetic revolution' that took place in a small group isolated from australopithecine forebears. \"The earliest H. sapiens remains differ significantly from australopithecines in both size and anatomical details,\" he notes, \"Insofar as we can tell, these changes were sudden and not gradual.\"",
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"plaintext": "Wolpoff is a member of many anthropological organizations, and is an Honorary Life Member of the Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (in 2001) and Fellow of the American Anthropological Association. Some notable awards are",
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"plaintext": "Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger Award at the Krapina 1899–1999 Conference, presented by the Croatian Natural History Museum",
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"plaintext": "1971 Metric Trends in Hominid Dental Evolution. Case Western Reserve Studies in Anthropology 2. Case Western Reserve University Press, Cleveland; 244 pp.",
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"plaintext": "1976 William R. Farrand, Richard W. Redding, Milford H. Wolpoff, and Henry T. Wright, III). An Archaeological Investigation on the Loboi Plain, Baringo District, Kenya. Museum of Anthropology, The University of Michigan Technical Reports Number 4, Research Reports in Archaeology, Contribution 1, Ann Arbor.",
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"plaintext": "1988 Jakov Radovčić, Fred H. Smith, Erik Trinkaus, and Milford H. Wolpoff . The Krapina Hominids: An Illustrated Catalog of the Skeletal Collection. Mladost Press and the Croatian Natural History Museum, Zagreb.",
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"plaintext": "1994 Paleoanthropology. Preliminary publication of the 2nd edition. College Custom Series, McGraw-Hill, New York. ",
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"plaintext": "1995 Human Evolution. 1996 edition. College Custom Series, McGraw-Hill, New York. ",
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"plaintext": "1996 Human Evolution. 1996-1997 edition. College Custom Series, McGraw-Hill, New York. ",
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"plaintext": "1997 Milford H. Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari: Race and Human Evolution. Simon and Schuster, New York. . Published in paperback in 1998 by Westview press . A Canadian National Institute for the Blind talking book RC18623 (4 cassettes, narrated by Roy Avers). ",
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"plaintext": "1999\tPaleoanthropology. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. . Reviewed by A. Bilsborough (2001) Clash of the Titans. Journal of Human Evolution 41:701-709.",
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"plaintext": "His work with Rachel Caspari, Race and Human Evolution earned them the W.W. Howells Book Prize in 1999. Besides these, he has published 5 other books, 160 papers, and 22 book reviews, ",
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"plaintext": "General Leslie Groves wanted a central laboratory at an isolated location for safety, and to keep the scientists away from the populace. It should be at least 200 miles from international boundaries and west of the Mississippi. Major John Dudley suggested Oak City, Utah or Jemez Springs, New Mexico but both were rejected. Jemez Springs was only a short distance from the current site. Project Y director J. Robert Oppenheimer had spent much time in his youth in the New Mexico area, and suggested the Los Alamos Ranch School on the mesa. Dudley had rejected the school as not meeting Groves’ criteria, but as soon as Groves saw it he said in effect \"This is the place\". Oppenheimer became the laboratory's first director.",
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"plaintext": "During the Manhattan Project, Los Alamos hosted thousands of employees, including many Nobel Prize-winning scientists. The location was a total secret. Its only mailing address was a post office box, number 1663, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Eventually two other post office boxes were used, 180 and 1539, also in Santa Fe. Though its contract with the University of California was initially intended to be temporary, the relationship was maintained long after the war. Until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, University of California president Robert Sproul did not know what the purpose of the laboratory was and thought it might be producing a \"death ray\". The only member of the UC administration who knew its true purpose—indeed, the only one who knew its exact physical location—was the Secretary-Treasurer Robert Underhill, who was in charge of wartime contracts and liabilities.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the Cold War, both labs went through a process of intense scientific diversification in their research programs to adapt to the changing political conditions that no longer required as much research towards developing new nuclear weapons and has led the lab to increase research for \"non-war\" science and technology. Los Alamos' nuclear work is currently thought to relate primarily to computer simulations and stockpile stewardship. The development of the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility will allow complex simulations of nuclear tests to take place without full explosive yields.",
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"plaintext": "Non-nuclear national security and defense development is also a priority at the lab. This includes preventing outbreaks of deadly diseases by improving detection tools and the monitoring the effectiveness of the United States’ vaccine distribution infrastructure. Additional advancements include the ASPECT airplane that can detect bio threats from the sky.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, development for a safer, more comfortable and accurate test for breast cancer was ongoing by scientists Lianjie Huang and Kenneth M. Hanson and collaborators. The new technique, called ultrasound-computed tomography (ultrasound CT), uses sound waves to accurately detect small tumors that traditional mammography cannot.",
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"plaintext": "The laboratory has attracted negative publicity from a number of events. In 1999, Los Alamos scientist Wen Ho Lee was accused of 59 counts of mishandling classified information by downloading nuclear secrets—\"weapons codes\" used for computer simulations of nuclear weapons tests—to data tapes and removing them from the lab. After ten months in jail, Lee pleaded guilty to a single count and the other 58 were dismissed with an apology from U.S. District Judge James Parker for his incarceration. Lee had been suspected for having shared U.S. nuclear secrets with China, but investigators were never able to establish what Lee did with the downloaded data. In 2000, two computer hard drives containing classified data were announced to have gone missing from a secure area within the laboratory, but were later found behind a photocopier. The year 2000 brought additional hardship for the laboratory in the form of the Cerro Grande Fire, a severe forest fire that destroyed several buildings (and employees' homes) and forced the laboratory to close for two weeks. In 2003, the laboratory's director (John Browne) and deputy director resigned following accusations that they had improperly dismissed two whistleblowers who had alleged widespread theft at the lab.",
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"plaintext": " Materials for the Future seeks to optimize materials for national security applications by predicting and controlling their performance and functionality through discovery science and engineering.",
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"plaintext": " Science of Signatures (SoS) applies science and technology to intransigent problems of system identification and characterization in areas of global security, nuclear defense, energy, and health.",
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"plaintext": " The Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies: The Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies is a DOE/Office of Science National User Facility operated jointly by Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories with facilities at both Laboratories. CINT is dedicated to establishing the scientific principles that govern the design, performance, and integration of nanoscale materials into microscale and macroscale systems and devices.",
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"plaintext": " Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE): The Los Alamos Neutron Science Center is one of the world's most powerful linear accelerators. LANSCE provides the scientific community with intense sources of neutrons with the capability of performing experiments supporting civilian and national security research. This facility is sponsored by the Department of Energy, the National Nuclear Security Administration, Office of Science and Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology.",
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"plaintext": "Continuing efforts to make the laboratory more efficient led the Department of Energy to open its contract with the University of California to bids from other vendors in 2003. Though the university and the laboratory had difficult relations many times since their first World War II contract, this was the first time that the university ever had to compete for management of the laboratory. The University of California decided to create a private company with the Bechtel Corporation, Washington Group International, and the BWX Technologies to bid on the contract to operate the laboratory. The UC/Bechtel led corporation—Los Alamos National Security, LLC (LANS)—was pitted against a team formed by the University of Texas System partnered with Lockheed-Martin. In December 2005, the Department of Energy announced that LANS had won the next seven-year contract to manage and operate the laboratory.",
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"plaintext": "With support of the National Science Foundation, LANL operates one of the three National High Magnetic Field Laboratories in conjunction with and located at two other sites Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida, and University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1999, The Los Alamos National Laboratory hosted the arXiv e-print archive. The arXiv is currently operated and funded by Cornell University.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s, the prospect of fusion power was strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. A tokamak called ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin. After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants.",
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"plaintext": "ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station after the accident in 1979.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1972, Peter Mazur, a biologist at ORNL, froze with liquid nitrogen, thawed and implanted mouse embryos in a surrogate mother. The mouse pups were born healthy. The technique is popular in the livestock industry, as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus, through in vitro fertilisation, have many more offspring than would naturally be possible.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977 construction began for 6metre (20foot) superconducting electromagnets, intended to control fusion reactions. The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one in Switzerland and the final by remaining European states. Experimentation continued into the 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL: a focus on efficiency became paramount.",
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"plaintext": "An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time. Materials research into heat resistant ceramics for use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s. In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regarding Reagan's economic policy of less government expenditure.",
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"plaintext": "The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes had contaminated the groundwater beneath the lab, and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full of waste. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.",
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"plaintext": "The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989 the former executive officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Alvin Trivelpiece, became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, a whistleblower, Charles Varnadore, filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, the Secretary of Labor, Robert Reich, overturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractor Martin Marietta cited for safety violations, and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2019 ORNL announced a major breakthrough in its capacity to automate Pu-238 production which helped push annual production from 50 grams to 400 grams, moving closer to NASA's goal of 1.5 kilograms per year by 2025 in order to sustain its space exploration programs.",
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"plaintext": "ORNL conducts research and development activities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly below.",
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"plaintext": " Chemical sciences – ORNL conducts both fundamental and applied research in a number of areas, including catalysis, surface science and interfacial chemistry; molecular transformations and fuel chemistry; heavy element chemistry and radioactive materials characterization; aqueous solution chemistry and geochemistry; mass spectrometry and laser spectroscopy; separations chemistry; materials chemistry including synthesis and characterization of polymers and other soft materials; chemical biosciences; and neutron science.",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear medicine – The laboratory's nuclear medicine research is focused on the development of improved reactor production and processing methods to provide medical radioisotopes, the development of new radionuclide generator systems, the design and evaluation of new radiopharmaceuticals for applications in nuclear medicine and oncology.",
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"plaintext": " Physics – Physics research at ORNL is focused primarily on studies of the fundamental properties of matter at the atomic, nuclear, and subnuclear levels and the development of experimental devices in support of these studies.",
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"plaintext": "The Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program (EEETP) aims to improve air quality in the US and reduce dependence on foreign oil supplies. There are three key areas of research; electricity, manufacturing and mobility. The electricity division focuses on reducing electricity consumption and finding alternative sources for production. Buildings, which account for 39% of US electricity consumption as of 2012, are a key area of research as the program aims to create affordable, carbon-neutral homes by 2020. Research also takes place into higher efficiency solar panels, geothermal electricity and heating, lower cost wind generators and the economic and environmental feasibility of potential hydro power plants.",
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"plaintext": "Oak Ridge National Laboratory's biological research covers genomics, computational biology, structural biology and bioinformatics. The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of the biofuel process to improve the energy security of the United States. The program aims to make genetic improvements to the potential biomass used, formulate methods for refineries that can accept a diverse range of fuels and to improve the efficiency of energy delivery both to power plants and end users.",
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38,149 | 1,094,894,966 | Der_fliegende_Holländer | [
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"plaintext": " (The Flying Dutchman), WWV 63, is a German-language opera, with libretto and music by Richard Wagner. The central theme is redemption through love. Wagner conducted the premiere at the Königliches Hoftheater Dresden in 1843. ",
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"plaintext": "Wagner claimed in his 1870 autobiography Mein Leben that he had been inspired to write the opera following a stormy sea crossing he made from Riga to London in July and August 1839. In his 1843 Autobiographic Sketch, Wagner acknowledged he had taken the story from Heinrich Heine's retelling of the legend in his 1833 satirical novel The Memoirs of Mister von Schnabelewopski (Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski).",
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"plaintext": "This work shows early attempts at operatic styles that would characterise his later music dramas. In Der fliegende Holländer Wagner uses a number of leitmotivs (literally, \"leading motifs\") associated with the characters and themes. The leitmotifs are all introduced in the overture, which begins with a well-known ocean or storm motif before moving into the Dutchman and Senta motifs.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner originally wrote the work to be performed without intermission an example of his efforts to break with tradition and, while today's opera houses sometimes still follow this directive, it is also performed in a three-act version.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of 1839, the 26-year-old Richard Wagner was employed as a conductor at the Court Theatre in Riga. His extravagant lifestyle plus the retirement from the stage of his actress wife, Minna Planer, caused him to run up huge debts that he was unable to repay. Wagner was writing Rienzi and hatched a plan to flee his creditors in Riga, escape to Paris via London and make his fortune by putting Rienzi on to the stage of the Paris Opéra. However, this plan quickly turned to disaster: his passport having been seized by the authorities on behalf of his creditors, he and Minna had to make a dangerous and illegal crossing over the Prussian border, during which Minna suffered a miscarriage. Boarding the ship Thetis, whose captain had agreed to take them without passports, their sea journey was hindered by storms and high seas. The ship at one point took refuge in the Norwegian fjords at Tvedestrand, and a trip that was expected to take eight days finally delivered Wagner to London three weeks after leaving Riga.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner's experience of Paris was also disastrous. He was unable to get work as a conductor, and the Opéra did not want to produce Rienzi. The Wagners were reduced to poverty, relying on handouts from friends and from the little income that Wagner could make writing articles on music and copying scores. Wagner hit on the idea of a one-act opera on the theme of the Flying Dutchman, which he hoped might be performed before a ballet at the Opéra.",
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"plaintext": "The voyage through the Norwegian reefs made a wonderful impression on my imagination; the legend of the Flying Dutchman, which the sailors verified, took on a distinctive, strange colouring that only my sea adventures could have given it.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner wrote the first prose draft of the story in Paris early in May 1840, basing the story on Heinrich Heine's satire \"The Memoirs of Mister von Schnabelewopski\" (\"Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski\") published in Der Salon in 1834. In Heine's tale, the narrator watches a performance of a fictitious stage play on the theme of the sea captain cursed to sail forever for blasphemy. Heine introduces the character as a Wandering Jew of the ocean, and also added the device taken up so vigorously by Wagner in this, and many subsequent operas: the Dutchman can only be redeemed by the love of a faithful woman. In Heine's version, this is presented as a means for ironic humour; however, Wagner took this theme literally and in his draft, the woman is faithful until death.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of May 1841 Wagner had completed the libretto or poem as he preferred to call it. Composition of the music had begun during May to July of the previous year, 1840, when Wagner wrote Senta's Ballad, the Norwegian Sailors' song in act 3 (\"\") and the subsequent Phantom song of the Dutchman's crew in the same scene. These were composed for an audition at the Paris Opéra, along with the sketch of the plot. Wagner actually sold the sketch to the Director of the Opéra, Léon Pillet, for 500 francs, but was unable to convince him that the music was worth anything. Wagner composed the rest of the Der fliegende Holländer during the summer of 1841, with the Overture being written last, and by November 1841 the orchestration of the score was complete. While this score was designed to be played continuously in a single act, Wagner later divided the piece into a three-act work. In doing so, however, he did not alter the music significantly, but merely interrupted transitions that had originally been crafted to flow seamlessly (the original one-act layout is restored in some performances).",
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"plaintext": "In his original draft Wagner set the action in Scotland, but he changed the location to Norway shortly before the first production staged in Dresden and conducted by himself in January 1843.",
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"plaintext": "In his essay \"A Communication to My Friends\" in 1851, Wagner claimed that The Dutchman represented a new start for him: \"From here begins my career as poet, and my farewell to the mere concoctor of opera-texts.\" Indeed, to this day the opera is the earliest of Wagner's works to be performed at the Bayreuth Festival, and, at least for that theatre, marks the start of the mature Wagner canon.",
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"plaintext": "Der fliegende Holländer is scored for the following instruments:",
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"plaintext": "on-stage",
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"plaintext": "3 piccolos, 6 horns, tam tam, wind machine",
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"plaintext": "Place: On the coast of Norway",
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"plaintext": "On his homeward journey, the sea captain Daland is compelled by stormy weather to seek a port of refuge near Sandwike in southern Norway. He leaves the helmsman on watch and he and the sailors retire. (Song of the helmsman: \"\"– \"With tempest and storm on distant seas.\") The helmsman falls asleep. A ghostly vessel appearing astern is dashed against Daland's vessel by the sea and the grappling irons hold the two ships together. Invisible hands furl the sails. A man of pale aspect, dressed in black, his face framed by a thick black beard, steps ashore. He laments his fate. (Aria: \"\"– \"The time has come and seven years have again elapsed\") Because he once invoked Satan, the ghost captain is cursed to roam the sea forever without rest. An angel brought to him the terms of his redemption: Every seven years the waves will cast him upon the shore; if he can find a wife who will be true to him he will be released from his curse.",
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"plaintext": "Daland wakes up and meets the stranger. The stranger hears that Daland has an unmarried daughter named Senta, and he asks for her hand in marriage, offering a chest of treasure as a gift. Tempted by gold, Daland agrees to the marriage. The southwind blows and both vessels set sail for Daland's home.",
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"plaintext": "A group of local girls are singing and spinning in Daland's house. (Spinning chorus: \"– \"Whir and whirl, good wheel\") Senta, Daland's daughter, dreamily gazes upon a gorgeous picture of the legendary Dutchman that hangs from the wall; she desires to save him. Against the will of her nurse, she sings to her friends the story of the Dutchman (Ballad with the Leitmotiv), how Satan heard him swear and took him at his word. She vows to save him by her fidelity.",
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"plaintext": "Daland arrives with the stranger; he and Senta stand gazing at each other in silence. Daland is scarcely noticed by his daughter, even when he presents his guest as her betrothed. In the following duet, which closes the act, Senta swears to be true till death.",
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"plaintext": "Senta arrives, followed by Erik, who reproves her for deserting him, as she had formerly loved him and vowed constancy. When the stranger, who has been listening, hears these words, he is overwhelmed with despair, as he thinks he is now forever lost. He summons his men, tells Senta of the curse, and to the consternation of Daland and his crew declares that he is \"Der fliegende Holländer.\"",
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"plaintext": " – Opera portrait Der fliegende Holländer. Free online opera guide www.opera-inside.com",
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"plaintext": "The most popular and recognizable part of the opera is the Bridal Chorus, colloquially known in English-speaking countries as \"Here Comes the Bride,\" usually played as a processional at weddings. The orchestral preludes to Acts I and III are also frequently performed separately as concert pieces.",
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"plaintext": "The literary figure of Lohengrin first appeared as a supporting character in the final chapter of the medieval epic poem Parzival of Wolfram von Eschenbach. The Grail Knight Lohengrin, son of the Grail King Parzival, is sent to the duchess of Brabant to defend her. His protection comes under the condition that she must never ask his name. If she violates this requirement, he will be forced to leave her. Wagner took up these characters and set the \"forbidden question\" theme at the core of a story which makes contrasts between the godly and the mundane, and between Early Middle Age Christendom and Germanic paganism. Wagner attempted at the same time to weave elements of Greek tragedy into the plot. He wrote the following in Mitteilungen an meine Freunde about his Lohengrin plans:Who doesn't know \"Zeus and Semele\"? The god is in love with a human woman and approaches her in human form. The lover finds that she cannot recognize the god in this form, and demands that he should make the real sensual form of his being known. Zeus knows that she would be destroyed by the sight of his real self. He suffers in this awareness, suffers knowing that he must fulfill this demand and in doing so ruin their love. He will seal his own doom when the gleam of his godly form destroys his lover. Is the man who craves for God not destroyed?",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin was written and composed between 1845 and 1848 when Wagner worked as Kapellmeister at the Royal Dresden court. The opera's genesis, however, starts some years earlier when Wagner was living and working in Paris. By late 1841, Wagner had conceived a five-act historical opera based on the Hohenstaufen dynasty entitled Die Sarazenin (The Saracen Woman) and, although he lavished on it all the trappings of Grand Opera, his attention was soon distracted by a Volksbuch that he obtained through his friendship with the philologist Samuel Lehrs. The book in question was Ludwig Bechstein's 1835 anthology of legends Der Sagenschatz und die Sagenkreise des Thüringerlandes. As well as being the means by which Wagner first became aware of the Lohengrin legend, the anthology also retold the tale of Tannhäuser.",
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"plaintext": "Seeking a more authentic picture of the Tannhäuser legend, Lehrs then provided Wagner with the annual proceedings of the Königsberg Germanic Society which not only included C.T.L. Lucas's critical study of the \"Wartburg war\" but also included a piece of criticism about the poem Lohengrin, together with a lengthy narrative of the rambling epic's principal content. Thus, Wagner admits, with one blow a whole new world was opened to him, and although unable to find the form to master the material for his own dramatic purpose, he could clearly visualize Lohengrin and it remained as an inextinguishable image within him.",
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"plaintext": "Stewart Spencer neither regards the abandonment of the Hohenstaufen projects during the 1840s at this time nor, more specifically, in the musical and formal dissimilarities between Rienzi and Der fliegende Holländer as symptomatic of a fundamental turn from history towards myth. Instead Spencer argues that Wagner did not draw any fundamental distinction between history and myth, and that Wagner's response to myth is dynamic and dialectical. History per se might be arid and reductive but it contained within it the potential for a categorical interpretation allowing Wagner to make use of Leopold August Warnkönig's (1835–42), three volume Flandrische Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte bis zum Jahr 1305 to be mined for an accurate evocation of tenth century Brabant. It would be nearly four years before Wagner's image of Lohengrin would again manifest itself to his creative imagination.",
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"plaintext": "Writing retrospectively in his extremely readable 1865 biography (even if its royal patronage diminishes its reliability), Wagner tells the story of how Lohengrin'''s libretto was written. In the summer of 1845 Wagner with his wife Minna planned their annual hydrotherapeutic visit to Marienbad. Putting his work as Kapellmeister at the Royal Dresden court out of his mind, Wagner's intention was to abandon himself to a life of the utmost leisure, and he had chosen his summer reading with care: the poems of Wolfram von Eschenbach, and the anonymous epic of Lohengrin with an introduction by Joseph von Görres. His plan to lie beside a brook communing with Titurel and Parzival didn't last long and the longing to create was overpowering:",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin stood suddenly revealed before me in full armor at the center of a comprehensive dramatic adaptation of the whole material. ... I struggled manfully against the temptation to set down the plan on paper. But I was fooling myself: no sooner had I stepped into the noonday bath than I was seized by such desire to write Lohengrin that, incapable of lingering in the bath for the prescribed hour, I leapt out after only a few minutes, scarcely took the time to clothe myself again properly, and ran like a madman to my quarters to put what was obsessing me on paper. This went on for several days, until the entire dramatic plan for Lohengrin had been set down in full detail.",
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"plaintext": "By 3 August 1845 he had worked out the prose draft. Wagner, with his head in a whirl, wrote to his brother, Albert, the following day, 4 August 1845:",
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"plaintext": "...it was in this frame of mind yesterday that I finished writing out a very full & detailed scenario for Lohengrin; I am delighted with the result, indeed I freely admit that it fills me with a feeling of proud contentment. ... the more familiar I have become with my new subject & the more profoundly I have grasped its central idea, the more it has dawned upon me how rich & luxurious the seed of this new idea is, a seed which has grown into so full & burgeoning a flower that I feel happy indeed. ...In creating this work, my powers of invention & sense of formal structure have played their biggest part to date: the medieval poem which has preserved this highly poetical legend contains the most inadequate & pedestrian account to have come down to us, and I feel very fortunate to have satisfied my desire to rescue what by now is an almost unrecognizable legend from the rubble & decay to which the medieval poet has reduced the poem as a result of his inferior & prosaic treatment of it, & to have restored it to its rich & highly poetical potential by dint of my own inventiveness & reworking of it. – But quite apart from all this, how felicitous a libretto it has turned out to be! Effective, attractive, impressive & affecting in all its parts! – Johanna]'s role in it (Albert's daughter – see illustration below) – which is very important & in point of fact the principal role in the work – is bound to turn out the most charming & most moving in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Between May and June 1846, Wagner made a through-composed draft for the whole work that consisted of only two staves: one for the voice, the other just indicating the harmonies. Coterminously, Wagner began work on a second draft of the poem, beginning with act 3. The complete draft of act 3 was completed before the second draft of acts 1 and 2. This has sometime led to the erroneous conclusion that the entire work was completed from the end to the front. On 9 September 1846 Wagner began to elaborate the instrumental and choral parts, which, along with the Prelude, was completed on 29 August 1847.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous changes to the poem, particularly act 3, took place during work on the second draft. At this time Wagner was still trying to clarify the precise nature of the tragedy, and the extent to which he needed to spell out the mechanics of the tragedy to the audience. On 30 May 1846 Wagner wrote to the journalist regarding the relationship between Lohengrin and Elsa. It is apparent from the letter that Wagner and Franck had been discussing Lohengrin for some time, and Wagner refers back to an earlier argument about the relationship between Lohengrin and Elsa, and in particular whether Elsa's punishment of separation from Lohengrin at the end of the opera is justifiable. Wagner uses the letter firstly to argue in favour of his version and secondly to expand upon the more general mythical structure underpinning the relationship between Lohengrin and Elsa – a theme he would publicly develop in his 1851 autobiographical essay A Communication To My Friends. Elsa's punishment, Wagner argues, cannot be chastisement or death but that her separation from Lohengrin: 'this idea of separation- which, if it were left out, would require a total transformation of the subject and probably allow no more than its most superficial externals to be retained'. Franck's concern appears to be that this particular punishment of separation will make the opera incapable 'of being dramatically effective in a unified way'. Wagner confesses that Franck's concerns have forced him to look objectively at the poem and to consider ways of making Lohengrin's involvement in the tragic outcome clearer than had previously been the case. To this end, Wagner decided not to alter act 1 or 2 but to write new lines in act 3:",
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"plaintext": "Later, in the same act, when Elsa calls on Lohengrin to punish her, the latter replies:",
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"plaintext": "Wagner asks Franck if he should explicitly mention the specific rule associated with the Grail which, although not expressly forbidding the Grail knights from committing such excesses, nevertheless, discourages them from acting in this way. Wagner's opinion is that it should be sufficient for the audience to deduce the Grail's advice. Readers of the libretto in English will note that in Amanda Holden's 1990 singing translation for the English National Opera, the Grail's advice is transformed into an explicit commandment, with Holden acknowledging, on her website, that translating a libretto is effectively writing a new one \"despite its compulsory faithfulness to the original\".",
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"plaintext": "Having completed the second complete draft of act 3 ten months later on 5 March 1847, Wagner returned to the beginning of act 1 and began work on the second draft of act 1 on 12 May and which was complete on 8 June 1847. The second complete draft of act 2 was started on 18 June and complete on 2 August 1847. In a letter to Ferdinand Heine dated 6 August 1847, Wagner announced that he had completed the Lohengrin opera:",
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"plaintext": "I feel pleased and happy as a result, since I am well satisfied with what I have done.",
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"plaintext": "As outlined to Heine, Wagner's plan was to build on the success of the premiere of Rienzi in Berlin on 24 October 1847 with a follow-up performance of Lohengrin. As it turned out Rienzi in Berlin was not a success and Lohengrin was not performed there until 1859.",
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"plaintext": "Composition of the full score began three months later on 1 January 1848, and by 28 April 1848 the composition of Lohengrin was complete. In September 1848 Wagner conducted excerpts from act 1 at a concert in Dresden to mark the 300th anniversary of the court orchestra (later Dresden Staatskapelle).",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin occupies an ambivalent position within Wagner's aesthetic oeuvre. Despite Wagner's ostensible rejection of French grand opéra, Lohengrin, like all Wagner's operas, and for that matter his later musikdramas, owes some debt to the form as practised by Auber, Halévy and, irrespective of what Wagner sets out in his prose writings, Meyerbeer. Lohengrin is also the last of Wagner's four \"Romantic\" operas, and continues with the associative style of tonality that he had previously developed in Tannhäuser. And Lohengrin is also the last of his composed works before his political exile, and despite the seventeen-year-long performance hiatus, Lohengrins musical style nevertheless anticipates Wagner's future leitmotif technique.",
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"plaintext": "The first production of Lohengrin was in Weimar, Germany, on 28 August 1850 at the Staatskapelle Weimar under the direction of Franz Liszt, a close friend and early supporter of Wagner. Liszt chose the date in honour of Weimar's most famous citizen, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who was born on 28 August 1749. Despite the inadequacies of the lead tenor Karl Beck, it was an immediate popular success.",
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"plaintext": "Wagner himself was unable to attend the first performance, having been exiled because of his part in the 1849 May Uprising in Dresden. Although he conducted various extracts in concert in Zurich, London, Paris and Brussels, it was not until 1861 in Vienna that he was able to attend a full performance.",
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"plaintext": "The opera's first performance outside German-speaking lands was in Riga on 5 February 1855. The Austrian premiere took place in Vienna at the Theater am Kärntnertor on 19 August 1858, with Róza Csillag as Ortrud. The work was produced in Munich for the first time at the National Theatre on 16 June 1867, with Heinrich Vogl in the title role and Mathilde Mallinger as Elsa. Mallinger also took the role of Elsa in the work's premiere at the Berlin State Opera on 6 April 1869.",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrins Russian premiere, outside Riga, took place at the Mariinsky Theatre on 16 October 1868.",
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"plaintext": "The Belgian premiere of the opera was given at La Monnaie on 22 March 1870 with Étienne Troy as Friedrich von Telramund and Feliciano Pons as Heinrich der Vogler.",
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"plaintext": "The United States premiere of Lohengrin took place at the Stadt Theater at the Bowery in New York City on 3 April 1871. Conducted by Adolf Neuendorff, the cast included Theodor Habelmann as Lohengrin, Luise Garay-Lichtmay as Elsa, Marie Frederici as Ortrud, Adolf Franosch as Heinrich and Edward Vierling as Telramund. The first performance in Italy took place seven months later at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna on 1 November 1871 in an Italian translation by operatic baritone . It was notably the first performance of any Wagner opera in Italy. Angelo Mariani conducted the performance, which starred Italo Campanini as Lohengrin, Bianca Blume as Elsa, Maria Löwe Destin as Ortrud, Pietro Silenzi as Telramund, and Giuseppe Galvani as Heinrich der Vogler. The performance on 9 November was attended by Giuseppe Verdi, who annotated a copy of the vocal score with his impressions and opinions of Wagner (this was almost certainly his first exposure to Wagner's music).",
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"plaintext": "La Scala produced the opera for the first time on 30 March 1873, with Campanini as Lohengrin, Gabrielle Krauss as Elsa, Philippine von Edelsberg as Ortrud, Victor Maurel as Friedrich, and Gian Pietro Milesi as Heinrich.",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom premiere of Lohengrin took place at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, on 8 May 1875 using the Italian translation by Marchesi. Auguste Vianesi conducted the performance, which featured Ernesto Nicolini as Lohengrin, Emma Albani as Elsa, Anna D'Angeri as Ortruda, Maurel as Friedrich, and Wladyslaw Seideman as Heinrich. The opera's first performance in Australia took place at the Prince of Wales Theatre in Melbourne on 18 August 1877. The Metropolitan Opera mounted the opera for the first time on 7 November 1883, in Italian, during the company's inaugural season. Campanini portrayed the title role with Christina Nilsson as Elsa, Emmy Fursch-Madi as Ortrud, Giuseppe Kaschmann as Telramund, Franco Novara as Heinrich, and Auguste Vianesi conducting.",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin was first publicly performed in France at the Eden-Théâtre in Paris on 30 April 1887 in a French translation by Charles-Louis-Étienne Nuitter. Conducted by Charles Lamoureux, the performance starred Ernest van Dyck as the title hero, Fidès Devriès as Elsa, Marthe Duvivier as Ortrud, Emil Blauwaert as Telramund, and Félix-Adolphe Couturier as Heinrich. There was however an 1881 French performance given as a Benefit, in the Cercle de la Méditerranée Salon at Nice, organized by Sophie Cruvelli, in which she took the role of Elsa. The opera received its Canadian premiere at the opera house in Vancouver on 9 February 1891 with Emma Juch as Elsa. The Palais Garnier staged the work for the first time the following 16 September with van Dyck as Lohengrin, Rose Caron as Elsa, Caroline Fiérens-Peters as Ortrud, Maurice Renaud as Telramund and Charles Douaillier as Heinrich.",
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"plaintext": "The first Chicago performance of the opera took place at the Auditorium Building (now part of Roosevelt University) on 9 November 1891. Performed in Italian, the production starred Jean de Reszke as the title hero, Emma Eames as Elsa and Édouard de Reszke as Heinrich.",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin was first performed as part of the Bayreuth Festival in 1894, in a production directed by the composer's widow, Cosima Wagner, with and Ernst van Dyck, alternating as Lohengrin, Lillian Nordica as Elsa, Marie Brema as Ortrud and Demeter Popovic as Telramund and was conducted by Felix Mottl. It received 6 performances in its first season in the opera house that Wagner built for the presentation of his works.",
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"plaintext": "Lohengrin is scored for the following instruments:",
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"plaintext": "Place: Antwerp, on the Scheldt River, in the Kingdom of Lotharingia",
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"plaintext": "Time: Sometime between 925, when Henry the Fowler acquired Lotharingia as a vassal state, and 933, when his wars with the Magyars ended",
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"plaintext": "The people of the Brabant are divided by quarrels and political infighting; also, a devious hostile power left over from the region's pagan past is seeking to subvert the prevailing monotheistic government and to return Brabant to pagan rule. A mysterious knight, sent by God and possessing superhuman charisma and fighting ability, arrives to unite and strengthen the people, and to defend the innocent noblewoman Elsa from a false accusation of murder, but he imposes a condition: the people must follow him without knowing his identity. Elsa in particular must never ask his name, or his heritage, or his origin. The conspirators attempt to undermine her faith in her rescuer, to create doubt among the people, and to force him to leave.",
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"plaintext": "King Henry the Fowler has arrived in Brabant, where he has assembled the German tribes in order to expel the marauding Hungarians from his dominions. He also needs to settle a dispute involving the disappearance of the child-Duke Gottfried of Brabant. The Duke's guardian, Count Friedrich von Telramund, has accused the Duke's older sister, Elsa, of murdering her brother in order to become Duchess of Brabant. Telramund calls upon the King to punish Elsa and to make him the new Duke of Brabant.",
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"plaintext": "The King calls for Elsa to answer Telramund's accusation. Elsa does not answer the King's inquiries, only lamenting her brother's fate (\"Einsam in trüben Tagen\"). The King declares that he cannot resolve the matter and will leave it to God's judgment through ordeal by combat. Telramund, a strong and seasoned warrior, agrees enthusiastically. When the King asks Elsa who shall be her champion, Elsa describes a knight she has beheld in her dreams (\"Des Ritters will ich wahren\").",
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"plaintext": "Twice the Herald calls for a champion to step forward, but gets no response. Elsa kneels and prays that God may send her champion to her. A boat drawn by a swan appears on the river and in it stands a knight in shining armour. He disembarks, dismisses the swan, respectfully greets the king, and asks Elsa if she will have him as her champion and marry him. Elsa kneels in front of him and places her honour in his keeping. He asks only one thing in return for his service: Elsa must never ask him his name or where he has come from. Elsa agrees to this (\"Wenn ich im Kampfe für dich siege\").",
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"plaintext": "Telramund's supporters advise him to withdraw because he cannot prevail against the Knight's powers, but he proudly refuses. The chorus prays to God for victory for the one whose cause is just. Ortrud, Telramund's wife, does not join the prayer, but privately expresses confidence that Telramund will win. The combat commences. The unknown Knight defeats Telramund but spares his life (\"Durch Gottes Sieg ist jetzt dein Leben mein\"). Taking Elsa by the hand, he declares her innocent. The crowd exits, cheering and celebrating.",
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"plaintext": "Night in the courtyard outside the cathedral",
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"plaintext": "Telramund and Ortrud, banished from court, listen unhappily to the distant party-music. Ortrud reveals that she is a pagan witch (daughter of Radbod Duke of Frisia), and tries to revive Telramund's courage, assuring him that her people (and he) are destined to rule the kingdom again. She plots to induce Elsa to violate the mysterious knight's only condition.",
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"plaintext": "When Elsa appears on the balcony before dawn, she hears Ortrud lamenting and pities her. As Elsa descends to open the castle door, Ortrud prays to her pagan gods, Wodan and Freia, for malice, guile, and cunning, in order to deceive Elsa and restore pagan rule to the region. Ortrud warns Elsa that since she knows nothing about her rescuer, he could leave at any time as suddenly as he came, but Elsa is sure of the Knight's virtues. The two women go into the castle. Left alone outside, Telramund vows to bring about the Knight's downfall.",
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"plaintext": "The sun rises and the people assemble. The Herald announces that Telramund is now banished, and that anyone who follows Telramund shall be considered an outlaw by the law of the land. In addition, he announces that the King has offered to make the unnamed knight the Duke of Brabant; however, the Knight has declined the title, and prefers to be known only as \"Protector of Brabant\". The Herald further announces that the Knight will lead the people to glorious new conquests, and will celebrate the marriage of himself and Elsa. In the back of the crowd, four noblemen quietly express misgivings to each other because the Knight has rescinded their privileges and is calling them to arms. Telramund secretly draws the four noblemen aside and assures them that he will regain his position and stop the Knight, by accusing him of sorcery.",
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"plaintext": "As Elsa and her attendants are about to enter the church, Ortrud rushes to the front of the procession and challenges Elsa to explain who the Knight is and why anyone should follow him. Their conversation is interrupted by the entrance of the King with the Knight. Elsa tells both of them that Ortrud was interrupting the ceremony. The King tells Ortrud to step aside, then leads Elsa and the Knight toward the church. Just as they are about to enter the church, Telramund enters. He claims that his defeat in combat was invalid because the Knight did not give his name (trial by combat traditionally being open only to established citizens), then accuses the Knight of sorcery. He demands that the Knight must reveal his name; otherwise the King should rule the trial by combat invalid. The Knight refuses to reveal his identity and claims that only one person in the world has the right to make him do so: his beloved Elsa, and she has pledged not to exercise that right. Elsa, though visibly shaken and uncertain, assures him of her confidence. King Henry refuses Telramund's questions, and the nobles of Brabant and Saxony praise and honor the Knight. Elsa falls back into the crowd where Ortrud and Telramund try to intimidate her, but the Knight forces them both to leave the ceremony, and consoles Elsa. Elsa takes one last look at the banished Ortrud, then enters the church with the wedding procession.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 1: The bridal chamber",
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"plaintext": "Elsa and her new husband are ushered in with the well-known bridal chorus, and they express their love for each other. Ortrud's words, however, have made an impression on Elsa; she laments that her name sounds so sweet on her husband's lips but she cannot utter his name. She asks him to tell her his name when no one else is around, but at all instances he refuses. Finally, despite his warnings, she asks the Knight the fatal questions. Before the Knight can answer, Telramund and his four recruits rush into the room in order to attack him. The Knight defeats and kills Telramund. Then, he sorrowfully turns to Elsa and asks her to follow him to the King, to whom he will now reveal his secrets.",
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"plaintext": "Scene 2: On the banks of the Scheldt (as in act 1)",
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"plaintext": "The troops arrive equipped for war. Telramund's corpse is brought in. Elsa comes forward, then the Knight. He tells the King that Elsa has broken her promise, and discloses his identity (\"In fernem Land\") by recounting the story of the Holy Grail and of Monsalvat. He reveals himself as Lohengrin, Knight of the Grail and son of King Parsifal, sent to protect an unjustly accused woman. The laws of the Holy Grail say that Knights of the Grail must remain anonymous. If their identity is revealed, they must return home.",
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"plaintext": "As Lohengrin sadly bids farewell to Elsa, the swan-boat reappears. Lohengrin tells Elsa that if she had kept her promise, she could have recovered her lost brother, and gives her his sword, horn and ring, for he is to become the future leader of Brabant. As Lohengrin tries to get in the boat, Ortrud appears. She tells Elsa that the swan is actually Gottfried, Elsa's brother, whom she cursed to become a swan. The people consider Ortrud guilty of witchcraft. Lohengrin prays and the swan turns back into young Gottfried. Lohengrin declares him the Duke of Brabant. Ortrud sinks as she sees her plans thwarted.",
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"plaintext": "A dove descends from heaven and, taking the place of the swan at the head of the boat, leads Lohengrin to the castle of the Holy Grail. A grief-stricken Elsa falls to the ground dead.",
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"plaintext": "Scene \"\"",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Telramund)",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Elsa)",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Love duet)",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Lohengrin's Declaration to Elsa)",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Lohengrin's Narration)",
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"plaintext": "\"\" (Lohengrin's Farewell)",
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"plaintext": "Liszt initially requested Wagner to carefully translate his essay on the opera from French into German, that he might be the principal and long-standing interpreter of the work – a work which, after performing, he regarded as \"a sublime work from one end to the other\".",
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"plaintext": "In their article \"Elsa's reason: on beliefs and motives in Wagner's Lohengrin''\", Ilias Chrissochoidis and Steffen Huck propose what they describe as \"a complex and psychologically more compelling account [of the opera]. Elsa asks the forbidden question because she needs to confirm Lohengrin's belief in her innocence, a belief that Ortrud successfully erodes in act 2. This interpretation reveals Elsa as a rational individual, upgrades the dramatic significance of the act 1 combat scene, and, more broadly, signals a return to a hermeneutics of Wagnerian drama.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tenors have sometimes run into trouble in the third act, just before Lohengrin departs by stepping on a swan-driven vessel or on the swan itself. In 1913, the Moravian tenor Leo Slezak is reported to have missed hopping on the swan, afterwards turning to Elsa with the question: \"Wann geht der nächste Schwan?\" (\"When does the next swan leave?\"). In 1936, at the Metropolitan Opera, the same thing happened to Danish tenor Lauritz Melchior.",
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"plaintext": " Libretto and leitmotifs in German, Italian and English",
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"plaintext": " Richard Wagner – Lohengrin, gallery of historic postcards with motifs from Richard Wagner's operas",
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"plaintext": " Wagner's libretto (in German)",
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"plaintext": " Further Lohengrin discography",
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"plaintext": "San Diego OperaTalk! with Nick Reveles: Lohengrin",
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"plaintext": " Portrait of the opera in the online opera guide www.opera-inside.com",
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"plaintext": " AGM-114R9X The Hellfire R9X is a Hellfire variant with a kinetic warhead with pop-out blades instead of explosives, used against specific human targets. Its lethality is due to 45kg (100lb) of dense material with six blades flying at high speed, to crush and cut the targeted person— the R9X has also been referred to as the 'Ninja Missile' and 'Flying Ginsu'. It is intended to reduce collateral damage when targeting specific people. Deployed in secret in 2017, its existence has been public since 2019. This variant was used in the killing in 2017 of Abu Khayr al-Masri, a member of Al-Qaeda's leadership, and in 2019 of Jamal Ahmad Mohammad Al Badawi, accused mastermind of the 2000 USS Cole bombing. The weapon has also been used in Syria, and in Afghanistan against a Taliban commander. It was used twice in 2020 against senior al-Qaeda leaders in Syria; in September 2020 US officials estimated that it had been used in combat around six times.",
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"plaintext": "The governor general of Canada () is the federal viceregal representative of the . The is head of state of Canada and the 14 other Commonwealth realms, but resides in oldest and most populous realm, the United Kingdom. The , on the advice of Canadian prime minister, appoints a governor general to carry on the Government of Canada in the 's name, performing most of her constitutional and ceremonial duties. The commission is for an indefinite period—known as serving at Majesty's pleasure—though five years is the usual length of time. Since 1959, it has also been traditional to alternate between anglophone and francophone officeholders—although many recent governors general have been bilingual. ",
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"plaintext": "The office began in the 17th century, when the French crown appointed governors of the colony of Canada. Following the British conquest of the colony, the British monarch appointed governors of the Province of Quebec (later the Canadas) from 1763 onward. Consequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous settler institution in Canada. The present version of the office emerged with Canadian Confederation and the passing of the British North America Act, 1867, which defines the role of the governor general as \"carrying on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the Name of the Queen, by whatever Title he is designated\". Although the post initially still represented the Government of the United Kingdom (that is, the monarch in her British council), the office was gradually Canadianized until, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy, the governor general became the direct personal representative of the independently and uniquely Canadian sovereign, the monarch in his Canadian council. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities. For example, in 1904, the Militia Act granted permission for the governor general to use the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian militia, while command-in-chief remained vested in the sovereign, and in 1927 the first official international visit by a governor general was made. Finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarch's powers on his or her behalf. As a result, the day-to-day duties of the monarch are carried out by the governor general, although, as a matter of law, the governor general is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign; the office itself does not independently possess any powers of the royal prerogative. In accordance with the Constitution Act, 1982, any constitutional amendment that affects the Crown, including the office of Governor General, requires the unanimous consent of each provincial legislature as well as the Parliament of Canada.",
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"plaintext": "The 30th and current governor general is Mary Simon, who was sworn in on 26 July 2021. An Inuk leader from Nunavik in Quebec, Simon is the first Indigenous person to hold the office. She was nominated on 6 July 2021 to replace Julie Payette, who had resigned in January; Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada, had served as Administrator of the Government of Canada in the interim.",
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"plaintext": "The letters patent constituting the office, and official publications of the Government of Canada, spell the title governor general, without a hyphen, unlike the spelling of the title in the other Commonwealth realms, which do include a hyphen as part of their titles. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized thus, governors general, rather than governor generals.",
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"plaintext": "The position of governor general is mandated by both the Constitution Act, 1867 (formerly known as the British North America Act, 1867) and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of the Canadian prime minister, the Canadian monarch appoints the governor general by commission issued under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of Canada. That individual is, from then until being sworn in, referred to as the governor general-designate.",
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"plaintext": "Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate. Though there may therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally travel to Ottawa, there receiving an official welcome and taking up residence at 7 Rideau Gate, and will begin preparations for their upcoming role, meeting with various high-level officials to ensure a smooth transition between governors general. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor general-designate and his or her spouse into the Order of Canada as Companions, as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces (should either person not have already received either of those honours).",
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"plaintext": "The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a developed convention, and the governor general acts at Her Majesty's pleasure (or the Royal Pleasure). The prime minister may therefore recommend to the that the viceroy remain in service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than seven years. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office. In such a circumstance, or if the governor general leaves the country for longer than one month, the chief justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant or unavailable, the senior puisne justice of the Supreme Court) serves as the administrator of the Government of Canada and exercises all powers of the governor general.",
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"plaintext": "A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of David Johnston as governor general-designate. For the task, Prime Minister Stephen Harper convened a special search group — the Governor General Consultation Committee—was instructed to find a non-partisan candidate who would respect the monarchical aspects of the viceregal office and conducted extensive consultations with more than 200 people across the country. In 2012, the committee was made permanent and renamed as the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments, with a modified membership and its scope broadened to include the appointment of provincial lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners (though the latter are not personal representatives of the monarch). However, Justin Trudeau did not make use of a selection committee when he recommended Julie Payette as Johnston's successor in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The swearing-in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of the ministers of the Crown, who then accompanies the governor general-designate to Parliament Hill, where a Canadian Forces guard of honour (consisting of the Army Guard, Royal Canadian Air Force Guard, and Flag Party of the Royal Canadian Navy) awaits to give a general salute. From there, the party is led by the 's parliamentary messenger—the usher of the Black Rod—to the Senate chamber, wherein all justices of the Supreme Court, senators, members of Parliament, and other guests are assembled. The 's commission for the governor general-designate is then read aloud by the secretary to the governor general and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either the chief justice or one of the puisne justices of the Supreme Court; the three oaths are: the Oath of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as Governor General and Commander-in-Chief, and the Oath as Keeper of the Great Seal of Canada. With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises, the individual is officially the governor general, and at that moment the flag of the governor general of Canada is raised on the Peace Tower, the Viceregal Salute is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Forces, and a 21-gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery. The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read, and then receives the Great Seal of Canada (which is passed to the registrar general for protection), as well as the chains of both the chancellor of the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit. The governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes they will champion during their time as viceroy.",
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"plaintext": "Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 14 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual, in his or her capacity as the Canadian sovereign, has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian federation. As the sovereign works and resides predominantly outside of Canada's borders, the governor general's primary task is to perform the monarch's federal constitutional duties on his or her behalf. As such, the governor general carries on \"the Government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the Sovereign\".",
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"plaintext": "The governor general acts within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day-to-day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the governor general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, the governor general removes him or herself from public, though the presence of the monarch does not affect the governor general's ability to perform governmental roles.",
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"plaintext": "Past governor general the Marquess of Lorne said of the job: \"It is no easy thing to be a governor general of Canada. You must have the patience of a saint, the smile of a cherub, the generosity of an Indian prince, and the back of a camel\", and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor general is \"A representative of all that is august, stable, and sedate in the government, the history, and the traditions of the country; incapable of partizanship, and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction; without adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office; docile to the suggestions of his Ministers, and yet securing to the people the certainty of being able to get rid of an Administration or Parliament the moment either had forfeited their confidence.\"",
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"plaintext": "All executive, legislative, and judicial power in and over Canada is vested in the monarch. The governor general is permitted to exercise most of this power, including the royal prerogative, in the sovereign's name; some as outlined in the Constitution Act, 1867, and some through various letters patent issued over the decades, particularly those from 1947 that constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada. The 1947 letters patent state: \"And We do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General, with the advice of Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually, as the case requires, to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us in respect of Canada.\" The office itself does not, however, independently possess any powers of the royal prerogative, only exercising the Crown's powers with its permission; a fact the Constitution Act, 1867 left unchanged. Among other duties, the monarch retains the sole right to appoint the governor general. It is also stipulated that the governor general may appoint deputies—usually Supreme Court justices and the secretary to the governor general—who can perform some of the viceroy's constitutional duties in his or her stead, and the chief justice of the Supreme Court (or a puisne justice in the chief justice's absence) will act as the administrator of the government upon the death or removal, as well as the incapacitation, or absence of the governor general for more than one month.",
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"plaintext": "It is the governor general who is required by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint for life persons to the 's Privy Council for Canada, who are all theoretically tasked with tendering to the monarch and viceroy guidance on the exercise of the royal prerogative. Convention dictates, though, that the governor general must draw from the Privy Council an individual to become the prime minister—in almost all cases the member of Parliament who commands the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime minister then advises the governor general to appoint other members of parliament to a committee of the privy council known as the Cabinet, and it is in practice only from this group of ministers of the Crown that the and governor general will take advice on the use of executive power; an arrangement called the -in-Council or, more specifically, the Governor-in-Council. In this capacity, the governor general will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council. The Governor-in-Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint in the 's name the lieutenant governors of the provinces (with the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments and the premiers of the provinces concerned playing an advisory role), senators, the speaker of the Senate, and superior, district and county court judges in each province, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The advice given by the Cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, by political convention typically binding; both the and viceroy, however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve powers, which remain the Crown's final check against a ministry's abuse of power.",
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"plaintext": "The governor general, as the representative of the Canadian sovereign, carries out the parliamentary duties of the sovereign in their absence, such as summoning Parliament, reading the speech from the throne, and proroguing and dissolving Parliament. The governor general also grants royal assent in the 's name; legally, he or she has three options: grant royal assent (making the bill a law), withhold royal assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the signification of the 's pleasure (allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent). If the governor general withholds the 's assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern Canadian viceroy has denied royal assent to a bill. Provincial viceroys, however, are able to reserve royal assent to provincial bills for the governor general, which was last invoked in 1961 by the lieutenant governor of Saskatchewan.",
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"plaintext": "With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor general acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Canada's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent the and country abroad on state visits to other nations, though the monarch's permission is necessary, via the prime minister, for the viceroy to leave Canada. Also as part of international relations, the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall for Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners and receives the same from foreign ambassadors and other Commonwealth countries' high commissioners appointed to Canada.",
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"plaintext": "The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride. Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1959 to then Governor General Vincent Massey \"maintain[ing] the right relationship between the Crown and the people of Canada [is] the most important function among the many duties of the appointment which you have held with such distinction.\" One way in which this is carried out is travelling the country and meeting with Canadians from all regions and ethnic groups in Canada, continuing the tradition begun in 1869 by Governor General the Lord Lisgar. He or she will also induct individuals into the various national orders and present national medals and decorations. Similarly, the viceroy administers and distributes the Governor General's Awards, and will also give out awards associated with private organizations, some of which are named for past governors general. During a federal election, the governor general will curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs.",
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"plaintext": "Although the constitution of Canada states that the \"Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen,\" the governor general acts in place as Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Forces and is permitted through the 1947 Letters Patent to use the title Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada. The position technically involves issuing commands for Canadian troops, airmen, and sailors, but is predominantly a ceremonial role in which the viceroy will visit Canadian Forces bases across Canada and abroad to take part in military ceremonies, see troops off to and return from active duty, and encourage excellence and morale amongst the forces. The governor general also serves as honorary Colonel of three household regiments: the Governor General's Horse Guards, Governor General's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards. This ceremonial position is directly under that of Colonel-in-Chief, which is held by the . Since 1910, the governor general was also always made the chief scout for Canada, which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after 1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout.",
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"plaintext": "Rideau Hall, located in Ottawa, is the official residence of the Canadian monarch and of the governor general and is thus the location of the viceregal household and the Chancellery of Honours. For a part of each year since 1872, governors general have also resided at the Citadel () in Quebec City, Quebec. A governor general's wife is known as the of Rideau Hall, though there is no equivalent term for a governor general's husband.",
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"plaintext": "The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General. The Chancellery of Honours depends from the and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered by the governor general. As such, the viceroy's secretary ex officio holds the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada, overseeing the Canadian Heraldic Authority—the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the name of the sovereign. These organized offices and support systems include aides-de-camp, press officers, financial managers, speech writers, trip organizers, event planners, protocol officers, chefs and other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as visitors' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences. In this official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred to as Government House and its departments are funded through the normal federal budgetary process, as is the governor general's salary of CAD$288,900, which has been taxed since 2013. Additional costs are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the National Capital Commission, the Department of National Defence, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.",
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"plaintext": "The governor general's air transportation is assigned to 412 Transport Squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron uses Bombardier Challenger 600 VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations within and outside of Canada.",
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"plaintext": "As the personal representative of the monarch, the governor general follows only the sovereign in the Canadian order of precedence, preceding even other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is considered primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts, the governor general also outranks the lieutenant governors in the federal sphere; at provincial functions, however, the relevant lieutenant governor, as the 's representative in the province, precedes the governor general. The incumbent governor general and his or her spouse are also the only people in Canada, other than serving Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners, entitled to the use of the style His or Her Excellency and the governor general is granted the additional honorific of the Right Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to 1952, all governors general of Canada were members of the peerage or heir apparent to a peerage. Typically, individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer, either by inheriting the title, such as the Duke of Devonshire, or by prior elevation by the sovereign in their own right, as was the case with the Viscount Alexander of Tunis. None were life peers, the Life Peerages Act 1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian citizens as governor general. John Buchan was, in preparation for his appointment as governor general, made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford by King George V, six months before Buchan was sworn in as viceroy. The leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, felt Buchan should serve as governor general as a commoner; however, King George V insisted he be represented by a peer. With the appointment of Vincent Massey as governor general in 1952, governors general ceased to be members of the peerage; successive governments since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated (in 1934) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution.",
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"plaintext": "Under the orders' constitutions, the governor general serves as Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada, Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit, and Chancellor of the Order of Merit of the Police Forces. He or she also upon installation automatically becomes a Knight or Dame of Justice and the Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. As acting commander-in-chief, the governor general is further routinely granted the Canadian Forces Decoration by the chief of the Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch. All of these honours are retained following an incumbent's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the highest categories of the orders, and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards.",
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"plaintext": "The Viceregal Salute — composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem (\"God Save the\") followed by the first and last four bars of the national anthem (\"O Canada\") — is the salute used to greet the governor general upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official events. To mark the viceroy's presence at any building, ship, airplane, or car in Canada, the governor general's flag is employed. The present form was adopted on 23 February 1981 and, in the federal jurisdiction, takes precedence over all other flags except for the 's personal Canadian standard. When the governor general undertakes a state visit, however, the national flag is generally employed to mark his or her presence. This flag is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general.",
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"plaintext": "The crest of the Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the governor general, appearing on the viceroy's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office. This is the fourth such incarnation of the governor general's mark since confederation.",
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"plaintext": "French colonization of North America began in the 1580s and Aymar de Chaste was appointed in 1602 by King Henry IV as Viceroy of Canada. The explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New France in the early 17th century, serving until Charles Huault de Montmagny was in 1636 formally appointed to the post by King Louis XIII. The French Company of One Hundred Associates then administered New France until King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663, after whom 12 more people served in the post.",
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"plaintext": "With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France relinquished most of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain. King George III then issued in that same year a royal proclamation establishing, amongst other regulations, the Office of the Governor of Quebec to preside over the new Province of Quebec. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained completely separate colonies, each with their own governor, until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea that they, along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island, should have as their respective governors a single individual styled as Governor-in-Chief. The post was created in 1786, with The Lord Dorchester as its first occupant. However, the governor-in-chief directly governed only Quebec. It was not until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec, to accommodate the influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war, that the king's representative, with a change in title to Governor General, directly governed Lower Canada, while the other three colonies were each administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead.",
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"plaintext": "Following the 1783 recognition of the independence of the thirteen continental colonies that became the United States of America and the transfer of East Florida and West Florida to Spain, the remaining British colonies of North America, including the archipelago of Bermuda, were partly integrated as British North America. During the American War of 1812, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost was Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New~Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, and in the islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton and the Bermudas, &c. &c. &c. Beneath Prevost, the staff of the British Army in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke. Below Sherbrooke, the Bermuda Garrison was under the immediate control of the lieutenant-governor of Bermuda, Major-General George Horsford). Although the civil government of Bermuda would soon be separated, again, its naval establishment, military garrison, and the established Church of England in Bermuda would long remain linked (the headquarters of the Royal Navy's North America and West Indies Station would alternate between Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Bermuda until the 1820s, after which it remained at Bermuda year round until the station was abolished in 1956; the Royal Navy having handed over Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1907. The governor and commander-in-chief of Bermuda and the garrison of Bermuda remained subsidiary to the British Army commander-in-chief at Halifax until the British Army handed military defence over to the Canadian militia and withdrew from the Maritimes in 1870, following the Confederation of Canada. Bermuda and Newfoundland, both left out of the Confederation, remained under the bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when the bishop of Bermuda became a separate office from the bishop of Newfoundland.",
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"plaintext": "The Rebellions of 1837 brought about great changes to the role of the governor general, prompting, as they did, the British government to grant responsible government to the Canadian provinces. As a result, the viceroys became largely nominal heads, while the democratically elected legislatures and the premiers they supported exercised the authority belonging to the Crown; a concept first put to the test when, in 1849, Governor-General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant-Governor of Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill, despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation.",
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"plaintext": "This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, and the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. The governor general carried out in Canada all the parliamentary and ceremonial functions of a constitutional monarch—amongst other things, granting Royal Assent, issuing Orders-in-Council, and taking advice from the Canadian Privy Council. However, the governor still remained not a viceroy, in the true sense of the word, being still a representative of and liaison to the British government—the Queen in her British council of ministers—who answered to the secretary of state for the colonies in London and who, as a British observer of Canadian politics, held well into the First World War a suite of offices in the East Block of Parliament Hill. But, the new position of Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, created in 1880, began to take over the governor general's role as a link between the Canadian and British governments, leaving the viceroy increasingly as a personal representative of the monarch. As such, the governor general had to retain a sense of political neutrality; a skill that was put to the test when the Marquess of Lorne disagreed with his Canadian prime minister, John A. Macdonald, over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc Letellier de St-Just. On the advice of the colonial secretary, and to avoid conflict with the cabinet of Canada, the Marquess did eventually concede, and released St-Just from duty. The governor general was then in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion's first cabinet crisis, wherein Prime Minister Macdonald died, leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston to select a new prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1880, the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule from the Queen's subjects: in July of that year, someone under the pseudonym Captain Mac included in a pamphlet called Canada: from the Lakes to the Gulf, a coarse satire of an investiture ceremony at Rideau Hall, in which a retired inn-keeper and his wife undergo the rigorous protocol of the royal household and sprawl on the floor before the Duke of Argyll so as to be granted the knighthood for which they had \"paid in cold, hard cash\". Later, prior to the arrival of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (the uncle of King George V), to take up the post of governor general, there was a \"feeble undercurrent of criticism\" centring on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall; worries that turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their predecessors.",
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"plaintext": "During the First World War, into which Canada was drawn due to its association with the United Kingdom, the governor general's role turned from one of cultural patron and state ceremony to one of military inspector and morale booster. Starting in 1914, Governor General Prince Arthur donned his Field Marshal's uniform and put his efforts into raising contingents, inspecting army camps, and seeing troops off before their voyage to Europe. These actions, however, led to conflict with the prime minister at the time, Robert Borden; though the latter placed blame on Military Secretary Edward Stanton, he also opined that the Duke \"laboured under the handicap of his position as a member of the Royal Family and never realized his limitations as Governor General\". Prince Arthur's successor, the Duke of Devonshire, faced the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and held discussions with his Canadian prime minister, as well as members of the Official Opposition, on the matter. Once the government implemented conscription, Devonshire, after consulting on the pulse of the nation with Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Vincent Massey, Henri Bourassa, Archbishop of Montreal Paul Bruchési, Duncan Campbell Scott, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Stephen Leacock, made efforts to conciliate Quebec, though he had little real success.",
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"plaintext": "Canada's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country's sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and, by war's end, the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing ever-increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials; in 1918, the Toronto Star was even advocating the end of the office. The governor general's role was also changing to focus less on the larger Empire and more on uniquely Canadian affairs, including the undertaking of official international visits on behalf of Canada, the first being that of the Marquess of Willingdon to the United States, where he was accorded by President Calvin Coolidge the full honours of representative of a head of state. It would be another decade, however, before the King-Byng Affair: another catalyst for change in the relationship between Canada—indeed, all the dominions—and the United Kingdom, and thus the purpose of the governor general.",
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"plaintext": "In 1926, Liberal prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, facing a non-confidence vote in the House of Commons over a scandal in his party, requested that Governor General Lord Byng dissolve parliament and call an election. Byng, however, refused his Canadian prime minister's advice, citing both the facts that King held the minority of seats in the house and that a general election had been held only months earlier; he thus called on Arthur Meighen to form a government. Within a week however, Meighen's Conservative government lost its own non-confidence vote, forcing the Governor General to dissolve parliament and call elections that saw Mackenzie King returned to power. King then went on to the Imperial Conference that same year and there pushed for reorganizations that resulted in the Balfour Declaration, which declared formally the practical reality that had existed for some years: namely, that the Dominions were fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom. These new developments were codified in the Statute of Westminster, through the enactment of which on 11 December 1931, Canada, along with the Union of South Africa and the Irish Free State, immediately obtained formal legislative independence from the UK. In addition, the Balfour Declaration also held that the governor general would cease to act as the representative of the British government. Accordingly, in 1928, the United Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general's diplomatic role as the British government's envoy.",
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"plaintext": "The governor general thus became solely the representative of the monarch within Canadian jurisdiction, ceasing completely to be an agent of the British Cabinet, and as such would be appointed by the monarch granting his royal sign-manual under the Great Seal of Canada only on the advice of his Canadian prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "The Canadian Cabinet's first recommendation under this new system was still, however, a British subject born outside of Canada: Lord Tweedsmuir. His birthplace aside, though, the professional author took further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian identity, travelling the length and breadth of the country, including, for the first time for a governor general, the Arctic regions. Not all Canadians, however, shared Tweedsmuir's views; the Baron raised the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: \"a Canadian's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada's King\", a statement the Montreal Gazette dubbed as \"disloyal\". During Tweedsmuir's time as viceroy, which started in 1935, calls began to emerge for a Canadian-born individual to be appointed as governor general; but Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940, while Canada was in the midst of the Second World War, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not feel it was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian. The Earl of Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI, Athlone's nephew, to be his viceroy for the duration of the war.",
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"plaintext": "It was in 1952, a mere five days before King George VI's death, that Vincent Massey became the first Canadian-born person to be appointed as a governor general in Canada since the Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal was made Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755, as well as the first not to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854. There was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was intended to be a compromise: he was known to embody loyalty, dignity, and formality, as expected from a viceroy. As his viceregal tenure neared an end, it was thought that Massey, an anglophone, should be followed by a francophone Canadian; and so, in spite of his Liberal Party attachments, Georges Vanier was chosen by Conservative prime minister John Diefenbaker as the next governor general. Vanier was subsequently appointed by Queen Elizabeth II in person at a meeting of her Canadian Cabinet, thus initiating the convention of alternating between individuals from Canada's two main linguistic groups. This move did not, however, placate those who were fostering the new Quebec nationalist movement, for whom the monarchy and other federal institutions were a target for attack. Though Vanier was a native of Quebec and fostered biculturalism, he was not immune to the barbs of the province's sovereigntists and, when he attended la Fête St-Jean-Baptiste in Montreal in 1964, a group of separatists held placards reading \"\" (\"Vanier sold out\") and \"\" (\"Vanier Queen's jester\").",
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"plaintext": "In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes towards Canadian identity, images and the role of the monarchy were cautiously downplayed, and Vanier's successor, Roland Michener, was the last viceroy to practice many of the office's ancient traditions, such as the wearing of court uniform by the governor general, the requirement of court dress for state occasions, and expecting women to curtsey before the governor general. At the same time, he initiated new practices for the viceroy, including regular conferences with the lieutenant governors and the undertaking of state visits. He presided over Canada's centennial celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67, to which French president Charles de Gaulle was invited. Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his infamous \"\" speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener. With the additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution, the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system, an increase of state visits coming with Canada's growing role on the world stage, and the more prevalent use of television to visually broadcast ceremonial state affairs, the governor general became more publicly active in national life.",
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"plaintext": "The Cabinet in June 1978 proposed the constitutional amendment Bill C-60, that, amongst other changes, vested executive authority directly in the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian, but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers. When the constitution was patriated four years later, the new amending formula for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown, including the Office of the Governor General, would require the consent of all the provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament. By 1984, Canada's first female governor general—Jeanne Sauvé—was appointed. While it was she who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority, as permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth II, and who championed youth and world peace, Sauvé proved to be a controversial vicereine, closing to the public the grounds of the Queen's residence and self-aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a number of occasions.",
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"plaintext": "Sarah, Duchess of York, said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to Prince Andrew, Duke of York, her husband was offered the position of governor general of Canada, and she speculated in hindsight that their agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in their eventual break-up. Instead, Sauvé's tenure as governor general was book-ended by a series of appointments—Edward Schreyer, Ray Hnatyshyn, and Roméo LeBlanc—that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the time, and despite the duties they carried out, their combined time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable at best, and damaging to the office at worst. As David Smith described it: \"Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees, which have often been extraordinary, the Canadian governor general has become a hermetic head of state—ignored by press, politicians and public.\" It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due, in part, to widespread misunderstanding about the governor general's role coupled with a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the increasingly presidentialized prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "It was with the Queen's appointment of Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, that a shift in the office took place. Clarkson was the first Canadian viceroy to have not previously held any political or military position—coming as she did from a background of television journalism with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation—was the first since 1952 to have been born outside of Canada, the first from a visible minority (she is of Chinese ancestry), and, by her being accompanied to Rideau Hall by her husband, author and philosopher John Ralston Saul, the official appointment brought an unofficial pair to the viceregal placement, in that the governor general would not be the only person actively exploring Canadian theory and culture. Clarkson managed to bring the viceregal office back into the collective consciousness of Canadians, winning praise for touring the country more than any of her predecessors, her inspiring speeches, and her dedication to the military in her role as the Commander-in-Chief's representative. This did not come without a cost, however, as the attention also drew widespread criticism of the governor general's increased spending on state affairs, for which the office was symbolically rebuked by parliament when it voted in favour of cutting by 10% the viceregal budget it had earlier supported, as well as for fostering the notion, through various demonstrations, that the governor general was ultimately the Canadian head of state above the Queen herself, an approach that was said by Jack Granatstein to have caused \"a fury\" with the Queen on one occasion in 2004. This attitude was not unique to Clarkson, though; it had been observed that, for some decades, staff at Rideau Hall and various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the governor general as head of state, part of a wider Liberal policy on the monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional changes in the 1970s, if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec City. Indeed, international observers opined that the viceroys had been, over the years, making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the sovereign, for fear of being too closely associated with any \"Britishness\" the monarch embodied.",
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"plaintext": "Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien's example and, for Clarkson's successor, put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean, who was, like Clarkson, a woman, a refugee, a member of a visible minority, a CBC career journalist, and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the arts. Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a supporter of Quebec sovereignty, and it was observed that she had on a few occasions trodden into political matters, as well as continuing to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as head of state, thereby \"unbalancing... the federalist symmetry\". But Jean ultimately won plaudits, particularly for her solidarity with the Canadian Forces and the Indigenous peoples in Canada, as well as her role in the parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January 2009.",
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"plaintext": "With the appointment of academic David Johnston, former principal of McGill University and subsequently president of the University of Waterloo, there was a signalled emphasis for the governor general to vigorously promote learning and innovation. Johnston stated in his inaugural address: \"[We want to be] a society that innovates, embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each of its citizens to improve the human condition for all.\" There was also a recognition of Johnston's expertise in constitutional law, following the controversial prorogations of Parliament in 2008 and 2009, which initiated some debate about the governor general's role as the representative of Canada's head of state.",
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"plaintext": "Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on to hold other public offices. Edward Schreyer, for instance, was appointed Canadian High Commissioner to Australia upon his departure from the viceregal role in 1984, and Michaëlle Jean became the UNESCO special envoy to Haiti and, later, the secretary-general of La Francophonie. Schreyer also become the first former governor general to run for elected office in Canada when he unsuccessfully vied for a seat in the House of Commons as a New Democratic Party candidate. Prior to 1952, several former viceroys returned to political careers in the United Kingdom, sitting with party affiliations in the House of Lords and, in some cases, taking a position in the British Cabinet. The Marquess of Lorne was elected a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom in 1895, and remained so until he became the Duke of Argyll and took his seat in the House of Lords. Others were made governors in other countries or territories: the Viscount Monck was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Dublin, the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Earl of Dufferin, the Marquess of Lansdowne, The Earl of Minto, and The Earl of Willingdon all subsequently served as Viceroy of India.",
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"plaintext": "An outgoing governor general may leave an eponymous award as a legacy, such as the Stanley Cup, the Clarkson Cup, the Vanier Cup, or the Grey Cup. They may found an institution, as Georges Vanier did with the Vanier Institute of the Family and Adrienne Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian Citizenship. Three former governors general have released memoirs: the Lord Tweedsmuir (Memory Hold-the-Door), Vincent Massey (On Being Canadian and What's Past is Prologue), and Adrienne Clarkson (Heart Matters).",
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"plaintext": "As of , there are five living former governors general of Canada. The most recently deceased former governor general, Roméo LeBlanc (1995–2000), died on 24 June 2009.",
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38,153 | 1,106,094,084 | Hydra_70 | [
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"plaintext": "The Hydra 70 rocket is a diameter fin-stabilized unguided rocket used primarily in the air-to-ground role. It can be equipped with a variety of warheads, and in more recent versions, guidance systems for point attacks. The Hydra is widely used by US and allied forces, competing with the Canadian CRV-7, with which it is physically interchangeable.",
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"plaintext": "The Hydra 70 is derived from the diameter Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket developed by the United States Navy for use as a free-flight aerial rocket in the late 1940s. The Mk40 was used during the Korean and Vietnam wars to provide close air support to ground forces from about 20 different firing platforms, both fixed-wing and armed helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "Today, the OH-58D(R) Kiowa Warrior and AH-64E Apache Longbow, as well as the Marine Corps' versatile UH-1 Huey and AH-1 Cobra, carry the Hydra rocket launcher standard on its weapon pylons.",
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"plaintext": "The family of Hydra 70 (70mm) 2.75inch rockets perform a variety of functions. The war reserve unitary and cargo warheads are used for anti-materiel, anti-personnel, and suppression missions. The Hydra 70 family of folding-fin aerial rockets also includes smoke screening, illumination, and training warheads. Hydra 70 rockets are known mainly by either their warhead type or by the rocket motor designation, Mk 66 in US military service.",
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"plaintext": "In the U.S. Army, Hydra 70 rockets are fired from the AH-64A Apache and AH-64D Apache Longbow helicopters using M261 19-tube rocket launchers, and the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior using seven-tube M260 rocket launchers. In the U.S. Marine Corps, either the M260 or M261 launchers are employed on the AH-1W SuperCobra and AH-1Z Viper, depending upon the mission. The M260 and M261 are used with the Mk 66 series of rocket motor, which replaced the Mk 40 series. The Mk 66 has a reduced system weight and provides a remote fuze setting interface. Hydra 70s have also been fired from UH-60 and AH-6 series aircraft in US Army service.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-1G Cobra and the UH-1B \"Huey\" used a variety of launchers including the M158 seven-tube and M200 19-tube rocket launchers designed for the Mk 40 rocket motor; however, these models have been replaced by upgraded variants in the U.S. Marine Corps because they were not compatible with the Mk 66 rocket motor. The Hydra 70 rocket system is also used by the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, a 72-year-old Taiwanese man was killed by a discarded Hydra rocket which he had cut into with an electric saw, believing it to be a length of pipe. The rocket had been caught in the net of a fishing vessel and then discarded by the crew ashore as scrap metal.",
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"plaintext": " Unitary warheads with impact-detonating fuzes or remote-set multi-option fuzes.",
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"plaintext": " Cargo warheads with air burst-range, with settable fuzes using the \"wall-in-space\" concept or fixed standoff fuzes.",
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"plaintext": "The most common warhead for the Hydra 70 rocket is the M151 \"10-Pounder,\" which has a blast radius of 10 meters and lethal fragmentation radius of around 50 meters.",
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"plaintext": " Weight: ",
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"plaintext": " Length: ",
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"plaintext": " Burn time: 1.05–1.10 sec",
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"plaintext": " Average thrust ():",
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"plaintext": " (Mod 2/3)",
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"plaintext": " (Mod 4)",
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"plaintext": " Motor burnout range: ",
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"plaintext": " Motor burnout velocity: ",
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"plaintext": " Launch spin rate: 10 rps, 35 rps after exiting launcher",
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"plaintext": " Velocity at launcher exit: ",
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"plaintext": " Acceleration:",
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"plaintext": " 60–70 g (initial)",
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"plaintext": " 95–100 g (final)",
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"plaintext": " Effective Range: depending on warhead and launch platform",
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"plaintext": " Maximum Range: under optimum conditions",
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"plaintext": "There are several design efforts to turn the Hydra 70 rocket into a precision guided munition (PGM) to produce a weapon with greater accuracy but at less cost than other guided missiles. These include:",
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"plaintext": " The BAE Systems Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) II",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Navy Low-Cost Guided Imaging Rocket (LOGIR)",
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"plaintext": " Lockheed Martin Direct Attack Guided Rocket (DAGR)",
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"plaintext": " The ATK/Elbit Guided Advanced Tactical Rocket – Laser (GATR-L)",
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"plaintext": " Raytheon TALON",
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"plaintext": " Forges de Zeebrugge SAL-Laser Guided Rocket (FZ275 LGR)",
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"plaintext": "The APKWS was the first to be fielded in March 2012, and the TALON entered full rate production for the United Arab Emirates Armed Forces in September 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The Turkish ROKETSAN Cirit is a similar missile compatible with 70mm rocket launchers, but it was developed from scratch and doesn't use Hydra 70 components.",
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"plaintext": " FFAR rocket 2.75 in (70 mm)",
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38,156 | 1,107,798,323 | Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Millionaire? | [
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"plaintext": "Once a contestant enters the main game, they are asked increasingly difficult general knowledge questions by the host. Each features four possible answers, to which the contestant must give the correct answer. Doing so wins them a certain amount of money, with tackling more difficult questions increasing their prize fund. During their game, the player has a set of lifelines that they may use only once to help them with a question, as well as two \"safety nets\" – if a contestant gets a question wrong, but had reached a designated cash value during their game, they will leave with that amount as their prize. While the first few questions are generally easy, subsequent ones might prompt the host to ask if the answer they gave is their \"final answer\" – if it is, then it is locked in and cannot be changed. If a contestant feels unsure about an answer and does not wish to play on, they can walk away with the money they have won, to which the host will ask them to confirm this as their final decision; in such cases, the host will usually ask them to state what answer they would have gone for, and reveal if it would have been correct or incorrect.",
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"plaintext": "During the British original, between 1998 and 2007, the show's format focused on fifteen questions. The payout structure was as follows (questions as guaranteed levels are highlighted with a bolded text):",
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"plaintext": "Between 2007 and 2014, the number of questions was reduced to twelve; the overall change in format was later incorporated into a number of international markets over a period of four years, including the Arab world, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, France, Poland, Spain, and Turkey. The payout structure, as a whole, was subsequently changed as a result, with the second safety net relocated to £50,000 at question 7 (questions as guaranteed levels are highlighted with a bolded text):",
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"plaintext": "The game show's revival for British television in 2018 reverted to the original arrangement used before 2007, but with one notable difference, in that the second safety net was made adjustable – once a contestant reached £1,000, the host asked them, before giving the next question, if they wished to set the next cash prize amount as the second safety net, with this allowing them to set up as high as £500,000 in their game as a result.",
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"plaintext": "The original US version premiered on ABC in August 1999 as part of a two-week daily special event hosted by Regis Philbin. After this and a second two-week event aired in November 1999, ABC commissioned a regular series that launched in January 2000 and ran until June 2002. The syndication of the game show was conceived and debuting in September 2002. The only difference between it and the British version was that episodes were halved in length – 30 minutes, as opposed to the 60-minute length of the original version. The change meant that the preliminary round of the show was eliminated, and contestants had to pass a more conventional game show qualification test. Exceptions to this arrangement, in which it was used under the name \"Fastest Finger\" included: primetime special editions of the programme; the 2004 series that was dubbed Super Millionaire, in which the final prize was increased to $10,000,000; and for the 10th anniversary special of the US edition, which ran during August 2009 for eleven episodes. The decision to remove this round would later occur in other international versions, including the British original before its reinstatement in the renewed series.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, the US version changed its format so that contestants were required to answer questions within a set time limit. The limit varied depending on the difficulty of the question:",
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"plaintext": "The clock started immediately after a question was given and the four possible answers appeared. The clock paused when a lifeline was used. If the clock ran out with no answer locked in, the contestant walked away with any prize money won up to that point, unless the Double Dip lifeline had been used, in which case a failure to give a second answer was treated the same as a wrong answer. This format change was later adopted into other international versions – the British original, for example, adopted this change for episodes on 3 August 2010. The Indian version was introduced on 11 October 2010.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 September 2010, the US version adopted another significant change to its format. In this change, the game featured two rounds. The first round consisted of ten questions, in which the cash prize associated to each value, along with the category and difficulty for each question, was randomised per game. As such, the difficulty of the question in this round was not tied to the value associated to it, and a contestant did not know what amount they won unless they provided a correct answer, or chose to walk away. As part of this format, the amount of money a contestant won in this round was banked, but if they walked away before completing the round, they left with half the amount that had been banked; if they gave an incorrect answer during this round, they left with just $1,000. If they answered all ten questions correctly, they then moved on to the second round, which stuck to the standard format of the game show – the remaining questions were set to general knowledge and featured cash prizes of high, non-cumulative values. The contestant could, at this point, walk away with the total amount banked from the first round; otherwise, an incorrect answer meant they left with $25,000. The format was later modified for the fourteenth season of the US version, but retained the same arrangement for the last four questions.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the so-called \"shuffle format\" was scrapped and the show returned to a version that closely resembled the original format.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, the German version modified the show's format with the inclusion of a new feature called \"Risk Mode\". During the main game, contestants are given the choice of choosing this feature, in which if they choose to use it, they gain the use of a fourth lifeline that allows them to discuss question with a member of the audience, in exchange for having no second safety net – if they get any question between the sixth and final cash prize amount wrong, they would leave with the guaranteed amount given for correctly answering five questions. This format became adopted in Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Switzerland and Venezuela.",
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"plaintext": "A different variant has only one custom safety net before the start of the contestant's game.",
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"plaintext": "The Taiwanese version did not have any safety nets or any option to quit; the contestant's winnings won up until they were incorrect on any question was cut by half.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2008, the Italian version modified the format of the show under the title \"Edizione Straordinaria\" (eng. \"Extraordinary Edition\"). In this variation of the game, six contestants take part, with each taking it in turns to answer questions and build up their prize fund. Utilising the time limit format introduced in the US version, this variation on the format grants a contestant the right to pass the question on to another player, who cannot pass it on themselves, while eliminating both the option of walking away from a question, and the use of lifelines. If a contestant cannot pass on or correctly answer a question, they are eliminated, and the highest cash value they made is removed. The game ends when all contestants are eliminated or the question for the highest cash value is answered – if a contestant who answers the final question gives an incorrect answer, they win a small prize and no further questions are played; if all contestants are eliminated before the final question, the last contestant to do so receives nothing, or a small prize if they reach the fifth question safety net. This format was later introduced to various markets over the course of a four-year-period from 2009 to 2012, including Norway, Hungary, Spain, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, and Chile.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, the Australian version was modified to use the new Italian format, and the name was also changed from \"Extraordinary Edition\" to \"Hot Seat\". In 2017, as part of new modification to the format, the game incorporated the use of the Fastest Finger First round, with the winner able to select a lifeline, out of three that the show provided.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, the German version modified the show's format, which runs concurrent with the original format, where only one guaranteed level exists, at €1,000, and maximum prize is €2,000,000.",
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"plaintext": "During a standard play of the game, a contestant is given a series of lifelines to aid them with questions. In the standard format, a contestant has access to three lifelines which each can be used only once per game. More than one lifeline can be used on a single question. The standard lifelines used in the original format of the game show include:",
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"plaintext": " 50:50 (Fifty-Fifty): the game's computer eliminates two wrong answers from the current question, leaving behind the correct answer and one incorrect answer. From 2000, the selection of two incorrect answers were random.",
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"plaintext": " Phone a Friend: the contestant is connected with a friend over a phone line and is given 30 seconds to read the question and answers and solicit assistance. The time begins as soon as the contestant starts reading the question.",
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"plaintext": " Ask the Audience: the audience takes voting pads attached to their seats and votes for the answer that they believe is correct. The computer tallies the results and displays them as percentages to the contestant. This lifeline was removed on international versions with episodes taped without an audience due to the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "In the US, \"Ask the Audience\" and \"Phone a Friend\" had corporate sponsorship at different periods. The original AT&T sponsored \"Phone-a-Friend\" during the original ABC primetime show and the syndicated version's first season; the current AT&T sponsored the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, AOL sponsored \"Ask the Audience\" and allowed users of Instant Messenger to participate in the lifeline by adding the screen name MillionaireIM to their contact list. When a contestant used the lifeline during the show, users would receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers and vote for the correct answer. The computer tallied these results alongside the results from the studio audience.",
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"plaintext": "Contestants pre-select multiple friends for \"Phone a Friend\". As soon as the contestant begins to play, producers alert the friends and ask them to keep their phone lines free and wait for three rings before answering. On 11 January 2010, the US version eliminated the use of \"Phone a Friend\" in response to an increasing trend of contestants' friends using web search engines and other internet resources to assist them during the calls. Producers came to feel that the lifeline was giving contestants who had friends with internet access an unfair advantage; they also believed it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline: friends provided assistance based on what they knew.",
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"plaintext": "During recordings of the current British version, security personnel from the production office stay with contestants' friends at their homes to ensure integrity. During The People Play specials in 2012 and 2013, friends travelled to the studio and stayed backstage. When a contestant used the lifeline, the friend they called appeared on a monitor in the studio, and both the friend and contestant were able to see and communicate with each other.",
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"plaintext": "During the course of the game show's history, there were a number of unique lifeline additions in various versions of the programme:",
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"plaintext": " Switch the Question – Used in the US version between 2004 and 2008, and in the UK original during celebrity specials between 2002–2003 and standard episodes between 2010 and 2014, this lifeline became available after a contestant answered the tenth question of the game. The computer replaced the current question with another of the same difficulty. The contestant could not reinstate any lifelines used on the original question. A variation of this lifeline for the US version called \"Cut the Question\", was brought into use in 2014 for a week-long run of special episodes that featured child contestants, in which it could only be used within the first ten questions. This is also used in the Indian version as a permanent lifeline. However, it is available anytime in the game (except for the highest cash prize question) and participants can choose the topic from which the question is taken from. The difficulty level depends on the cash prize for the question.",
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"plaintext": " Double Dip – One of two lifelines created for the Super Millionaire spin-off of the US version. When used, this lifeline allowed contestants to have two guesses at a question, but forbade them from using any other remaining lifelines or from walking away with their current winnings. Contestants can first use \"50:50\" and then used \"Double Dip\" on the same question, guaranteeing them the correct answer. When the standard US format incorporated a time limit on questions, the show retired \"50:50\" and replaced it with \"Double Dip\". This lifeline was also used in the Russian version (without a clock format) but did not replace 50:50.",
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"plaintext": " Three Wise Men – The other lifeline created for the Super Millionaire. When chosen, a sequestered panel of three experts (chosen by the producers) appears via face-to-face audio and video feed to provide assistance. Like \"Phone a Friend\", this lifeline incorporated a 30-second time limit for its use. This lifeline was also used in the Russian version between 2006 and 2008 but did not feature experts.",
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"plaintext": " Two Wise Men – Used in the Vietnamese version of the show from episodes broadcast on 5 May 2020, replacing \"Ask Three of the Audience\". It has the same function as \"Three Wise Men\", however there are only two experts instead of three. It becomes available after the fifth question.",
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"plaintext": " Ask the Expert – Inspired by \"Three Wise Men\", this lifeline provided the contestant with one person, an expert selected for them, to help with the question. Unlike its predecessor, this lifeline had no time limit on its use, but was only available after the fifth question; after \"Phone a Friend\" was removed in 2010, it was made readily available at any time in the game. In the US version, the lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds. In the Hong Kong edition, it replaced the \"Phone a Friend\" lifeline for one-off special in 2001 and for two celebrity specials in 2018, though, with the celebrity contestants able to ask a panel of experts for help, present in the audience, all of whom had the question and possible answers visible to them.",
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"plaintext": " Ask One of the Audience – Used in the German version of the show, this lifeline was designed for use as part of its \"Risk Mode\" format. When used, the contestant selects someone from the audience, whereupon the host rereads the question and the possible answers and asks them to choose one. If the contestant goes for the answer they chose and it proves correct, the audience member is given a small cash prize in return. This lifeline was implemented as part of the Costa Rican version but made available after passing the first safety net.",
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"plaintext": " Ask Three of the Audience – This lifeline was designed for use as part of its original format. Used in the Vietnamese version of the show from episodes broadcast on 20 May 2008, later replaced by \"Two Wise Men\" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. When used, the contestant selects three from the audiences, whereupon the host rereads the question and the possible answers and asks them to choose one. If the contestant goes for the answer they chose and it proves to be correct, the audience members are given a small cash prize in return (600,000 ₫ divided to members that answered correctly in the 3 audiences). This lifeline was implemented as part of the Vietnamese version but made available after passing the first safety net. In the Philippine version, the lifeline is called \"People Speak\", which can be used at any point in the game.",
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"plaintext": " Jump the Question – Used in the U.S. version of the show, as part of the \"Shuffle Format\", from the start of the ninth season to the end of the thirteenth season. When used, prior to giving a final answer, a contestant would skip the current question and move on to the next one, but would earn no money from the question they skipped; the lifeline could not be used if they have reached the final question. Unlike other lifelines, it could be used twice during a game, except for the thirteenth season – the introduction of \"Plus One\" led to the lifeline being modified as a result. The lifeline was removed following the 2014–15 season.",
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"plaintext": " Crystal Ball – Used in the US version of the show, as part of specially designated weeks that used the \"Shuffle Format\". When used during the first round, the contestant is allowed to see the cash amount that is designated to the question they are currently on.",
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"plaintext": " Plus One – Used in the US version of the show from 2015 to 2019 and since 2020. Based on \"Ask One of the Audience\", the lifeline allows a contestant to invite on a friend from the audience to come and help them answer the question. There is no time limit, but after that question has been answered the friend has to return to the audience. ",
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"plaintext": " Ask the Host – Used in the 20th anniversary of the British original; the Danish, French and Italian revivals; Slovenia; Russia (January 2021 – present) and the 2020 reboot of the American version. When used by the contestant, the host uses their knowledge of a question's subject, gives their thoughts about the question, and tries to assist them with finding the correct answer out of the choices given. The lifeline features no time limit, and the host reassures all they have no connection to the outside world and receive the question and possible answers for it at the same time as the contestant, and thus have no knowledge of what the correct answer is. After the contestant locks in their answer, the host still can't see what the correct answer is, so they must ask the computer to reveal the correct answer.",
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"plaintext": "Out of all contestants who have played the game, relatively few have been able to win the top prize on any international version of the show. The first was John Carpenter, who won the top prize on the American version on 19 November 1999. Carpenter did not use a lifeline until the final question, using his Phone-a-Friend to call his father not for help but to tell him he was about to win the million.",
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"plaintext": "Other notable top-prize winners include Judith Keppel, the first winner of the original British version; Kevin Olmstead from the US version, who won a progressive jackpot of $2.18million; Martin Flood from the Australian version, who was investigated by producers after suspicions that he had cheated, much like Charles Ingram, but was later cleared; Sushil Kumar from the Indian version, who is often referred to in Western media as the \"real-life Slumdog Millionaire\"; Mana Ashida from the Japanese version, who is the youngest winner in the Millionaire franchise; and David Chang, the first celebrity winner of the American version.",
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"plaintext": "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? debuted in Britain on 4 September 1998, with episodes broadcast on the ITV network. When it began airing, the show was hosted by Chris Tarrant, and became an instant hit – at its peak in 1999, one edition of the show was watched by over 19 million viewers. While most of the contestants were predominantly members of the general public who had applied to take part, the show later featured special celebrity editions during its later years, often coinciding with holidays and special events.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 October 2013, Tarrant decided to leave the programme after hosting it for 15 years. His decision subsequently led ITV to make plans to cancel the programme at the end of his contract, with no further specials being made other than those that were already planned. Tarrant's final episode was a special clip show entitled \"Chris' Final Answer\", which aired on 11 February 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Four years later, ITV revived the programme for a special 7-episode series, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the British original. This series of special episodes was hosted by Jeremy Clarkson and aired every evening between 5 and 11 May 2018. The revival received mostly positive reviews from critics and fans, and, as well as high viewing figures, led to ITV renewing the show for another series with Clarkson returning as host.",
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"plaintext": "Since the British original debuted in 1998, several different versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? have been created across the world, including Australia, the United States and India. In total over 100 different international variations have been made.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 April 1999, Nine Network launched an Australian version of the game show for its viewers. This version ran until its final episode, aired on 3 April 2006. After the first version ended, a second version was created, running for six episodes across October and November 2007, before a third version, entitled Millionaire Hot Seat, made its debut on 20 April 2009. The original version was hosted by Eddie McGuire, until he was forced to sacrifice his on-air commitments upon being made the CEO of the network; after his resignation from this role, he resumed his duties as host of subsequent versions of the programme.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 August 1999, ABC launched an American version of the game show for its primetime viewers. Hosted by Regis Philbin, it proved to be a ratings success, becoming the highest-rated television show during the 1999–2000 season, with its average audience figures reaching approximately 29 million viewers. After a drop in ratings, this version was cancelled, with its final episode aired on 27 June 2002. On 16 September 2002, Meredith Vieira launched a daily syndicated version of the programme, which she hosted for 11 seasons, until May 2013. After her departure, the show was hosted by Cedric the Entertainer in 2013, and Terry Crews in 2014, before Chris Harrison took full hosting responsibilities in Autumn 2015. On 17 May 2019, the American version was cancelled after a total of 17 seasons and 20 years encompassing both primetime and first-run syndication; the final episode of the series was broadcast on 31 May. However, ABC reversed the cancellation of the programme on 8 January 2020, announcing plans for a twenty-first season, consisting of nine episodes, to be presented by Jimmy Kimmel starting 8 April.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 October 1999, NTV launched a Russian version the game show, entitled О, счастливчик! (\"Oh, lucky man!\"). This version ran until its final episode on 28 January 2001, whereupon a few weeks later it was relaunched under the Russian translation of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, on Channel One. The relaunched version was hosted by Maxim Galkin until 2008, when he was replaced as host by Dmitry Dibrov.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 July 2000, an Indian version of the game show was launched. The show was hosted by Amitabh Bachchan in his first appearance on Indian television, and received additional seasons in 2005–06, 2007, and then every year since 2010. Subsequent Indian versions were also made, including one on 9 April 2012 entitled Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran, and hosted by Suresh Gopi. The original Indian version became immortalised in 2008, within the plot of Danny Boyle's award-winning drama film Slumdog Millionaire, adapted from the 2005 Indian novel Q & A by Vikas Swarup.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 September 2010 a Sinhalese version called \"Obada lakshapathi mamada lakshapathi\" (ඔබද ලක්ෂපති මමද ලක්ෂපති) was launched by Sirasa TV of Capital Maharaja Television Network. Since then, it has grown its popularity immensely through local audiences. It is presented by Chandana Suriyabandara, a senior commentator in Sri Lanka. It offers 2 million rupees (Sri Lankan rupees; LKR) as the ultimate prize. On the occasion of the 10th anniversary, it's re-branded as a Who wants to be a ලක්ෂපති.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, a Filipino version of the game show was launched by the government-sequestered Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation. Hosted by Christopher de Leon, and produced by Viva Television, it ran for two years before being axed. On 23 May 2009, the show was relaunched on TV5, with Vic Sotto as the new host. The relaunched version was aired until 7 October 2012, when it was replaced by the Philippine version of The Million Pound Drop Live, but returned the following year on 15 September 2013, following the success of Talentadong Pinoy that year.",
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"plaintext": "Chi vuol essere miliardario? was first launched by Endemol on Canale 5 in 2000. In 2002, it changed its name to \"Chi vuol essere milionario?\" after the Italian Lira was replaced with the Euro. In 2018 it broadcast four special episodes for the 20th anniversary, followed by another eight special episodes in 2019, but the new season is produced by Fremantle Italia's unit Wavy. The host was Gerry Scotti for every edition from 2000 to 2011 and for the 20th anniversary special edition.",
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"plaintext": "Ko Banchha Crorepati (Who Wants to have Ten Million; also simply known as KBC Nepal, Nepali: को बन्छ करोडपति) is a Nepali television game show based on the British programme Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? The show first premiered on 2 February 2019 on AP1 Television, scheduled to run for 52 episodes. It is hosted by Rajesh Hamal and produced by SRBN Media Pvt. Ltd. Contestants can win cash prizes up to 1 crore (10 million) Nepali rupees.",
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"plaintext": "¿Quién quiere ser millonario? (English translation: Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?) is the Costa Rican version, hosted by Ignacio Santos Pasamontes. The main goal of the game is to win 30,000,000 Costa Rican colón (US$50,434 as of August 2020) by answering 15 multiple-choice questions correctly. There are four lifelines – fifty fifty, phone a friend, ask the audience and ask one person from audience. ¿Quién quiere ser millonario? was broadcast from 3 February 2009 to 3 September 2013. It is shown on the private TV station Teletica. When a contestant gets the fifth question correct, he leaves with at least ₡500,000. When a contestant gets the tenth question correct, he leaves with at least ₡3,000,000. Only one contestant won top prize.",
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"plaintext": "Other notable versions created in other countries, include the following:",
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"plaintext": " In 1999, a Dutch version of the game show, entitled Lotto Weekend Miljonairs, was launched on SBS 6. It was hosted by Robert ten Brink. In 2006, the show was moved to RTL 4 until it was cancelled in 2008. The show was later revived on SBS 6 in 2011 with as host Jeroen van der Boom. In 2019 the show was relaunched on RTL 4 with a new name: Bankgiro Miljonairs, hosted again by Robert ten Brink.",
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"plaintext": " On 3 September 1999, a German version was launched by RTL Television, with Günther Jauch hosting the game show.",
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"plaintext": " In Poland, it is called Milionerzy and it is aired in TVN between years 1999–2003, 2008–2010 and since 2017.",
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"plaintext": " In 2000, the Hungarian version of the show, Legyen Ön is milliomos! was launched on RTL. Its iconic host was István Vágó until 2008, for 1098 times, mainly weeknights. It aired in 2009 lead by the famous stand-up comedian Sándor Fábry (axed after 6 normal and 3 Hot Seat shows), then in 2012-'13 by Sándor Friderikusz (two times a week). In 2019 the show relaunched again on RTL's rival brand TV2, hosted by an experienced quizshow leader Gábor Gundel-Takács. Nevertheless the revival aired only 42 times, thus it went off weeknights, which led to a radical decline from the start of 5% SHR in ratings. The host told the audience in a Facebook video that the show would have been needed to air earlier than 21:20 (CET) to avoid timeshift changes due to the much-edited popular reality Exatlon Hungary.",
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"plaintext": " The unlicensed Taiwanese version of the show, (Chao Ji Da Fu Weng), was hosted by Hsieh Chen-wu, and ran until 2006. Unlike other versions, the Taiwanese version saw major differences: the contestant may not walk away at any level, and there are no milestone levels; if the contestant misses a question, any winnings won up to the point they were incorrect was cut by half. As the show was live broadcast, the \"Ask the Audience\" lifeline now rely on the viewers across Taiwan. This is also one of the earliest versions to adopt the Clock format, which would later be adopted in the American version starting in the 2009 season.",
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"plaintext": " On 20 April 2000, a Japanese version called Quiz $ Millionaire was launched by Fuji Television. Hosted by Monta Mino, it ran as a weekly programme for seven years, after which it aired as occasional specials; the final episode aired on 2 January 2013.",
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"plaintext": " On 3 July 2000, a French version, Qui veut gagner des millions ?, was launched on the TF1 network, and hosted by Jean-Pierre Foucault and since 26 January 2019 by Camille Combal. In 2020, following the COVID-19 pandemic, a special 'At home' edition is introduced in order to comply with the national lockdown. Celebrities compete from home in order to win money for charity. The show was filmed from the host's house in the first episodes and saw the introduction of a new lifeline to replace Ask the audience, l'Appel à la maison or phone home which allowed the contestants to call a viewer of the show at home.",
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"plaintext": " On 13–14 September 2000, a Canadian version, entitled Canadian Edition, was broadcast in Canada on CTV. It was hosted by newscaster Pamela Wallin.",
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"plaintext": " On 15 September 2000, a Slovak version of the game show, entitled Milionár, was launched on Markíza. It was hosted by Martin Nikodým. In 2007, the show was moved to Jednotka until it was cancelled in 2008.",
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"plaintext": " On 16 October 2000, a Czech version of the game show, Chcete být milionářem?, was launched on TV Nova and it was hosted by Vladimír Čech. The first million-winner was Zdeněk Jánský in 2002. Vladimír Čech was removed from the show and was replaced by Martin Preiss in 2003. Preiss hosted show for a year. In 2005 he was replaced by Ondřej Hejma – Czech musician. He hosted the very last episodes of the original programme. In June 2005 the show on TV Nova was cancelled. In February 2008 was the show launched on FTV Prima as a syndicated version – on daily evening before the main TV News at 19:30. The show was entitled Milionář and hosted by Roman Šmucler. The show was cancelled in the same year. In 2016 TV Nova returned the show with the original name Chcete být milionářem? For now, the show was hosted by the Czech actor Marek Vašut, but it ran for just a one-season and then it was cancelled. The main prize of Chcete být milionářem was 10 million Czech crowns, in Milionář it was 2 million crowns.",
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"plaintext": " In 2001, a Hong Kong version called Baak Maan Fu Yung was launched by Asia Television. It ran until 2005, and was hosted by actor Kenneth Chan.",
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"plaintext": " Singapore hosted its own version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in both English and Chinese versions (dubbed Bai wan da ying jia), and ran from 2000 until 2004. It was hosted by Mark van Cuylenberg (or simply known by the stage name of 'The Flying Dutchman') in the English version, and Taiwanese actor Timothy Chao in the Chinese version. The series produced no top prize winners on either versions, but one contestant, Steven Tan, won $250,000 on 27 December 2001, and Tan remained as the biggest cash winner in Singaporean game show's history since.",
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"plaintext": " Vietnam launched its own version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire in 2005, and the version has been maintaining until the present.",
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"plaintext": " In 2007, a Chinese version was launched, hosted by Lǐ Fán. It ran until April 2008.",
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"plaintext": " On 6 May 2017, a Brazilian version entitled Quem quer ser um milionário (which is a segment of the variety show Domingão com Huck) premiered on Rede Globo. A similar show entitled Show do Milhão (which was hosted by Silvio Santos) aired on SBT between 1999 and 2003 (with a further revival in 2009 and 2021, the latter with the sponsorship of the Brazilian fintech application PicPay and hosted by Celso Portiolli).",
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"plaintext": " On 11 August 2018, a Mauritian version was launched on MBC 1 by the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation. The show is presented by Sandra Mayotte, the 14th female host in the Millionaire franchise.",
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"plaintext": "Стани Богат (literally \"Become rich\") is the Bulgarian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionare?. It first aired on NOVA, later on BNT 1 and finally on BTV.",
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"plaintext": "The musical score most commonly associated with the franchise was composed by father-and-son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. The Strachans' score provides drama and tension, and unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaires musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans' main Millionaire theme song takes inspiration from the \"Mars\" movement of Gustav Holst's The Planets, and their cues from the 6th/3rd to 10th/7th question, and then from the 11th/8th question onwards, take the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On Game Show Network (GSN)'s Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as \"mimicking the sound of a beating heart\", and stated that as the contestant works their way up the money ladder, the music is \"perfectly in tune with their ever-increasing pulse\".",
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"plaintext": "The Strachans' Millionaire soundtrack was honoured by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers with numerous awards, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the U.S. version's clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the \"ticking\" sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favour of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles-based company Ah2 Music.",
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"plaintext": "The basic set design used in the Millionaire franchise was conceived by British production designer Andy Walmsley, and is the most reproduced scenic design in television history. Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant(s) feel at ease, Millionaires set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the programme feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. The main game typically has the contestant and host sit in \"Hot Seats\", which are slightly-modified, -high Pietranera Arco All chairs situated in the centre of the stage; an LG computer monitor directly facing each seat displays questions and other pertinent information.",
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"plaintext": "The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporised, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside a prison while an escape was in progress.",
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"plaintext": "When the U.S. Millionaire introduced its shuffle format, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. According to Vieira, the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer. Also, two video screens were installed–one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernised look and feel, in order to take into account the show's transition to high-definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light-emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colours and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.",
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"plaintext": "Millionaire has made catchphrases out of several lines used on the show. The most well-known of these catchphrases is the host's question \"Is that your final answer?\", asked whenever a contestant's answer needs to be verified. The question is asked because the rules require that the contestants must clearly indicate their choices before they are made official, the nature of the game allowing them to ponder the options before committing to an answer. Regularly on tier-three questions (and sometimes on tier-two), a dramatic pause occurs between the contestant's statement of their answer and the host's acknowledgement of whether or not it is correct.",
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"plaintext": "Many parodies of Millionaire have capitalised on the \"final answer\" catchphrase. In the United States, the phrase was popularised by Philbin during his tenure as the host of that country's version, to the extent that TV Land listed it in its special 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases, which aired in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "On the Australian versions, McGuire replaces the phrase with \"Lock it in?\"; likewise, the hosts of the Indian version have used varying \"lock\" catchphrases. There are also a number of other non-English versions of Millionaire where the host does not ask \"[Is that your] final answer?\" or a literal translation thereof. Besides the \"final answer\" question, other catchphrases used on the show include the contestants' requests to use lifelines, such as \"I'd like to phone a friend\"; and a line that Tarrant spoke whenever a contestant was struggling with a particular question, \"Some questions are only easy if you know the answer.\"",
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"plaintext": "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? has been credited with single-handedly reviving interest in, and breaking new ground for, the television game show. It revolutionised the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the most popular game shows in television history, and is credited by some with paving the way for the phenomenon of reality programming.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, the British Film Institute honoured the UK version of Millionaire by ranking it number 23 on its \"BFI TV 100\" list, which compiled what British television industry professionals believed were the greatest programmes to have ever originated from that country. The UK Millionaire also won the 1999 British Academy Television Award for Best Entertainment Programme, and seven National Television Awards for Most Popular Quiz Programme from 1999 to 2005.",
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"plaintext": "The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game/Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honoured with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005 and another in 2009, making her the second woman to win an Emmy Award for hosting a game show, and the first to win multiple times. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire No. 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it No. 6 on its 2013 \"60 Greatest Game Shows\" list. GSN ranked Millionaire No. 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honoured the show in January 2007 on its first, and so far only, Gameshow Hall of Fame special.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2001, British Army Major Charles Ingram apparently won the top prize in the UK Millionaire, but his flip-flopping on each of the final two questions raised suspicion of cheating. When the footage was reviewed, staff made a connection between Fastest Finger contestant Tecwen Whittock's coughing and Ingram's answers. The prize was withheld, and police were called in to investigate the matter further.",
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"plaintext": "Three board game adaptations of the UK Millionaire were released by Upstarts in 1998, and a junior edition recommended for younger players was introduced in 2001. The U.S. version also saw two board games of its own, released by Pressman Toy Corporation in 2000. Other Millionaire board games have included a game based on the Australian version's Hot Seat format, which was released by UGames; a game based on the Italian version released by Hasbro; and a game based on the French version which was released by TF1's games division.",
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"plaintext": "The UK Millionaire saw five video game adaptations for personal computers and Sony's PlayStation and Sega's Dreamcast consoles, as well as Nintendo's Game Boy Advance, produced by Hothouse Creations and Eidos Interactive. Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five games based on the U.S. network version for PCs and the PlayStation, all of them featuring Philbin's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations—Who Wants to Be a Millionaire—was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports-themed, and another was a \"Kids Edition\" featuring easier questions. Eurocom ported the game to the Game Boy Color for the second edition. Two additional U.S. Millionaire games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo's Wii console and DS handheld system, as well as a PlayStation 3 port of the Wii version, based on the 2008–10 clock format, with the Wii version offered on the show as a consolation prize to audience contestants during the 2010–11 season. The second, for Microsoft's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format and was offered as a consolation prize during the next season (2011–12).",
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"plaintext": "Ludia also made a Facebook game based on Millionaire available to players in North America from 2011 to 2016. This game featured an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve—eight in round one and four in round two. Contestants competed against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, with the top three playing round two alone. There was no \"final answer\" rule; the contestant's responses were automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earned a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants were allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2001, Celador signed a deal with DIC Entertainment to produce a cartoon based on the show titled The Adventures of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? – The Animated Series. The series was to follow fictional winners of the show, who would have used their prize money to take trips to various exotic locations, while the fictional host would keep in touch with them through the Millionaire Command Center.",
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38,165 | 1,096,964,654 | Lingerie | [
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"plaintext": "Lingerie (, , ) is a category of primarily women's clothing including undergarments (mainly brassieres), sleepwear, and lightweight robes. The choice of the word is often motivated by an intention to imply that the garments are alluring, fashionable, or both. In a 2015 US survey, 75% of women and 26% of men reported having worn sexy lingerie in their lifetime.",
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"plaintext": "Lingerie is made of lightweight, stretchy, smooth, sheer or decorative fabrics such as silk, satin, Lycra, charmeuse, chiffon, or (especially and traditionally) lace. These fabrics can be made of natural fibres like silk or cotton or of synthetic fibres like polyester or nylon.",
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"plaintext": "The word lingerie is a word taken directly from the French language, meaning undergarments, and used exclusively for more lightweight items of female undergarments. The French word in its original form derives from the French word linge, meaning 'linen' or 'clothes'. Lingerie as a word was first used to refer to underwear and bras in 1922. Informal usage suggests visually appealing or even erotic clothing. Although most lingerie is designed to be worn by women, some manufacturers now design lingerie for men.",
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"plaintext": "The concept of lingerie as a visually appealing undergarment was developed during the late nineteenth century. Lady Duff-Gordon of Lucile was a pioneer in developing lingerie that freed women from more restrictive corsets. Through the first half of the 20th century, women wore underwear for three primary reasons: to alter their outward shape (first with corsets and later with girdles or brassieres), for hygienic reasons and for modesty. Before the invention of crinoline, women's underwear was often very large and bulky.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 19th century, corsets became smaller, less bulky and more constricting and were gradually supplanted by the brassiere, first patented in the 20th century by Mary Phelps Jacob. When the First World War broke out, women found themselves filling in men's work roles, creating a demand for more practical undergarments. Manufacturers began to use lighter and more breathable fabrics. In 1935, brassières were updated with padded cups to flatter small breasts and three years later underwire bras were introduced that gave a protruding bustline. There was also a return to a small waist achieved with girdles. The 1940s woman was thin, but had curvaceous hips and breasts that were pointy and shapely. In the 1960s, the female silhouette was liberated along with social mores. The look was adolescent breasts, slim hips, and extreme thinness. André Courrèges was the first to make a fashion statement out of the youth culture when his 1965 collection presented androgynous figures and the image of a modern woman comfortable with her own body.",
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"plaintext": "As the 20th century progressed, underwear became smaller and more form fitting. In the 1960s, lingerie manufacturers such as Frederick's of Hollywood begin to glamorise lingerie. The lingerie industry expanded in the 21st century with designs that doubled as outerwear. The French refer to this as 'dessous-dessus,' meaning something akin to innerwear as outerwear.",
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"plaintext": "The global lingerie market in 2003 was estimated at $29 billion, while in 2005, bras accounted for 56 percent of the lingerie market and briefs represented 29 percent. The United States's largest lingerie retailer, Victoria's Secret, operates almost exclusively in North America, but the European market is fragmented, with Triumph International and DB Apparel predominant. Also prominent are French lingerie houses, including Chantelle and Aubade.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2020 The Guardian reported a trend for male lingerie on the catwalk and predictions as to the likelihood of it successfully extending to the high street fashion stores.",
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"plaintext": " Babydoll, a short nightgown, or negligee, intended as nightwear for women. A shorter style, it is often worn with panties. Babydolls are typically loose-fitting with an empire waist and thin straps.",
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"plaintext": " Bloomers, baggy underwear that extends to just below or above the knee. Bloomers were worn for several decades during the first part of the 20th century, but are not widely worn today.",
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"plaintext": " Bodystocking, a unitard. Bodystockings may be worn over the torso, or they may be worn over the thighs and abdomen.",
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"plaintext": " Brassiere, more commonly referred to as a bra, a close-fitting garment that is worn to help lift and support a woman's breasts",
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"plaintext": " Camisole, sleeveless and covering the top part of the body. Camisoles are typically constructed of light materials and feature thin \"spaghetti straps\".",
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"plaintext": " Chemise, a one-piece undergarment that is the same in shape as a straight-hanging sleeveless dress. It is similar to the babydoll, but it is fitted more closely around the hips.",
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"plaintext": " Corset, a bodice worn to mould and shape the torso. This effect is typically achieved through boning, either of bone or steel.",
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"plaintext": " Corselet, or merry widow, combined brassiere and girdle. The corselet is considered to be a type of foundation garment, and the modern corselet is most commonly known as a shaping slip.",
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"plaintext": " G-string, or thong, a type of panty, characterised by a narrow piece of cloth that passes between the buttocks and is attached to a band around the hips. A G-string or thong may be worn as a bikini bottom or as underwear.",
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"plaintext": " Garter/Garter belt/Suspender belt (British), used to keep stockings up.",
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"plaintext": " Girdle, a type of foundation garment. Historically, the girdle extended from the waist to the upper thigh, though modern styles more closely resemble a tight pair of athletic shorts.",
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"plaintext": " Hosiery, close-fitting, elastic garments that cover the feet and legs.",
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"plaintext": " Negligee, a dressing gown. It is usually floor length, though it can be knee length as well.",
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"plaintext": " Nightgown, or nightie, a loosely hanging item of nightwear, may vary from hip-length (babydoll) to floor-length (peignoir).",
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"plaintext": " Panties or knickers, a generic term for underwear covering the genitals and sometimes buttocks that come in all shapes, fabrics and colours, offering varying degrees of coverage. ",
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"plaintext": " Petticoat, an underskirt. Petticoats were prominent throughout the 16th to 20th centuries. Today, petticoats are typically worn to add fullness to skirts in the Gothic and Lolita subcultures.",
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"plaintext": " Pettipants, a type of bloomer featuring ruffles, resembling petticoats. Pettipants are most commonly worn by square dancers and people participating in historical reenactment.",
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"plaintext": " Undergarment, a garment which one wears underneath clothes. Also known as \"underwear.\"",
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"plaintext": " Carter, Alison J. (1992). Underwear: the fashion history. Batsford. ",
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"plaintext": " Cox, Caroline (2000). Lingerie: a lexicon of style. Scriptum Editions. ",
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38,166 | 1,105,273,144 | Avignon | [
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"plaintext": "Avignon (, ; ; or , ; ) is the prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of Southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the commune had a population of 93,671 as of the census results of 2017, with about 16,000 (estimate from Avignon's municipal services) living in the ancient town centre enclosed by its medieval walls. It is France's 35th largest metropolitan area according to INSEE with 336,135 inhabitants (2019), and France's 13th largest urban unit with 458,828 inhabitants (2019). Its urban area was the fastest-growing in France from 1999 until 2010 with an increase of 76% of its population and an area increase of 136%. The Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Avignon, a cooperation structure of 16 communes, had 192,785 inhabitants in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1309 and 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, seven successive popes resided in Avignon and in 1348 Pope Clement VI bought the town from Joanna I of Naples. Papal control persisted until 1791 when during the French Revolution it became part of France. The city is now the capital of the Vaucluse department and one of the few French cities to have preserved its city walls.",
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"plaintext": "The historic centre, which includes the Palais des Papes, the cathedral and the Pont d'Avignon, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 because of its architecture and importance during the 14th and 15th centuries. The medieval monuments and the annual Festival d'Avignon (commonly called: \"Festival In d'Avignon\") and its accompanying Festival Off d'Avignon - one of the world's largest festivals for performing arts, have helped to make the town a major centre for tourism.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest forms of the name were reported by the Greeks: Aueniṑn (Stephen of Byzantium, Strabo, IV, 1, 11) and Aouenníōn (Ptolemy II, x).",
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"plaintext": "The Roman name Avennĭo Cavărum (Mela, II, 575, Pliny III, 36), i.e. \"Avignon of Cavares\", accurately shows that Avignon was one of the three cities of the Celtic-Ligurian tribe of Cavares, along with Cavaillon and Orange.",
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"plaintext": "The current name dates to a pre-Indo-European or pre-Latin theme ab-ên with the suffix -i-ōn(e). This theme would be a hydronym – i.e. a name linked to the river (Rhône), but perhaps also an oronym of terrain (the Rocher des Doms).",
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"plaintext": "The Auenion of the 1st century BC was Latinized to Avennĭo (or Avēnĭo), -ōnis in the 1st century and is written Avinhon in classic Occitan spelling or Avignoun in Mistralian spelling. The inhabitants of the commune are called avinhonencs or avignounen in both standard Occitan and Provençal dialect.",
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"plaintext": "Avignon is on the left bank of the Rhône river, a few kilometres above its confluence with the Durance, about south-east of Paris, south of Lyon and north-north-west of Marseille. On the west it shares a border with the department of Gard and the communes of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon and Les Angles and to the south it borders the department of Bouches-du-Rhône and the communes of Barbentane, Rognonas, Châteaurenard, and Noves.",
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"plaintext": "The city is in the vicinity of Orange (north), Nîmes, Montpellier (south-west), Arles (to the south), Salon-de-Provence, and Marseille (south-east). Directly contiguous to the east and north are the communes of Caumont-sur-Durance, Morières-lès-Avignon, Le Pontet, and Sorgues.",
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"plaintext": "The region around Avignon is very rich in limestone which is used for building material. For example, the current city walls, measuring 4,330 metres long, were built with the soft limestone abundant in the region called mollasse burdigalienne.",
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"plaintext": "Enclosed by the city walls, the Rocher des Doms is a limestone elevation of Urgonian type, 35 metres high (and therefore safe from flooding of the Rhone which it overlooks) and is the original core of the city. Several limestone massifs are present around the commune (the Massif des Angles, Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, Alpilles...) and they are partly the result of the oceanisation of the Ligurian-Provençal basin following the migration of the Sardo-Corsican block.",
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"plaintext": "The other significant elevation in the commune is the Montfavet Hill – a wooded hill in the east of the commune.",
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"plaintext": "The Rhone Valley is an old alluvial zone: loose deposits cover much of the ground. It consists of sandy alluvium more or less coloured with pebbles consisting mainly of siliceous rocks. The islands in the Rhone, such as the Île de la Barthelasse, were created by the accumulation of alluvial deposits and also by the work of man. The relief is quite low despite the creation of mounds allowing local protection from flooding.",
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"plaintext": "In the land around the city there are clay, silt, sand, and limestone present.",
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"plaintext": "The Rhone passes the western edge of the city, but is divided into two branches: the Petit Rhône, or \"dead arm\", for the part that passes next to Avignon and the Grand Rhône, or \"live arm\", for the western channel which passes Villeneuve-lès-Avignon in the Gard department. The two branches are separated by an island, the Île de la Barthelasse. The southernmost tip of the Île de la Barthelasse once formed of a separated island, the L'Île de Piot.",
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"plaintext": "The banks of the Rhone and the Île de la Barthelasse are often subject to flooding during autumn and March. The publication Floods in France since the 6th century until today – research and documentation by Maurice Champion tells about a number of them (until 1862, the flood of 1856 was one of the largest, which destroyed part of the walls). They have never really stopped as shown by the floods in 1943–1944 and again on 23 January 1955 and remain important today – such as the floods of 2 December 2003. As a result, a new risk mapping has been developed.",
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"plaintext": "The Durance flows along the southern boundary of the commune into the Rhone and marks the departmental boundary with Bouches-du-Rhône. It is a river that is considered \"capricious\" and once feared for its floods (it was once called the \"3rd scourge of Provence\" as well as for its low water: the Durance has both Alpine and Mediterranean morphology which is unusual.",
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"plaintext": "There are many natural and artificial water lakes in the commune such as the Lake of Saint-Chamand east of the city.",
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"plaintext": "There have been many diversions throughout the course of history, such as feeding the moat surrounding Avignon or irrigating crops.",
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"plaintext": "In the 10th century part of the waters from the Sorgue d'Entraigues were diverted and today pass under the walls to enter the city. (See Sorgue). This watercourse is called the Vaucluse Canal but Avignon people still call it the Sorgue or Sorguette. It is visible in the city in the Rue des teinturiers (street of dyers). It fed the moat around the first defensive walls then fed the moat on the newer eastern city walls (14th century). In the 13th century (under an Act signed in 1229) part of the waters of the Durance were diverted to increase the water available for the moats starting from Bonpas. This river was later called the Durançole. The Durançole fed the western moats of the city and was also used to irrigate crops at Montfavet. In the city, these streams are often hidden beneath the streets and houses and are currently used to collect sewerage. ",
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"plaintext": "The Hospital Canal (joining the Durançole) and the Crillon Canal (1775) were dug to irrigate the territories of Montfavet, Pontet, and Vedène. They were divided into numerous \"fioles\" or \"filioles\" (in Provençal filhòlas or fiolo). Similarly, to irrigate the gardens of the wealthy south of Avignon, the Puy Canal was dug (1808). All of these canals took their water from the Durance. These canals were initially used to flood the land, which was very stony, to fertilize them by deposition of silt. ",
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"plaintext": "All of these canals have been used to operate many mills.",
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"plaintext": "Under the new seismic zoning of France defined in Decree No. 2010-1255 of 22 October 2010 concerning the delimitation of the seismicity of the French territory and which entered into force on 1 May 2011, Avignon is located in an area of moderate seismicity. The previous zoning is shown below for reference.",
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"plaintext": "\"The cantons of Bonnieux, Apt, Cadenet, Cavaillon, and Pertuis are classified in zone Ib (low risk). All other cantons the Vaucluse department, including Avignon, are classified Ia (very low risk). This zoning is for exceptional seismicity resulting in the destruction of buildings.\".",
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"plaintext": "The presence of faults in the limestone substrate shows that significant tectonic shift has caused earthquakes in different geological ages. The last major earthquake of significant magnitude was on 11 June 1909. It left a visible trace in the centre of the city since the bell tower of the Augustinians, which is surmounted by an ancient campanile of wrought iron, located in Rue Carreterie, remained slightly leaning as a result of this earthquake.",
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"plaintext": "Avignon has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), though the dry-summer effect is not as strong as coastal locations like Marseille due to its more sheltered inland location. With mild-cool winters and hot summers, with moderate rainfall year-round. July and August are the hottest months with average daily maximum temperatures of around 28°C, and January and February the coldest with average daily maximum temperatures of around 9°C. The wettest month is September, with a rain average of 102 millimetres, and the driest month is July, when the monthly average rainfall is 37 millimetres. The city is often subject to windy weather; the strongest wind is the mistral. A medieval Latin proverb said of the city: Avenie ventosa, sine vento venenosa, cum vento fastidiosa (Windy Avignon, pest-ridden when there is no wind, wind-pestered when there is).",
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"plaintext": "According to Météo-France the number of days per year with rain above 2.5 litres per square metre is 45 and the amount of water, rain and snow combined is 660 litres per square metre. Average temperatures vary between 0 and 30°C depending on the season. The record temperature record since the existence of the weather station at Orange is 40.7°C on 26 July 1983 and the record lowest was −14.5°C on 2 February 1956.",
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"plaintext": "The prevailing wind is the mistral for which the windspeed can be beyond 110km/h. It blows between 120 and 160 days per year with an average speed of 90km/h in gusts. The following table shows the different speeds of the mistral recorded by Orange and Carpentras Serres stations in the southern Rhone valley and its frequency in 2006. Normal corresponds to the average of the last 53 years from Orange weather reports and that of the last 42 at Carpentras.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the commune had 91,921 inhabitants. ",
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"plaintext": "Avignon is the prefecture (capital) of Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region. It forms the core of the Grand Avignon metropolitan area (communauté d'agglomération), which comprises 15 communes on both sides of the river:",
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"plaintext": "Avignon is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": "Avignon absorbed Montfavet between 1790 and 1794 then ceded Morières-lès-Avignon in 1870 and Le Pontet in 1925. On 16 May 2007 the commune of Les Angles in Gard ceded 13 hectares to Avignon.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Avignon has an area of 64.78km2 and a population of 92,078 inhabitants in 2010 and is ranked as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Avignon is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Vaucluse which manages the Avignon – Caumont Airport and the Avignon-Le Pontet Docks.",
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"plaintext": "Avignon has 7,000 businesses, 1,550 associations, 1,764 shops, and 1,305 service providers. The urban area has one of the largest catchment areas in Europe with more than 300,000 square metres of retail space and 469 m2 per thousand population against 270 on average in France. The commercial area of Avignon Nord is one of the largest in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The tertiary sector is the most dynamic in the department by far on the basis of the significant production of early fruit and vegetables in Vaucluse, The MIN (Market of National Importance) has become the pivotal hub of commercial activity in the department, taking precedence over other local markets (including that of Carpentras).",
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"plaintext": "A Sensitive urban zone was created for companies wanting to relocate with exemptions from tax and social issues. It is located south of Avignon between the city walls and the Durance located in the districts of Croix Rouge, Monclar, Saint-Chamand, and La Rocade.",
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"plaintext": "There are nine main areas of economic activity in Avignon.",
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"plaintext": "The Courtine area is the largest with nearly 300 businesses (of which roughly half are service establishments, one third are shops, and the rest related to industry) and more than 3,600 jobs. The site covers an area of 300 hectares and is located south-west of the city at the TGV railway station.",
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"plaintext": "Then comes the Fontcouverte area with a hundred establishments representing a thousand jobs. It is, however, more oriented towards shops than the Courtine area.",
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"plaintext": "The MIN area of Avignon is the Agroparc area (or \"Technopole Agroparc\"). The Cristole area is contiguous and both have a little less than a hundred establishments.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, the areas of Castelette, Croix de Noves, Realpanier, and the airport each have fewer than 25 establishments spread between service activities and shops. The area of the Castelette alone represents more than 600 jobs – i.e. 100 more than Cristole.",
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"plaintext": "Four million visitors come annually to visit the city and the region and also for its festival. In 2011 the most visited tourist attraction was the Palais des Papes with 572,972 paying visitors. The annual Festival d'Avignon is the most important cultural event in the city. The official festival attracted 135,800 people in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "River tourism began in 1994 with three river boat-hotels. In 2011 there is a fleet of 21 river boat-hotel vessels, including six sight-seeing boats which are anchored on the quay along the Oulle walkways. In addition, a free shuttle boat connects Avignon to the Île de la Barthelasse and, as of 1987, a harbor master has managed all river traffic.",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": "The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": "The city is the headquarters of the International Association of the Mediterranean tomato, the World Council of the tomato industry, and the Inter-Rhône organisation.",
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"plaintext": "Only EDF (Grand Delta) with about 850 employees and Onet Propreté with just over 300 exceed 100 employees.",
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"plaintext": "The Henri Duffaut hospital, the City of Avignon, and the CHS of Montfavet are the largest employers in the town with about 2,000 employees each. Then comes the General Council of Vaucluse with about 1,300 employees.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "In 2017 the unemployment rate was 26.0% while it was 20.7% in 2007. There are 38,731 people in the Avignon workforce: 102 (0.3%) agricultural workers, 2,194 (5.7%) tradesmen, shopkeepers, and business managers, 5,598 (14.5%) managers and intellectuals, 8,486 (21.9%) middle managers, 11,734 (30.3%) employees, and 9,247 (23.9%) workers.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Avignon is close to two motorways:",
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},
{
"plaintext": "the A7 autoroute (E714) is a north–south axis on which there are two exits: Avignon-Nord (Northern districts of Avignon, Le Pontet, Carpentras) and Avignon-Sud (Southern districts of Avignon, Avignon-Caumont Airport);",
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{
"plaintext": "the A9 autoroute (E15) which branches from the A7 near Orange along a north-east south-west axis towards Spain.",
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"plaintext": "The main roads are:",
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{
"plaintext": " Route nationale N100 which goes west to Remoulins",
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{
"plaintext": " The D225 which goes north towards Entraigues-sur-la-Sorgue",
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"plaintext": " The D62 which goes north-east to Vedène",
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{
"plaintext": " The D28 which goes east to Saint-Saturnin-lès-Avignon",
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{
"plaintext": " The D901 which goes south-east to Morières-lès-Avignon",
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{
"plaintext": " Route nationale N570 which goes south to Rognonas",
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"plaintext": "The city has nine paid multi-storey car parks with a total of 7,100 spaces, multi-storey car parks under surveillance with a capacity for 2,050 cars with a free shuttle to the city centre, as well as five other free parking areas with a capacity of 900 cars.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Transport",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Avignon is served by two railway stations: the historic station built in 1860, the Gare d'Avignon-Centre, just outside the city walls, which can accommodate any type of train and, since 2001, the Gare d'Avignon TGV in the 'Courtine' district south of the city, on the LGV Méditerranée line. Since December 2013 the two stations have been connected by a link line – the Virgule. The Montfavet district, which was formerly a separate commune, also has a station.",
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{
"plaintext": "The Avignon - Caumont Airport on the south-eastern commune border has several international routes to England. The major airport in the region with domestic and international scheduled passenger service is the Marseille Provence Airport.",
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"plaintext": "The Rhône has for many centuries been an important means of transportation for the city. River traffic in Avignon has two commercial ports, docking stations for boat cruises, and various riverfront developments. A free shuttle boat has been established between the quay near the city walls and the opposite bank (the île de la Barthelasse).",
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"plaintext": "The (TCRA) is the public transport operator for the commune of Avignon and its surrounding suburbs. TCRA operates bus services, as well as bike sharing and car pooling services. The first tram line opened in October 2019.",
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{
"plaintext": "Avignon has of bicycle paths. In 2009 the TCRA introduced a bicycle sharing system called the Vélopop'.",
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"plaintext": "Avignon has a very large number of sites and buildings (177) that are registered as historical monuments.",
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"plaintext": "In the part of the city within the walls the buildings are old but in most areas they have been restored or reconstructed (such as the post office and the Lycée Frédéric Mistral). The buildings along the main street, Rue de la République, date from the Second Empire (1852–70) with Haussmann façades and amenities around Place de l'Horloge (the central square), the neoclassical city hall, and the theatre district.",
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"plaintext": "Listed below are the major sites of interest with those sites registered as historical monuments indicated:",
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{
"plaintext": " Notre Dame des Doms (12th century), the cathedral is a Romanesque building, mainly built during the 12th century; the most prominent feature of the cathedral is the 19th century gilded statue of the Virgin which surmounts the western tower. The mausoleum of Pope John XXII (1334), within the cathedral, is a noteworthy example of 14th-century Gothic carving.",
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"plaintext": " Palais des Papes (\"Papal Palace\") (14th century) almost dwarfs the cathedral. The palace is an impressive monument and sits within a square of the same name. The palace was begun in 1316 by John XXII and continued by succeeding popes through the 14th century, until 1370 when it was finished.",
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"plaintext": " Minor churches of the town include three built in the Gothic architectural style:",
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{
"plaintext": " Church of Saint-Pierre (14th century) which has a graceful façade and richly carved doors;",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Church of Saint-Didier (14th century); and",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Church of Saint-Agricol (14th century).",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Other religious buildings:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Church of Saint-Symphorien (14th century, former Carmelite monastery church).",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Church of Montfavet (14th century).",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chapel of the Oratory.",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chapel of the White penitents (16th century).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chapel of the Grey penitents (18th century).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chapel of the Black penitents.",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Synagogue (19th century).",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Civic buildings are represented most notably by:",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Hôtel de Ville (city hall) (1846), a relatively modern building with a bell tower from the 14th century,",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " The old Hôtel des Monnaies, the papal mint which was built in 1610 and became a music-school.",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": " Hospital Sainte-Marthe.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hotel of Saint-Priest (Hotel de Monery, 18th century).",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " House of King René (15th century).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The city walls, built by the popes in the 14th century and still encircle Avignon. They are one of the finest examples of medieval fortification in existence. The walls are of great strength and are surmounted by machicolated battlements flanked at intervals by 39 massive towers and pierced by several gateways, three of which date from the 14th century. The walls were restored under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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{
"plaintext": " Bridges include:",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Pont Saint-Bénézet, better known as the Pont d'Avignon and for the French song Sur le pont d'Avignon. Only four of the twenty one piers are left and the bridge ends mid-channel. On one of the piers stands the small Romanesque chapel of Saint-Bénézet.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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{
"plaintext": " The Pont Édouard Daladier and the Pont de Royaume, which together span both channels of the Rhone leading to Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, thus replacing the Pont Saint-Bénézet",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Pont de l'Europe, which provides a second road crossing over the Rhone.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Two railway bridges over the Rhone, one carrying the conventional Paris–Marseille line and the other the LGV Méditerranée line",
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"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": " Calvet Museum, so named after Esprit Calvet, a physician who in 1810 left his collections to the town. It has a large collection of paintings, metalwork and other objects. The library has over 140,000 volumes.",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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"plaintext": " The town has a Statue of Jean Althen, who migrated from Persia and in 1765 introduced the culture of the madder plant, which long formed the staple—and is still an important tool—of the local cloth trade in the area.",
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"plaintext": " Musée du Petit Palais (opened 1976) at the end of the square overlooked by the Palais des Papes, has an exceptional collection of Renaissance paintings of the Avignon school as well as from Italy, which reunites many \"primitives\" from the collection of Giampietro Campana.",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
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{
"plaintext": " The Hotel d'Europe, one of the oldest hotels in France, in business since 1799.",
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"plaintext": " The Collection Lambert, houses contemporary art exhibitions",
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{
"plaintext": " The Musée Angladon exhibits the paintings of a private collector who created the museum",
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"section_name": "Cultural heritage",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Musée Lapidaire, with collections of archaeological and medieval sculptures from the Fondation Calvet in the old chapel of the Jesuit College.",
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"plaintext": " Musée Louis-Vouland",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Musée Requien",
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{
"plaintext": " Palais du Roure",
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{
"plaintext": " Les Halles is a large indoor market that offers fresh produce, meats, and fish along with a variety of other goods.",
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{
"plaintext": " The Place Pie is a small square near Place de l'Horloge where you can partake in an afternoon coffee on the outdoor terraces or enjoy a night on the town later in the evening as the square fills with young people.",
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{
"plaintext": " Note: the name of Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (The Young Ladies of Avignon) is misleading; Picasso's models for this painting were in fact not women of the city of Avignon, but rather of the Carrer d'Avinyó (Avignon Street) in Barcelona.",
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{
"plaintext": "The commune houses more than 500 historical objects, many of which religious.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "A theatre festival is held annually in Avignon. Founded in 1947, the Avignon Festival comprises traditional theatrical events as well as other art forms such as dance, music, and cinema, making use of the town's historical monuments. Every summer approximately 100,000 people attend the festival. There are really two festivals that take place: the more formal \"Festival In\", which presents plays inside the Palace of the Popes and the more bohemian \"Festival Off\", which is known for its presentation of largely undiscovered plays and street performances.",
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{
"plaintext": "Avignon festival was founded by Jean Vilar. This cultural initiative brought, year after year, a major economic boost to the city and to the region of Provence. Indeed, the tourists visiting Avignon during the month of July usually take benefit of their presence to go to the smaller villages around, to discover the local food, local wines, touristic activities, learn some French.",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": "The centre was created in 1976 within the premises of the Palace of the Popes and hosts many events throughout the entire year. The Congress Centre, designed for conventions, seminars, and meetings for 10 to 550 persons, now occupies two wings of the Popes' Palace.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Avignon is commemorated by the French song 'Sur le Pont d'Avignon' ('On the bridge of Avignon'), which describes folk dancing. The song dates from the mid-19th century when Adolphe Adam included it in the Opéra comique Le Sourd ou l'Auberge Pleine, which was first performed in Paris in 1853. The opera was an adaptation of the 1790 comedy by Desforges.",
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"plaintext": "The bridge of the song is the Pont Saint-Bénézet over the Rhône, of which only four arches (out of the initial 22) now remain. A bridge across the Rhone was built between 1171 and 1185, with a length of some 900m (2950ft), but was destroyed during the siege of Avignon by Louis VIII of France in 1226. It was rebuilt but suffered frequent collapses during floods and had to be continually repaired. Several arches were already missing (and spanned by wooden sections) before the remainder was abandoned in 1669.",
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"plaintext": "AC Arles-Avignon was a professional association football team. They competed in Ligue 2, after a season 2010–2011 competing in Ligue 1 and being relegated back down the following season and ultimately folding in 2016. They played at the Parc des Sports, which has a capacity of just over 17,000.",
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"plaintext": "The schools within the commune of Avignon are administered by the Académie d'Aix-Marseille. There are 26 state nursery schools (Écoles maternelles) for children up to 6, and 32 state primary schools (Écoles élémentaires) up to 11. There are also 4 private schools.",
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"plaintext": "The medieval University of Avignon, formed from the existing schools of the city, was formally constituted in 1303 by Boniface VIII in a Papal Bull. Boniface VIII and King Charles II of Naples were the first great protectors and benefactors to the university. The Law department was the most important department covering both civil and ecclesiastical law. The law department existed nearly exclusively for some time after the university's formation and remained its most important department throughout its existence.",
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"plaintext": "In 1413 Pope John XXIII founded the university's department of theology, which for quite some time had only a few students. It was not until the 16th and 17th centuries that the school developed a department of medicine. The bishop of Avignon was chancellor of the university from 1303 to 1475. After 1475 the bishop became an archbishop but remained chancellor of the university. The papal vice-legate, generally a bishop, represented the civil power (in this case the pope) and was chiefly a judicial officer who ranked higher than the Primicerius (Rector).",
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"plaintext": "The Primicerius was elected by the Doctors of Law. In 1503 the Doctors of Law had 4 Theologians and in 1784 two Doctors of Medicine added to their ranks. Since the Pope was the spiritual head and, after 1348, the temporal ruler of Avignon, he was able to have a great deal of influence in all university affairs. In 1413 John XXIII granted the university extensive special privileges, such as university jurisdiction and tax exempt status. Political, geographical, and educational circumstances in the latter part of the university's existence caused it to seek favour from Paris rather than Rome for protection. During the chaos of the French Revolution the university started to gradually disappear and, in 1792, the university was abandoned and closed.",
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"plaintext": "A university annex of the Faculté des Sciences d'Aix-Marseille was opened in Avignon in 1963. Over the next 20 years various changes were made to the provision of tertiary education in the town until finally in 1984 the Université d'Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse was created. This was nearly 200 years after the demise of the original Avignon university. The main campus lies to the east of the city centre within the city walls. The university occupies the 18th century buildings of the Hôpital Sainte-Marthe. The main building has an elegant façade with a central portico. The right hand side was designed by Jean-Baptiste Franque and built between 1743 and 1745. Franque was assisted by his son François in the design of the portico. The hospital moved out in the 1980s and, after major works, the building opened for students in 1997. In 2009–2010 there were 7,125 students registered at the university.",
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"plaintext": " Jean Alesi, former Formula 1 & DTM driver, born in Avignon, 1964",
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"plaintext": " Giuliano Alesi, Super Formula driver, born in Avignon, 1999",
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"plaintext": " Vincent Almendros, writer, winner of the 2015 prix Françoise Sagan, born in Avignon, 1978",
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"plaintext": " Pierre Boulle, author of The Bridge over the River Kwai and Planet of the Apes, born in Avignon, 1912",
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38,168 | 1,107,527,145 | Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | [
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV; ; ), also known by its anglicized name Mecklenburg–Western Pomerania, is a state in the north-east of Germany. Of the country's sixteen states, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern ranks 14th in population; it covers , making it the sixth largest German state in area; and it is 16th in population density. Schwerin is the state capital and Rostock is the largest city. Other major cities include Neubrandenburg, Stralsund, Greifswald, Wismar, and Güstrow.",
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"plaintext": "Vorpommern, literally Fore-Pomerania, is the smaller, western part of the former Prussian Province of Pomerania; the eastern part became part of Poland after the end of World War II.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, the area was ruled by the Pomeranian dukes as part of the Duchy of Pomerania. Pomerania was under Swedish rule after the Peace of Westphalia from 1648 until 1815 as Swedish Pomerania. Pomerania became a province of Prussia in 1815 and remained so until 1945.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1945, the armies of the Soviet Union and the Western allies met east of Schwerin. Following the Potsdam Agreement, the Western allies handed over Mecklenburg to the Soviets. Mecklenburg-West Pomerania was established on 9 July 1945, by order No. 5 of Red Army Marshal Georgy Zhukov, head of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD), as the Province of Mecklenburg and West Pomerania (zapadnoi Pomeranii).",
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"plaintext": "During the war, the make-up of Mecklenburg and Vorpommern's population changed, due to wartime losses and the influx of evacuees (mainly from the Berlin and Hamburg metropolitan areas that were subject to air raids). After the war, people who fled and were expelled from the former eastern territories of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line settled in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (and elsewhere in Germany), increasing the population by 40%. Before the war, Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania had a population of 1,278,700, of whom many perished during the war and others moved west in the course of the Red Army's advance. In 1947, some 1,426,000 refugees from the former eastern parts of Germany were counted. Most of them settled in rural communities, but the urban population also increased, most notably in Schwerin from 65,000 (1939) to 99,518 (January 1947), in Wismar from 29,463 to 44,173, and in Greifswald from 29,488 to 43,897. Western Pomerania was additionally stripped of the area around the Pomeranian regional capital Stettin/Szczecin as well as the city itself, despite its location to the west of the river Oder.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 June 1946, a law enacted by the Soviets constituted a provisional German administration (Beratende Versammlung, ) under Soviet supervision on 29 June 1946. After elections on 20 October 1946, a Landtag replaced the Beratende Versammlung and created the constitution of 16 January 1947, for the Land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. On 18 April 1947, the state's name was shortened to Land Mecklenburg. Mecklenburg became a constituent state (\"Land\") of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) upon its formation in 1949. In 1952, the East German government abandoned the term Land in this context and redesignated its administrative territorial divisions as \"districts\" (German: Bezirke). The territory of Mecklenburg and Vorpommern was divided into three districts that covered roughly the same area: Bezirk Rostock, Bezirk Schwerin and Bezirk Neubrandenburg. These were commonly known as the Nordbezirke (northern districts) under the highly centralised GDR government. The East German government developed the shipyards in the old Hanseatic ports (the largest being in Rostock and Stralsund), and also established the Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant in Lubmin near Greifswald.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of German reunification in 1990, the eastern states were reconstituted along their postwar boundaries (with minor adjustments) as they had existed until 1952, and the historic name Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was restored. Since 1990, the state has undergone dramatic changes. What had been largely an industrial and agricultural economy is increasingly driven by the service, tourism, and high-tech sectors. The old towns, hundreds of castles and manors, resort buildings, windmills, churches, and various other cultural monuments of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern have been renovated in recent years. Since 2013, net migration into the state has been positive again.",
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"plaintext": "Sixth-largest in area and fourteenth in overall population among Germany's sixteen Bundesländer (federal states), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is bounded to the north by the Baltic Sea, to the west by Schleswig-Holstein, to the southwest by Lower Saxony, to the south by Brandenburg, and to the east by the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland.",
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's state capital is Schwerin. The largest city is Rostock with approximately 205,000 people, followed by Schwerin. Other major cities include Neubrandenburg, Stralsund, Greifswald, Wismar and Güstrow.",
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"plaintext": "Since 4 September 2011, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is divided into six Kreise (districts):",
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"plaintext": " Landkreis Rostock",
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"plaintext": " Ludwigslust-Parchim",
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"plaintext": " Mecklenburgische Seenplatte",
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"plaintext": " Nordwestmecklenburg",
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"plaintext": " Vorpommern-Greifswald",
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"plaintext": " Vorpommern-Rügen",
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"plaintext": "Also counting two independent urban districts:",
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"plaintext": " Rostock (HRO)",
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"plaintext": " Schwerin (SN)",
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"plaintext": "The state's Baltic Sea coast is about long and features several islands, most notably Germany's two biggest islands Rügen and Usedom, but also a number of smaller islands such as Hiddensee and Poel. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's varied coastline also has many peninsulas such as Fischland-Darß-Zingst and various lagoons (also known as Bodden or Haff).",
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"plaintext": "A total of 283 nature reserves, 110 landscape reserves and three of Germany's fourteen national parks are scattered all over the state.",
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"plaintext": "The southern part of the state is characterized by a multitude of lakes within the Mecklenburg Lakeland, the largest of which is Lake Müritz (also the largest German lake), followed by Lake Schwerin, Plauer See and Lake Kummerow. The \"land of a thousand lakes\" (German: Land der tausend Seen) is hallmarked by its unspoilt nature. Due to its clean air and idyllic setting, medical tourism has become a notable tourism sector in the region.",
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"plaintext": "Over the centuries, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern have developed and maintained strong regional cultures. It can generally be described as North German and has similar linguistic and historic characteristics to other north German states, such as Schleswig-Holstein. People in Vorpommern, as a result of that territory being a former province of Prussia, tend to look slightly more towards Berlin and Brandenburg than people in Mecklenburg would.",
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"plaintext": "The cities are characterised by a certain \"Hanseatic\" style also found in other parts of northern Germany (e.g. Lübeck) as well as in countries bordering the Baltic Sea like Estonia (e.g. Tallinn) or Latvia (e.g. Riga). A common feature of many towns in Mecklenburg and Vorpommern are red Brick Gothic churches and houses dating back to the Middle Ages. Also stepped and tailed gables are a typical feature of the Hanseatic old towns, such as Stralsund, Wismar and Greifswald.",
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"plaintext": "The old towns are usually built around one or several market places with a church or the town hall. Often towns were founded at the Baltic Sea, one of the many lakes or a river for logistical and trade motives.",
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"plaintext": "Rural areas of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern are often characterized by Brick Gothic village churches and agricultural heritage, like brick homesteads, thatched roof houses, windmills, manor houses and castles.",
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"plaintext": "The largest publicly funded theatres in the state are the Mecklenburg State Theatre, the Rostock People's Theatre, the Theatre of West Pomerania, with venues in Stralsund, Putbus and Greifswald, and the Mecklenburg State Theatre of Neustrelitz with venues in Neubrandenburg and Neustrelitz. All four theatres offer both drama and musical theatre as well as orchestral music.",
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"plaintext": "Other important theatres are the Ernst Barlach Theatre of Güstrow, the Theatre of Parchim, the Anklam Theatre and the Wismar Theatre.",
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"plaintext": "There are also many small theatres on the Baltic coast and in individual artist's villages and resorts (e.g. the popular concert pavilions at the Baltic Sea). Since its growing importance for summer tourism, open-air theatres and festivals become more common again as well, such as the Störtebeker Festival on the island of Rügen, and the Vineta Festival on Usedom.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1993, the Störtebeker Festival has taken place in Ralswiek on the island of Rügen. It is Germany's most successful open-air theatre.",
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"plaintext": "Notable museums include, for example, the Schwerin State Museum and the Pomeranian State Museum at Greifswald. The German Oceanographic Museum with its Ozeaneum in Stralsund is the most popular museum in northern Germany. Furthermore, the German Amber Museum in Ribnitz-Damgarten, Rostock's Abbey of the Holy Cross and Rostock Art Gallery are of national importance. The oldest museum in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania is Stralsund's Cultural History Museum, the smallest is the Professor Wandschneider Sculpture Museum in Plau am See.",
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is home to many cultural events throughout the year. During summer, many open-air concerts and operas are open to visitors. The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Festival (Festspiele Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) attracts a sizeable audience by performing classical concerts in parks, churches and castles.",
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"plaintext": "Caspar David Friedrich, a famous romanticist painter born in Greifswald, immortalised parts of the state in several of his paintings.",
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"plaintext": "Today the vast majority of people speak Standard German; a few centuries ago most people spoke Low German (German: Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch), a language that is still kept alive within various communities and cultural events.",
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"plaintext": "Like most German regions, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern have their own traditional dishes, often including fish, beef and pork. Rostock has its own type of bratwurst called Rostocker Bratwurst. A famous dish from Western Pomerania is Bismarck Herring. Rote Grütze is a popular dessert. The largest beer breweries are Mecklenburgische Brauerei Lübz (Lübzer Pils), Hanseatische Brauerei Rostock, Darguner Brauerei and Störtebeker Braumanufaktur (Stralsund, multiple winner of the World Beer Cup). Besides, there are many smaller breweries and craft beer variations, such as the Mellenthin Castle Beer from Usedom Island.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2020, the majority (82.4%) of the citizens of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania are not religious or adhere to other religions. 14.2% are members of the Evangelical Church in Germany and 3.4% of the Catholic Church.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Reformation, led in Germany by Martin Luther, as well as a period of Swedish rule, the traditional faith in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is Protestantism, specifically Lutheranism. There are also a number of Catholics and people of other faiths.",
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"plaintext": "There are also Jewish communities, in the state capital of Schwerin (including Wismar) and in the city of Rostock. Historically, there were also synagogues in smaller towns, of which some are still preserved (like Röbel, Krakow am See and Boizenburg). The state's Jewish organisation is part of the Central Council of Jews in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Largest immigrant communities: ",
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"plaintext": "Births from January to September 2016 = 10,224",
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"plaintext": "Births from January to September 2017 = 9,836",
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"plaintext": "Deaths from January to September 2016 = 15,251",
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"plaintext": "Deaths from January to September 2017 = 15,532",
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"plaintext": "Natural growth from January to September 2016 = 5,027",
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"plaintext": "Natural growth from January to September 2017 = 5,696",
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern has the two oldest universities of the Baltic Sea region, also among the oldest of Germany and all of Europe:",
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"plaintext": "Also, there are further colleges / technological universities:",
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"plaintext": " Fachhochschule des Mittelstands (FHM) in Rostock and Schwerin (private)",
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"plaintext": " Rostock University of Music and Theatre",
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"plaintext": " Hochschule Wismar (University of Applied Sciences: Technology, Business and Design)",
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"plaintext": " Fachhochschule Stralsund (University of Applied Sciences)",
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"plaintext": " Hochschule Neubrandenburg (University of Applied Sciences)",
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"plaintext": " Fachhochschule für öffentliche Verwaltung, Rechtspflege und Polizei Güstrow (University of Administration, Judicature and Police in Güstrow)",
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"plaintext": " Hochschule der Bundesagentur für Arbeit with its Schwerin campus",
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"plaintext": " DesignSchule Schwerin with options to study design (private; game/fashion/media/web design)",
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"plaintext": "The state's school system is centralised. There are two main types of schools, Regionalschule (for the majority of pupils) and Gymnasium (for the top 30% of each year's students, leading to the university entrance qualification \"Abitur\"). Besides, there are also independent schools, comprehensive schools and trade schools.",
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"plaintext": "Article 20 of the State Constitution states that the Landtag is the \"site of political decision-making\". The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Landtag is elected democratically by the citizens of the state and sits for a 5-year legislative period. The seat of the Landtag is located at Schwerin Palace in Schwerin. The essential functions of the Landtag are to elect the Minister-President of the state; to discuss and decide on laws which have been proposed by the government, by any four members of the Landtag, or a people's initiative or petition for a referendum initiated directly by the people; and to control the state government.",
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"plaintext": "The last election of the Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern took place on 26 September 2021. The SPD won a landslide plurality of almost 40% of votes, a nine percentage point increase from 2016. The opposition Alternative for Germany (AfD) remained the second largest party but declined to under 17%. The CDU recorded its worst ever result in the state with 13.3%, while The Left also declined to 10%. Alliance 90/The Greens and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) both won around 6% of votes and re-entered the Landtag after previously falling out in 2016 and 2011, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The Landtag has been led by Minister President Manuela Schwesig since 2017.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 October 2021, Schwesig announced the SPD would enter coalition talks with The Left. She stated her motivations for reorienting the coalition as a desire for \"a new departure\", and described The Left as a \"social, pragmatic party\" with decisive policy overlap with the SPD. She said that The Left had been a reliable partner to the government even while in opposition, and had assumed \"state-political responsibility\" during the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "The gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 44.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 1.3% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 25,400 euros or 84% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 83% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the lowest of all German states.",
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is the least densely populated and least industrial German state, being the sixth largest in area, but only the 14th in population. Formerly, unemployment has been negatively affected by the breakdown of non-competitive former GDR industries after the German reunification in the 1990s. As of 2018 unemployment is the lowest in more than 15 years while the economy is growing and the number of jobs is increasing continually. Growing sectors are biotechnology, information technology, life sciences, maritime industry and tourist services.",
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"plaintext": "In Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, approximately 732,200 people were gainfully employed in 2008 with 657,100 of them were white and blue collar workers. About 4,200 new jobs were created in 2007. Employees worked an average of 1,455 hours a year. The number of self-employed did not change in 2008. Three out of every four of all workers are employed in the service sector. In October 2018 the unemployment rate stood at 7.1% and was the third highest rate in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is the top destination for intra-German tourism and is gaining importance for international tourism.",
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"plaintext": "The main tourist regions are:",
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"plaintext": " Islands: Rugia and Usedom (Germany's two largest islands), Poel and Hiddensee;",
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"plaintext": " Peninsula: Fischland-Darß-Zingst (with Ahrenshoop and Zingst);",
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"plaintext": " Seaside resorts: Binz, Boltenhagen, Graal-Müritz, Heringsdorf (including Bansin and Ahlbeck), Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Warnemünde and Zinnowitz;",
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"plaintext": " Stettin Lagoon: Ueckermünde;",
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"plaintext": " Hinterland: particularly the Mecklenburg Lakeland; and",
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"plaintext": " Cities: Stralsund and Wismar (both listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites), Schwerin, Güstrow, Rostock and Greifswald, which have a diverse cultural heritage.",
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"plaintext": " Night sky: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is home to some of the most pristine night skies in Germany, especially in the area near Nationalpark Müritz. It is a potential site for a Dark Sky Park.",
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"plaintext": "As a reminder of its rich history, nearly 2,000 castles, palaces and manor houses exist in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, many of which are used as venues for public events like concerts and festivals, such as Festpiele MV (a classical music festival).",
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"plaintext": "Medical tourism based on the clean air and idyllic settings by the Baltic Sea has a growing importance to the regional tourism industry.",
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"plaintext": "Main sporting attractions include the German football league games of F.C. Hansa Rostock and the international sailing event Hanse Sail. If the bid for the 2012 summer Olympics in Leipzig had been successful, the sailing competitions would have taken place off the coast of Rostock.",
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"plaintext": "Notable from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern include:",
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"plaintext": " Arts: Ernst Barlach, Friedrich von Flotow, Caspar David Friedrich, Marianne Hoppe, Till Lindemann, Philipp Otto Runge",
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"plaintext": " Business: Ernst Heinkel, Carl Heinrich von Siemens, Leonhard Tietz, Georg Wertheim",
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"plaintext": " Literature: Ernst Moritz Arndt, John Brinckman, Hans Fallada, Walter Kempowski, Fritz Reuter, Rudolf Tarnow, Ehm Welk",
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"plaintext": " Politics: Ernst Moritz Arndt, Dietmar Bartsch, Joachim Gauck, Egon Krenz, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Angela Merkel, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Harald Ringstorff",
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"plaintext": " Science: Theodor Billroth, Friedrich Chrysander, Walther Flemming, Gottlob Frege, Otto Lilienthal, Gustav Mie, Ferdinand von Mueller, Paul Pogge, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Heinrich Schliemann, Johannes Stark",
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"plaintext": " Sports: Tim Borowski, Andreas Dittmer, Thomas Doll, Carsten Jancker, Marita Koch, Toni Kroos, Sebastian Sylvester, Jan Ullrich, Jens Voigt",
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"plaintext": " Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is Germany's number-one tourist location, the main destinations being the Baltic Sea coastline with islands such as Rügen or Usedom, spa towns like Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Boltenhagen or Warnemünde and the Mecklenburg Lake District. It also offers important historical cities, such as Stralsund, Wismar, Greifswald and Rostock as former Hanseatic cities − or Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz as former residences.",
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"plaintext": " The first rockets to reach outer space were launched in 1944 during World War II in Peenemünde on the present-day territory of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.",
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"plaintext": " During the chancellorship of Angela Merkel, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern hosted the first official public meeting with President George W. Bush in 2006 and the 33rd G8 summit in 2007. Both political events were financed by state and federal budgets.",
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"plaintext": " History of Pomerania",
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"plaintext": " List of places in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern",
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"plaintext": " List of towns in Vorpommern",
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"plaintext": " Mecklenburg",
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"plaintext": " Official Mecklenburg-Vorpommern portal",
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"plaintext": "Tourism",
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"plaintext": " Off to MV - Official tourism website of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern",
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"plaintext": " Germany.Travel - Federal Tourism Association: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern",
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"plaintext": " Bi-curious is a term for a person, usually someone who is a heterosexual, who is curious or open about engaging in sexual activity with a person whose sex differs from that of their usual sexual partners. The term is sometimes used to describe a broad continuum of sexual orientation between heterosexuality and bisexuality. Such continuums include mostly-heterosexual or mostly-homosexual, but these can be self-identified without identifying as bisexual. The terms heteroflexible and homoflexible are mainly applied to bi-curious people, though some authors distinguish heteroflexibility and homoflexibility as lacking the \"wish to experiment with sexuality\" implied by the bi-curious label. To sum it up, the difference between bisexual and bicurious is that bisexual people know that they are sexually attracted to both genders based on personal experience. Bicurious people are still maneuvering their way through their sexuality. ",
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"plaintext": "Despite Stravinsky's enthusiasm and ability in music, his parents expected him to study law, and he at first took to the subject. In 1901, he enrolled at the University of Saint Petersburg, studying criminal law and legal philosophy, but attendance at lectures was optional and he estimated that he turned up to fewer than fifty classes in his four years of study. In 1902, Stravinsky met Vladimir, a fellow student at the University of Saint Petersburg and the youngest son of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. Rimsky-Korsakov at that time was arguably the leading Russian composer, and he was a professor at Saint Petersburg Conservatory of Music. Stravinsky wished to meet Vladimir's father to discuss his musical aspirations. He spent the summer of 1902 with Rimsky-Korsakov and his family in Heidelberg, Germany. Rimsky-Korsakov suggested to Stravinsky that he should not enter the Saint Petersburg Conservatory but continue private lessons in theory. ",
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"plaintext": "By 1909, Stravinsky had composed two more pieces, Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3, and Feu d'artifice (\"Fireworks\"), Op. 4. In February of that year, both were performed in Saint Petersburg at a concert that marked a turning point in Stravinsky's career. In the audience was Sergei Diaghilev, a Russian impresario and owner of the Ballets Russes who was struck with Stravinsky's compositions. He wished to stage a mix of Russian opera and ballet for the 1910 season in Paris, among them a new ballet from fresh talent that was based on the Russian fairytale of the Firebird. After Anatoly Lyadov was given the task of composing the score, he informed Diaghilev that he needed about one year to complete it. Diaghilev then asked the 28-year-old Stravinsky, who had provided satisfactory orchestrations for him for the previous season at short notice and agreed to compose a full score. At about 50 minutes in length, The Firebird was revised by Stravinsky for concert performance in 1911, 1919, and 1945.",
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"plaintext": "It was Stravinsky's third ballet for Diaghilev, The Rite of Spring, that caused a sensation among critics, fellow composers, and concertgoers. Based on an original idea offered to Stravinsky by Nicholas Roerich, the production features a series of primitive rituals celebrating the advent of spring, after which a young girl is chosen as a sacrificial victim to the sun god Yarilo, and dances herself to death. Stravinsky's score contained many novel features for its time, including experiments in tonality, metre, rhythm, stress and dissonance. The radical nature of the music and choreography caused a near-riot at its premiere at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées on 29 May 1913.",
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"plaintext": "From 1931 to 1933, the Stravinskys lived in Voreppe, a commune near Grenoble in southeastern France. In June 1934, the couple acquired French citizenship. Later in that year, they left Voreppe to live on rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré in Paris, where they stayed for five years. The composer used his citizenship to publish his memoirs in French, entitled Chroniques de ma Vie in 1935, and underwent a US tour with Samuel Dushkin. His only composition of that year was the Concerto for Two Solo Pianos, which was written for himself and his son Soulima using a special double piano that Pleyel had built. The pair completed a tour of Europe and South America in 1936. Stravinsky made his American debut as conductor in April 1937 in New York City, directing his three-part ballet Jeu de cartes, itself a commission for Lincoln Kirstein's ballet company with choreography by George Balanchine. Stravinsky later remembered this last European address as his unhappiest. Upon his return to Europe, Stravinsky left Paris for Annemasse near the Swiss border to be near his family, after his wife and daughters Ludmila and Milena had contracted tuberculosis and were in a sanatorium. Ludmila died in late 1938, followed by his wife of 33 years, in March 1939. Stravinsky himself spent five months in hospital at Sancellemoz, during which time his mother also died.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky arrived in New York City on 30 September 1939 and headed for Cambridge, Massachusetts to fulfill his engagements at Harvard. During his first two months in the US, Stravinsky stayed at Gerry's Landing, the home of art historian Edward W. Forbes. Vera arrived in January 1940 and the couple married on 9 March in Bedford, Massachusetts. After a period of travel, the two moved into a home in Beverly Hills, California before they settled in Hollywood from 1941. Stravinsky felt the warmer Californian climate would benefit his health. Stravinsky had adapted to life in France, but moving to America at the age of 58 was a very different prospect. For a while, he maintained a circle of contacts and émigré friends from Russia, but he eventually found that this did not sustain his intellectual and professional life. He was drawn to the growing cultural life of Los Angeles, especially during World War II, when writers, musicians, composers, and conductors settled in the area. Music critic Bernard Holland claimed Stravinsky was especially fond of British writers, who visited him in Beverly Hills, \"like W. H. Auden, Christopher Isherwood, Dylan Thomas. They shared the composer's taste for hard spirits – especially Aldous Huxley, with whom Stravinsky spoke in French.\" Stravinsky and Huxley had a tradition of Saturday lunches for west coast avant-garde and luminaries.",
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"plaintext": "In 1940, Stravinsky completed his Symphony in C and conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra at its premiere later that year. It was at this time when Stravinsky began to associate himself with film music; the first major film to use his music was Walt Disney's animated feature Fantasia (1940) which includes parts of The Rite of Spring rearranged by Leopold Stokowski to a segment depicting the history of Earth and the age of dinosaurs. Orson Welles urged Stravinsky to write the score for Jane Eyre (1943), but negotiations broke down; a piece used in one of the film's hunting scenes was used in Stravinsky's orchestral work Ode (1943). An offer to score The Song of Bernadette (1943) also fell through; Stravinsky deemed the terms fell into the producer's favour. Music he had written for the film was later used in his Symphony in Three Movements.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky's unconventional dominant seventh chord in his arrangement of the \"Star-Spangled Banner\" led to an incident with the Boston police on 15 January 1944, and he was warned that the authorities could impose a $100 fine upon any \"re-arrangement of the national anthem in whole or in part\". The police, as it turned out, were wrong. The law in question merely forbade using the national anthem \"as dance music, as an exit march, or as a part of a medley of any kind\", but the incident soon established itself as a myth, in which Stravinsky was supposedly arrested, held in custody for several nights, and photographed for police records.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 December 1945, Stravinsky and his wife Vera became naturalized US citizens. Their sponsor and witness was actor Edward G. Robinson.",
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"plaintext": "On the same day Stravinsky became an American citizen, he arranged for Boosey & Hawkes to publish rearrangements of several of his compositions and used his newly acquired American citizenship to secure a copyright on the material, thus allowing him to earn money from them. The five-year contract was finalised and signed in January 1947 which included a guarantee of $10,000 per for the first two years, then $12,000 for the remaining three.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1945, Stravinsky received a commission from Europe, his first since Perséphone, in the form of a string piece for the 20th anniversary for Paul Sacher's Basle Chamber Orchestra. The Concerto in D premiered in 1947. In January 1946, Stravinsky conducted the premiere of his Symphony in Three Movements at Carnegie Hall in New York City. It marked his first premiere in the US. In 1947, Stravinsky was inspired to write his English-language opera The Rake's Progress by a visit to a Chicago exhibition of the same-titled series of paintings by the eighteenth-century British artist William Hogarth, which tells the story of a fashionable wastrel descending into ruin. Auden and writer Chester Kallman worked on the libretto. The opera premiered in 1951 and marks the final work of Stravinsky's neoclassical period. While composing The Rake's Progress, Stravinsky befriended Robert Craft, who became his personal assistant and close friend and encouraged the composer to write serial music. This began Stravinsky's third and final distinct musical period which lasted until his death.",
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"plaintext": "In 1953, Stravinsky agreed to compose a new opera with a libretto by Dylan Thomas, which detailed the recreation of the world after one man and one woman remained on Earth after a nuclear disaster. Development on the project came to a sudden end following Thomas's death in November of that year. Stravinsky completed In Memorian Dylan Thomas, a piece for tenor, string quartet, and four trombones, in 1954.",
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"plaintext": "In 1961, Igor and Vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft traveled to London, Zürich and Cairo on their way to Australia where Stravinsky and Craft conducted all-Stravinsky concerts in Sydney and Melbourne. They returned to California via New Zealand, Tahiti, and Mexico. In January 1962, during his tour's stop in Washington, D.C., Stravinsky attended a dinner at the White House with President John F. Kennedy in honour of his eightieth birthday, where he received a special medal for \"the recognition his music has achieved throughout the world\". In September 1962, Stravinsky returned to Russia for the first time since 1914, accepting an invitation from the Union of Soviet Composers to conduct six performances in Moscow and Leningrad. During the three-week visit he met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and several leading Soviet composers, including Dmitri Shostakovich and Aram Khachaturian. Stravinsky did not return to his Hollywood home until December 1962 in what was almost eight months of continual travelling. Following the assassination of Kennedy in 1963, Stravinsky completed his Elegy for J.F.K. in the following year. The two-minute work took the composer two days to write.",
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"plaintext": "By early 1964, the long periods of travel had started to affect Stravinsky's health. His case of polycythemia had worsened and his friends had noticed that his movements and speech had slowed. In 1965, Stravinsky agreed to have David Oppenheim produce a documentary film about himself for the CBS network. It involved a film crew following the composer at home and on tour that year, and he was paid $10,000 for the production. The documentary includes Stravinsky's visit to Les Tilleuls, the house in Clarens, Switzerland, where he wrote the majority of The Rite of Spring. The crew asked Soviet authorities for permission to film Stravinsky returning to his hometown of Ustilug, but the request was denied. In 1966, Stravinsky completed his last major work, the Requiem Canticles.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1967, Stravinsky and Craft directed their own concert in Miami, Florida, the composer's first in that state. By this time, Stravinsky's typical performance fee had grown to $10,000. However subsequently, upon doctor's orders, offers to perform that required him to fly were generally declined. An exception to this was a concert at Massey Hall in Toronto, Canada in May 1967, where he conducted the relatively physically undemanding Pulcinella suite with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. He had become increasingly frail and for the only time in his career, Stravinsky conducted while sitting down. It was his final performance as conductor in his lifetime. While backstage at the venue, Stravinsky informed Craft that he believed he had suffered a stroke. In August 1967, Stravinsky was hospitalised in Hollywood for bleeding stomach ulcers and thrombosis which required a blood transfusion. In his diary, Craft wrote that he spoon-fed the ailing composer and held his hand: \"He says the warmth diminishes the pain.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 1968, Stravinsky had recovered enough to resume touring across the US with him in the audience while Craft took to the conductor's post for the majority of the concerts. In May 1968, Stravinsky completed the piano arrangement of two songs by Austrian composer Hugo Wolf for a small orchestra. In October Stravinsky, Vera, and Craft travelled to Zurich, Switzerland to sort out business matters with Stravinsky's family. While there, Stravinsky's son Theodore held the manuscript of The Rite of Spring while Stravinsky signed it before giving it to Vera. The three considered relocating to Switzerland as they had become increasingly less fond of Hollywood, but they decided against it and returned to the US.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1969, after close to three decades in California and being denied to travel overseas by his doctors due to ill health, Stravinsky and Vera secured a two-year lease for a luxury three bedroom apartment in Essex House in New York City. Craft moved in with them, effectively putting his career on hold to care for the ailing composer. Among Stravinsky's final projects was orchestrating two preludes from The Well-Tempered Clavier by Bach, but it was never completed. He was hospitalised in April 1970 following a bout of pneumonia, which he successfully recovered from. Two months later, he travelled to Évian-les-Bains by Lake Geneva where he reunited with his eldest son Theodore and niece Xenia.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 March 1971, Stravinsky was taken to Lenox Hill Hospital with pulmonary edema where he stayed for ten days. On 29 March, he moved into a newly furnished apartment at 920 Fifth Avenue, his first city apartment since living in Paris in 1939. After a period of well being, the edema returned on 4 April and Vera insisted that medical equipment should be installed in the apartment. Stravinsky soon stopped eating and drinking and died at 5:20a.m. on 6 April at the age of 88. The cause on his death certificate is heart failure. A funeral service was held three days later at Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel. As per his wishes, he was buried in the Russian corner of the cemetery island of San Michele in Venice, Italy, several yards from the tomb of Sergei Diaghilev, having been brought there by gondola after a service at Santi Giovanni e Paolo led by Cherubin Malissianos, Archimandrite of the Greek Orthodox Church.",
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"plaintext": "He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and in 1987 he was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Lifetime Achievement. He was posthumously inducted into the National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame in 2004.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from a very few surviving earlier works, Stravinsky's Russian period, sometimes called primitive period, began with compositions undertaken under the tutelage of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, with whom he studied from 1905 until Rimsky's death in 1908, including the orchestral works Symphony in E major (1907), Faun and Shepherdess (for mezzo-soprano and orchestra; 1907), Scherzo fantastique (1908), and Feu d'artifice (1908/9). These works clearly reveal the influence of Rimsky-Korsakov, but as Richard Taruskin has shown, they also reveal Stravinsky's knowledge of music by Glazunov, Taneyev, Tchaikovsky, Wagner, Dvořák, and Debussy, among others.",
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"plaintext": "In 1908, Stravinsky composed Funeral Song (Погребальная песня), Op. 5 to commemorate the death of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. The piece premiered 17 January 1909 in the Grand Hall of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory but was then lost until September 2015, when it resurfaced in a back room of the city's Conservatoire. It was played again for the first time in over a century on 2 December 2016. The rediscovery generated much enthusiasm and, as a result, over 25 performances were scheduled in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Performances in St. Petersburg of Scherzo fantastique and Feu d'artifice attracted the attention of Serge Diaghilev, who commissioned Stravinsky to orchestrate two piano works of Chopin for the ballet Les Sylphides to be presented in the 1909 debut \"Saison Russe\" of his new ballet company.",
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"plaintext": "The Firebird was first performed at the Paris Opéra on 25 June 1910 by Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Like Stravinsky's earlier student works, The Firebird continued to look backward to Rimsky-Korsakov not only in its orchestration, but also in its overall structure, harmonic organization, and melodic content.",
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"plaintext": "According to Taruskin, Stravinsky's second ballet for the Ballet Russes, Petrushka, is where \"Stravinsky at last became Stravinsky.\"",
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"plaintext": "The music itself makes significant use of a number of Russian folk tunes in addition to two waltzes by Viennese composer Joseph Lanner and a French music hall tune (La Jambe en bois or The Wooden Leg).",
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"plaintext": "In April 1915, Stravinsky received a commission from Singer (Princesse Edmond de Polignac) for a small-scale theatrical work to be performed in her Paris salon. The result was Renard (1916), which he called \"A burlesque in song and dance\".",
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"plaintext": "Apollon musagète (1928), Perséphone (1933) and Orpheus (1947) exemplify not only Stravinsky's return to the music of the Classical period but also his exploration of themes from the ancient Classical world, such as Greek mythology. Important works in this period include the Octet (1923), the Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments (1924), the Serenade in A (1925), and Symphony of Psalms (1930).",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky has been called \"one of music's truly epochal innovators\". The most important aspect of Stravinsky's work, aside from his technical innovations (including in rhythm and harmony), is the \"changing face\" of his compositional style while always \"retaining a distinctive, essential identity\".",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky's use of motivic development (the use of musical figures that are repeated in different guises throughout a composition or section of a composition) included additive motivic development. This is a technique in which notes are removed from or added to a motif without regard to the consequent changes in metre. A similar technique can be found as early as the 16th century, for example in the music of Cipriano de Rore, Orlandus Lassus, Carlo Gesualdo and Giovanni de Macque, music with which Stravinsky exhibited considerable familiarity.",
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"plaintext": "The Rite of Spring is notable for its relentless use of ostinati, for example in the eighth-note ostinato on strings accented by eight horns in the section \"Augurs of Spring (Dances of the Young Girls)\". The work also contains passages where several ostinati clash against one another. Stravinsky was noted for his distinctive use of rhythm, especially in the Rite of Spring (1913). According to the composer Philip Glass, \"the idea of pushing the rhythms across the bar lines [...] led the way [...]. The rhythmic structure of music became much more fluid and in a certain way spontaneous.\" Glass mentions Stravinsky's \"primitive, offbeat rhythmic drive\". According to Andrew J. Browne, \"Stravinsky is perhaps the only composer who has raised rhythm in itself to the dignity of art.\" Stravinsky's rhythm and vitality greatly influenced the composer Aaron Copland.",
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"plaintext": "Over the course of his career, Stravinsky called for a wide variety of orchestral, instrumental, and vocal forces, ranging from single instruments in such works as Three Pieces for Clarinet (1918) or Elegy for Solo Viola (1944) to the enormous orchestra of The Rite of Spring (1913), which Copland characterized as \"the foremost orchestral achievement of the 20th century\".",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky’s creation of unique and idiosyncratic ensembles arising from the specific musical nature of individual works is a basic element of his style.",
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"plaintext": "Following the model of his teacher, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Stravinsky’s student works such as the Symphony in E, Op. 1 (1907), Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3 (1908), and Fireworks (Feu d'artifice), Op. 4 (1908), call for large orchestral forces. The Symphony, for example, calls for 3 flutes (3rd doubles piccolo), 2 oboes, 3 clarinets in B, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, triangle, cymbals, and strings. The Scherzo fantastique calls for a slightly larger orchestra but completely omits trombones: this was Stravinsky’s response to Rimsky’s criticism of their overuse in the Symphony.",
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"plaintext": "The three ballets composed for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes call for particularly large orchestras:",
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"plaintext": " The Firebird (1910) is scored for the following orchestra: 2 piccolos (2nd doubles 3rd flute), 2 flutes, 3 oboes, cor anglais, 3 clarinets in A (3rd doubles piccolo clarinet in D), bass clarinet, 3 bassoons (3rd doubles contrabassoon 2), contrabassoon, 4 horns, 3 trumpets in A, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, percussion, celesta, piano, 3 harps, and strings. The percussion section requires bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, tam-tam, tubular bells, glockenspiel, and xylophone. In addition, the original version calls for 3 onstage trumpets and 4 onstage Wagner tubas (2 tenor and 2 bass).",
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"plaintext": " The original version of Petrushka (1911) calls for a similar orchestra (without onstage brass, but with the addition of onstage snare drum). The particularly prominent role of the piano is the result of the music's origin as a Konzertstück for piano and orchestra.",
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"plaintext": " The Rite of Spring (1913) calls for the largest orchestra Stravinsky ever employed: piccolo, 3 flutes (3rd doubles 2nd piccolo), alto flute, 4 oboes (4th doubles 2nd cor anglais), cor anglais, piccolo clarinet in D/E, 3 clarinets (3rd doubles 2nd bass clarinet), bass clarinet, 4 bassoons (4th doubles 2nd contrabassoon), contrabassoon, 8 horns (7th and 8th double tenor tubas), piccolo trumpet in D, 4 trumpets in C (4th doubles bass trumpet in E), 3 trombones, 2 tubas, 2 timpanists (5 drums), 4 percussionists, and strings. The percussion section requires bass drum, tamtam, triangle, tambourine, cymbals, crotales, and guiro.",
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"plaintext": "Included among his students in the 1940s was the American composer and music educator Robert Strassburg. In 1959, he was awarded the Sonning Award, Denmark's highest musical honour. In the early 1960s his students included Craft and Warren Zevon.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky displayed a taste in literature that was wide and reflected his constant desire for new discoveries. The texts and literary sources for his work began with a period of interest in Russian folklore, which progressed to classical authors and the Latin liturgy and moved on to contemporary France (André Gide, in Persephone) and eventually English literature, including Auden, T. S. Eliot, and medieval English verse.",
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"plaintext": "He also had an inexhaustible desire to explore and learn about art, which manifested itself in several of his Paris collaborations. Not only was he the principal composer for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, but he also collaborated with Pablo Picasso (Pulcinella, 1920), Jean Cocteau (Oedipus Rex, 1927), and Balanchine (, 1928). His interest in art propelled him to develop a strong relationship with Picasso, whom he met in 1917, announcing that in \"a whirlpool of artistic enthusiasm and excitement I at last met Picasso.\" From 1917 to 1920, the two engaged in an artistic dialogue in which they exchanged small-scale works of art to each other as a sign of intimacy, which included the famous portrait of Stravinsky by Picasso, and Stravinsky's \"Sketch of Music for the Clarinet\". This exchange was essential to establish how the artists would approach their collaborative space in Pulcinella.",
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"plaintext": "The young Stravinsky was sympathetic to bourgeois liberalism and the aims of the Constitutional Democratic Party, even composing an anthem for the Russian Provisional Government, before shifting heavily towards the right following the October Revolution. In 1930, he remarked, \"I don't believe that anyone venerates Mussolini more than I ... I know many exalted personages, and my artist's mind does not shrink from political and social issues. Well, after having seen so many events and so many more or less representative men, I have an overpowering urge to render homage to your Duce. He is the saviour of Italy and – let us hope – Europe.\" Later, after a private audience with Mussolini, he added, \"Unless my ears deceive me, the voice of Rome is the voice of Il Duce. I told him that I felt like a fascist myself... In spite of being extremely busy, Mussolini did me the great honour of conversing with me for three-quarters of an hour. We talked about music, art and politics\". When the Nazis placed Stravinsky's works on the list of \"Entartete Musik\", he lodged a formal appeal to establish his Russian genealogy and declared, \"I loathe all communism, Marxism, the execrable Soviet monster, and also all liberalism, democratism, atheism, etc.\"",
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"plaintext": "Upon relocating to America in the 1940s, Stravinsky again embraced the liberalism of his youth, remarking that Europeans \"can have their generalissimos and Führers. Leave me Mr. Truman and I'm satisfied.\" Towards the end of his life, at Craft's behest, Stravinsky made a return visit to his native country and composed a cantata in Hebrew, travelling to Israel for its performance.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky proved adept at playing the part of a 'man of the world', acquiring a keen instinct for business matters and appearing relaxed and comfortable in public. His successful career as a pianist and conductor took him to many of the world's major cities, including Paris, Venice, Berlin, London, Amsterdam and New York City and he was known for his polite, courteous and helpful manner. Stravinsky was reputed to have been a philanderer and was rumoured to have had affairs with high-profile partners, such as Coco Chanel. He never referred to it himself, but Chanel spoke about the alleged affair at length to her biographer Paul Morand in 1946; the conversation was published thirty years later. The accuracy of Chanel's claims has been disputed by both Stravinsky's widow, Vera, and by Craft. Chanel's fashion house avers there is no evidence that any affair between Chanel and Stravinsky ever occurred. A fictionalization of the supposed affair formed the basis of the novel Coco and Igor (2002) and a film, Coco Chanel & Igor Stravinsky (2009). Despite these alleged liaisons, Stravinsky was considered a family man and devoted to his children.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church during most of his life, remarking at one time that,",
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"plaintext": "The Church knew what the psalmist knew. Music praises God. Music is well or better able to praise him than the building of the church and all its decoration; it is the Church's greatest ornament.",
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"plaintext": "As a child, he was brought up by his parents in the Russian Orthodox Church. Baptized at birth, he later rebelled against the Church and abandoned it by the time he was fourteen or fifteen years old. Throughout the rise of his career he was estranged from Christianity and it was not until he reached his early forties that he experienced a spiritual crisis. After befriending a Russian Orthodox priest, Father Nicholas, after his move to Nice in 1924, he reconnected with his faith. He rejoined the Russian Orthodox Church and afterwards remained a committed Christian. Robert Craft noted that Stravinsky prayed daily, before and after composing, and also prayed when facing difficulty. Towards the end of his life, he was no longer able to attend church services, though he affirmed that this was due to laziness rather than to a loss of faith. In his late seventies, Stravinsky said:I cannot now evaluate the events that, at the end of those thirty years, made me discover the necessity of religious belief. I was not reasoned into my disposition. Though I admire the structured thought of theology (Anselm's proof in the Fides Quaerens Intellectum, for instance) it is to religion no more than counterpoint exercises are to music. I do not believe in bridges of reason or, indeed, in any form of extrapolation in religious matters. ... I can say, however, that for some years before my actual \"conversion\", a mood of acceptance had been cultivated in me by a reading of the Gospels and by other religious literature.",
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"plaintext": "If Stravinsky's stated intention was \"to send them all to hell\", then he may have regarded the 1913 premiere of The Rite of Spring as a success: it resulted in one of history's most famous classical music riots, and Stravinsky referred to it on several occasions in his autobiography as a . There were reports of fistfights in the audience and the need for a police presence during the second act. The real extent of the tumult is open to debate and the reports may be apocryphal.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, Time magazine named Stravinsky as one of the 100 most influential people of the century. In addition to the recognition he received for his compositions, he achieved fame as a pianist and a conductor, often at the premieres of his works. In 1923, Erik Satie wrote an article about Igor Stravinsky in Vanity Fair. Satie had met Stravinsky for the first time in 1910. In the published article, Satie argued that measuring the \"greatness\" of an artist by comparing him to other artists, as if speaking about some \"truth\", is illusory and that every piece of music should be judged on its own merits and not by comparing it to the standards of other composers. That was exactly what Cocteau did when he commented deprecatingly on Stravinsky in his 1918 book, .",
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"plaintext": "According to The Musical Times in 1923:",
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"plaintext": "All the signs indicate a strong reaction against the nightmare of noise and eccentricity that was one of the legacies of the war.... What (for example) has become of the works that made up the program of the Stravinsky concert which created such a stir a few years ago? Practically the whole lot are already on the shelf, and they will remain there until a few jaded neurotics once more feel a desire to eat ashes and fill their belly with the east wind.",
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"plaintext": "In 1935, the American composer Marc Blitzstein compared Stravinsky to Jacopo Peri and C.P.E. Bach, conceding that, \"there is no denying the greatness of Stravinsky. It is just that he is not great enough.\" Blitzstein's Marxist position was that Stravinsky's wish to \"divorce music from other streams of life\", which is \"symptomatic of an escape from reality\", resulted in a \"loss of stamina\", naming specifically Apollo, the Capriccio, and Le Baiser de la fée.",
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"plaintext": "The composer Constant Lambert described pieces such as L'Histoire du soldat as containing \"essentially cold-blooded abstraction\". Lambert continued, \"melodic fragments in are completely meaningless themselves. They are merely successions of notes that can conveniently be divided into groups of three, five, and seven and set against other mathematical groups\" and he described the cadenza for solo drums as \"musical purity ... achieved by a species of musical castration\". He compared Stravinsky's choice of \"the drabbest and least significant phrases\" to Gertrude Stein's 'Everyday they were gay there, they were regularly gay there everyday' (\"Helen Furr and Georgine Skeene\", 1922), \"whose effect would be equally appreciated by someone with no knowledge of English whatsoever\".",
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"plaintext": "In his 1949 book Philosophy of Modern Music, Theodor W. Adorno described Stravinsky as an acrobat and spoke of hebephrenic and psychotic traits in several of Stravinsky's works. Contrary to a common misconception, Adorno didn't believe the hebephrenic and psychotic imitations that the music was supposed to contain were its main fault, as he pointed out in a postscript that he added later to his book. Adorno's criticism of Stravinsky is more concerned with the \"transition to positivity\" Adorno found in his neoclassical works. Part of the composer's error, in Adorno's view, was his neoclassicism, but of greater importance was his music's \"pseudomorphism of painting\", playing off (time-space) rather than (time-duration) of Henri Bergson. According to Adorno, \"one trick characterizes all of Stravinsky's formal endeavors: the effort of his music to portray time as in a circus tableau and to present time complexes as though they were spatial. This trick, however, soon exhausts itself.\" Adorno maintained that the \"rhythmic procedures closely resemble the schema of catatonic conditions. In certain schizophrenics, the process by which the motor apparatus becomes independent leads to infinite repetition of gestures or words, following the decay of the ego.\"",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky's reputation in Russia and the USSR rose and fell. Performances of his music were banned from around 1933 until 1962, the year Khrushchev invited him to the USSR for an official state visit. In 1972, an official proclamation by the Soviet Minister of Culture, Yekaterina Furtseva, ordered Soviet musicians to \"study and admire\" Stravinsky's music and she made hostility toward it a potential offence.",
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"plaintext": "While Stravinsky's music has been criticized for its range of styles, scholars had \"gradually begun to perceive unifying elements in Stravinsky's music\" by the 1980s. Earlier writers, such as Copland, Elliott Carter, and Boris de Schloezer held somewhat unfavorable views of Stravinsky's works, and Virgil Thomson, writing in Modern Music (a quarterly review published between 1925 and 1946), could find only a common \"'seriousness' of 'tone' or of 'purpose', 'the exact correlation between the goal and the means', or a dry 'ant-like neatness'\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1910, Florent Schmitt dedicated the revised version of his ballet La tragédie de Salomé, Op. 50, to Stravinsky.",
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"plaintext": "In 1915, Claude Debussy dedicated the third movement of his En blanc et noir for two pianos to Stravinsky.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, \"Sacrificial Dance\" from The Rite of Spring was included among many tracks around the world on the Voyager Golden Record.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, Stravinsky was featured on a 2¢ postage stamp by the United States Postal Service as part of its Great Americans stamp series.",
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"plaintext": " 1954: Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal",
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"plaintext": " 1959: Léonie Sonning Music Prize",
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"plaintext": " 1963: Wihuri Sibelius Prize",
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"plaintext": " Grammy Awards",
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"plaintext": " 1962: Best Classical Composition by Contemporary Composer (The Flood)",
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"plaintext": " 1962: Best Classical Performance – Orchestra (The Firebird, Igor Stravinsky conducting Columbia Symphony Orchestra)",
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"plaintext": " 1962: Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist (with orchestra) (Violin Concerto in D, Isaac Stern; Igor Stravinsky conducting Columbia Symphony Orchestra)",
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"plaintext": " 1987: Lifetime Achievement (posthumous)",
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"plaintext": " Commander of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (25 July 1966)",
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"plaintext": "Igor Stravinsky found recordings a practical and useful tool in preserving his thoughts on the interpretation of his music. As a conductor of his own music, he recorded primarily for Columbia Records, beginning in 1928 with a performance of the original suite from The Firebird and concluding in 1967 with the 1945 suite from the same ballet. In the late 1940s he made several recordings for RCA Victor at the Republic Studios in Los Angeles. Although most of his recordings were made with studio musicians, he also worked with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the CBC Symphony Orchestra, the New York Philharmonic, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the Bavarian Broadcasting Symphony Orchestra.",
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"plaintext": "During his lifetime, Stravinsky appeared on several telecasts, including the 1962 world premiere of The Flood on CBS Television. Although he made an appearance, the actual performance was conducted by Robert Craft. Numerous films and videos of the composer have been preserved.",
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"plaintext": "Stravinsky published a number of books throughout his career, almost always with the aid of a (sometimes uncredited) collaborator. In his 1936 autobiography, Chronicle of My Life, which was written with the help of Walter Nouvel, Stravinsky included his well-known statement that \"music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all.\" With Alexis Roland-Manuel and Pierre Souvtchinsky, he wrote his 1939–40 Harvard University Charles Eliot Norton Lectures, which were delivered in French and first collected under the title in 1942 and then translated in 1947 as Poetics of Music. In 1959, several interviews between the composer and Robert Craft were published as Conversations with Igor Stravinsky, which was followed by a further five volumes over the following decade. A collection of Stravinsky's writings and interviews appears under the title Confidences sur la musique (Actes Sud, 2013).",
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"plaintext": "Source:",
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"plaintext": " At DICTECO",
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"plaintext": " At DICTECO",
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"plaintext": " At DICTECO",
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"plaintext": " At DICTECO",
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"plaintext": " At DICTECO",
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"plaintext": " Translated in English, 1936, as An Autobiography.",
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"plaintext": " (excerpt), The New York Times. Retrieved 12 July 2021.",
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"plaintext": " Anonymous. 1940. \"Musical Count\". Time (Monday, 11 March).",
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"plaintext": " Anonymous. 1944. \"Stravinsky Liable to Fine\". The New York Times (16 January) (Retrieved 22 June 2010).",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Anonymous. 1957. \"Stravinsky Turns 75\". Los Angeles Times (3 June). Reprinted in Los Angeles Times \"Daily Mirror\" blog (3 June 2007) (accessed 9 March 2010).",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
273319
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"plaintext": " Anonymous. 1962. \"Life Guide: Salutes to Stravinsky on His 80th; A Funny Faulkner, Farm Tours\", Life Magazine (8 June): 17.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Berry, David Carson. 2008. \"The Roles of Invariance and Analogy in the Linear Design of Stravinsky's 'Musick to Heare.'\" Gamut: The Journal of the Music Theory Society of the Mid-Atlantic 1, no. 1.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cocteau, Jean. 1918. Le Coq et l'arlequin: notes de la musique. Paris: Éditions de la Sirène. Reprinted 1979, with a preface by Georges Auric. Paris: Stock. English edition, as Cock and Harlequin: Notes Concerning Music, translated by Rollo H. Myers, London: Egoist Press, 1921.",
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"target_page_ids": [
15837
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"plaintext": " Cohen, Allen. 2004. Howard Hanson in Theory and Practice. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. .",
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"target_page_ids": [
16786034
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Craft, Robert. 1994. Stravinsky: Chronicle of a Friendship, revised and expanded edition. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. .",
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317533
],
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"plaintext": " Cross, Jonathan. 1999. The Stravinsky Legacy. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. .",
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},
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"plaintext": " Floirat, Anetta. 2016, \"The Scythian element of the Russian primitivism, in music and visual arts. Based on the work of three painters (Goncharova, Malevich and Roerich) and two composers (Stravinsky and Prokofiev\")",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Floirat, Anetta. 2019, \"\"Marc Chagall (1887–1985) and Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971), a painter and a composer facing similar twentieth-century challenges, a parallel. [revised version]\", Academia.edu.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Goubault, Christian. 1991. Igor Stravinsky. Editions Champion, Musichamp l’essentiel 5, Paris 1991 (with catalogue raisonné and calendar).",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Hazlewood, Charles. 20 December 2003. \"Stravinsky – The Firebird Suite\". Audio, Discovering Music, BBC Radio 3. Archived at Discovering Music: Listening Library, Programmes.",
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"plaintext": " Joseph, Charles M. 2002. Stravinsky and Balanchine, A Journey of Invention. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Kohl, Jerome. 1979–80. \"Exposition in Stravinsky's Orchestral Variations\". Perspectives of New Music 18, nos. 1 and 2 (Fall-Winter/Spring Summer): 391–405. (subscription access).",
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"plaintext": " Kirchmeyer, Helmut. 2002. Annotated Catalog of Works and Work Editions of Igor Strawinsky till 1971 – Verzeichnis der Werke und Werkausgaben Igor Strawinskys bis 1971, Leipzig: Publications of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig. Extended edition available online since 2015, in English and German.",
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29675170
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"plaintext": " Kirchmeyer, Helmut. 1958. Igor Strawinsky. Zeitgeschichte im Persönlichkeitsbild. Regensburg: Bosse-Verlag.",
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29675170
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"plaintext": " Kundera, Milan. 1995. Testaments Betrayed: An Essay in Nine Parts, translated by Linda Asher. New York: HarperCollins. .",
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"target_page_ids": [
36679
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"plaintext": " Lehrer, Jonah. 2007. \"Igor Stravinsky and the Source of Music\", in his Proust Was a Neuroscientist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. .",
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"plaintext": " Libman, Lillian. 1972. And Music at the Close: Stravinsky's Last Years. New York: W. W. Norton",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Locanto, Massimiliano (ed.) 2014. Igor Stravinsky: Sounds and Gestures of Modernity. Salerno: Brepols. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " McFarland, Mark. 2011. \"Igor Stravinsky.\" In Oxford Bibliographies Online: Music , edited by Bruce Gustavson. New York: Oxford University Press.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Page, Tim. 30 July 2006. \"Classical Music: Great Composers, a Less-Than-Great Poser and an Operatic Impresario\". The Washington Post p. BW13.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Robinson, Lisa. 2004. \"Opera Double Bill Offers Insight into Stravinsky's Evolution\". The Juilliard Journal Online 19, no. 7 (April). (No longer accessible as of March 2008.)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Schaeffner, André. 1931. Strawinsky. Paris: Edition Rieder.",
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"plaintext": " Siegmeister, Elie (ed.). 1943. The Music Lover's Handbook. New York: William Morrow and Company.",
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"target_page_ids": [
3304927
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"plaintext": " Slim, H. Colin. 2006. \"Stravinsky's Four Star-Spangled Banners and His 1941 Christmas Card\". The Musical Quarterly 89, nos. 2 and 3 (Summer–Fall): 321–447.",
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"target_page_ids": [
6925320
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Slonimsky, Nicolas. 1953. Lexicon of Musical Invective: Critical Assaults on Composers Since Beethoven's Time. New York: Coleman-Ross. Second edition, New York: Coleman-Ross, 1965, reprinted Washington Paperbacks WP-52, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969, reprinted again Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974 , and New York: Norton, 2000 (pbk).",
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"plaintext": " Stravinsky, Igor. 1947. Poetics of Music in the Form of Six Lessons. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stravinsky, Igor. 1960. Poetics of Music in the Form of Six Lessons. New York: Vintage Books.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stravinsky, Igor. 1982–85. Stravinsky: Selected Correspondence, 3 volumes, edited by Robert Craft. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. (vol. 1), (vol. 2), (vol. 3).",
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " Tappolet, Claude. 1990. Correspondence Ansermet-Strawinsky (1914–1967). Edition complète, 3 Volumes, Georg Edition, Genf.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " van den Toorn, Pieter C. 1987. Stravinsky and the Rite of Spring: The Beginnings of a Musical Language. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Vlad, Roman. 1958, 1973, 1983. Strawinsky. Turin: Piccola Biblioteca Einaudi.",
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"plaintext": " Vlad, Roman. 1960, 1967. Stravinsky. London and New York: Oxford University Press,.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wallace, Helen. 2007. Boosey & Hawkes, The Publishing Story. London: Boosey & Hawkes. .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Walsh, Stephen. 2007. \"The Composer, the Antiquarian and the Go-between: Stravinsky and the Rosenthals\". The Musical Times 148, no. 1898 (Spring): 19–34.",
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"plaintext": " The Stravinsky Foundation website",
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},
{
"plaintext": " \" 'Jews and Geniuses': An Exchange\" between Richard Taruskin and Robert Craft, The New York Review of Books, 15 June 1989, on Stravinsky being a Jew or not and about his anti-Semitism. See also another exchange between Niel Glixon and Craft, 27 April 1989; and the original review (16 February 1989) by Robert Craft of John Rockwell's article \"Reactionary Musical Modernists\" (9 September 1988) in The New York Times.",
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"plaintext": " The Ekstrom Collection of the Diaghilev and Stravinsky Foundation is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum London, Department of Theatre and Performance. A full catalogue and details of access arrangements are available here.",
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38,173 | 1,094,111,243 | Hot_air_balloon | [
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"plaintext": "On January 15, 1991, the Virgin Pacific Flyer balloon completed the longest flight in a hot air balloon, when Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew from Japan to Northern Canada. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at . The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard (Auguste Piccard's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes. Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt, in 320 h 33 min. Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016 for a round-the world time of 268 h 20 min.",
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"plaintext": "A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting \"envelope\"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the \"burner\", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders.",
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"plaintext": "Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).",
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"plaintext": "During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.",
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"plaintext": "Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.",
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"plaintext": "At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.",
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"plaintext": "The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam. The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.",
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"plaintext": "The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air. It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a \"rag bag\": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.",
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"plaintext": "A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called \"Hoppers\" or \"Cloudhoppers\") have as little as of envelope volume; for a perfect sphere the radius would be around . At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to . The most-used size is about , allowing to carry 3 to 5 people.",
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"plaintext": "The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.",
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"plaintext": "The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes. The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of \"vent lines\" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These \"vent lines\" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.",
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"plaintext": "An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a \"Velcro-style\" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of \"vent lines\" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by \"hook and loop\" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second \"maneuvering vent\" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the \"smart vent\", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the \"parachute\" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the \"pop top\" and \"MultiVent\" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.",
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"plaintext": "Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional \"inverted tear drop\" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as \"natural\". Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.",
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"plaintext": "Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty. Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.",
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"plaintext": "Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability. These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.",
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"plaintext": "The burner unit gasifies liquid propane, mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3MW of heat (7 to 10million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed. The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezoelectric spark.",
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730,
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"plaintext": "Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.",
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"plaintext": "Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are . They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.",
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184,
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201,
215
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"plaintext": "The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen. Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying. Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.",
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"plaintext": "A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature. A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction.",
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"plaintext": "The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:",
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{
"plaintext": " {| class=\"wikitable\"",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Component",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Pounds",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Kilograms",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Mass fraction",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "| envelope",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |250",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |113.4",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 5-passenger basket",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |140",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |63.5",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| Double burner",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |50",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |22.7",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 3 fuel tanks full of propane",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |3 × 135 = 405",
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"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |183.7",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 5 passengers",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |5 × 150 = 750",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |340.2",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| Subtotal",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |1595",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |723.5",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| of heated air*",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |5922",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |2686.2",
"section_idx": 2,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| Total",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |(3.76tons) 7517",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| align=\"right\" |3409.7",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Construction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|}",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Using a density of for dry air heated to .",
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10,
17
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"plaintext": "Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120°C (250°F).",
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317
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"plaintext": "The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature — about 230°C (450°F) — but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120°C (250°F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life.",
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"plaintext": "The lift generated by of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:",
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{
"plaintext": " {| class=\"wikitable\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Theory of operation",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Theory of operation",
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{
"plaintext": "! Air temperature",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Air density",
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{
"plaintext": "! Air mass",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! Lift generated",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Theory of operation",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Theory of operation",
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},
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"plaintext": "The density of air at is about . The total lift for a balloon of heated to would be . This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.",
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"plaintext": "For typical atmospheric conditions (), a hot air balloon heated to requires about 3.91m3 of envelope volume to lift 1kilogram (equivalently, 62.5cuft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000m (1% per 1,000ft) of altitude gained.",
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"plaintext": "Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope. This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.",
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"plaintext": "The 1785 Rozière balloon, a type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development, but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas. All modern Roziere balloons now use helium as a lifting gas.",
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"plaintext": "Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by a dark envelope to heat the air inside.",
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"plaintext": "Hot air balloon can be steered to a limited degree by changing the altitude of the flight. Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases.",
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"plaintext": "To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.",
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"plaintext": "To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.",
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"plaintext": "A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2kg E type fire extinguisher.",
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"plaintext": "A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.",
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"plaintext": "For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.",
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"plaintext": "Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.",
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"plaintext": "At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.",
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"plaintext": "The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.",
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"plaintext": "As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.",
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"plaintext": "To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.",
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"plaintext": "The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.",
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"plaintext": "Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.",
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"plaintext": "Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.",
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"plaintext": "As with other aircraft in the US, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155pounds or 70kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation",
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"plaintext": "and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required. For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), carrying the rating of \"Lighter-than-air free balloon\", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: \"Limited to hot-air balloons with airborne heater\". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot-air balloons meet the criteria.",
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"plaintext": "To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.",
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"plaintext": " 1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.",
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"plaintext": " 2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.",
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"plaintext": " 2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.",
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"plaintext": " 2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.",
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"plaintext": " 2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.",
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"plaintext": " 2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.",
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"plaintext": " 2021 Albuquerque hot air balloon crash: On 26 June 2021, a hot air balloon carrying five people made contact with a power line and crashed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. All five people on board died as a result of the accident.",
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"plaintext": "The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Cameron Balloons of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron) have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot-air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop-shaped balloons, but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.",
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"plaintext": "The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.",
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"plaintext": "One of the three largest companies in the world is Kubicek Balloons. From its factory in Brno, Czechia the company ships its products worldwide. Produces from 100 to 115 balloons per year. Kubicek company also focus on special shape balloons, FAA/EASA type certified and are delivered with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate.",
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"plaintext": "In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacturer is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.",
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"plaintext": "The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic, and LLopis Balloons of France.",
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"plaintext": " Barrage balloon",
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"plaintext": " Blimp",
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"plaintext": " Cinebulle",
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"plaintext": " Cluster ballooning",
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"plaintext": " Espionage balloon",
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"plaintext": " Gas balloon",
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"plaintext": " High-altitude balloon",
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"plaintext": " History of military ballooning",
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"plaintext": " Hot air balloon festival",
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"plaintext": " Hot air ballooning",
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"plaintext": " Observation balloon",
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"plaintext": " Research balloon",
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"plaintext": " Skyhook balloon",
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"plaintext": " Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Hot Air Ballooning – How balloons fly, list of balloon clubs, free classified ads for balloonists",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hot Air Balloon Web Links",
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"plaintext": "The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now in France) rather than in Rome. The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France. Following the further death of Pope Benedict XI, Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V as pope in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the \"Babylonian captivity of the Papacy\".",
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"plaintext": "A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French, and all under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome (arriving on January 17, 1377). But after Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France; after five years besieged by the French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance.",
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"plaintext": "Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these:",
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"plaintext": "Pope Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon March 9, 1309)",
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII: 1316–1334",
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"plaintext": "Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342",
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"plaintext": "Pope Urban V: 1362–1370 (in Rome 1367–1370; returned to Avignon 1370)",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378 (left Avignon to return to Rome on September 13, 1376)",
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"plaintext": "The two Avignon-based antipopes were:",
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"plaintext": "Clement VII: 1378–1394",
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"plaintext": "Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)",
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"plaintext": "Benedict XIII was succeeded by three antipopes, who had little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon:",
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"plaintext": "Clement VIII: 1423–1429 (recognized in the Crown of Aragon; abdicated)",
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"plaintext": "Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier): 1424–1429 or 1430",
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"plaintext": "Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier): 1430?–1437",
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"plaintext": "The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants to the title of pope, is referred to as the \"Western Schism\" or \"the great controversy of the antipopes\" by some Catholic scholars and \"the second great schism\" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiance among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V was accepted by all.",
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"plaintext": "Avignon and the small enclave to the east (Comtat Venaissin) remained part of the Papal States until 1791 when, under pressure from French Revolutionaries, they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France (1791–92), which, in turn, was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year.",
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"plaintext": "The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played a major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule– its importance had peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to the prestige of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom, with monarchs like those of England, France, and even the Holy Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading \"their\" armies. One exception was Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during a Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and was moderately successful in the Holy Land.",
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"plaintext": "King Philip IV of France wanted to use the finances of the Church to pay for his war with the English. Pope Boniface VIII protested, leading to a feud.",
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"plaintext": "This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam, in November 1302. In that papal bull, Pope Boniface VIII decreed that \"it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff.\" This was directed primarily to King Phillip IV of France who responded by saying, \"Your venerable conceitedness may know that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters.\" In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up with a bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put an interdict over all France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of the King of France broke into the papal residence and beat Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope Benedict XI. He absolved King Phillip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII; though the culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. However, Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to the papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a Frenchman and a personal friend of King Phillip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning with Clement V, elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France (Occitania) at that time had a culture quite independent from Northern France, where most of the advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was not yet part of France at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The literature produced by the troubadours in the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism, which was ultimately declared heretical. The movement was fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding.",
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"plaintext": "A stronger impact was made by the move of the Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to Avignon in 1309. Following the impasse during the previous conclave, and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families, the Catholic Church looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat Venaissin. Formally it was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of the French king. During its time in Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh.",
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"plaintext": "The temporal role of the Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its administration under Clement V and John XXII. The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices, abandoning the customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income. Many other forms of payment brought riches to the Holy See and its cardinals: tithes, a ten-percent tax on church property; annates, the income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly appointed priests to the request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at banquets.",
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"plaintext": "Overall the public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of the Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins. While pardoners were hated but popularly regarded as helpful to redeem one's soul, the friars who were commonly regarded as failing to follow the Church's moral commandments by ignoring their vows of chastity and poverty and were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had.",
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"plaintext": "For the Catholic Church, an institution embedded in the secular structure and its focus on property, this was a dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical. These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with the common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles, was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges against the popes; King Philip of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. In his conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham, who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich. In response, William charged the pope with seventy errors and seven heresies.",
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"plaintext": "The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire order based on the scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the suppression of the order. In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of Navarre, were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication, no one was allowed to speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order were not allowed to present their case—the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was revoked.",
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"plaintext": "After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued the bull Salvator Mundi, retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface declared that \"God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms.\"",
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"plaintext": "In response, Philip wrote \"Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters,\" and called for a meeting of the Estates General, a council of the lords of France, who had supported his position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy, simony, sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam sanctam (November 18, 1302), he decreed that \"it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff.\" He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France, when in September 1303, William Nogaret, the strongest critic of the papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with the cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni, his home town, and arrested him. He was freed three days later by the population of Anagni. However, Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this attack on his own person and died a few weeks later.",
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"plaintext": "In reaction to the intransigence of Popes like Boniface VIII, the French tightened their influence under the papacy, eventually reducing the Popes to puppets and stacking the Papal court with French clerics.",
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"plaintext": "The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became the next pontiff. He was born in Gascony, in southern France, but was not directly connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon. In this situation of dependency on powerful neighbours in France, three principles characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements (such as the Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth. The latter was directly challenged by Philippe IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy. Phillipe exerted strong influence on the cardinals of the collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillipe to leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price was concessions on various fronts; despite strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to suppress the order.",
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"plaintext": "One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in Cahors, and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor. Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jaques Fournier in Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to be very careful about the souls of the examined, taking a lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War.",
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"plaintext": "Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to the French court were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new heights.",
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"plaintext": "Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death, the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1350 and is believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population. Also during his reign, in 1348, the Avignon papacy bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI. He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However, he was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope. In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict. Most notably in 1353 the Bishop of Porto, Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from the English side over Guy's strong ties with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster: \"Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone.\"",
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"plaintext": "With Pope Urban V (1362–1370), the control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all. However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip the Bold of the Duchy of Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders, rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England's sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the church dropped.",
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"plaintext": "The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378) was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with his arrival on 17 January 1377. Although the Pope was French born and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375, Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan, Bologna, Perugia, Pisa, Lucca and Genoa. The papal legate, Robert of Geneva, a relative of the House of Savoy, pursued a particularly ruthless policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against the papacy strengthened. Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called \"the war of the eight saints\" in reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was excommunicated and as reply the forwarding of clerical taxes was stopped. Trade was seriously hampered and both sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome, the Pope was also under the influence of Catherine of Siena, later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome.",
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"plaintext": "This resolution was short-lived, however, when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI. Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Clement VII, to succeed Gregory XI, thus beginning a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII and his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church. This situation, known as the Western Schism, persisted from 1378 until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) resolved the question of papal succession and declared the French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V, was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to the line of the Avignon Popes (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437.",
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"plaintext": "The period has been called the \"Babylonian captivity\" of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain although it may have sprung from Petrarch, who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon, described Avignon of that time as the \"Babylon of the west\", referring to the worldly practices of the church hierarchy. The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the \"captivity\" of the popes at Avignon lasted about the same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and finally to a papacy under strong influence by the French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from 1378 to 1417. In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers, with France supporting the antipopes in Avignon and England supporting the popes in Rome. At the end of the century, still in the state of schism, the papacy had lost most of its direct political power, and the nation states of France and England were established as two of the main powers in Europe.",
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"plaintext": " Ladurie, E. le Roi. Montaillou, Catholics and Cathars in a French Village, 1294–1324, trans. B. Bray, 1978. Also published as Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " Read, P. P., The Templars, Phoenix Press. Chapter 17, \"The Temple Destroyed\"",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " Renouard, Yves. Avignon Papacy.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sumption, J., Trial by Fire, Faber and Faber, 1999.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Tuchman, B., A Distant Mirror, Papermac, 1978. Chapter 16 The Papal Schism",
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"plaintext": " Vale, M., \"The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500\". In: Holmes, G. (ed.) The Oxford History of Medieval Europe, Oxford University Press, 1988.",
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"plaintext": " Voltaire, F-M, \"Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire depuis Charlemagne jusqu'à Louis XIII. (English: \"Essay on the manners and spirit of nations and on the principal facts of history from Charlemagne to Louis XIII\") Vol I, T XI, Chap LXV; edited by René Pomeau (1990) in 2 Volumes (Garnier frères, Paris) ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Zutschi, P. N. R., \"The Avignon Papacy\". In: Jones, M. (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History. Volume VI c.1300–c.1415, pp.653–673, 2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Tharp was born in 1941 on a farm in Portland, Indiana, the daughter of Lecile Tharp, née Confer, and William Tharp. She was named for Twila Thornburg, the \"Pig Princess\" of the 89th Annual Muncie Fair.",
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"plaintext": "As a child, Tharp spent a few months each year living with her Quaker grandparents on their farm in Indiana. Her mother insisted she take lessons in dance, various musical instruments, shorthand, German and French. In 1950, Tharp's family—younger sister Twanette, twin brothers Stanley and Stanford, and her parents—moved to Rialto, California. William and Lecile operated Tharp Motors and Tharp Autos in Rialto. They opened a drive-in movie theater, where Tharp worked. The drive-in was on the corner of Acacia and Foothill, Rialto's major east–west artery and the path of Route 66. She attended Pacific High School in San Bernardino, studied at the Vera Lynn School of Dance, and studied ballet with Beatrice Collenette. A \"devoted bookworm\", Tharp says her schedule left little time for a social life. She attended Pomona College but transferred to Barnard College, where she graduated with a degree in art history in 1963. In New York City, she studied with Richard Thomas, Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham. In 1963, Tharp joined the Paul Taylor Dance Company.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988, Twyla Tharp Dance merged with American Ballet Theatre, since which time ABT has premiered 16 of Tharp's works. In 2010 it had 20 of her works in its repertory. Tharp has since choreographed dances for Paris Opera Ballet, The Royal Ballet, New York City Ballet, Boston Ballet, Joffrey Ballet, Pacific Northwest Ballet, Miami City Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, Hubbard Street Dance and Martha Graham Dance Company. She also created the dance roadshow Cutting Up (1992) with Baryshnikov, which went on to tour and appeared in 28 cities over two months.",
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"plaintext": "Tharp was the first Artist in Residency (A.I.R.) at Pacific Northwest Ballet in Seattle. During this time she created and premiered Waiting At The Station, a work with music by R&B artist Allen Toussaint and sets and costumes by longtime collaborator Santo Loquasto.",
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"plaintext": "Tharp premiered her dance musical Movin' Out, set to the music and lyrics of Billy Joel, in Chicago in 2001. The show opened on Broadway in 2002. Movin' Out ran for 1,331 performances on Broadway. A national tour opened in January 2004. It received 10 Tony nominations and Tharp won Best Choreographer.",
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"plaintext": "Tharp opened a new show, The Times They Are a-Changin', to the music of Bob Dylan in 2005 at The Old Globe Theatre in San Diego. The Times They are A-Changin''' set the records for the highest-grossing show and highest ticket sales as of the date of closing (March 2006). It was also the first show to receive a second extension before the first preview. After its run in California, the New York show ran for 35 previews and 28 performances.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Tharp worked with the songs of Frank Sinatra to mount Come Fly with Me, which ran at the Alliance Theater in Atlanta and was the best-selling four-week run as of the date of closing in 2009. Renamed Come Fly Away, the show opened on Broadway in 2010 at the Marquis Theatre and ran for 26 previews and 188 performances. Come Fly Away, was retooled and opened under the title Sinatra: Dance with Me at The Wynn Las Vegas in 2011. Come Fly Away National Tour opened in Atlanta in August 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Tharp collaborated with film directors Miloš Forman on Hair (1978), Ragtime (1980) and Amadeus (1983); Taylor Hackford on White Nights (1985); and James Brooks on I'll Do Anything (1994).",
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"plaintext": "Television credits include choreographing Sue's Leg (1976) for the inaugural episode of the PBS program Dance in America; co-producing and directing Making Television Dance (1977), which won the Chicago International Film Festival Award; and directing The Catherine Wheel (1983) for BBC Television. Tharp co-directed the award-winning television special \"Baryshnikov by Tharp\" in 1984.",
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"plaintext": "Tharp has written three books: an early autobiography, Push Comes to Shove (1992; Bantam Books); Learn It and Use It for Life (2003, Simon & Schuster), translated into Spanish, Chinese, Russian, Korean, Thai and Japanese; and The Collaborative Habit (2009, Simon & Schuster), also translated into Thai, Chinese and Korean. Tharp indicated that The Creative Habit is about cybernetics, especially in the several Greek-themed creative exercises, such as the Coin Drop; the Coin Drop, as an exercise in extracting ordered meaning from chaos, is derived from the astrological muse Urania, in that random coins falling onto a flat surface can be used to develop pattern analysis skills. The astrological theme is an etymological underpinning of cybernetics' tradition of \"guiding a boat\" by sighting stellar references according to ancient Greek navigation.",
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"plaintext": "Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by Tribeca Film Festival",
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"plaintext": "62nd Capezio Dance Award",
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"plaintext": "Honorary Degree, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA",
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"plaintext": "Until 1972 Tharp was married to painter Robert Huot, by whom she has a son, Jesse Huot, who acts as her business manager. She also has a grandson.",
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"plaintext": " Siegel, Marcia B. Howling Near Heaven''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2006.",
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"plaintext": " Archival footage of Twyla Tharp's Nine Sinatra Songs in 1993 at Jacob's Pillow",
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"plaintext": " Twyla Tharp performing The One Hundreds in 2001 at Jacob's Pillow",
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"plaintext": " Alvin Ailey performing a ballet by Twyla Tharp",
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"plaintext": " Twyla Tharp Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement",
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38,177 | 1,088,105,551 | Balthasar_Behem_Codex | [
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"plaintext": "The Balthasar Behem Codex, also known as Codex Picturatus, is a collection of the charters, privileges and statutes of the burghers of the city of Kraków. Compiled in 1505, the codex was named for the chancellor at the time, Balthasar Behem. The book's text is in German, Latin and Polish. It is now held at the library of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków.",
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"plaintext": "The bylaws of the guilds are featured in twenty-seven illustrations in the codex and depict both biblical subjects and the daily activities of the Kraków burgher guild members, for example that of bakers, titled in Latin: Pistores, with a subtitle in German: Das ist der briff und geseccze der becker von Krakow. (\"This is the letter and law of the bakers in Cracow\", example in color), and the text calligraphed in Latin.",
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38,180 | 1,107,260,150 | Clothing | [
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"plaintext": "Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural products found in the environment, put together. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on gender, body type, social factors, and geographic considerations. Garments cover the body, footwear covers the feet, gloves cover the hands, while hats and headgear cover the head. Eyewear and jewelry are not generally considered items of clothing, but play an important role in fashion and clothing as costume.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements, rough surfaces, sharp stones, rash-causing plants, insect bites, by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothing can insulate against cold or hot conditions, and it can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. It can protect feet from injury and discomfort or facilitate navigation in varied environments. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation. It may be used to prevent glare or increase visual acuity in harsh environments, such as brimmed hats. Clothing is used for protection against injury in specific tasks and occupations, sports, and warfare. Fashioned with pockets, belts, or loops, clothing may provide a means to carry things while freeing the hands.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing has significant social factors as well. Wearing clothes is a variable social norm. It may connote modesty. Being deprived of clothing in front of others may be embarrassing. In many parts of the world, not wearing clothes in public so that genitals, breasts, or buttocks are visible could be considered indecent exposure. Pubic area or genital coverage is the most frequently encountered minimum found cross-culturally and regardless of climate, implying social convention as the basis of customs. Clothing also may be used to communicate social status, wealth, group identity, and individualism.",
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"plaintext": "Some forms of personal protective equipment amount to clothing, such as coveralls, chaps or a doctor's white coat, with similar requirements for maintenance and cleaning as other textiles (boxing gloves function both as protective equipment and as a sparring weapon, so the equipment aspect rises above the glove aspect). More specialized forms of protective equipment, such as face shields are classified protective accessories. At the far extreme, self-enclosing diving suits or space suits are form fitting body covers, and amount to a form of dress, without being clothing per se, while containing enough high technology to amount to more of a tool than a garment. This line will continue to blur as wearable technology embeds assistive devices directly into the fabric itself; the enabling innovations are ultra low power consumption and flexible electronic substrates.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing also hybridizes into a personal transportation system (ice skates, roller skates, cargo pants, other outdoor survival gear, one-man band) or concealment system (stage magicians, hidden linings or pockets in tradecraft, integrated holsters for concealed carry, merchandise-laden trench coats on the black market — where the purpose of the clothing often carries over into disguise). A mode of dress fit to purpose, whether stylistic or functional, is known as an outfit or ensemble.",
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"plaintext": "Scientists have never agreed on when humans began wearing clothes and estimates suggested by various experts have ranged greatly, from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago. ",
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"plaintext": "Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking—anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying on lice. The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse's speciation from its parent, Pediculus humanus, can have taken place no earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse (P. humanus corporus) diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (P. humanus capitus), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from their frequency. These studies have produced dates from 40,000 to 170,000 years ago, with a greatest likelihood of speciation lying at about 107,000 years ago. ",
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"plaintext": "Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, which is thought to have begun between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago. A second group of researchers, also relying on the genetic clock, estimate that clothing originated between 30,000 and 114,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those hinted at by lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco. However, despite these indications, there is no single estimate that is widely accepted.",
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"plaintext": "According to anthropologists and archaeologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that was draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, as clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared with stone, bone, shell, and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988. Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 34,000 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Some human cultures, such as the various peoples of the Arctic Circle, traditionally make their clothing entirely of prepared and decorated furs and skins. Other cultures supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibers including wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie.",
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"plaintext": "Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized– with the powered loom– during the Industrial Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit– for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt, and the Javanese sarong. The clothes may simply be tied up (dhoti and sari) or implement pins or belts to hold the garments in place (kilt and sarong). The cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment.",
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"plaintext": "Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to the wearer's measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form-fitting clothing. If the fabric is expensive, the tailor tries to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing; perhaps cutting triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and adding them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for shirts and chemises take this approach. These remnants can also be reused to make patchwork pockets, hats, vests, and skirts.",
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"plaintext": "Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; domestic sewers may turn them into quilts.",
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"plaintext": "In the thousands of years that humans have been making clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photographs, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history can inspire current fashion designers, as well as costumiers for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.",
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"plaintext": "Comfort is related to various perceptions, physiological, social, and psychological needs, and after food, it is clothing that satisfies these comfort needs. Clothing provides aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort.",
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"plaintext": " Aesthetic comfort: Visual perception is influenced by color, fabric construction, style, garment fit, fashion compatibility, and finish of clothing material. Aesthetic comfort is necessary for psychological and social comfort.",
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"plaintext": " Thermoregulation in humans and thermophysiological comfort: Thermophysiological comfort is the capacity of the clothing material that makes the balance of moisture and heat between the body and the environment. It is a property of textile materials that creates ease by maintaining moisture and thermal levels in a human's resting and active states. The selection of textile material significantly affects the comfort of the wearer. Different textile fibers have unique properties that make them suitable for use in various environments. Natural fibers are breathable and absorb moisture, and synthetic fibers are hydrophobic; they repel moisture and do not allow air to pass. Different environments demand a diverse selection of clothing materials. Hence, the appropriate choice is important. The major determinants that influence thermophysiological comfort are permeable construction, heat, and moisture transfer rate.",
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"plaintext": " Thermal comfort: One primary criterion for our physiological needs is thermal comfort. The heat dissipation effectiveness of clothing gives the wearer a neither very hot nor very cold feel. The optimum temperature for thermal comfort of the skin surface is between 28 and 30 degrees Celsius, i.e., a neutral temperature. Thermophysiology reacts whenever the temperature falls below or exceeds the neutral point on either side; it is discomforting below 28 and above 30 degrees. Clothing maintains a thermal balance; it keeps the skin dry and cool. It helps to keep the body from overheating while avoiding heat from the environment.",
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"plaintext": " Moisture comfort: Moisture comfort is the prevention of a damp sensation. According to Hollies' research, it feels uncomfortable when more than \"50% to 65% of the body is wet.\"",
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"plaintext": " Tactile comfort: Tactile comfort is a resistance to the discomfort related to the friction created by clothing against the body. It is related to the smoothness, roughness, softness, and stiffness of the fabric used in clothing. The degree of tactile discomfort may vary between individuals, which is possible due to various factors including allergies, tickling, prickling, skin abrasion, coolness, and the fabric's weight, structure, and thickness. There are specific surface finishes (mechanical and chemical) that can enhance tactile comfort. Fleece sweatshirts and velvet clothing, for example. Soft, clingy, stiff, heavy, light, hard, sticky, scratchy, prickly are all terms used to describe tactile sensations.",
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"plaintext": " Pressure comfort: The comfort of the human body's pressure receptors' (present in the skin) sensory response towards clothing. Fabric with lycra feels more comfortable because of this response and superior pressure comfort. The sensation response is influenced by the material's structure: snugging, looseness, heavy, light, soft, or stiff structuring.",
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"plaintext": "The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. It serves to prevent wind damage and provides protection from sunburn. In the cold, it offers thermal insulation. The shelter can reduce the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing generally are worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones. Boots, hats, jackets, ponchos, and coats designed to protect from rain and snow are specialized clothing items.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing has been made from a wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn normally are considered accessories rather than clothing (such as Handbags), items worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or items that do not serve a protective function. For instance, corrective eyeglasses, Arctic goggles, and sunglasses would not be considered an accessory because of their protective functions.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing protects against many things that might injure or irritate the naked human body, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. Garments that are too sheer, thin, small, or tight offer less protection. Appropriate clothes can also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific hazards, such as insects, toxic chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances.",
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"plaintext": "Humans have devised clothing solutions to environmental or other hazards: such as space suits, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. The distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value, and clothes designed for function often incorporate fashion in their design. The choice of clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure appropriate clothing due to poverty or affordability, or simply lack of inclination, sometimes is said to be worn, ragged, or shabby.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.",
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"plaintext": "Serious books on clothing and its functions appear from the nineteenth century as European colonial powers interacted with new environments such as tropical ones in Asia. Some scientific research into the multiple functions of clothing in the first half of the twentieth century, with publications such as J.C. Flügel's Psychology of Clothes in 1930, and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949. By 1968, the field of environmental physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little. There has since been considerable research, and the knowledge base has grown significantly, but the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed, Newburgh's book continues to be cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development. ",
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"plaintext": "Clothing reveals much about human history. According to Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College, garments preserved in collections are resources for study similar to books and paintings. Scholars around the world have studied a wide range of clothing topics, including the history of specific items of clothing, clothing styles in different cultural groups, and the business of clothing and fashion. The textile curator Linda Baumgarten writes that \"clothing provides a remarkable picture of the daily lives, beliefs, expectations, and hopes of those who lived in the past.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing presents a number of challenges to historians. Clothing made of textiles or skins is subject to decay, and the erosion of physical integrity may be seen as a loss of cultural information. Costume collections often focus on important pieces of clothing considered unique or otherwise significant, limiting the opportunities scholars have to study everyday clothing.",
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"plaintext": "In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types.",
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"plaintext": "In contemporary Western societies, skirts, dresses, and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties usually are seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing, but nowadays are worn by both genders. Men's clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically, men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In previous times, such garments often were worn as normal daily clothing by men.",
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"plaintext": "In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire, usually hijab. What items required varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from the head-scarf to the burqa.",
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"plaintext": "Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-shirts, have started out as menswear, but some articles, such as the fedora, originally were a style for women.",
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"plaintext": "In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.",
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"plaintext": "Some religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it also may be worn every day as a marker for special religious status. Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion.",
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"plaintext": "In some religions such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism",
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"plaintext": "the cleanliness of religious dresses is of paramount importance and is considered to indicate purity. Jewish ritual requires rending of one's upper garment as a sign of mourning. The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: \"...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them\" (chapter 2:187).Christian clergy members wear religious vestments during liturgical services and may wear specific non-liturgical clothing at other times.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing appears in numerous contexts in the Bible. The most prominent passages are: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves, Joseph's coat of many colors, and the clothing of Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple in Jerusalem had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death.",
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"plaintext": "The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has changed the definition of what is \"stylish\". In the latter half of the twentieth century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally demand formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market.",
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"plaintext": "In the Western dress code, jeans are worn by both men and women. There are several unique styles of jeans found that include: high rise jeans, mid rise jeans, low rise jeans, bootcut jeans, straight jeans, cropped jeans, skinny jeans, cuffed jeans, boyfriend jeans, and capri jeans.",
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"plaintext": "The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers such as Pierre Cardin, Yves Saint Laurent, and Guy Laroche in the 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular include Marc Jacobs and Gucci, named for Marc Jacobs and Guccio Gucci respectively.",
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"plaintext": "By the early years of the twenty-first century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has been perpetuated over the centuries, spreading Western culture and styles, most recently as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Also, donated used clothing from Western countries is delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.",
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"plaintext": "People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, such as weddings and cultural holidays. Also, items of Western dress may be worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.",
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"plaintext": "For practical, comfort or safety reasons most sports and physical activities are practiced wearing special clothing. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving, or surfing), salopettes (for skiing), and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials often are used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track and field, dance, gymnastics, and swimming.",
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"plaintext": "Paris set the 1900–1940 fashion trends for Europe and North America. In the 1920s the goal was all about getting loose. Women wore dresses all day, every day. Day dresses had a drop waist, which was a sash or belt around the low waist or hip and a skirt that hung anywhere from the ankle on up to the knee, never above. Daywear had sleeves (long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleated, hank hemmed, or tiered. Jewelry was not conspicuous. Hair was often bobbed, giving a boyish look.",
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"plaintext": "In the early twenty-first century a diverse range of styles exists in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from expensive haute couture, to traditional garb, to thrift store grunge. Fashion shows are events for designers to show off new and often extravagant designs.",
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"plaintext": "Although mechanization transformed most aspects of human clothing industry by the mid-twentieth century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Often, mass-produced clothing is made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun), and campaign groups such as the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the plight of the workers.",
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"plaintext": "Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure. Although many countries recognize treaties such as the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.",
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"plaintext": "The production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations, providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to millions of people.",
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"plaintext": "The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. Currently, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection, in developed countries it is associated with expensive, designer clothing. Once uncontroversial, recently it has been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.",
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"plaintext": "Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and it exudes sweat, urine, and feces that may soil clothing. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. If not cleaned and refurbished, clothing becomes worn and loses its aesthetics and functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).",
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"plaintext": "Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials such as these inevitably age.",
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"plaintext": "Most clothing consists of cloth, however, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).",
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"plaintext": "Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering clothing, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning, and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.",
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"plaintext": "Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing. Excess lint or debris may end up on the clothing in between launderings. In such cases, a lint remover may be useful.",
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"plaintext": "Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, usually they are hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases, or to present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance, when they are put on sale in stores.",
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"plaintext": "Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as the black carpet beetle and clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored in cedar-lined closets or chests, or placed in drawers or containers with materials having pest repellent properties, such as lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may deter insect pest damage to clothing materials as well.",
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"plaintext": "A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants. In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after six months of routine washing, 7 of 27 shirts still had levels in excess of 75 ppm (the safe limit for direct skin exposure).",
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"plaintext": "When the raw material– cloth– was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems, however. Other mending techniques include darning and invisible mending.",
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"plaintext": "It is estimated that 80 billion to 150 billion garments are produced annually. Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. Neutral colored or undyed cellulose fibers can be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Also, used clothing often is collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally, used clothes are worth $4 billion, with the U.S. as the leading exporter at $575 million.",
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"plaintext": "Synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals, are not renewable or biodegradable.",
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"plaintext": "Excess inventory of clothing is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value.",
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"plaintext": "EU Member States import, in 2018 €166 billion of clothes; 51% come from outside the EU €84 billion.",
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"plaintext": "EU member states exported €116 billion of clothes in 2018, including 77% to other EU member states.",
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"plaintext": " Children's clothing",
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"plaintext": " Clothing fetish",
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"plaintext": " Clothing laws by country",
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"plaintext": " Cotton recycling",
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"plaintext": " Dress code",
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"plaintext": " Global trade of secondhand clothing",
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"plaintext": " Higg Index",
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},
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"plaintext": " List of iconic dresses",
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"plaintext": " Organic cotton",
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"plaintext": " Reconstructed clothing",
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"plaintext": " Right to clothing",
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"plaintext": " Sustainable fashion",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Textile recycling",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thermoregulation",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [
378661
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Timeline of requisite dress in Western civilization",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Vintage clothing",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Western dress",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Zero-waste fashion",
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1,
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"plaintext": " ebook ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Paperback ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " (see especially sections 5 – 'Clothing' – & 6 – 'Protective clothing').",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " International Textile and Apparel Association, scholarly publications",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
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"Clothing",
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38,188 | 1,106,803,501 | United_States_Navy_SEALs | [
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"plaintext": "The United States Navy Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL) Teams, commonly known as Navy SEALs, are the U.S. Navy's primary special operations force and a component of the Naval Special Warfare Command. Among the SEALs' main functions are conducting small-unit special operation missions in maritime, jungle, urban, arctic, mountainous, and desert environments. SEALs are typically ordered to capture or to kill high level targets, or to gather intelligence behind enemy lines.",
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"plaintext": "All active SEALs are members of the U.S. Navy. The CIA's highly secretive and elite Special Operations Group (SOG) recruits operators from SEAL Teams, with joint operations going back to the MACV-SOG during the Vietnam War. This cooperation still exists today, as evidenced by military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "Although not formally founded until 1962, the modern-day U.S. Navy SEALs trace their roots to World War II. The United States Military recognized the need for the covert reconnaissance of landing beaches and coastal defenses. As a result, the joint Army, Marine Corps, and Navy Amphibious Scout and Raider School was established in 1942 at Fort Pierce, Florida. The Scouts and Raiders were formed in September of that year, just nine months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, from the Observer Group, a joint U.S. Army-Marine-Navy unit.",
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"plaintext": "Recognizing the need for a beach reconnaissance force, a select group of Army and Navy personnel assembled at Amphibious Training Base (ATB) Little Creek, Virginia on 15 August 1942 to begin Amphibious Scouts and Raiders (Joint) training. The Scouts and Raiders' mission was to identify and reconnoiter the objective beach, maintain a position on the designated beach prior to a landing, and guide the assault waves to the landing beach. The unit was led by U.S. Army 1st Lieutenant Lloyd Peddicord as commanding officer, and Navy Ensign John Bell as executive officer. Navy chief petty officers and sailors came from the boat pool at ATB, Solomons, Maryland, and Army Raider personnel came from the 3rd and 9th Infantry Divisions. They trained at Little Creek until embarking for the North Africa campaign the following November. Operation Torch was launched in November 1942 off the Atlantic coast of French Morocco in North Africa.",
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"plaintext": "The first group included Phil H. Bucklew, the \"Father of Naval Special Warfare,\" after whom the Naval Special Warfare Center building is named. Commissioned in October 1942, this group saw combat in November 1942 during Operation Torch on the North African Coast. Scouts and Raiders also supported landings in Sicily, Salerno, Anzio, Normandy, and southern France.",
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"plaintext": "The second group of Scouts and Raiders, code-named Special Service Unit No. 1, was established on 7 July 1943, as a joint and combined operations force. The first mission, in September 1943, was at Finschhafen in Papua New Guinea. Later operations were at Gasmata, Arawe, Cape Gloucester, and the east and south coasts of New Britain, all without any loss of personnel. Conflicts arose over operational matters, and all non-Navy personnel were reassigned. The unit, renamed 7th Amphibious Scouts, received a new mission, to go ashore with the assault boats, buoy channels, erect markers for the incoming craft, handle casualties, take offshore soundings, clear beach obstacles, and maintain voice communications linking the troops ashore, incoming boats and nearby ships. The 7th Amphibious Scouts conducted operations in the Pacific for the duration of the conflict, participating in more than 40 landings.",
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"plaintext": "The third and final Scouts and Raiders organization operated in China. Scouts and Raiders were deployed to fight with the Sino-American Cooperative Organization (SACO). To help bolster the work of SACO, Admiral Ernest J. King ordered that 120 officers and 900 men be trained for \"Amphibious Raider\" at the Scout and Raider school at Fort Pierce, Florida. They formed the core of what was envisioned as a \"guerrilla amphibious organization of Americans and Chinese operating from coastal waters, lakes, and rivers employing small steamboats and sampans.\" While most Amphibious Raider forces remained at Camp Knox in Calcutta, three of the groups saw active service. They conducted a survey of the upper Yangtze River in the spring of 1945 and, disguised as coolies, conducted a detailed three-month survey of the Chinese coast from Shanghai to Kitchioh Wan, near Hong Kong.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1942, 17 Navy salvage personnel arrived at ATB Little Creek, Virginia for a week-long course in demolitions, explosive cable cutting, and commando raiding techniques. On 10 November 1942, the first combat demolition unit successfully cut cable and net barriers across the Wadi Sebou River during Operation Torch in North Africa. This enabled to traverse the water and insert U.S. Rangers who captured the Port Lyautey airdrome.",
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"plaintext": "In early May 1943, a two-phase \"Naval Demolition Project\" was directed by the Chief of Naval Operations \"to meet a present and urgent requirement\". The first phase began at ATB Solomons, Maryland with the establishment of Operational Naval Demolition Unit No. 1. Six officers and eighteen enlisted men reported from the Seabee's NTC Camp Peary dynamiting and demolition school, for a four-week course. Those Seabees, led by Lieutenant Fred Wise CEC, were immediately sent to participate in the invasion of Sicily. At that time Lieutenant Commander Draper L. Kauffman, \"The Father of Naval Combat Demolition,\" was selected to set up a school for Naval Demolitions and direct the entire Project. The first six classes graduated from \"Area E\" at NTC Camp Peary. LCDR Kauffman's needs quickly out-grew \"Area E\" and on 6 June 1943, he established NCDU training at Fort Pierce. Most of Kauffman's volunteers came from the navy's Civil Engineer Corps (CEC) and enlisted Seabees. Training commenced with a grueling week designed to filter out under-performing candidates. Eventually given the name \"Hell Week\" by NCDU recruits, this rigorous course was integrated into UDT training and remains a part of modern day Navy Seal training today.",
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"plaintext": "By April 1944, a total of 34 NCDUs were deployed to England in preparation for Operation Overlord, the amphibious landing at Normandy. On 6 June 1944, under heavy fire, the NCDUs at Omaha Beach managed to blow eight complete gaps and two partial gaps in the German defenses. The NCDUs suffered 31 killed and 60 wounded, a casualty rate of 52%. Meanwhile, the NCDUs at Utah Beach met less intense enemy fire. They cleared of beach in two hours, another by the afternoon. Casualties at Utah Beach were significantly lighter with six killed and eleven wounded. During Operation Overlord, not a single demolitioneer was lost to improper handling of explosives. In August 1944, four NCDUs from Utah Beach plus nine others participated in the landings Operation Dragoon in southern France. It was the last amphibious operation in the European Theater of Operations. Once the European invasions were complete, Real Admiral Kelly Turner requisitioned all available NCDUs from Fort Pierce for integration into the Underwater Demolition Teams (UDTs) operating in the Pacific Theater.",
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"plaintext": "Thirty NCDUs had been sent to the Pacific prior to Normandy. NCDUs 1–10 were staged on Florida Island in the Solomon Islands (archipelago) during January 1944. NCDU 1 went briefly to the Aleutians in 1943. NCDUs 4 and 5 were the first to see combat by helping the 4th Marines at Green Island and Emirau Island. A few were temporarily attached to UDTs. Later NCDUs 1–10 were combined to form Underwater Demolition Team Able. Six NCDUs: 2,3, 19, 20, 21 and 24 served with the Seventh Amphibious Force and were the only remaining NCDUs at the end of the war. The Naval Special Warfare Command building is named for LTJG Frank Kaine CEC commander of NCDU 2.",
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"plaintext": "Much like their brethren in the US Army Special Forces (aka Green Berets), the Navy SEALs claim a lineage to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). The OSS was a paramilitary organization and also a progenitor of the CIA. Army Special Forces, founded in 1952 by former members of the OSS, established the first military special operations combat diver units nearly a decade before the SEALs were created in 1962. Some of the earliest World War II predecessors of the Green Berets and SEALs were the Operational Swimmers of OSS.",
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"plaintext": "The OSS executed special operations, dropping operatives behind enemy lines to engage in organized guerrilla warfare as well as to gather information on such things as enemy resources and troop movements. British Combined Operations veteran LCDR Wooley, of the Royal Navy, was placed in charge of the OSS Maritime Unit (MU) in June 1943. Their training started in November 1943 at Camp Pendleton, California, moved to Santa Catalina Island, California in January 1944, and finally moved to the warmer waters of The Bahamas in March 1944. Within the U.S. military, they pioneered flexible swimfins and diving masks, closed-circuit diving equipment (under the direction of Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen), the use of Swimmer Delivery Vehicles (a type of submersible), and combat swimming and limpet mine attacks.",
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"plaintext": "The OSS MU mission was \"to infiltrate agents and supply resistance groups by sea, conduct maritime sabotage, and develop specialized maritime surface and subsurface equipment and devices.\" The MU operated in several theaters. In the Mediterranean, a fleet of hired Greek wooden fishing vessels—called caiques—covertly supported OSS agents in Albania, Greece, and Yugoslavia. After Italy surrendered, the MU and Mariassalto, an elite Italian special operations naval unit, operated against the Germans. In the Far East, the MU operated in conjunction with an Operational Group to attack Japanese forces on the Arakan coast of Burma. They jointly conducted reconnaissance missions on the Japanese-held coast, sometimes penetrating several miles up enemy-controlled rivers.",
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"plaintext": "The MU developed or used several innovative devices that would later allow for the creation of a special operations combat-diver capability, first in Army Special Forces (Green Berets) and later in US Navy SEAL units. Perhaps the most important invention in the realm of special operations diving was the Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit (LARU) invented by Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen. The Lambertsen unit permitted a swimmer to remain underwater for several hours and to approach targets undetected because the LARU did not emit telltale air bubbles. The LARU was later refined, adapted, and the technology used by the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and NASA. The Army Special Forces Underwater Operations School at Key West, Florida, the home of Special Forces maritime operations, draws its roots from the Maritime Unit.",
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"plaintext": "Lambertsen began his involvement with OSS as a medical student offering the use of his technology to the secretive organization in 1942. In 1944 he was commissioned as an Army Officer and later joined the OSS as an Operational Swimmer. Lambertsen himself led the OSS Maritime Unit on covert underwater missions to attach explosives to Japanese ships. Dr. Christian Lambertsen is remembered today as the 'Father of Military Underwater Operations'. Along with all the members of the OSS Maritime Unit, he was made honorary Green Berets and recognized by organizations like the UDT Navy Seal Association for their heroic and critical work.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1944, Colonel \"Wild Bill\" Donovan, the head of the OSS, divided the Maritime Unit into four groups and approached General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz about using OSS men in the Pacific Gen. MacArthur had no interest at all. Adm Nimitz looked at Donovan's list of units and also said no thank you except he could use the swimmers from the Maritime Unit to expand the UDTs. He was primarily interested in them for being swimmers, not their military training. The interest in the tactical applications of the OSS Operational Swimmers' training only developed later but most of Group A's gear was put into storage as it was not applicable to UDT work. The OSS was very restricted in operations in the Pacific. ADM Nimitz approved the transfer the five officers and 24 enlisted men of Maritime Unit Operational Swimmer Group A led by Lieutenant Choate. They became part of UDT 10 in July 1944. LT Choate would become commander of UDT 10. The rest of MU Group A would fill most of UDT 10's command offices as well as many of the swimmers. Five of the OSS-trained men participated in the very first UDT submarine operation with in the Caroline Islands during August 1944. Three of the men failed to make the rendezvous point for extraction. They were reported captured in Japanese communications and identified as \"BAKUHATAI\" — explosive ordnance men. They were never seen again and are listed as MIAs.",
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"plaintext": "The first units designated as Underwater Demolition Teams were formed in the Pacific Theater. Rear Admiral Kelly Turner, the Navy's top amphibious expert, ordered the formation of Underwater Demolition Teams in response to the failed invasion at Tarawa and the Marine's inability to clear the surrounding coral reefs with Landing Vehicle Tracked (LVTS). Turner recognized that amphibious operations required intelligence of underwater obstacles. The personnel for these teams were mostly local Seabees or others that had started out in the NCDUs. UDT training was at the Waipio Amphibious Operating Base, under V Amphibious Corps operational and administrative control. Most of the instructors and trainees were graduates of the Fort Pierce NCDU or Scouts and Raiders schools, Seabees, Marines, and Army soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "When Teams 1 and 2 were initially formed they were \"provisional\" with 180 men total. The first underwater demolition team commanders were CDR E.D. Brewster (CEC) UDT 1 and CDR John T. Koehler UDT 2. The teams wore fatigues with life-vests and were not expected to leave their boats – similar to the NCDUs. However, at Kwajalein Fort Pierce protocol was changed. Admiral Turner ordered daylight reconnaissance and CEC. ENS Lewis F. Luehrs and Seabee Chief William Acheson wore swim trunks under their fatigues anticipating they would not be able to get what the Admiral wanted by staying in the boat. They stripped down and spent 45 minutes in the water in broad daylight. When they got out they were taken directly to Admiral Turner's flagship to report, still in their trunks. Admiral Turner concluded that daylight reconnaissance by individual swimmers was the way to get accurate information on coral and underwater obstacles for upcoming landings. This is what he reported to Admiral Nimitz. The success of those UDT 1 Seabees not following Fort Pierce protocol rewrote the UDT mission model and training regimen. Those Seabees also created the image of UDTs as the \"naked warriors\". At Engebi CDR Brewster was wounded and all of the men with ENS Luehrs wore swim trunks under their greens.",
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"plaintext": "After the operations in the Marshall Islands, Admiral Turner restructured the two provisional UDT units and created 7 permanent units with an allotted size of 96 men per team. In the name of operational efficiency, the UDTs were also made an-all Navy outfit, and any Army and Marine corp engineers were returned to their units. Moving forward, the UDTs would employ the reconnaissance method made successful in Kwajalein - daytime use of swimsuits and goggles instead of the Scouts and Raiders method of nighttime rubber boats. In order to implement these changes and grow the UDTs, Koehler was made the commanding officer of the Naval Combat Demolition Training and Experimental Base on Maui. Admiral Turner also brought on LCDR Draper Kauffman as a combat officer.",
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"plaintext": "Seabees made up the vast majority of the men in teams 1–9, 13, and 15. Seabees were roughly 20% of UDT 11. The officers were mostly CEC.",
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"plaintext": "At war's end 34 teams had been formed with teams 1–21 having actually been deployed. The Seabees provided over half of the men in the teams that saw service.",
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"plaintext": "The UDT uniform had transitioned from the combat fatigues of the NCDUs to trunks, swimfins, diving masks and Ka-bars. The men trained by the OSS had brought their swimfins with them when they joined the UDTs. They were adopted by the other teams as quickly as Supply could get them.",
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"plaintext": "These \"Naked Warriors\", as they came to be called post-war, saw action in every major Pacific amphibious landing including: Eniwetok, Saipan, Kwajalein, Tinian, Guam, Angaur, Ulithi, Peleliu, Leyte, Lingayen Gulf, Zambales, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, Labuan, and Brunei Bay. By fall of 1944, the UDT's were considered an indispensable US military special operations unit, and Navy planners in the Central Pacific relied heavily on the UDT's reconnaissance reports and demolition activities to clear the way for landings.",
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"plaintext": "The last UDT operation of the war was on 4 July 1945 at Balikpapan, Borneo. The rapid demobilization at the conclusion of the war reduced the number of active duty UDTs to two on each coast with a complement of seven officers and 45 enlisted men each. However, the UDTs were the only special troops that avoided complete disbandment after the war, unlike the OSS Maritime Unit, the VAC Recon Battalion, and several Marine recon missions.",
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"plaintext": "Because they were so integral to the success of missions in the Pacific during the war, the U.S. Navy did not publicize the existence of the UDTs until post-war. During WWII the Navy did not have a rating for the UDTs nor did they have an insignia. Those men with the CB rating on their uniforms considered themselves Seabees that were doing underwater demolition (Fig. 11). They did not call themselves \"UDTs\" or \"Frogmen\" but rather \"Demolitioneers\" which had carried over from the NCDUs and Lt Cdr Kauffman's recruiting efforts from the Seabee dynamiting and demolition school. The next largest group of UDT volunteers came from the joint Army-Navy Scouts and Raiders school that was also in Fort Pierce and the Navy's bomb disposal school in the Seabee-dominated teams.",
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"plaintext": "For the Marianas operations of Kwajalein, Roi-Namur, Siapan, Tinian, Eniwetok, and Guam, Admiral Turner recommended sixty Silver Stars and over three hundred Bronze Stars with Vs for the Seabees and other service members of UDTs 1–7 That was unprecedented in U.S. Naval/Marine Corps history. For UDTs 5 and 7 every officer received a silver star and all the enlisted received bronze stars with Vs for Operation Forager (Tinian). For UDTs 3 and 4 every officer received a silver star and all the enlisted received bronze stars with Vs for Operation Forager (Guam). Admiral Richard Lansing Conolly felt the commanders of teams 3 and 4 (LT Crist and LT W.G. Carberry) should have received Navy Crosses.As the first to often make amphibious landings, the UDTs began making signs to welcome the Marines, indicating they had been there first, to foster the continued friendly rivalry. In keeping with UDT tradition, UDT 21 created a sign to greet the Marines landing in Japan. For Operation Beleaguer UDT 9 was deployed with the III Amphibious Corps to Northern China. In 1965 the UDT 12 put up another beach sign to greet the Marines at Da Nang.",
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"plaintext": "Operation Crossroads UDT 3 was designated TU 1.1.3 for the operation. On 27 April 1946, seven officers and 51 enlisted embarked at CBC Port Hueneme, for transit to Bikini. Their assignment was to retrieve water samples from ground zero of the Baker blast.",
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"plaintext": "The Korean War began on 25 June 1950, when the North Korean army invaded South Korea. Beginning with a detachment of 11 personnel from UDT 3, UDT participation expanded to three teams with a combined strength of 300 men. During the \"Forgotten War\" the UDTs fought intensely, employing demolition expertise gained from World War II and using it for an offensive role. Continuing to use water as cover and concealment as well as an insertion method, the Korean Era UDTs targeted bridges, tunnels, fishing nets, and other maritime and coastal targets. They also developed a close working relationship with the Republic of Korea Underwater Demolitions Unit (predecessor to the Navy Special Warfare Flotilla), which continues today.",
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"plaintext": "Through their focused efforts on demolitions and mine disposal, the UDTs refined and developed their commando tactics during the Korean War. The UDTs also accompanied South Korean commandos on raids in the North to demolish train tunnels. This was frowned upon by higher-ranking officials because they believed it was a non-traditional use of Naval forces. Due to the nature of the war, the UDTs maintained a low operational profile. Some of the missions included transporting spies into North Korea and the destruction of North Korean fishing nets used to supply the North Korean Army.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the Special Operations Group, or SOG, UDTs successfully conducted demolition raids on railroad tunnels and bridges along the Korean coast. The UDTs specialized in a somewhat new mission: Night coastal demolition raids against railroad tunnels and bridges. The UDT men were given the task because, in the words of UDT LT Ted Fielding, \"We were ready to do what nobody else could do, and what nobody else wanted to do.\" (Ted Fielding was awarded the Silver Star during Korea, and was later promoted to the rank of Captain). ",
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"plaintext": "On 15 September 1950, UDTs supported Operation Chromite, the amphibious landing at Incheon. UDT 1 and 3 provided personnel who went in ahead of the landing craft, scouting mud flats, marking low points in the channel, clearing fouled propellers, and searching for mines. Four UDT personnel acted as wave-guides for the Marine landing. In October 1950, UDTs supported mine-clearing operations in Wonsan Harbor where frogmen would locate and mark mines for minesweepers. On 12 October 1950, two U.S.minesweepers hit mines and sank. UDTs rescued 25 sailors. The next day, William Giannotti conducted the first U.S. combat operation using an \"aqualung\" when he dived on . For the remainder of the war, UDTs conducted beach and river reconnaissance, infiltrated guerrillas behind the lines from sea, continued mine sweeping operations and participated in Operation Fishnet, which devastated the North Koreans' fishing capability.",
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"plaintext": "President John F. Kennedy, aware of the situation in Southeast Asia, recognized the need for unconventional warfare and special operations as a measure against guerrilla warfare. In a speech to Congress on 25 May 1961, Kennedy spoke of his deep respect for the United States Army Special Forces. While his announcement of the government's plan to put a man on the moon drew most of the attention, in the same speech he announced his intention to spend over $100 million to strengthen U.S. special operations forces and expand American capabilities in unconventional warfare. Some people erroneously credit President Kennedy with creating the Navy SEALs. His announcement was actually only a formal acknowledgement of a process that had been underway since the Korean War.",
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"plaintext": "The Navy needed to determine its role within the special operations arena. In March 1961, Admiral Arleigh Burke, the Chief of Naval Operations, recommended the establishment of guerrilla and counter-guerrilla units. These units would be able to operate from sea, air or land. This was the beginning of the Navy SEALs. All SEALs came from the Navy's Underwater Demolition Teams, who had already gained extensive experience in commando warfare in Korea; however, the Underwater Demolition Teams were still necessary to the Navy's amphibious force.",
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"plaintext": "The first two teams were formed in January 1962 and stationed on both US coasts: Team One at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado, in San Diego, California and Team Two at Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek, in Virginia Beach, Virginia. Formed entirely with personnel from UDTs, the SEALs mission was to conduct counter guerilla warfare and clandestine operations in maritime and riverine environments. Men of the newly formed SEAL Teams were trained in such unconventional areas as hand-to-hand combat, high-altitude parachuting, demolitions, and foreign languages. The SEALs attended Underwater Demolition Team replacement training and they spent some time training in UDTs. Upon making it to a SEAL team, they would undergo a SEAL Basic Indoctrination (SBI) training class at Camp Kerry in the Cuyamaca Mountains. After SBI training class, they would enter a platoon and conduct platoon training.",
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"plaintext": "According to founding SEAL team member Roy Boehm, the SEALs' first missions were directed against communist Cuba. These consisted of deploying from submarines and carrying out beach reconnaissance in a prelude to a proposed US amphibious invasion of the island. On at least one occasion Boehm and another SEAL smuggled a CIA agent ashore to take pictures of Soviet nuclear missiles being unloaded on the dockside.",
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"plaintext": "The Pacific Command recognized Vietnam as a potential hot spot for unconventional forces. At the beginning of 1962, the UDTs started hydrographic surveys and along with other branches of the US Military, the Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) was formed. In March 1962, SEALs were deployed to South Vietnam as advisors for the purpose of training Army of the Republic of Vietnam commandos in the same methods they were trained themselves.",
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"plaintext": "The Central Intelligence Agency began using SEALs in covert operations in early 1963. The SEALs were later involved in the CIA sponsored Phoenix Program where it targeted Vietcong (VC) infrastructure and personnel for capture and assassination.",
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"plaintext": "The SEALs were initially deployed in and around Da Nang, training the South Vietnamese in combat diving, demolitions and guerrilla/anti-guerrilla tactics. As the war continued, the SEALs found themselves positioned in the Rung Sat Special Zone where they were to disrupt the enemy supply and troop movements and in the Mekong Delta to fulfill riverine operations, fighting on the inland waterways.",
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"plaintext": "Combat with the VC was direct. Unlike the conventional warfare methods of firing artillery into a coordinate location, the SEALs operated close to their targets. Into the late 1960s, the SEALs were successful in a new style of warfare, effective in anti-guerrilla and guerrilla actions. SEALs brought a personal war to the enemy in a previously safe area. The VC referred to them as \"the men with green faces,\" due to the camouflage face paint the SEALs wore during combat missions.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1966, a small SEAL Team One detachment arrived in South Vietnam to conduct direct action missions. Operating from Nhà Bè Base, near the Rung Sat Special Zone, this detachment signalled the beginning of a SEAL presence that would eventually include 8 SEAL platoons in country on a continuing basis. SEALs also served as advisors for Provincial Reconnaissance Units and the Lein Doc Nguio Nhia, the Vietnamese SEALs.",
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"plaintext": "SEALs continued to make forays into North Vietnam and Laos and covertly into Cambodia, controlled by the Studies and Observations Group. The SEALs from Team Two started a unique deployment of SEAL team members working alone with ARVN Commandos. In 1967, a SEAL unit named Detachment Bravo (Det Bravo) was formed to operate these mixed US and ARVN units.",
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"plaintext": "By 1970, President Richard Nixon initiated a plan of Vietnamization, which would remove the US from the Vietnam War and return the responsibility of defense back to the South Vietnamese. Conventional forces were being withdrawn; the last SEAL platoon left South Vietnam on 7 December 1971, and the last SEAL advisor left South Vietnam in March 1973. The SEALs were among the highest decorated units for their size in the war, receiving by 1974 one Medal of Honor, two Navy Crosses, 42 Silver stars, 402 Bronze Stars, two Legions of Merit, 352 Commendation Medals, and 51 Navy Achievement Medals Later awards would bring the total to three Medals of Honor and five Navy Crosses. SEAL Team One was awarded three Presidential Unit Citations and one Navy Unit Commendation; SEAL Team Two received two Presidential Unit Citations. By the end of the war, 48 SEALs had been killed in Vietnam, but estimates of their kill count are as high as 2,000. The Navy SEAL Museum in Fort Pierce, Florida, displays a list of the 48 SEALs who lost their lives in combat during the Vietnam War.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 May 1983, UDT–11 was redesignated as SEAL Team Five, UDT–21 was redesignated as SEAL Team Four, UDT–12 became SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team One (SDVT–1), and UDT–22 was redesignated as SDVT-2. SEAL Team Three, was established 1 October 1983 in Coronado, California. SEAL Team Eight was established on 1 October 1988 at Naval Amphibious Base, Little Creek, Virginia. United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM) was established in April 1987 and its Naval component, United States Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM), also known as NSWC, was established at the same time.",
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"plaintext": "Both SEAL Team Four and SEAL Team Six, the predecessor to DEVGRU, participated in the US invasion of Grenada. The SEALs' two primary missions were the extraction of Grenada's Governor-General, Sir Paul Scoon, and the capture of Grenada's only radio tower. Neither mission was well briefed or sufficiently supported with timely intelligence and the SEALs ran into trouble from the very beginning. On 24 October 1983, twelve operators from SEAL Team Six and four Air Force Combat Control Team members (CCT) conducted a predawn combat airborne water insertion from C-130 Hercules aircraft with Zodiac inflatable rubber boats 40 kilometers north of Point Salines, Grenada. The team inserted with full combat gear in bad weather with low visibility conditions and high winds. Four SEALs drowned and were never recovered. SEALs split into two teams and proceeded to their objectives. After digging in at the Governor's mansion, the SEALs realized they had forgotten to load their cryptographic satellite phone. As Grenadian and Cuban troops surrounded the team, the SEALs' only radio ran out of battery power, and they used the mansion's land line telephone to call in AC-130 gunship fire support. The SEALs were pinned down in the mansion overnight and were relieved and extracted by a group of Marines the following morning.",
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"plaintext": "The team sent to the radio station also ran into communication problems. As soon as the SEALs reached the radio facility they found themselves unable to raise their command post. After beating back several waves of Grenadian and Cuban troops supported by BTR-60 armored personnel carriers, the SEALs decided that their position at the radio tower was untenable. They destroyed the station and fought their way to the water where they hid from patrolling enemy forces. After the enemy had given up their search, the SEALs, some wounded, swam into the open sea where they were extracted several hours later after being spotted by a reconnaissance aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "During the closing stages of the Iran–Iraq War the United States Navy began conducting operations in the Persian Gulf to protect US-flagged ships from attack by Iranian naval forces. A secret plan was put in place and dubbed Operation Prime Chance. Navy SEAL Teams 1 and 2 along with several Special Boat Units and EOD technicians were deployed on mobile command barges and transported by helicopters from the Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. Over the course of the operation SEALs conducted VBSS (Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure) missions to counter Iranian mine-laying boats. The only loss of life occurred during the takedown of the Iran Ajr. Evidence gathered on the Iran Ajr by the SEALs later allowed the US Navy to trace the mines that struck . This chain of events led to Operation Praying Mantis, the largest US Naval surface engagement since the Second World War.",
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"plaintext": "During Operation Desert Shield and Storm, Navy SEALs trained Kuwaiti Special Forces. They set up naval special operations groups in Kuwait, working with the Kuwaiti Navy in exile. Using these new diving, swimming, and combat skills, these commandos took part in combat operations such as the liberation of the capital city.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Navy contributed extensive special operations assets to Panama's invasion, codenamed Operation Just Cause. This included SEAL Teams 2 and 4, Naval Special Warfare Unit 8, and Special Boat Unit 26, all falling under Naval Special Warfare Group 2; and the separate Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU). DEVGRU fell under Task Force Blue, while Naval Special Warfare Group 2 composed the entirety of Task Force White. Task Force White was tasked with three principal objectives: the destruction of Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF) naval assets in Balboa Harbor and the destruction of Manuel Noriega's private jet at Paitilla Airport (collectively known as Operation Nifty Package), as well as isolating PDF forces on Flamenco Island.",
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"plaintext": "The strike on Balboa Harbor by Task Unit Whiskey is notably marked in SEAL history as the first publicly acknowledged combat swimmer mission since the Second World War. Prior to the commencement of the invasion four Navy SEALs swam underwater into the harbor on Draeger LAR-V rebreathers and attached C4 explosives to and destroyed Noriega's personal gunboat the Presidente Porras.",
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"plaintext": "Task Unit Papa was tasked with the seizure of Paitilla airfield and the destruction of Noriega's plane there. Several SEALs were concerned about the nature of the mission assigned to them being that airfield seizure was usually the domain of the Army Rangers. Despite these misgivings and a loss of operational surprise, the SEALs of TU Papa proceeded with their mission. Almost immediately upon landing, the 48 SEALs came under withering fire from the PDF stationed at the airfield. Although Noriega's plane was eventually destroyed, the SEALs suffered four dead, including Chief Petty Officer Donald McFaul, and thirteen wounded.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1990, SEALs were the first western forces to deploy to the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Desert Shield. They infiltrated Kuwait the capital city within hours of the invasion and gathered intelligence and developed plans to rescue US embassy staff should they become hostages. SEALs were also the first to capture Iraqi Prisoners of War when they assaulted nine Kuwaiti Oil platforms on 19 January 1991. On 23 February 1991, a seven-man SEAL team launched a mission to trick the Iraqi military into thinking an amphibious assault on Kuwait by coalition forces was imminent by setting off explosives and placing marking buoys 500 meters off the Kuwaiti coast. The mission was a success and Iraqi forces were diverted east away from the true coalition offensive. The SEALs were first into Kuwait City in their Desert Patrol Vehicles when it was recaptured.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 December 1992, as part of Operation Restore Hope, U.S. Navy SEALs and Special Boat crewmen from Naval Special Warfare Task Unit TRIPOLI began a three-day operation carrying out reconnaissance operations in the vicinity of Mogadishu airport and harbor; ahead of UNITAFs deployment to the country. They suffered only one casualty, who was injured by an IED.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1993 a four-person DEVGRU SEAL sniper team was deployed to Mogadishu to work alongside Delta Force as part of Task Force Ranger in the search for Somali warlord Mohammed Farrah Aidid. They took part in several operations in support of the CIA and Army culminating in the 3 October 'Battle of Mogadishu' where they were part of the ground convoy raiding the Olympic Hotel. All four SEALs would be later awarded the Silver Star in recognition of their bravery while Navy SEAL Howard E. Wasdin would be awarded a Purple Heart after continuing to fight despite being wounded three times during the battle.",
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"plaintext": "In the immediate aftermath of the 11 September attacks, Navy SEALs quickly dispatched to Camp Doha, and those already aboard US Naval vessels in the Persian Gulf and surrounding waters began conducting VBSS operations against ships suspected of having ties to or even carrying al Qaeda operatives. SEAL Teams 3 and 8 also began rotating into Oman from the United States and staging on the island of Masirah for operations in Afghanistan. One of the SEALs' immediate concerns was their lack of suitable vehicles to conduct special reconnaissance (SR) missions in the rough, landlocked terrain of Afghanistan. After borrowing and retrofitting Humvees from the Army Rangers also staging on Masirah, the SEALs inserted into Afghanistan to conduct the SR of what would become Camp Rhino, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan (OEF-A). These early stages of OEF were commanded by a fellow SEAL, Rear Admiral Albert Calland.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the CJSOTF (Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force) under the command of General Tommy Franks at CENTCOM, SEALs from DEVGRU were part of Task Force Sword, which was established in early October 2001. It was a black SOF (Special Operations Forces) unit under direct command of JSOC. It was a so-called hunter-killer force whose primary objective was to capture or kill senior leadership and HVT within both al-Qaeda and the Taliban. Sword was initially structured around a two-squadron component of operators from Delta Force (Task Force Green) and DEVGRU (Task Force Blue) supported by a Ranger protection force teams (Task Force Red), and ISA signals intercept and surveillance operators (Task Force Orange) and the 160th SOAR (Task Force Brown). Task Force K-Bar was established on 10 October 2001, it was formed around a Naval Special Warfare Group consisting of SEALs from SEAL Teams 2, 3 and 8 and Green Berets from 1st Battalion, 3rd SFG; the task force was led by SEAL Captain Robert Harward.",
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"plaintext": "The task force's principal task was to conduct SR and SSE missions in the south of the country. Other Coalition SOF-particularly KSK, JTF2 and New Zealand Special Air Service were assigned to the task force. As part of the JIATF-CT (Joint Interagency Task Force-Counterterrorism) – intelligence integration and fusion activity composed of personnel from all of Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan (OEF-A) participating units- SEALs from DEVGRU were part of Task Force Bowie, they were embedded in the task force in AFOs (Advanced Force Operations). The AFOs were 45-man reconnaissances units made up of Delta Force recce specialists augmented by selected SEALs from DEVGRU and supported by ISA's technical experts. The AFOs had been raised to support TF Sword and were tasked with intelligence preparation of the battlefield, working closely with the CIA and reported directly to Task Force Sword. The AFOs conducted covert reconnaissance – sending small 2 or 3-man teams into al-Qaeda 'Backyard' along the border with Pakistan, the AFO operators would deploy observation posts to watch and report enemy movements and numbers as well as environmental reconnaissance; much of the work was done on foot or ATVs.",
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"plaintext": "SEALs were present at the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi in November 2001 alongside their counterparts from the British SBS. Chief Petty Officer Stephen Bass was awarded the Navy Cross for his actions during the battle.",
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"plaintext": "Before the US Marines landed at Camp Rhino in November 2001, a SEAL recce team from SEAL Team 8 conducted reconnaissance of the area, they were mistakenly engaged by orbiting AH-1W attack helicopters, but the SEALs managed to get a message through to the Marines before they suffered casualties. The SR mission in the region of Camp Rhino lasted for four days, after which two United States Air Force Combat Control Teams made a nighttime HALO jump to assist the SEALs in guiding in Marines from the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit who seized control of the area and established a Forward operating base.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2002, following the Battle of Tora Bora, another series of caves was discovered in Zhawar Kili, just south of Tora Bora; airstrikes hit the sites before SOF teams were inserted into the area. A SEAL platoon from SEAL Team 3, including several of their Desert Patrol Vehicles, accompanied by a German KSK element, a Norwegian SOF team and JTF2 reconnaissance teams spent some nine days conducting extensive SSE, clearing an estimated 70 caves and 60 structures in the area, recovering a huge amount of both intelligence and munitions, but they didn't encounter any al-Qaeda fighters. Subsequent SEAL operations during the invasion of Afghanistan were conducted within Task Force K-Bar, a joint special operations unit of Army Special Forces, United States Air Force Special Tactics Teams, and special operations forces from Norway, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Denmark. Task Force K-Bar conducted combat operations in the massive cave complexes near the city of Kandahar and surrounding territory, the town of Prata Ghar and hundreds of miles of rough terrain in southern and eastern Afghanistan. Over the course of six months, Task Force K-Bar killed or captured over 200 Taliban and al Qaeda fighters and destroyed tens of thousands of pounds of weapons and ordnance.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2002, while at Camp Rhino, the CIA passed on intelligence from a Predator drone operating in the Paktia province that Taliban Mullah Khirullah Said Wali Khairkhwa was spotted leaving a building by vehicle convoy. SEALs and Danish Jægerkorpset commandos boarded Air Force Pave Low helicopters and seized Khairkhwa on the road less than two hours later. The SEALs continued to perform reconnaissance operations for the Marines until leaving after having spent 45 days on the ground.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2002, SEALs from DEVGRU, SEAL Team 2, 3 and 8 participated extensively in Operation Anaconda. During what would become known as the Battle of Takur Ghar, whilst inserting from an MH-47E Chinook, PO1 Neil Roberts from DEVGRU, was thrown from his helicopter when it took fire from entrenched al Qaeda fighters. Roberts was subsequently killed after engaging and fighting dozens of enemies for almost an hour. Several SEALs were wounded in a rescue attempt and their Air Force Combat Controller, Technical Sergeant John Chapman, was killed. Attempts to rescue the stranded SEAL also led to the deaths of several US Army Rangers and an Air Force Pararescueman acting as a Quick Reaction Force.",
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"plaintext": "Later in 2002, CJSOFT became a single integrated command under the broader CJTF-180 that commanded all US forces assigned to OEF-A, it was built around an Army Special Forces Group (composed of soldiers from National Guard units) and SEAL teams. A small JSOC element (formerly Task Force Sword/11) not under direct CTJF command – embedded within CJSOFT, it consisted of a joint SEAL and Ranger element that rotated command, and was not under direct ISAF command, although it operated in support of NATO operations.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2005, Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor after his four-man reconnaissance counterinsurgency team was almost wiped out during Operation Red Wings. After the four-man team lost Danny Dietz, he put himself in open view to call in the QRF. He soon after died from injuries sustained. Matthew Axelson also died on this operation. The QRF never reached the scene; it was struck by an RPG killing eight Navy SEALs and eight Army Night Stalkers. Marcus Luttrell was the only survivor from this operation.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2010, Brigadier General Scott Miller took command of CJSOTF-Afghanistan and assigned virtually all SOF in the theatre to a new counterinsurgency role that would become known as the ALP/VSO Program (Afghan Local Police/Village Stability Operations), the SOF in Afghanistan were organized into battalion level SOTF (Special Operations Task Forces) each with a geographic area of responsibility-the SEALs were given southeast Afghanistan. To increase security of their assigned VSO village, a SEAL Platoon in Chora District, Uruzgan Province built a wall constructed of of HESCO barriers to divert insurgent movements away, this proved successful and eventually the Afghan villagers took ownership of it. SEALs and other SOTF still conducted Direct Action missions, but now partnered with Afghan forces.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 August 2011, seventeen U.S. Navy SEALs were killed when their CH-47 Chinook helicopter was shot down by an RPG fired by Taliban militants. The SEALs were en route to support U.S. Army Rangers who were taking fire while attempting to capture a senior Taliban leader in the Tangi Valley. Fifteen of the SEALs belonged to the Naval Special Warfare Development Group. Two others were SEALs assigned to a West Coast-based Naval Special Warfare unit. A total of 30 Americans and eight Afghans were killed in the crash, making it the single largest loss of U.S. lives in the Global War on Terrorism.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 August 2012, SEALs in Uruzgan Province conducted a joint operation into the Shah Wali Kot Valley where they suffered the loss of a Black Hawk helicopter when it was struck by an insurgent RPG, the crash killed 11 servicemen (seven US and four Afghan).",
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"plaintext": "In December 2012, SEALs from DEVGRU rescued a US doctor who had been kidnapped a few days earlier. However, during the operation the unit suffered a fatality, Petty Officer 1st Class Nicolas D. Checque. Senior Chief Edward Byers, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during this mission.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2013, Rear Admiral Sean Pybus, commander of Navy Special Warfare stated that the unit would cut in half the number of SEAL platoons in Afghanistan by the end of 2013. Pybus also added that the unit is already \"undergoing a transition back to its maritime roots\" by placing more emphasis on sea-based missions after being involved in mostly landlocked missions since 2001.",
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"plaintext": "For the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a squadron from DEVGRU operated as part of Task Force 20. Their role was to conduct heliborne direct action raids, particularly against HVTs. The Naval Special Operations Task Group was assigned to Operation Iraqi Freedom, and was built around a core of SEAL Teams 8 and 10, Polish GROM, Royal Marines from 40 and 42 Commando under the command of 3 Commando Brigade and attached US Psy Ops and civil affairs teams. The Naval Task Group was principally tasked with the capture of the port of Umm Qasr, Iraq's only deep-water port; the oil pipeline facilities of the Al-Faw Peninsula; and the two off-shore platforms the pipelines fed. Once these initial target sets were secured, the Task Group would support conventional forces in the south, conducting reconnaissance and raiding activities. Aviation support was provided by both Marine air of the 15th MEU and 20th Special Operations Squadron.",
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"plaintext": "Several days before the beginning of the invasion, two SDV teams were launched from Mark V Special Operations Craft in the Persian Gulf. Their objectives were the hydrographic reconnaissance of the Al Basrah (MABOT) and Khawr Al Amaya (KAAOT) Oil Terminals. After swimming under the terminals and securing their Mark 8 mod 1s, the SDV SEALs spent several hours taking pictures and surveying Iraqi activity on both platforms before returning to their boats. On 20 March 2003, SEALs from SEAL Team 8 and 10 (31 SEALs, 2 Navy EOD a USAF combat controller and several Iraqi interpreters) moved to seize the MABOT oil terminal whilst GROM operators assaulted the KAAOT Oil Terminals. The terminals were quickly seized with no casualties, and explosives which were found on the terminals were made safe by GROM operators.",
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"plaintext": "Other Naval Task Group operations included elements of three SEAL platoons in GMV trucks and DPVs seizing the al Zubayr MMS, whilst I MEF attacked the Rumaylah Oil Fields north of al-Faw. SEALs and Special Boat teams helped secure the Khawr Abd Allah and Khawr Az Zubyar waterways, which enabled humanitarian supplies to be delivered to the port of Umm Qasr. SEALs from the unit that secured the al-Faw MMS also conducted reconnaissance on the Shat Al Arab waterway, which was later secured by British forces. SEALs were also involved in various VBSS missions with British and Australian forces to seize Iraqi craft carrying seaborne mines.",
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"plaintext": "Coalition military planners were concerned that retreating Iraqi forces would destroy the Mukatayin hydroelectric dam, located 57 miles northeast of Baghdad, in an attempt to slow advancing US troops. In addition to restricting the manoeuvre of Coalition forces, the destruction of the dam would deny critical power needs to the surrounding area, as well as cause massive flooding and loss of Iraqi civilian life. A mixed team of SEALs from SEAL Team 5 and Polish GROM was called in to seize the dam. This force was flown several hours by six US Air Force MH-53J Pave Lows; the force consisted of 20 SEALs (with an extra six SEAL snipers in one helicopter carrying the SEAL command and control element) and two EOD operators along with 35 GROM operators to the dam. The SEALs employed DPVs into blocking positions to defend against counter-attack and roving bands of Iranian bandits that had been crossing the border and raiding Iraqi towns. As in Al Faw, the SEALs found their DPVs (the SEAL unit at the al-Faw MMS lost all but two DPVs when they were bogged down in the oily mud) to be ineffective and this marked the last time they would employ them in Iraq. The SEALs and GROM on foot fast-roped out of their helicopters and immediately stormed the dam. The minimal Iraqi troops guarding the dam surrendered without a fight, and with the exception of a GROM soldier who broke an ankle during the insertion, no casualties were sustained in the operation. After several hours of searching the dam for remaining hostile forces or any explosives, the SEALs secured the dam and held it for five days until they were relieved by advancing elements of the US Army.",
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"plaintext": "During the Battle of Basra, SEALs along with the Brigade Reconnaissance Force and 539 Assault Squadron RM attempted a waterborne approach to Basra via the Shatt al-Arab waterway but were intercepted by Iranian Revolutionary Guard patrol craft and did not want to engage them so they withdrew. On 6 April 2003, after relocating further up the waterway they successfully infiltrated via the waterway, using SEAL UAVs they called in \"show-of-force\" and an airstrike by a USMC Harrier on Iraqi troops, the SEALs then headed to \"Chemical Ali's\" house with SSE teams to find traces of chemical weapons. SEALs carried out missions around Nasiriyah, carrying out reconnaissance on surrounding villages and engaging enemy strong points bypassed by the US Marine advance. Charlie Platoon, SEAL Team 3, later operated ahead of the Marine advance carrying out similar missions. SEAL and GROM units continued to cooperate throughout the rest of the invasion phase, with raids and anti-sniper missions in Baghdad.",
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"plaintext": "Following the invasion, SEAL platoons rotated through Iraq, conducting overwatch for US and Iraqi patrols and directly mentoring local Iraqi forces; they also conducted surveillance and sniping missions into known trouble spots. In September 2004, a SEAL sniper element was tasked with establishing an overwatch and surveillance position overlooking Haifa Street, they were inserted by Bradley IFVs from a unit of the 9th Cavalry Regiment, however they were spotted and engaged by insurgents. The SEALs notified the Bradleys, they drove back, fired on the insurgents and set up a cordon for the SEALs to be extracted, one Bradley was destroyed by a car bomb, there were no casualties and the SEALs were extracted.",
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"plaintext": "In the interim between the First Battle of Fallujah and Second Battle of Fallujah, insurgents in Fallujah knew that the coalition assault was inevitable and under the guidance of the influx of foreign fighters, began to build defensive networks throughout the city-ranging from fortified buildings, trench lines, berms, strategically placed car bombs and IEDs. In preparations for the second battle, SEALs conducted reconnaissance near the berms and tested out reports that the insurgents were equipped with night-vision equipment, they proved this by throwing an infrared chemical light into the street which drew small arms fire. SEALs along with the 5th SFG, Marine Force Recon and Det One and other JSOC elements were heavily involved in shaping operations prior to 7 November D-DAY when coalition forces entered the city. The SOF shaping included sophisticated feints to mislead the insurgents as to the direction of the final assault, close target reconnaissance and direct-action missions where a logistics node or IED factory was targeted. When the offensive on the insurgents in the city began, many of the US Marine companies had SEAL sniper teams attached to them, mainly from SEAL Teams 3, 5 and 10.",
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"plaintext": "From 2005, SEALs were heavily committed to western Iraq in Al Anbar Governorate, AQI terrorists who escaped Fallujah had relocated to Ramadi. A SEAL Task Unit was co-located with the Marines at Al Asad Airbase and sent elements to Ramadi and Habbaniyah, the SEALs were initially tasked with target development for the Marines and providing sniper overwatch for their patrols. The SEALs were already training an Iraqi Army unit in Habbaniyah, although FID was their main focus until later that year. A SEAL Task Unit generally comprised two individual SEAL Platoons: each Platoon was made up of seven-man squad elements commanded by a junior officer, three of these Task Units (although a fourth was often added) along with a Special Boat Team detachment and a Headquarters Team (including integral intelligence, targeting and EOD personnel) made up a Naval Special Warfare Squadron. According to Dick Couch, the SEALs began FID with two Iraqi units-the Army Scouts who conducted conventional reconnaissance missions, and the SMP (Special Missions Platoon), a locally formed unit that would later fight alongside the SEALs. Despite several challenges, the SEALs were soon conducted operations with partnered units, particularly in Special Reconnaissance, focusing on the surveillance aspect, whilst conventional US Army or Marines would conduct raids and arrests. The typical loadout of the SEALs in Ramadi included the M4 carbine, optimized for close quarter battle with a 10-inch barrel equipped with a 6-inch sound suppressor, Surefire flashlight and EOTech sight, short barrel and foregrip and seven magazines.",
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"plaintext": "As the SEALs were beginning to make headway in Ramadi, AQI was starting to infiltrate the area by targeting local Sheikhs and convincing them to allow jihadists to marry into local tribes, thus cementing their powerbase and Sheikhs that resisted these advances were met with typical AQI brutality. Al-Qaeda's efforts to install a Sharia-style shadow government in Ramadi led to AQI's downfall-when in the first half of 2006, in the run-up to the Second Battle of Ramadi SEALs, increasingly partnered with conventional forces of the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 1st Armored Division which was planning the offensive. SEALs along with the Scouts and SMP, would conduct reconnaissance, surveillance and sniper overwatch tasks; with their own targeting cell, they also began conducting raids on local insurgent leaders. The 1st BCT began the concerted offensive to clear Ramadi of AQI fighters; on 29 September 2006, whilst at a rooftop overwatch position, Petty Officer Michael A. Monsoor died after leaping upon an enemy grenade during a rooftop firefight, two SEALs on the roof were badly wounded from the grenade fragments and their local Iraqi Scouts ran back into the cover of the building, a fourth SEAL (only lightly wounded), managed to radio his colleagues and get the Scouts to return fire. A SEAL element in a second overwatch position immediately ran through heavy fire to reach Monsoor (whom later died from his wounds in the back of a Bradley IFV) and the wounded SEALs, Monsoor was later awarded the Medal of Honor and the Silver Star. The advances by conventional forces and the SEALs in Ramadi, combined with the brutal tactics of AQI, helped to increase recruitment in a local police initiative-the programme was designed to bring the local Sheikhs' militias into the Iraqi Security Forces. These volunteers would serve locally in their communities to defend them against al-Qaeda, a month after the kidnapping and murder of Sheikh Khalid by AQI (which proved to be the tipping point), the Sheikhs signed a declaration agreeing to fight AQI and by the closing of 2006, even former insurgents were joining the local police (later known as the Anbar Awakening) by the end of the battle, some 1,100 terrorists were killed.",
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"plaintext": "In Fallujah, the SEAL Task Unit were also heavily involved in fighting. In one joint operation to capture an AQI leader, they entered the target building and were engaged resulting in an Iraqi Scout being killed and a SEAL severely wounded, two SEALs returned fire and entered the building, both SEALs entered different rooms, in one room the SEAL encountered three insurgents who opened fired at close range, another SEAL across the hallway was struck in the head and killed, the SEAL in the room with the insurgents killed all three.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2009, in a nighttime raid in Fallujah, SEALs captured Ahmad Hashim Abd al-Isawi (nicknamed the \"Butcher of Fallujah\"), a prominent al-Qaeda terrorist who was the mastermind behind the 2004 Fallujah ambush. Al-Isawai made accusations of mistreatment while in custody, and testified in April 2010 at the ensuing courts-martial against three SEALs (all of whom were acquitted). Iraqi authorities later tried and executed al-Isawi by hanging at some point before November 2013.",
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"plaintext": "SEALS remained employed throughout the Iraqi Campaign as Task Units or Task Elements until its close in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "OEF-P was established in 2002 to conduct long-term partnered operations with both Philippine Army special operations and intelligence units, as well as police units, to counter the threat posed by the ASG and JI terrorist groups. Much of this work has been assigned to 1st SFG; SEALs and USAF Special Operations who have also had a long-term presence in the Philippines. There are few confirmed operational details about the SEALs and Green Berets conducting partnered operations, although elements are partnered with Philippine Army and SOF; there have been mentions of Green Berets and SEALs wounded. On 21 June 2002, SEALs in RIBs supported the Philippine Naval Special Operations Group in the operation that killed Abu Sabaya, a senior leader in the ASG. A US Predator UAV marked the HVT with an infrared laser as he tried to escape in a smugglers boat; the MH-47Es from the 160th SOAR used search lights mounted on their helicopters to pinpoint the target's boat while operators from the Philippine Naval Special Operations Group opened fire on the boat killing the terrorist leader and capturing four other terrorists with him. ",
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"plaintext": "As part of OEF-HOA, Naval Special Warfare Unit 10 are deployed to Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti, under the command of SOCCE-HOA (Special Operations Command and Control Element-Horn of Africa) which commands all SOCOM units assigned to training or operational missions in the region. Special operations carried out in Somalia are conducted under the codename: Operation Octave Dune, as part of the overall effort in Somalia, which is known as Operation Octave Shield.",
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"plaintext": "Before Djibouti became the epicentre for counter terrorism operations in Africa, unilateral operations were launched from temporary forward locations in friendly nations such as Kenya, or from US Navy Ships. The earliest known operation in Somalia was known as Operation Cobalt Blue: In 2003, SEALs using SEAL Delivery Vehicles swam ashore along the Somali coastline and emplaced covert surveillance cameras. Known as cardinals, the cameras were designed to watch likely target locations for wanted terrorists as al-Qaeda and its affiliates began to regroup in the country, however the cameras only took one image a day and captured very little.",
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"plaintext": "CJSOTF-HOA (Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force-Horn of Africa) developed a rescue plan called Operation Mystic Talon, in case any CIA SAD or ISA operators were captured in the region, the plan required a SEAL platoon with Air Force Special Operations assets that, if necessary, would fight their way into Somalia, recover the hostage and fight their way out, should a mission need to be launched before a dedicated JSOC task force could be deployed to the region.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 April 2009, in response to a hostage taking incident off the coast of Somalia by Somalian pirates, three Navy SEALs from DEVGRU simultaneously engaged and killed the three pirates who were closely holding the hostage, Captain Richard Phillips, of the freighter ship . The pirates and their hostage were being towed in a lifeboat approximately 100 yards behind when each of the pirates were killed by a different DEVGRU sniper with a single shot to the head.",
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"plaintext": "In the early morning of 2 May 2011 local time, a team of Navy SEALs of the Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU), previously called \"SEAL Team 6\", along with a Belgian Malinois Military Working Dog (named \"Cairo\"), supported by Special Activities Division officers on the ground, killed Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan about from Islamabad in a CIA operation. President Barack Obama later confirmed the death of bin Laden, but did not directly mention the involvement of DEVGRU, saying only that a \"small team\" of Americans undertook the operation to bring down bin Laden. The unprecedented media coverage raised the public profile of the SEAL community, particularly the counter-terrorism specialists commonly known as SEAL Team 6. The Walt Disney Company tried unsuccessfully to trademark the name \"SEAL Team 6\" the day after the raid. The official name of the military operation was Operation Neptune Spear. The model of the compound used in the 60 Minutes documentary was donated by CBS to the Navy SEAL Museum.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 March 2014, thirty U.S. Navy SEALs from SEAL Team 2 took control of , a tanker full of oil loaded from a rebel-held port in Libya. The raid by Navy SEALs took place in international waters off the coast of Cyprus; the raid was a success, preventing a Libyan splinter militia group selling nationalized Libyan oil on the black market.",
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"plaintext": "As part of Operation Inherent Resolve's Iraq Campaign, there are at least 100 SEALs as part of a Special Operations advise and assist mission to Peshmerga and Iraqi Security Forces in combating ISIS. The Navy SEAL operation in northern Iraq is called Task Force Trident. On 3 May 2016, Petty Officer 1st Class Charles Keating IV was killed by ISIS small arms fire near the town of Tel Skuf during an ISIS assault on a Peshmerga position. He was a member of a 20-man Quick Reaction Force (QRF) sent to rescue a dozen U.S. advisors at the position and temporarily assist the Peshmerga. Keating IV was awarded the Navy Cross, posthumously, for his actions.",
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"plaintext": "Before getting accepted into Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) training, a prospective candidate must pass a certain number of both mental and physical requirements. These tests include: Pre-enlistment medical screening, ASVAB, AFQT, C-SORT, and PST. Then, the candidate must get a SEAL contract by passing the SEAL Physical Screening Test: 500-yard swim in 12:30, 50 push-ups in 2 minutes, 50 sit-ups in 2 minutes, 10 consecutive pull-ups in 2 minutes, and a 1.5-mile run in 10:30. Candidates receiving a passing score may then be admitted into training to become Navy SEALs. SEAL training is extremely rigorous. The attrition rate fluctuates, but averages at about 80 percent. The average candidate spends over a year in a series of formal training courses before being awarded the Special Warfare Operator Naval Rating and the Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) 5326 Combatant Swimmer (SEAL) or, in the case of commissioned naval officers, the designation Naval Special Warfare (SEAL) Officer.",
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"plaintext": "Navy SEAL training pipeline:",
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{
"plaintext": " 8-week Naval Recruit Training",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 8-week Naval Special Warfare Prep School (Pre-BUD/S)",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 3-Week BUD/S Orientation ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Selection and training",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 24-week Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL Training (BUD/S)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Selection and training",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 5-week Parachute Jump School",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Selection and training",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 26-week SEAL Qualification Training (SQT)",
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"plaintext": "Upon graduation from SQT, trainees receive the U.S. Navy SEAL Trident, designating them as Navy SEALs. They are subsequently assigned to a SEAL Team or SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) Team and begin 18-months of predeployment training before they are considered deployable. This training consists of:",
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{
"plaintext": " 6-month Professional Development – Individual Specialty Training (ProDev)",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 6-month Unit Level Training (ULT). ULT is unit training conducted by each Groups Training Detachment. Core unit training blocks are Air Operations, Land Warfare, Maritime, Urban and Special Reconnaissance.",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 6-month Squadron Integration Training (SIT)",
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"plaintext": "Those enlisted SEALs with a medical rating will first attend the Special Operations Combat Medic Course for 6 months in Fort Bragg, North Carolina before joining a team in order to become a SEAL/Special Operator Corpsman. Those pursuing Officer positions first attend the Junior Officer Training Course (JOTC) to learn about operations planning and how to perform team briefings. In total it can take over 2.5 years to completely train a Navy SEAL for his first deployment.",
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"plaintext": "Until December 2015, female sailors were barred from becoming Navy SEALs by naval regulation; however, this prohibition no longer exists. As early as August 2015, it was reported that the \"Navy is planning to open its elite SEAL teams to women who can pass the grueling training regimen.\" In that same month, Admiral Jon Greenert, the Chief of Naval Operations at the time, said that \"he and the head of Naval Special Warfare Command, Rear Admiral Brian Losey, believe that if women can pass the legendary six-month Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) training, they should be allowed to serve.\" On 3 December 2015, it was announced that there are now \"no exceptions\" to all military roles in the U.S., and women can become U.S. Navy SEALs.",
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"plaintext": "The Washington Examiner reported on 10 August 2017: \"A woman aiming to become the first female Navy SEAL officer quit about a week into the initial training\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2019 the Navy announced that an unnamed female officer was the first to successfully complete the SEAL Officer Assessment and Selection program (SOAS). She was a one of a group of five female candidates to enter the program. She opted not to start BUD/S afterwards, instead choosing another assignment in the Navy.",
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"plaintext": "In July of 2021, the Naval Special Warfare (NSW) training program graduated its first woman operator, who would go on to become a Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewman (SWCC). This would mark the first time a woman has graduated from the NSW assessment and selection pipeline.",
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{
"plaintext": "The total number of personnel, including SEALs and SWCCs assigned to Naval Special Warfare Command is approximately 8,195 out of a total 8,985 military staff, and 10,166 including civilian support staff, as of 2015.",
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"section_name": "Navy SEAL teams and structures",
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"plaintext": "Naval Special Warfare Command is organized into the following configuration:",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Group 1 based at the Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in California",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 1",
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{
"plaintext": " SEAL Team 3",
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{
"plaintext": " SEAL Team 5",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 7",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Group 2 based at the Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek in Virginia\t",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 8",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 10",
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"plaintext": " Special Boat Team 20",
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"plaintext": " Special Boat Team 22",
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"plaintext": " Training Detachment 3",
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"plaintext": " Mission Support Center (\"organize, train, educate, equip, deploy and sustain specialized intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and preparation-of-the-environment capabilities\") ",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Group 11 based at the Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in California",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 17 (formerly Operational Support Team 1)",
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"plaintext": " SEAL Team 18 (formerly Operational Support Teams 2)",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Development Group (also known as DEVGRU or SEAL Team 6) Based at the Dam Neck Annex, NAS Oceana, Virginia Beach, Virginia, assigned operationally to JSOC",
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"plaintext": " Gold Squadron",
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"plaintext": " Silver Squadron",
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"plaintext": " Black Squadron",
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"plaintext": " Grey Squadron",
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"plaintext": "Inactivated Groups:",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Group 3 previously based at the Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in California; deactivated in 2021",
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"plaintext": " Naval Special Warfare Group 10 previously based at the Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek in Virginia; deactivated in 2021",
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"plaintext": "The original SEAL Teams were separated between West Coast (Team One) and East Coast (Team Two) SEALs. Likewise current SEAL Teams are organized into two groups: Naval Special Warfare Group One (West Coast) and Naval Special Warfare Group Two (East Coast), both of which come under the command of Naval Special Warfare Command at NAB Coronado, California. As of 2006, there are eight confirmed Navy SEAL Teams. The current SEAL Team deployments include Teams 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10. The most recent active-duty teams are SEAL Team 7 and SEAL Team 10, which were formed in March and April 2002, respectively. However, two reservist support teams were reorganized into SEAL teams in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The Teams deploy as Naval Special Warfare Squadrons or Special Operations Task Forces and can deploy anywhere in the world. Squadrons will normally be deployed and fall under a Joint Task Force (JTF) or a Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF) as a Special Operations Task Force (SOTF).",
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"plaintext": "Each SEAL Team (or \"squadron\") is commanded by a Navy commander (O-5), and has eight operational SEAL platoons and a headquarters element. Operationally, the \"Team\" is divided into two to four 40-man \"task units\" (or \"troops\"). Each task unit consists of a headquarters element consisting of a task unit commander, typically a lieutenant commander (O-4), a task unit senior enlisted (E-8), a targeting/operations officer (O-2/3) and a targeting/operations leading/chief petty officer (E-6/7). Under the HQ element are two to four SEAL platoons of 16 men (two officers and 14 enlisted SEALs, and sometimes assigned non-NSW support personnel); a company-sized combat service support (CSS) and/or combat support (CS) consisting of staff N-codes (the Army and Marine Corps use S-codes); N1 Administrative support, N2 Intelligence, N3 Operations, N4 Logistics, N5 Plans and Targeting, N6 Communications, N7 Training, and N8 Air/Medical.",
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"plaintext": "Each 16-man platoon can be task organized for operational purposes into two eight-man squads, four four-man fire teams, or eight two-man sniper/reconnaissance teams. The size of each SEAL \"Team\", or \"squadron\", with two to four task units (containing a total of eight platoons) and support staff is approximately 300 personnel. The typical SEAL platoon has an OIC (officer in charge), usually a lieutenant (O-3), a platoon chief (E-7/E-8), and two squads commanded by a LTJG (O-2) and a squad leader (E-6). The remaining members of the squad are operators (E-4 to E-6) with their specialty skills in ordnance, communications, diving, and medical. The core leadership in the troop and platoon are the commander/OIC and the senior enlisted NCO (Senior Chief/chief).",
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"plaintext": "Platoon core skills consist of: Sniper, Breacher, Communicator, Maritime/Engineering, Close Air Support, Corpsman, Point-man/Navigator, Primary Driver/Navigator (Rural/Urban/Protective Security), Heavy Weapons Operator, Sensitive Site Exploitation, Air Operations Master, Lead Climber, Lead Diver/Navigator, Interrogator, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Technical Surveillance, and Advanced Special Operations.",
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"plaintext": "Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek, a naval base in Virginia Beach, Virginia, is home to SEAL Teams 2, 4, 8, 10, and 18. Naval Amphibious Base Coronado, a naval base in Coronado, California, is home to SEAL Teams 1, 3, 5, 7, and 17. There are also two SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) units, SDVT-1 and SDVT-2, located in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and Little Creek, Virginia, respectively. SDV Teams are SEAL teams with an added underwater delivery capability. An SDV platoon consists of 12–15 SEALs. ",
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"plaintext": "The Special Warfare Operator rating (SO) and Special Warfare Boat Operator rating (SB), were established in 2006. Special Warfare Operators (SEALs) and Special Warfare Boat Operators (SWCCs) are no longer required to maintain the original rating they qualified in upon joining the Navy.",
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"plaintext": "The following ratings are specific to Navy SEALs:",
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"plaintext": "The primary mission of the Navy Parachute Team (NPT) is to support Naval Special Warfare recruiting by gaining access and exposure to appropriate candidates through aerial parachuting demonstrations. The U.S. Navy Parachute Team is a fifteen-man team composed of U.S. Navy SEALs. Each member comes to the team for a three-year tour from one of the two Naval Special Warfare Groups located on the east and west coasts. On completion of the tour, members return to operational units. The parachute team began in 1969 when Navy SEALs and Frogmen volunteered to perform at weekend air shows. The Team initially consisted of five jumpers: LCDR Olson, PHC Gagliardi, SK2 \"Herky\" Hertenstein, PR1 Al Schmiz and PH2 \"Chip\" Maury. Schmiz and Maury were members of the original \"Chuting Stars.\" When LCDR Olson was transferred to California, PHC Gene \"Gag\" Gagliardi (D 546) of UDT Eleven introduced him to the local jumping elite with the San Diego Skydivers, one of the nation's first sports parachuting clubs. He convinced the Commander Naval Operations Support Group, PACIFIC to create a small demonstration team consisting of a cadre of highly qualified freefall jumpers. Its activities were to be conducted on a \"not to interfere\" basis with other military duties and at no cost to the government, other than utilizing normally scheduled aircraft. This group eventually adopted the \"Leap Frogs\" name.",
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"plaintext": "The team was officially commissioned as the U.S. Navy Parachute Team in 1974 by the Chief of Naval Operations and assigned the mission of demonstrating Navy excellence throughout the United States. The East Coast-based \"Chuting Stars\" were disbanded in the 1980s with the \"Leap Frogs\" taking on all official parachute demonstrations within the Navy.",
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"plaintext": "A typical Leap Frogs' performance consists of six jumpers leaping out of an aircraft at an altitude of 6,000 feet. After freefalling sometimes using smoke or streamers, the Leap Frogs fly their canopies together to build canopy-relative work formations. After performances, the Leap Frogs make themselves available to the public to answer questions about the Navy and the Naval Special Warfare community, as well as to sign autographs.",
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"plaintext": "From its predecessors, the Underwater Demolition Teams, to its current form, the SEALs have influenced the training and formation of several foreign units. In 1955, the Underwater Demolition Teams provided funding and training for the Republic of Korea Naval Special Warfare Flotilla, who are also known as UDT/SEALs. This was followed in 1956 by providing funding, training and formation of the Philippine Navy Underwater Operations Team (UOT), patterned on the training and implementation of the US Navy SEALs and the UDTs. In 1966, United States Navy SEALs established Pakistan's Special Service Group (Navy) based on a mutual security understanding and the training provided under the IMET program until the 1970s. US Navy SEALs provided initial training to the Indian Marine Special Force, which later became known as the MARCOS.",
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"plaintext": "Due to their reputation as being one of America's premier special operations forces, SEALs (particularly operators from DEVGRU) will often do exchanges with allied SOFs.",
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"plaintext": "The National Navy UDT-SEAL Museum, in Fort Pierce, Florida, was founded in 1985 and was recognized as a National Museum by an act of Congress. The museum is dedicated to preserving the history of the Navy SEALs and their predecessors. The SEAL Museum stands on the training site of the first Navy frogmen. There through World War II, thousands of service members were trained as members of Naval Combat Demolition Units and Underwater Demolition Teams. The Museum houses rare historical artifacts from the founding of the UDT to present day, including weapons, vehicles, equipment, and most recently added, the lifeboat aboard which Somali pirates held Captain Richard Phillips hostage.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Navy SEAL Museum, 298 UDT and SEALs were killed in action and died during training accidents as of March 2018:",
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"plaintext": "World War II and Korean War (1941–1953): ",
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"plaintext": "96 personnel",
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"plaintext": "Vietnam and Cold War (1954–1989): ",
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"plaintext": "104 personnel",
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"plaintext": "Desert Storm and War on Terror (1990 – March 2018): ",
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"plaintext": " Besel, Jennifer M. The Navy SEALs. Mankato, Minn: Capstone Press, 2011. ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Bosiljevac, T.L. SEALs: UDT/SEAL Operations in Vietnam. Ballantine Books, 1990. . ",
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{
"plaintext": " Bosiljevac, T.L. SEAL Team Roll-Back. New York: Avon Books, 1999. . ",
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"plaintext": " Bahmanyar, Mir. US Navy SEALs. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2005. . ",
"section_idx": 10,
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},
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"plaintext": " Bahmanyar, Mir with Chris Osman. SEALs: The US Navy's Elite Fighting Force. Osprey Publishing, 2008. . ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Couch, Dick. May the Seals: Their untold history (2014)",
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"plaintext": " Couch, Dick. The Warrior Elite: The Forging of SEAL Class 228. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003. . ",
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Couch, Dick. The Finishing School: Earning the Navy SEAL Trident. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. . ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Couch, Dick. Down Range: Navy SEALs in the War on Terrorism. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2005. . ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " Cummings, Dennis J. The Men Behind the Trident: SEAL Team One in Viet Nam. New York: Bantam Books, 1998. ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Denver, Rorke, and Ellis Henican. Damn Few: Making the Modern SEAL Warrior. New York: Hyperion, 2013. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Dockery, Kevin. Navy SEALs: A History of the Early Years. New York: Berkley Books, 2001. ",
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"plaintext": " Dockery, Kevin. Navy SEALs: A History Part II: The Vietnam Years. New York: Berkley Books, 2002. ",
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"plaintext": " Dockery, Kevin. Navy SEALs: A History Part III: Post-Vietnam to the Present. New York: Berkley Books, 2003. ",
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"plaintext": " Dockery, Kevin. Weapons of the Navy SEALs. New York: Berkley Books, 2004. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald, Mark L., and Scott Mactavish. Battle Ready: Memoir of a SEAL Warrior Medic. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2013. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Fawcett, Bill. Hunters and Shooters: An Oral History of the U.S. Navy SEALs in Vietnam. New York: W. Morrow and Co., 1995. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Freid-Perenchio, Stephanie, and Jennifer Walton. SEAL: The Unspoken Sacrifice. [Ketchum, ID]: SFP Studio, 2009. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Greitens, Eric. The Heart and the Fist: The Education of a Humanitarian, the Making of a Navy SEAL. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "Halberstadt, Hans. US Navy SEALs in Action. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1995. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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{
"plaintext": " Kelly, Orr. Never Fight Fair!: Navy SEALs' Stories of Combat and Adventure. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1995. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " Luttrell, Marcus. Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. Little, Brown and Company, 2009. . ",
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"plaintext": " Luttrell, Marcus., and James D. Hornfischer. Service: A Navy SEAL at War. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Co., 2012. ",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": " Mann, Don, and Ralph Pezzullo. Inside SEAL Team Six: My Life and Missions with America's Elite Warriors. New York, NY: Little, Brown & Co., 2011. ",
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"plaintext": " O'Donnell, Patrick K. First SEALs: The Untold Story of the Forging of America's Most Elite Unit (Da Capo, 2014) online review",
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"plaintext": " Owen, Mark, and Kevin Maurer. No Easy Day: The Autobiography of s Navy SEAL: the Firsthand Account of the Mission That Killed Osama Bin Laden. New York, NY: Dutton, 2012. ",
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"plaintext": " Pfarrer, Chuck. SEAL Target Geronimo: The Inside Story of the Mission to Kill Osama Bin Laden. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2011. ",
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"plaintext": " Redman, Jason, and John R. Bruning. The Trident: The Forging and Reforging of a Navy SEAL Leader. New York: William Morrow, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": " Robinson, Patrick. Honor and Betrayal: The Untold Story of the Navy SEALs Who Captured the \"Butcher of Fallujah\"- and the Shameful Ordeal They Later Endured. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": " Wasdin, Howard E., and Stephen Templin. SEAL Team Six: Memoirs of an Elite Navy SEAL Sniper. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2011. ",
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38,193 | 1,104,196,839 | Fetishism | [
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"plaintext": "A fetish (derived from the French , which comes from the Portuguese , and this in turn from Latin , 'artificial' and , 'to make') is an object believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular, a human-made object that has power over others. Essentially, fetishism is the attribution of inherent value, or powers, to an object.",
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"plaintext": "The term fetish has evolved from an idiom used to describe a type of object created in the interaction between European travelers and Africans in the early modern period to an analytical term that played a central role in the perception and study of non-Western art in general and African art in particular.",
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"plaintext": "William Pietz, who, in 1994, conducted an extensive ethno-historical study of the fetish, argues that the term originated in the coast of West Africa during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Pietz distinguishes between, on the one hand, actual African objects that may be called fetishes in Europe, together with the indigenous theories of them, and on the other hand, \"fetish\", an idea, and an idea of a kind of object, to which the term above applies.",
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"plaintext": "According to Pietz, the post-colonial concept of \"fetish\" emerged from the encounter between Europeans and Africans in a very specific historical context and in response to African material culture.",
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"plaintext": "He begins his thesis with an introduction to the complex history of the word:",
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"plaintext": "My argument, then, is that the fetish could originate only in conjunction with the emergent articulation of the ideology of the commodity form that defined itself within and against the social values and religious ideologies of two radically different types of noncapitalist society, as they encountered each other in an ongoing cross-cultural situation. This process is indicated in the history of the word itself as it developed from the late medieval Portuguese , to the sixteenth-century pidgin Fetisso on the African coast, to various northern European versions of the word via the 1602 text of the Dutchman Pieter de Marees... The fetish, then, not only originated from, but remains specific to, the problem of the social value of material objects as revealed in situations formed by the encounter of radically heterogeneous social systems, and a study of the history of the idea of the fetish may be guided by identifying those themes that persist throughout the various discourses and disciplines that have appropriated the term.",
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"plaintext": "Stallybrass concludes that \"Pietz shows that the fetish as a concept was elaborated to demonize the supposedly arbitrary attachment of West Africans to material objects. The European subject was constituted in opposition to a demonized fetishism, through the disavowal of the object.\"",
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"plaintext": "Initially, the Portuguese developed the concept of the fetish to refer to the objects used in religious practices by West African natives. The contemporary Portuguese may refer to more neutral terms such as charm, enchantment, or abracadabra, or more potentially offensive terms such as juju, witchcraft, witchery, conjuration or bewitchment.",
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"plaintext": "The concept was popularized in Europe circa 1757, when Charles de Brosses used it in comparing West African religion to the magical aspects of ancient Egyptian religion. Later, Auguste Comte employed the concept in his theory of the evolution of religion, wherein he posited fetishism as the earliest (most primitive) stage, followed by polytheism and monotheism. However, ethnography and anthropology would classify some artifacts of monotheistic religions as fetishes. ",
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"plaintext": "The eighteenth-century intellectuals who articulated the theory of fetishism encountered this notion in descriptions of \"Guinea\" contained in such popular voyage collections as Ramusio's Viaggio e Navigazioni (1550), de Bry's India Orientalis (1597), Purchas's Hakluytus Posthumus (1625), Churchill's Collection of Voyages and Travels (1732), Astley's A New General Collection of Voyages and Travels (1746), and Prevost's Histoire generale des voyages (1748).",
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"plaintext": "The theory of fetishism was articulated at the end of the eighteenth century by G. W. F. Hegel in Lectures on the Philosophy of History. According to Hegel, Africans were incapable of abstract thought, their ideas and actions were governed by impulse, and therefore a fetish object could be anything that then was arbitrarily imbued with imaginary powers.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th and 20th centuries, Tylor and McLennan, historians of religion, held that the concept of fetishism fostered a shift of attention away from the relationship between people and God, to focus instead on a relationship between people and material objects, and that this, in turn, allowed for the establishment of false models of causality for natural events. This they saw as religious fetishism for Santa Claus on Christmas day and does not consider the birth of Jesus a central problem historically and sociologically.",
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"plaintext": "The use of the concept in the study of religion derives from studies of traditional West African religious beliefs, as well as from Vodun, which in turn derives from those beliefs.",
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"plaintext": "Fetishes were commonly used in some Native American religions and practices. For example, the bear represented the shaman, the buffalo was the provider, the mountain lion was the warrior, and the wolf was the pathfinder the cause of the war.",
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"plaintext": "Kato Genchi cited jewelry, swords, mirrors, and scarves as examples of fetishism in Shintoism. Kato stated that leaving behind cities and going into rural areas, he could find many traces of animism, fetishism, and phallicism.",
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"plaintext": "Kato Genchi stated that the Ten Sacred Treasures were fetishes and the Imperial Regalia of Japan retained the same traits, and pointed out the similarities with the Pusaka of the natives of the East Indies and the Tjurunga of the Central Australians. The Kusanagi no Tsurugi was believed to provide supernatural protection (blessings) through the spiritual experience of the divine sword, and the Kusanagi no Tsurugi was deified and enshrined at Atsuta in Owari Province, which is now the Atsuta Shrine.",
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"plaintext": "Akaruhime no Kami, the deity of Hiyurikuso Shrine, was said to be a red ball. In the Kami era, the jewel around Izanagi-no-Mikoto's neck was deified and called Mikuratana-kami.",
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"plaintext": "William George Aston remarked that the sword at Atsuta Shrine was originally an offering and later became a sacred object, as an example of Fetishism. Sword was one of mitama-shiro (spirit representative, spirit-token), or more commonly known as the shintai (god-body). He observed that people tends to think of the mitama (spirit) of a deity first as the seat of his real presence, and second as the deity itself. Many people do not distinguish between mitama (spirit) and shintai (god-body), and some even confused shintai (god-body) with the god's real body. For example, cooking furnace (kamado) itself was worshipped as god. Noting the vagueness between highly imperfect symbol of deity and fetish worship, being worsened by the restricted uses of images (e.g., painting, sculpture), there was a strong tendency to even forget that there is a god by ascribing special virtues to certain physical objects.",
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"plaintext": "Roy Andrew Miller observed that the Kokutai no Hongi and the Imperial Rescript on Education were also often worshipped as fetishes, and were respectfully placed and kept in household altars (kamidana).",
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"plaintext": "Made and used by the BaKongo of western DRC, a nkisi (plural ) is a sculptural object that provides a local habitation for a spiritual personality. Though some have always been anthropomorphic, they were probably much less naturalistic or \"realistic\" before the arrival of the Europeans in the nineteenth century; Kongo figures are more naturalistic in the coastal areas than inland. As Europeans tend to think of spirits as objects of worship, idols become the objects of idolatry when worship was addressed to false gods. In this way, Europeans regarded as idols on the basis of false assumptions.",
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"plaintext": "Europeans often called \"fetishes\" and sometimes \"idols\" because they are sometimes rendered in human form. Modern anthropology has generally referred to these objects either as \"power objects\" or as \"charms\".",
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"plaintext": "In addressing the question of whether a is a fetish, William McGaffey writes that the Kongo ritual system as a whole,",
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"plaintext": "bears a relationship similar to that which Marx supposed that \"political economy\" bore to capitalism as its \"religion\", but not for the reasons advanced by Bosman, the Enlightenment thinkers, and Hegel. The irrationally \"animate\" character of the ritual system's symbolic apparatus, including , divination devices, and witch-testing ordeals, obliquely expressed real relations of power among the participants in ritual. \"Fetishism\" is about relations among people, rather than the objects that mediate and disguise those relations.",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, McGaffey concludes, to call a a fetish is to translate \"certain Kongo realities into the categories developed in the emergent social sciences of nineteenth century, post-enlightenment Europe.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Catholic Encyclopaedia: Fetishism",
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"plaintext": " Andrew Lang, Fetishism and Spiritualism, The Making of Religion, (Chapter VIII), Longmans, Green, and C°, London, New York and Bombay, 1900, pp.147–159.",
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"plaintext": "The growing tensions within the aristocracy along with the lack of communication due to John's consistent absence in Bohemia led to a competition of two factions of the Czech nobility. One party, led by Jindřich of Lipá, gained the trust of John. The other party, led by Vilém Zajíc of Valdek (Latin: Wilhelmus Lepus de Waldek; German: Wilhelm Hase von Waldeck), convinced the Queen that the intent of Lord Lipá was to overthrow John. Consequently, in 1315 John had Jindřich imprisoned.",
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"plaintext": "Foreign politics, rather than Czech, appealed to John, as he was \"unusually gifted\" at it. With the help of his father Henry, John was able to pressure the Habsburgs in reaching an agreement over Moravia. He was also able to pressure the House of Wettin, princes of Saxony, to give over the territory lying to the northern border of the Czech state. John also decided to reach out to improve the relations with the Silesian principalities, which were close, both in economic and political standings, to Bohemia and Moravia. ",
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"plaintext": "The international spectrum was further broadened for John when his father named him Vicar General, his deputy for the governance of the Empire. This allowed for John to reach further and he was able to contribute to the imperial coronation along with helping with the conclusion of the Italian territorial wars. In 1313 Henry died suddenly bringing an end to this collaboration between him and John. However, through Henry's death a spot for the imperial crown opened up making John a possible candidate, the other two candidates being Fredrick of Habsburg and Louis of Bavaria.",
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"plaintext": "In attempts to not support Fredrick, John voted for Louis at the diet of electors. In return for his support, Louis, as the new emperor, promised the support in territorial claims of the Czech state in Silesia and Meissen as well as the region of Cheb and the Upper Palatinate. Later in 1319, after the Brandenburg House of Ascania died out, John regained control over the Bautzen region and then the Görlitz region in 1329.",
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"plaintext": "In 1322/23 King John became unsettled by Louis's growing power and allied with France and Austria against him. The dispute would escalate with his son Charles claiming the Imperial crown in opposition to Louis.",
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"plaintext": "John lost his eyesight at age 39 or 40 from ophthalmia in 1336, while crusading in Lithuania. A treatment by the famous physician Guy de Chauliac had no positive effects. At the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War in 1337 he allied with King Philip VI of France and was even governor of Languedoc from 30 November 1338 to November 1340. At the Battle of Crécy in 1346 John controlled Phillip's advanced guard along with controlling the large contingents of Charles II of Alençon and Louis I, Count of Flanders. John was killed at age 50 while fighting against the English during the battle. The medieval chronicler Jean Froissart left the following account of John's last actions:",
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"plaintext": "...for all that he was nigh blind, when he understood the order of the battle, he said to them about him: 'Where is the lord Charles my son?' His men said: 'Sir, we cannot tell; we think he be fighting.' Then he said: 'Sirs, ye are my men, my companions and friends in this journey: I require you bring me so far forward, that I may strike one stroke with my sword.' They said they would do his commandment, and to the intent that they should not lose him in the press, they tied all their reins of their bridles each to other and set the king before to accomplish his desire, and so they went on their enemies. The lord Charles of Bohemia his son, who wrote himself king of Almaine and bare the arms, he came in good order to the battle; but when he saw that the matter went awry on their party, he departed, I cannot tell you which way. The king his father was so far forward that he strake a stroke with his sword, yea and more than four, and fought valiantly and so did his company; and they adventured themselves so forward, that they were there all slain, and the next day they were found in the place about the king, and all their horses tied each to other.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Cronica ecclesiae Pragensis Benesii Krabice de Weitmile, when told by his aides that the battle against the English at Crécy was lost and he better should flee to save his own life, John the Blind replied: \"Absit, ut rex Boemie fugeret, sed illuc me ducite, ubi maior strepitus certaminis vigeret, Dominus sit nobiscum, nil timeamus, tantum filium meum diligenter custodite. (\"Far be it that the King of Bohemia should run away. Instead, take me to the place where the noise of the battle is the loudest. The Lord will be with us. Nothing to fear. Just take good care of my son.\")",
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"plaintext": "John was succeeded as King of Bohemia by his eldest son, Charles. In Luxembourg, he was succeeded by his son by his second wife, Wenceslaus.",
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"plaintext": "The body of John the Blind was moved to Kloster Altmünster (\"Old-Minster Abbey\") in Luxembourg. When the abbey was destroyed in 1543 the corpse was moved to Kloster Neumünster (\"New-Minster Abbey\") in Luxembourg. During the confusion of the French Revolution the mortal remains were salvaged by the Boch industrialist family (founders of Villeroy & Boch, ennobled in 1892) and hidden in an attic room in Mettlach on the Saar River. The legend has it that the monks of the abbey asked Pierre-Joseph Boch for this favour.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945 the Luxembourg government took the chance to obtain possession of the bones. In a cloak and dagger operation, the remains were moved to the crypt of the Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg. The tomb reads \"\"",
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"plaintext": "First, to Elisabeth of Bohemia, the daughter of King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. In this marriage he had the following children:",
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"plaintext": " Margaret of Luxembourg, Duchess of Bavaria (8 July 1313 – 11 July 1341, Prague), married in Straubing 12 August 1328 to Henry XIV, Duke of Bavaria",
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"plaintext": " Bonne of Luxembourg, Duchess of Normandy (21 May 1315 – 11 September 1349, Maubuisson, born \"Judith\"), married in Melun 6 August 1332 to John, Duke of Normandy, who later became King John II of France after her death.",
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"plaintext": " Charles IV of Luxembourg (14 May 1316 – 29 November 1378), who succeeded him as King of Bohemia and later became Holy Roman Emperor",
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"plaintext": " John Henry of Luxembourg (Jan Jindřich) (12 February 1322, Mělník – 12 November 1375), Margrave of Moravia",
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"plaintext": " Anna of Luxembourg, Duchess of Austria (1323 – 3 September 1338), twin of Elizabeth, married 16 February 1335 to Otto, Duke of Austria",
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"plaintext": "Second (December 1334), to Beatrice of Bourbon, daughter of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. This marriage produced one son:",
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"plaintext": " Wenceslaus I of Luxembourg (25 February 1337 – 7 December 1383), Duke of Luxembourg and later Brabant through his marriage to the heiress Joanna, Duchess of Brabant.",
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"plaintext": "The Chronicles of Froissart, translated by Lord Berners, edited by G.C. Macaulay. The Harvard Classics. ",
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"plaintext": "CRONICA ECCLESIAE PRAGENSIS BENESSII KRABICE DE WEITMILE ",
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"plaintext": "In February 1970, Ames awarded a combined US$380 million contract to TRW Inc. for building both of the Pioneer 10 and 11 vehicles, bypassing the usual bidding process to save time. B. J. O'Brien and Herb Lassen led the TRW team that assembled the spacecraft. Design and construction of the spacecraft required an estimated 25 million man-hours. An engineer from TRW said \"This spacecraft is guaranteed for two years of interplanetary flight. If any component fails within that warranty period, just return the spacecraft to our shop and we will repair it free of charge.\"",
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"plaintext": "To meet the schedule, the first launch would need to take place between February 29 and March 17 so that it could arrive at Jupiter in November 1974. This was later revised to an arrival date of December 1973 in order to avoid conflicts with other missions over the use of the Deep Space Network for communications, and to miss the period when Earth and Jupiter would be at opposite sides of the Sun. The encounter trajectory for Pioneer 10 was selected to maximize the information returned about the radiation environment around Jupiter, even if this caused damage to some systems. It would come within about three times the radius of the planet, which was thought to be the closest it could approach and still survive the radiation. The trajectory chosen would give the spacecraft a good view of the sunlit side.",
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"plaintext": "The Pioneer 10 bus measures deep and with six long panels forming the hexagonal structure. The bus houses propellant to control the orientation of the probe and eight of the eleven scientific instruments. The equipment compartment lay within an aluminum honeycomb structure to provide protection from meteoroids. A layer of insulation, consisting of aluminized mylar and kapton blankets, provides passive thermal control. Heat was generated by the dissipation of 70 to 120 watts (W) from the electrical components inside the compartment. The heat range was maintained within the operating limits of the equipment by means of louvers located below the mounting platform. The spacecraft had a launch mass of about .",
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"plaintext": "At launch, the spacecraft carried of liquid hydrazine monopropellant in a diameter spherical tank. Orientation of the spacecraft is maintained with six 4.5 N, hydrazine thrusters mounted in three pairs. Pair one maintained a constant spin-rate of 4.8 rpm, pair two controlled the forward thrust, and pair three controlled the attitude. The attitude pair were used in conical scanning maneuvers to track Earth in its orbit. Orientation information was also provided by a star sensor able to reference Canopus, and two Sun sensors.",
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"plaintext": "Pioneer 10 uses four SNAP-19 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). They are positioned on two three-rod trusses, each in length and 120 degrees apart. This was expected to be a safe distance from the sensitive scientific experiments carried on board. Combined, the RTGs provided 155W at launch, and decayed to 140W in transit to Jupiter. The spacecraft required 100W to power all systems. The generators are powered by the radioisotope fuel plutonium-238, which is housed in a multi-layer capsule protected by a graphite heat shield.",
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"plaintext": "The space probe includes a redundant system of transceivers, one attached to the narrow-beam, high-gain antenna, the other to an omni-antenna and medium-gain antenna. The parabolic dish for the high-gain antenna is in diameter and made from an aluminum honeycomb sandwich material. The spacecraft was spun about an axis that is parallel to the axis of this antenna so that it could remain oriented toward the Earth. Each transceiver is an 8W one and transmits data across the S-band using 2110MHz for the uplink from Earth and 2292MHz for the downlink to Earth with the Deep Space Network tracking the signal. Data to be transmitted is passed through a convolutional encoder so that most communication errors could be corrected by the receiving equipment on Earth. The data transmission rate at launch was 256bit/s, with the rate degrading by about 1.27millibit/s for each day during the mission.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the computation for the mission is performed on Earth and transmitted to the spacecraft, where it was able to retain in memory up to five commands of the 222 possible entries by ground controllers. The spacecraft includes two command decoders and a command distribution unit, a very limited form of a processor, to direct operations on the spacecraft. This system requires that mission operators prepare commands long in advance of transmitting them to the probe. A data storage unit is included to record up to 6,144 bytes of information gathered by the instruments. The digital telemetry unit is used to prepare the collected data in one of the thirteen possible formats before transmitting it back to Earth.",
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"plaintext": "Pioneer 10 was launched on March 3, 1972, at 01:49:00 UTC (March 2 local time) by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 36A in Florida, aboard an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle. The third stage consisted of a solid fuel Star-37E stage (TE-M-364-4) developed specifically for the Pioneer missions. This stage provided about of thrust and spun up the spacecraft. The spacecraft had an initial spin rate of 30 rpm. Twenty minutes following the launch, the vehicle's three booms were extended, which slowed the rotation rate to 4.8 rpm. This rate was maintained throughout the voyage. The launch vehicle accelerated the probe for net interval of 17 minutes, reaching a velocity of .",
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"plaintext": "After the high-gain antenna was contacted, several of the instruments were activated for testing while the spacecraft was moving through the Earth's radiation belts. Ninety minutes after launch, the spacecraft reached interplanetary space. Pioneer 10 passed by the Moon in 11 hours and became the fastest human-made object at that time. Two days after launch, the scientific instruments were turned on, beginning with the cosmic ray telescope. After ten days, all of the instruments were active.",
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"plaintext": "During the first seven months of the journey, the spacecraft made three course corrections. The on-board instruments underwent checkouts, with the photometers examining Jupiter and the Zodiacal light, and experiment packages being used to measure cosmic rays, magnetic fields and the solar wind. The only anomaly during this interval was the failure of the Canopus sensor, which instead required the spacecraft to maintain its orientation using the two Sun sensors.",
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"plaintext": "While passing through interplanetary medium, Pioneer 10 became the first mission to detect interplanetary atoms of helium. It also observed high-energy ions of aluminum and sodium in the solar wind. The spacecraft recorded important heliophysics data in early August 1972 by registering a solar shock wave when it was at a distance of . On July 15, 1972, Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to enter the asteroid belt, located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The project planners expected a safe passage through the belt, and the closest the trajectory would take the spacecraft to any of the known asteroids was . One of the nearest approaches was to the asteroid 307 Nike on December 2, 1972.",
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"plaintext": "The on-board experiments demonstrated a deficiency of particles below a micrometer (μm) in the belt, as compared to the vicinity of the Earth. The density of dust particles between 10–100μm did not vary significantly during the trip from the Earth to the outer edge of the belt. Only for particles with a diameter of 100μm to 1.0mm did the density show an increase, by a factor of three in the region of the belt. No fragments larger than a millimeter were observed in the belt, indicating these are likely rare; certainly much less common than anticipated. As the spacecraft did not collide with any particles of substantial size, it passed safely through the belt, emerging on the other side about February 15, 1973.",
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"plaintext": "On November 6, 1973, the Pioneer 10 spacecraft was at a distance of from Jupiter. Testing of the imaging system began, and the data were successfully received back at the Deep Space Network. A series of 16,000 commands were then uploaded to the spacecraft to control the flyby operations during the next sixty days. The orbit of the outer moon Sinope was crossed on November 8. The bow shock of Jupiter's magnetosphere was reached on November 16, as indicated by a drop in the velocity of the solar wind from to . The magnetopause was passed through a day later. The spacecraft instruments confirmed that the magnetic field of Jupiter was inverted compared to that of Earth. By the 29th, the orbits of all of the outermost moons had been passed and the spacecraft was operating flawlessly.",
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"plaintext": "Red and blue pictures of Jupiter were being generated by the imaging photopolarimeter as the rotation of the spacecraft carried the instrument's field of view past the planet. These red and blue colors were combined to produce a synthetic green image, allowing a three-color combination to produce the rendered image. On November 26, a total of twelve such images were received back on Earth. By December 2, the image quality exceeded the best images made from Earth. These were being displayed in real-time back on Earth, and the Pioneer program would later receive an Emmy award for this presentation to the media. The motion of the spacecraft produced geometric distortions that later had to be corrected by computer processing. During the encounter, a total of more than 500 images were transmitted.",
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"plaintext": "The trajectory of the spacecraft took it along the magnetic equator of Jupiter, where the ion radiation was concentrated. Peak flux for this electron radiation is 10,000 times stronger than the maximum radiation around the Earth. Starting on December 3, the radiation around Jupiter caused false commands to be generated. Most of these were corrected by contingency commands, but an image of Io and a few close-ups of Jupiter were lost. Similar false commands would be generated on the way out from the planet. Nonetheless, Pioneer 10 did succeed in obtaining images of the moons Ganymede and Europa. The image of Ganymede showed low albedo features in the center and near the south pole, while the north pole appeared brighter. Europa was too far away to obtain a detailed image, although some albedo features were apparent.",
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"plaintext": "The trajectory of Pioneer 10 was chosen to take it behind Io, allowing the refractive effect of the moon's atmosphere on the radio transmissions to be measured. This demonstrated that the ionosphere of the moon was about above the surface of the day side, and the density ranged from 60,000 electrons per cubic centimeter on the dayside, down to 9,000 on the night face. An unexpected discovery was that Io was orbiting within a cloud of hydrogen that extended for about , with a width and height of . A smaller, cloud was believed to have been detected near Europa.",
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"plaintext": "It was not until after Pioneer 10 had cleared the asteroid belt that NASA selected a trajectory towards Jupiter that offered the slingshot effect that would send the spacecraft out of the Solar System. Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to attempt such a maneuver and became a proof of concept for the missions that would follow. Such an extended mission was not originally something that was planned, but was planned for prior to launch.",
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"plaintext": "At the closest approach, the velocity of the spacecraft reached , and it came within of the outer atmosphere of Jupiter. Close-up images of the Great Red Spot and the terminator were obtained. Communication with the spacecraft then ceased as it passed behind the planet. The radio occultation data allowed the temperature structure of the outer atmosphere to be measured, showing a temperature inversion between the altitudes with 10 and 100mbar pressures. Temperatures at the 10 mbar level ranged from , while temperatures at the 100mbar level were . The spacecraft generated an infrared map of the planet, which confirmed the idea that the planet radiated more heat than it received from the Sun.",
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"plaintext": "Crescent images of the planet were then returned as Pioneer 10 moved away from the planet. As the spacecraft headed outward, it again passed the bow shock of Jupiter's magnetosphere. As this front is constantly shifting in space because of dynamic interaction with the solar wind, the vehicle crossed the bow shock a total of 17 times before it escaped completely.",
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"plaintext": "Pioneer 10 crossed the orbit of Saturn in 1976 and the orbit of Uranus in 1979. On June 13, 1983, the craft crossed the orbit of Neptune, at that time the outermost planet, and so became the first human-made object to leave the proximity of the major planets of the Solar System. The mission came to an official end on March 31, 1997, when it had reached a distance of from the Sun, though the spacecraft was still able to transmit coherent data after this date.",
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"plaintext": "After March 31, 1997, Pioneer 10's weak signal continued to be tracked by the Deep Space Network to aid the training of flight controllers in the process of acquiring deep-space radio signals. There was an Advanced Concepts study applying chaos theory to extract coherent data from the fading signal.",
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"plaintext": "The last successful reception of telemetry was received from Pioneer 10 on April 27, 2002; subsequent signals were barely strong enough to detect and provided no usable data. The final, very weak signal from Pioneer 10 was received on January 23, 2003, when it was from Earth. Further attempts to contact the spacecraft were unsuccessful. A final attempt was made on the evening of March 4, 2006, the last time the antenna would be correctly aligned with Earth. No response was received from Pioneer 10. NASA decided that the RTG units had probably fallen below the power threshold needed to operate the transmitter. Hence, no further attempts at contact were made.",
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"plaintext": "On January 3, 2019, Pioneer 10 was predicted to be from the Earth, and traveling at (relative to the Sun) and traveling outward at about per year. Voyager 2 is expected to pass Pioneer 10 around April 2023. Sunlight takes 14.79 hours to reach Pioneer 10. The brightness of the Sun from the spacecraft is magnitude 16.3. Pioneer 10 is currently in the direction of the constellation Taurus.",
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"plaintext": "If left undisturbed, Pioneer 10 and its sister craft Pioneer 11 will join the two Voyager spacecraft and the New Horizons spacecraft in leaving the Solar System to wander the interstellar medium. The Pioneer 10 trajectory is expected to take it in the general direction of the star Aldebaran, currently located at a distance of about 68light years. If Aldebaran had zero relative velocity, it would require more than two million years for the spacecraft to reach it. Well before that, in about 90,000 years, Pioneer 10 will pass about from the late K-type star HIP 117795. This is the closest stellar flyby in the next few million years of all the four Pioneer and Voyager spacecrafts, which are leaving the Solar System.",
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"plaintext": "A backup unit, Pioneer H, is currently on display in the \"Milestones of Flight\" gallery at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Many elements of the mission proved to be critical in the planning of the Voyager program.",
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"plaintext": "Because it was strongly advocated by Carl Sagan, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 carry a gold-anodized aluminum plaque in case either spacecraft is ever found by intelligent life-forms from another planetary system. The plaques feature the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft. The plaque is attached to the antenna support struts to provide some shielding from interstellar dust.",
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38,203 | 1,107,080,380 | Menstruation | [
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"plaintext": "The first period, a point in time known as menarche, usually begins between the ages of 12 and 15. Menstruation starting as young as 8 years would still be considered normal. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women. In adults, the range is between 21 and 31 days with the average being 28 days. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Periods stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding. Menstruation stops occurring after menopause, which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age.",
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"plaintext": "Up to 80% of women do not experience problems sufficient to disrupt daily functioning either during menstruation or in the days leading up to menstruation. Symptoms in advance of menstruation that do interfere with normal life are called premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Some 20 to 30% of women experience PMS, with 3 to 8% experiencing severe symptoms. These include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. Other symptoms some women experience include painful periods and heavy bleeding during menstruation and abnormal bleeding at any time during the menstrual cycle. A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea, is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not re-occurred in 90 days.",
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"plaintext": "The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 12 to 15 years. However, it may occur as early as eight. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults. The average length is 28 days; one study estimated it at 29.3 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 25 to 39 years. The variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44 years.",
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"plaintext": "Perimenopause is when a woman's fertility declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in the years leading up to the final menstrual period, when a woman stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 years in Western countries. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialized countries. Like the age of menarche, the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors. Illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise.",
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"plaintext": "The average volume of menstrual fluid during a monthly menstrual period is with considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker color than venous blood.",
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"plaintext": "About half of menstrual fluid is blood. This blood contains sodium, calcium, phosphate, iron, and chloride, the extent of which depends on the woman. As well as blood, the fluid consists of cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue. Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water, common electrolytes, organ moieties, and at least 14 proteins, including glycoproteins.",
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"plaintext": "Many women and girls notice blood clots during menstruation. These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue. If there was a miscarriage or a stillbirth, examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue (products of conception) that was shed. Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin – contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting.",
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"plaintext": "The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid is relatively small for most women. In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating. Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia.",
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"plaintext": "In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation. Many women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea, during menstruation. Among adult women, that pain is severe enough to affect daily activity in only 2%–28%. Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder. These symptoms can be severe enough to affect a person's performance at work, school, and in everyday activities in a small percentage of women.",
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"plaintext": "When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, this could be due to ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. This is checked by using a pregnancy test, ideally as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening.",
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"plaintext": "The most common treatment for menstrual cramps are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs can be used to reduce moderate to severe pain, and all appear similar. About 1 in 5 women do not respond to NSAIDs and require alternative therapy, such as simple analgesics or heat pads. Other medications for pain management include aspirin or paracetamol and combined oral contraceptives. Although combined oral contraceptives may be used, there is insufficient evidence for the efficacy of intrauterine progestogens.",
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"plaintext": "One review found tentative evidence that acupuncture may be useful, at least in the short term. Another review found insufficient evidence to determine an effect.",
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"plaintext": "Known interactions between the menstrual cycle and certain health conditions include:",
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"plaintext": " Some women with neurological conditions experience increased activity of their conditions at about the same time during each menstrual cycle. For example, drops in estrogen levels may trigger migraines, especially when the woman who has migraines is also taking the birth control pill.",
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"plaintext": " Many women with epilepsy have more seizures in a pattern linked to the menstrual cycle; this is called \"catamenial epilepsy\". Different patterns seem to exist (such as seizures coinciding with the time of menstruation, or coinciding with the time of ovulation), and the frequency with which they occur has not been firmly established.",
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"plaintext": " Research indicates that women have a significantly higher likelihood of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in the pre-ovulatory stage, than post-ovulatory stage.",
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"plaintext": "Sexual feelings and behaviors change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having a relatively increased interest in sexual activity, and relatively lower interest directly prior to and during menstruation. Unlike other mammals, women may show interest in sexual activity across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility.",
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"plaintext": "There is no reliable scientific evidence that would advise against sexual intercourse during menstruation based on medical grounds.",
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"plaintext": "Peak fertility (the time with the highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) occurs during just a few days of the cycle: usually two days before and two days after the ovulation date. This corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week in a 28-day cycle. This fertile window varies from woman to woman, just as the ovulation date often varies from cycle to cycle for the same woman. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate the relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle; these systems are called fertility awareness.",
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"plaintext": "Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation. The absence of ovulation is called anovulation. Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle. In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will be formed and stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding. Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding. Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.",
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"plaintext": "Very little flow (less than 10 ml) is called hypomenorrhea. Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia. Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia. Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia. The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea. Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses (while not being pregnant) during a woman's reproductive years. The term for painful periods is dysmenorrhea.",
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"plaintext": "There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation. There are several ways that someone's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm:",
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"plaintext": "Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping. More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) with is a depressive disorder.",
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"plaintext": "Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of the evaluation of abnormal bleeding.",
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"plaintext": "Women who had undergone female genital mutilation (particularly type III- infibulation) a practice common in parts of Africa, may experience menstrual problems, such as slow and painful menstruation, that is caused by the near-complete sealing off of the vagina.",
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"plaintext": "Menstrual products (also called \"feminine hygiene\" products) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood. A number of different products are available - some are disposable, some are reusable. Where women can afford it, items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products. Menstruating women manage menstruation primarily by wearing menstrual products such as tampons, napkins or menstrual cups to catch the menstrual blood.",
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"plaintext": "The main disposable products (commercially manufactured) include:",
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"plaintext": "Sanitary napkins (also called sanitary towels or pads) – Rectangular pieces of material worn attached to the underwear to absorb menstrual flow, often with an adhesive backing to hold the pad in place. Disposable pads may contain wood pulp or gel products, usually with a plastic lining and bleached.",
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"plaintext": "Tampons – Disposable cylinders of treated rayon/cotton blends or all-cotton fleece, usually bleached, that are inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual flow.",
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"plaintext": "The main reusable products include:",
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"plaintext": "Menstrual cups – A firm, flexible bell-shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow. ",
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"plaintext": "Reusable cloth pads – Pads that are made of cotton (often organic), terrycloth, or flannel, and may be handsewn (from material or reused old clothes and towels) or storebought.",
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"plaintext": "Padded panties or period-proof underwear – Reusable cloth (usually cotton) underwear with extra absorbent layers sewn in to absorb flow. ",
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"plaintext": "Due to poverty, some women cannot afford commercial feminine hygiene products. Instead, they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials. \"Period poverty\" is a global issue affecting women and girls who do not have access to safe, hygienic sanitary products. In addition, solid waste disposal systems in developing countries are often lacking, which means women have no proper place to dispose used products, such as pads. Inappropriate disposal of used materials also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products can create blockages of toilets, pipes and sewers.",
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"plaintext": "Menstruation can be delayed by the use of progesterone or progestins. For this purpose, oral administration of progesterone or progestin during cycle day 20 has been found to effectively delay menstruation for at least 20 days, with menstruation starting after 2–3 days have passed since discontinuing the regimen.",
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"plaintext": "Hormonal contraception affects the frequency, duration, severity, volume, and regularity of menstruation and menstrual symptoms. The most common form of hormonal contraception is the combined birth control pill, which contains both estrogen and progestogen. Although the primary function of the pill is to prevent pregnancy, it may be used to improve some menstrual symptoms and syndromes which affect menstruation, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, adenomyosis, amenorrhea, menstrual cramps, menstrual migraines, menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), menstruation-related or fibroid-related anemia and dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) by creating regularity in menstrual cycles and reducing overall menstrual flow.",
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"plaintext": "Using the combined birth control pill, it is also possible for a woman to delay or eliminate menstrual periods, a practice called menstrual suppression. Some women do this simply for convenience in the short-term, while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible. This can be done either by skipping the placebo pills, or using an extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pill, which were first marketed in the U.S. in the early 2000s. This continuous administration of active pills without the placebo can lead to the achievement of amenorrhea in 80% of users within 1 year of use.",
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"plaintext": "Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume. Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum.",
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"plaintext": "Many religions have menstruation-related traditions, for example: Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran. Some scholars argue that menstruating women are in a state in which they are unable to maintain wudhu, and are therefore prohibited from touching the Arabic version of the Qur'an. Other biological and involuntary functions such as vomiting, bleeding, sexual intercourse, and going to the bathroom also invalidate one's wudhu. In Judaism, a woman during menstruation is called Niddah and may be banned from certain actions. For example, the Jewish Torah prohibits sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman. In Hinduism, menstruating women are traditionally considered ritually impure and given rules to follow.",
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"plaintext": "Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education at school in Western countries, although girls may prefer their mothers to be the primary source of information about menstruation and puberty. Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers, which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty. The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people's understanding of the process. In many Western countries where menstruation is a taboo subject, girls tend to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating and struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation. Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation. Schools can be an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place. Programs led by peers or third-party agencies are another option. Low-income girls are less likely to receive proper sex education on puberty, leading to a decreased understanding of why menstruation occurs and the associated physiological changes that take place. This has been shown to cause the development of a negative attitude towards menstruation.",
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"plaintext": "In some cultures, women were isolated during menstruation due to menstrual taboos. This is because they are seen as unclean, dangerous, or bringing bad luck to those who encounter them. These practices are common in parts of South Asia including India. A 1983 report found women refraining from household chore during this period in India. Chhaupadi is a social practice that occurs in the western part of Nepal for Hindu women, which prohibits a woman from participating in everyday activities during menstruation. Women are considered impure during this time and are kept out of the house and have to live in a shed. Although chhaupadi was outlawed by the Supreme Court of Nepal in 2005, the tradition is slow to change. Women and girls in cultures which practice such seclusion are often confined to menstruation huts, which are places of isolation used by cultures with strong menstrual taboos. The practice has recently come under fire due to related fatalities. Nepal criminalized the practice in 2017 after deaths were reported after the elongated isolation periods, but \"the practice of isolating menstruating women and girls continues.\"",
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"plaintext": "Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of the lunar cycle, in modern humans there is no relation between the two. The relationship is believed to be a coincidence. Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans. A meta-analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle, nor did data analyzed by period-tracking app Clue, submitted by 1.5million women, of 7.5million menstrual cycles, however the lunar cycle and the average menstrual cycle were found to be basically equal in length.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 1971, some research suggested that menstrual cycles of cohabiting women became synchronized (menstrual synchrony). Subsequent research has called this hypothesis into question. A 2013 review concluded that menstrual synchrony likely does not exist.",
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"plaintext": "Some countries, mainly in Asia, have menstrual leave to provide women with either paid or unpaid leave of absence from their employment while they are menstruating. Countries with policies include Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, and South Korea. The practice is controversial due to concerns that it bolsters the perception of women as weak, inefficient workers, as well as concerns that it is unfair to men, and that it furthers gender stereotypes and the medicalization of menstruation.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"menstruation\" is etymologically related to \"moon\". The terms \"menstruation\" and \"menses\" are derived from the Latin mensis (month), which in turn relates to the Greek mene (moon) and to the roots of the English words month and moon.",
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"plaintext": "Some organizations have begun to use the term \"menstruator\" instead of \"menstruating women\", a term that has been in use since at least 2010. The term menstruator is used by some activists and scholars in order to \"express solidarity with women who do not menstruate, transgender men who do, and intersexual and genderqueer individuals\". However, use of the term \"menstruators\" has also been criticized by some feminists who consider sex differences important and the term woman to be necessary to resist patriarchy. The term \"people who menstruate\" is also used.",
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"plaintext": "Most female mammals have an estrous cycle, but not all have a menstrual cycle that results in menstruation. Menstruation in mammals occurs in some close evolutionary relatives such as chimpanzees.",
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"plaintext": " Niddah (Jewish laws of menstruation)",
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38,204 | 1,105,462,816 | Jobst_of_Moravia | [
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"plaintext": "Jobst of Moravia ( or Jošt Lucemburský; or Jodokus von Mähren; c. 1354 – 18 January 1411), a member of the House of Luxembourg, was Margrave of Moravia from 1375, Duke of Luxembourg and Elector of Brandenburg from 1388 as well as elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1410 until his death. Jobst was an ambitious and versatile ruler, who in the early 15th century dominated the ongoing struggles within the Luxembourg dynasty and around the German throne.",
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"plaintext": "Jobst was presumably born in 1354 in the Moravian residence of Brno, the eldest legitimate son of Margrave John Henry, younger brother of Emperor Charles IV. Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia and his half-brother Sigismund were both Jobst's cousins.",
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"plaintext": "Designated heir upon his father's death in 1375, he ruled the Margraviate of Moravia, often quarreling with his younger brother Prokop and the Bishops of Olomouc. In 1388, Jobst received the Duchy of Luxembourg, given in pawn by his cousin King Wenceslaus, son of the late Emperor Charles IV. The same year, Jobst also became Prince-elector of Brandenburg, pawned by Sigismund, who focused on his rule over the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1394, Jobst joined the League of Lords, a rebellion of Bohemian nobles around Boček II of Poděbrady against Wenceslaus. He had Wenceslaus arrested at Prague Castle and later taken into custody by the Austrian Starhemberg dynasty at Wildberg. Peace was made at the instigation of Wenceslaus' brothers Sigismund and John of Görlitz; however, once released, the king had Jobst expelled from Prague. Sigismund and Jobst signed a mutual inheritance treaty in 1401, but later again fell out with each other.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of King Rupert of Germany in 1410, Jobst was elected successor by four of the seven prince-electors on 1 October, opposing his cousin Sigismund who had already been elected by three electors on 10 September. The deciding vote came from his cousin Wenceslaus in his capacity as King of Bohemia. Though Jobst had the greater support among the electors, he died on 18 January 1411, possibly having been poisoned, which cleared the way for Sigismund's election as King of the Romans and his later coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.",
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"plaintext": " Elisabeth of Opole (1360–1374), daughter of Duke Władysław Opolczyk, in 1372.",
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"plaintext": "A fictionalized Jobst appears in the 2018 video game Deliverance. In the game, he is shown with Divish of Talmberg, Hans Capon, Hanush of Leipa, John II of Liechtenstein, and Radzig Kobyla planning on how to defeat Sigismund and free Wenceslaus from captivity.",
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"plaintext": " Štěpán, Václav (2002). Moravsky markrabě Jošt (1354–1411). Matice moravská (in Czech) p.823. ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Štěpán, Václav (2000). Margrave Jobst - his personality and relationship with the other members of the Luxembourg family, in:Moravští Lucemburkové 1315–1411. Brno municipal museum (in Czech - short abstract English) pp.73–145. ",
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38,210 | 1,101,015,258 | Footwear | [
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"plaintext": "Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which typically serves the purpose of protection against adversities of the environment such as wear from ground textures and temperature. Footwear in the manner of shoes therefore primarily serves the purpose to ease locomotion and prevent injuries. Footwear can also be used for fashion and adornment as well as to indicate the status or rank of the person within a social structure. ",
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"plaintext": "Socks and other hosiery are typically worn additionally between the feet and other footwear for further comfort and relief.",
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"plaintext": "Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery, where the groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or whether not footwear is being worn.",
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"plaintext": "In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples.",
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"plaintext": "In several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. In a similar context deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity.",
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"plaintext": "Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers.",
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"plaintext": "Footwear has been in use since the earliest human history, archeological finds of complete shoes date back to the Chalcolithic (ca. 5000 BCE).",
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"plaintext": "The Romans saw clothing and footwear as unmistakable signs of power and status in society, and most Roman citizens wore footwear, while slaves and peasants sometimes remained barefoot. The Middle Ages saw the rise of high-heeled shoes, also associated with power, and the desire to look larger than life, and artwork from that period often depicts bare feet as a symbol of poverty. Depictions of captives such as prisoners or slaves from the same period well into the 18th century show the individuals barefooted almost exclusively, at this contrasting the prevailing partakers of the scene. Officials like prosecutors, judges but also slave owners or passive bystanders were usually portrayed wearing shoes.",
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"plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, men and women wore pattens, commonly seen as the predecessor of the modern high-heeled shoe, while the poor and lower classes in Europe, as well as slaves in the New World, were usually barefoot. In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey, and were usually high. These shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe, as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing.",
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"plaintext": "During the 16th century, royalty such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England began wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life. By 1580, men also wore them, and a person with authority or wealth might be described as, well-heeled. In modern society, high-heeled shoes are a part of women's fashion and are widespread in certain countries around the world.",
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"plaintext": "Modern footwear is usually made up of leather or plastic, and rubber. In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes having a sheet of metal inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that it would not bend out of shape.",
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"plaintext": " Adhesives",
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"plaintext": " Counter (footwear): Backstay fitting between upper and lining in heel area and giving structure to back of shoe and supporting ankle.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Tongue (footwear): Part of shoe covering top of foot underneath laces",
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"plaintext": " Welt",
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"plaintext": " Chukka boots",
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"plaintext": " Riding boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russian boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
28080004
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Seaboots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
19024092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tabi boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
6361826
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tanker boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1431644
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thigh-high boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
700953
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Valenki",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2500876
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Veldskoen",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Waders",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
4981782
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wellington boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
191577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Winklepickers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1245170
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
27178
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Athletic shoes (also known as trainers or sneakers)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
467481
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ballet flats",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
11222838
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brothel creepers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2247691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Court shoes (known in the US as pumps)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diabetic shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Espadrilles",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
588873
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galoshes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1683072
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kitten heels",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lace-up shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Derby shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oxford shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1317100
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brogues",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2374221
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Blucher shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
36352435
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " High-tops",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
5711020
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loafers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
303335
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mary Janes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2495501
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Moccasins",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
3960865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Monks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mules",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
949952
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Platform shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
699690
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plimsoll shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2202695
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " School shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Skate shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1575546
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sneakers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
467481
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tap shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Toe shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
22943462
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sandals",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
903299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kolhapuri Chappals",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
23745577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peshawari chappal",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
33448811
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Flip-flops (thongs)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
417772
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slide",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1115491
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wörishofer",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
31454236
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Avarca, from Balearic Islands",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
24332012,
21336521
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
14,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Closed slippers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
377864
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Open slippers",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
377864
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ballet shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
3597551
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Boat shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
22258399
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " High-heeled footwear",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2070436
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Climbing shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
309347
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clogs",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
358727
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Football boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2055457
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sabaton",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1155995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Safety footwear",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sailing boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
19024092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ski boots",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
335207
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Snowshoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
87493
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ice skates",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
64120
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Surgical shoe",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
45599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pointe shoes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
444044
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Swimfins (flippers)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
419852
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Barefoot sandals",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
903299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abarka, of leather, from Pyrenees",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
6480844,
24707
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
26,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Areni-1 shoe, 5,500-year-old leather shoe found in Armenia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
27662168,
10918072
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
52,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bast shoe, of bast, from Northern Europe",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2962525,
159865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
26,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crakow, shoes from Poland with long toes popular in the 15th century",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2488281,
22936
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
20,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galesh, of textile, from Iran",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
10688145,
14653
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
26,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Geta, of wood, from Japan",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
496238,
15573
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
21,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Klompen, of wood, from the Netherlands",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
34911186,
21148
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
28,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Opanci, of leather, from Balkans",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1427179,
4829
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
26,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pampooties, of hide, from Ireland",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
27701073,
147575
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
27,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Socks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
18985156
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anklets",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
35878712
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bobby socks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
4224488
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diabetic socks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
11093813
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dress socks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
6057477
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Footwraps",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
28765049
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Knee highs",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
6057699
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Toe socks",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2359461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tabi",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
269835
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In Europe, the footwear industry has declined in the last years. Whereas in 2005, there were about 27,000 firms, in 2008 there were only 24,000. As well as the number of firms, the direct employment has decreased. The only factors that remained almost steady was the value added at factor cost and production value.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Footwear industry",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people. Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in the shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Footwear industry",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "To ensure high quality and safety of footwear, manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products:",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " CPSIA",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
20570123
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " GB Standards such as",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
18711902
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " GB20400－2006 Leather and fur-limit of harmful matter",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " QB/T1002-2005 Leather shoes",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " GB/T 15107 Athletic footwear",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " EN Standards for Footwear",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
1752944
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " ASTM Standards",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
852442
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " ISO standards",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
14934
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " AAFA Restricted Substance List",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
16278598
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " BIS (ISI) : IS 15298-I: 2011 test methods, IS 15298 –II for safety footwear, IS 15298-III Protective footwear, IS 15298-IV Occupational Footwear",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Safety of footwear products",
"target_page_ids": [
22002114
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions. When footwear places material onto a solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand. When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt. Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because the latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Impressions",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " American Apparel and Footwear Association",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
16278598
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Podiatric Medical Association",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8475561
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Boot fetishism",
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"plaintext": " 302 pages.",
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"plaintext": " Britannica: clothing and footwear industry",
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] | [
"Footwear"
] | 161,928 | 34,617 | 400 | 157 | 0 | 0 | footwear | garments worn on feet | [] |
38,211 | 1,100,022,734 | Codex_Manesse | [
{
"plaintext": "The Codex Manesse (also Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift or Pariser Handschrift) is a Liederhandschrift (manuscript containing songs), the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German Minnesang poetry, written and illustrated between c. 1304 when the main part was completed, and c. 1340 with the addenda.",
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"plaintext": "The manuscript is \"the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries\"; its 137 miniatures are a series of \"portraits\" depicting each poet.",
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"plaintext": "The Codex Manesse is an anthology of the works of a total of about 135 minnesingers of the mid 12th to early 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "For each poet, a portrait is shown, followed by the text of their works.",
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"plaintext": "The entries are ordered approximately by the social status of the poets, starting with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, Kings Conradin and Wenceslaus II, down through dukes, counts and knights, to the commoners.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest poets represented in the manuscript had been dead for more than a century at the time of its compilations, while others were contemporaries, the latest even late additions of poems written during the early 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "In the portraits, some of the nobles are shown in full armour in their heraldic colors and devices (therefore with their faces hidden), often shown as taking part in a joust, or sometimes in single combat with sword and shield, and sometimes in actual battle.",
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"plaintext": "Some images are motivated by the biography of the person depicted, but some designs just draw their motif from the poet's name (thus, Dietmar is shown riding a mule, since his name can be interpreted as meaning people's horse), while others draw on imagery from their lyrics (Walther von der Vogelweide is shown in a thoughtful pose which exactly matches the description of himself in one of his most famous songs).",
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"plaintext": "6r: Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1165–1197)",
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"plaintext": "7r: King Conrad the Young (1252–1268)",
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"plaintext": "8r: \"King Tyro of Scotland and Fridebrant his son\" (not the name of a singer, but the title of an epic poem, dated to the first half of the 13th century)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "10r: King Wenceslaus of Bohemia (Wenceslaus II, king of Bohemia and Poland, 1271–1305)",
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251548
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"plaintext": "11v: Herzog Heinrich von Breslau (Henry IV, 1258–1290)",
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"plaintext": "13r: Margrave Otto von Brandenburg (Otto IV, 1266–1308)",
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"plaintext": "14v: Margrave Heinrich von Meißen (Henry III, 1215–1288)",
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"plaintext": "17r: the Duke of Anhalt (Henry I, c. 1170–1252)",
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"plaintext": "18r: John, Duke of Brabant (John I, 1252/1253–1294)",
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"plaintext": "20r: Count Rudolf von Neuenburg (either Rudolf II, died 1192, or his nephew Rudolf I, died 1258)",
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277674,
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"plaintext": "22v: Count Kraft von Toggenburg (probably Kraft III of Toggenburg, died 1339)",
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1328518
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21,
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]
},
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"plaintext": "24r: Count Konrad von Kirchberg (either Konrad II, fl. 1275–1326, or his cousin Konrad III, 1281–1315)",
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7384834
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22,
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},
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"plaintext": "26r: Count Friedrich von Leiningen (probably Friedrich II, died 1237)",
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2565559
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25,
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},
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"plaintext": "27r: Count Otto von Botenlauben (died 1244)",
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7615316
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11,
31
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},
{
"plaintext": "29r: Margrave von Hohenburg (either Diepold V. von Vohburg, fl. 1205–1225, or his son Bertold IV, died 1256).",
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10050183
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18,
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},
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"plaintext": "30r: Herr Heinrich von Veldeke (died after 1184)",
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69304,
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"plaintext": "32v: Herr Gottfried von Neifen (died 1279)",
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"plaintext": "42r: Count Albrecht von Haigerloch (Albrecht II of Hohenberg, died 1298)",
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46543549,
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11,
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"plaintext": "43v: Count Wernher von Homberg (died 1320)",
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11,
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"plaintext": "46v: Herr Jakob von Warte (died 1331)",
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6789262
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20,
25
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},
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"plaintext": "48v: Brother Eberhard von Sax (fl. 1309)",
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},
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"plaintext": "52r: Herr Walther von Klingen (fl. 1240–1280s)",
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10,
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"plaintext": "54r: Herr Rudolf von Rotenburg (fl. 1287)",
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21,
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},
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"plaintext": "59v: Herr Heinrich von Sax (probably Henry II, 1235–1289)",
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50493326
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23,
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},
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"plaintext": "61v: Herr Heinrich von Frauenberg (fl. 1284–1305)",
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23,
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"plaintext": "63r: Der von Kürenberg (12th century)",
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5,
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},
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"plaintext": "64r: Herr Dietmar von Aist (fl. 1140–1160s)",
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3423140
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10,
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},
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"plaintext": "66v: Der von Gliers (perhaps Wilhelm von Gliers, fl. 1267–1317)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "69r: Herr Wernher von Teufen (fl. 1220)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "70v: Herr Heinrich von Stretlingen (either Henry II, fl. 1250s, or his son Henry III, died 1294)",
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},
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"plaintext": "71v: Herr Kristan von Hamle (probably an author of 13th-century Thuringia, otherwise unknown)",
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"plaintext": "73r: Herr Ulrich von Gutenburg (fl. 1170s)",
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10,
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"plaintext": "75v: Herr Heinrich von der Mure (fl. 1223–1263, a Dominican friar, prior at Eichstätt and later at Augsburg)",
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"plaintext": "76v: Herr Heinrich von Morungen (fl. 1210s)",
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10,
31
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"plaintext": "82v: Der Schenk von Limpurg (either Walther I, fl. 1230–1240s, or one of his sons, Walther II or Konrad I)",
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10197698,
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9,
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20,
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"plaintext": "84v: Schenk Ulrich von Winterstetten (fl. 1250–1270s)",
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12,
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"plaintext": "98r: Herr Reinmar der Alte (fl. late 12th century)",
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6154878
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10,
26
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"plaintext": "110r: Herr Burkart von Hohenfels (fl. 1220–1230s)",
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1296423
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23,
32
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"plaintext": "113v: Herr Hesso von Reinach (1234–1275/76)",
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{
"plaintext": "115r: Burgrave von Lienz (fl. early 13th century)",
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"plaintext": "116v: Herr Friedrich von Hausen (died after 1188)",
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"plaintext": "119v: Burgrave von Rietenburg (either Henry IV. fl 1174–1184, or Otto III, fl. 1154–1185)",
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"plaintext": "120v: Herr Meinloh von Sevelingen (mid-12th century)",
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"plaintext": "124r: Herr Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170 – c. 1230)",
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403902
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"plaintext": "158r: Der von Sachsendorf (unknown; possibly mentioned by Ulrich von Lichtenstein as serving Frederick II of Austria)",
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"plaintext": "164v: Herr Leuthold von Seven (fl. 1218)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "169v: Herr Rubin (unknown, mid-13th century)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "178r: Herr Bernger von Horheim (late 12th century)",
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"plaintext": "179v: Der von Johansdorf (Albrecht, fl. 1172–1209)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "181v: Herr Engelhardt von Adelnburg (either fl. 1200 or 1220s, perhaps father and son of the same name)",
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"plaintext": "182v: Herr Bligger von Steinach (probably Bligger II, fl. late 12th to early 13th century)",
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11,
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"plaintext": "183v: Herr Wachsmut von Mühlhausen (fl. 1267)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "184v: Herr Hartmann von Aue (c. 1160 – c. 1210)",
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11,
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"plaintext": "188r: Herr Reinmar von Brennenberg (fl. 1270s)",
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{
"plaintext": "190v: Johann von Ringgenberg (probably Johann I, 1291–1350)",
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3368205
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17,
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},
{
"plaintext": "192v: Albrecht Marschall von Rapperswil (fl. c. 1280)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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33385862
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6,
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},
{
"plaintext": "194r: Herr Otto vom Turne (of Lucerne, a late addition, fl. after 1300)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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184017
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30,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "197v: Herr Goesli von Ehenhein (of Strasbourg; otherwise unknown)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "201r: Der von Wildonie (probably Herrand II, married to a daughter of Ulrich of Lichtenstein)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "202v: Von Suonegge (probably Konrad von Suonegge, fl. 1220–1230s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "204r: Von Scharpfenberg (of Ratschach, mid-13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
3214864
],
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28,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "205r: Herr Konrad, der Schenk von Landeck (of Thurgau, 1271–1306)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
322178
],
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[
46,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "213r: \"Der Winsbeke\" (purported author of the accompanying father-son didactic poem; it is unclear whether Winsbeke is a historical or a fictional character)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "217r: \"Die Winsbekin\" (purported author of the accompanying mother-daughter didactic poem; it is unclear whether Winsbekin is a historical or a fictional character)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "219v: \"Klingsor of Hungary\" (fictional character introducing the Sängerkrieg poem)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
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879716,
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19,
26
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76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "226v: Kristan von Luppin of Thuringia (fl. 1290s)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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31130
],
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28,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "228r: Herr Heinrich Hetzbold von Weißensee (early 14th century)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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6018937
],
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33,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "229v: Der Düring (an unidentified Thuringian poet, late 13th century)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
31130
],
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[
35,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "231r: Winli (an unidentified Alemannic poet, c. 1300)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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1055700
],
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[
29,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "237r: Herr Ulrich von Liechtenstein (c. 1200–1275)",
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2142608
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11,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "247v: Von Munegiur (given name Ulrich, otherwise unknown)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "248v: Von Raute (given name Hartwig, fl. c. 1200, otherwise unknown)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "249v: Herr Konrad von Altstetten (perhaps a mayor of St. Gallen, attested 1320–1327)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
66223604
],
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[
11,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "251r: Herr Bruno von Hornberg (probably Bruno II, fl. 1275–1310)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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5922621
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[
21,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "252r: Herr Hug von Werbenwag (fl. mid 13th century, probably died after 1292)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "253v: Der Püller (Konrad \"the Apulian\" von Hohenburg, probably participated in a campaign of Rudolph I against Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1278)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
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45321,
246445
],
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[
93,
102
],
[
111,
132
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "255r: Von Trostberg (an unidentified member of either of an Argovian or a Tyrolian family of ministeriales)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
3526011
],
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93,
106
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "256v: Hartmann von Starkenberg (of Werdenberg-Sargans, either Hartmann I, fl. 1250s, or his son Hartmann II, fl. 1270s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
12986148
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[
35,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "257v: Von Stadegge (Rudolph II, one of the leading Styrian minnesingers, fl. 1230–1250s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
33458983,
224474
],
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[
10,
18
],
[
51,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "258v: Herr Brunwart von Augheim (late 13th century)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
794053
],
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[
24,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "261r: Von Stamheim (unidentified; fl. c. 1240s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "262v: Herr Goeli (of Baden, 13th century)",
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71358858,
58489
],
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[
6,
16
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[
21,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "264r: Der Tannhäuser (of Thannhausen, fl. 1240–1260s; depicted as a member of the Teutonic Order)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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38233,
16193928,
30776
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10,
20
],
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25,
36
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[
83,
97
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "271r: Von Buchheim (2nd half of 13th century)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
5322889
],
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[
10,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "273r: Herr Neidhart (born c. 1200 in Lower Bavaria)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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1728820,
190144
],
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[
11,
19
],
[
37,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "281v: Meister Heinrich Teschler (of Zürich, 2nd half of 13th century, patronized by Rüdiger Manesse)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
930492,
40334603,
33407719
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[
6,
13
],
[
36,
42
],
[
84,
99
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "285r: Rost, Kirchherr zu Sarnen (in Zürich between 1313 and 1330. Presumed to have participated in the production of the codex as a scribe)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
317649,
40334603
],
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[
25,
31
],
[
36,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "290r: Der Hardegger (probably Henricus de Hardegge, of Rebstein, fl. 1230–1270s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6757857
],
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[
55,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "292v: Der Schulmeister von Eßlingen (late 13th century)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
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1552081,
185637
],
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[
10,
22
],
[
27,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "295r: Walther von Breisach (without portrait)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
1784099
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "299r: Von Wissenlo (probably Wiesloch; unidentified)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
1729485
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
29,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "300r: Von Wengen (Burchard, fl. 1230–1270s, member of a family of ministeriales of the counts of Toggenburg)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
1328518
],
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[
87,
107
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "302r: Herr Pfeffel (unidentified, mid 12th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "303r: Der Taler (perhaps Leuthold von Tal, near Rheineck, fl. 1250)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6757903
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
48,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "305r: Der tugendhafte Schreiber (\"The Virtuous Scribe\"; unidentified, appears as a character in the Sängerkrieg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6431575
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
100,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "308v: Steinmar (perhaps Berthold Steinmar von Klingnau, fl. 2nd half of 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6265355
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
46,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "311r: Herr Alram von Gresten (unidentified, perhaps of Gresten in Lower Austria)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
14647480
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
55,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "312r: Herr Reinmar der Fiedler (unidentified, fl. mid 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "313r: Herr Hawart (perhaps Hawardus de Holzwane, in 1258 canon at Augsburg)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
62792581
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "314v: Herr Günther von dem Vorste (unidentified)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "316v: Herr Friedrich der Knecht (unidentified, his poems are in Austro-Bavarian dialect, first half of the 13th century; the portrait shows Friedrich as a knight abducting a damsel on horseback while fighting off pursuers)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "318r: Der Burggraf von Regensburg (probably Heinrich III von Stevening und Rietenburg, fl. 1126–1177)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
66198672,
5961481
],
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[
10,
33
],
[
75,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "319r: Herr Niune (unidentified; probably not a poet but the owner of a songbook used as a source in this section)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "320v: Herr Geltar (unidentified; the poems are dated to between 1230 and 1250, perhaps from Lower Austria)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "321v: Herr Dietmar der Setzer (unidentified; the portrait shows unmounted combat with sword and heater shield)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
8965068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
96,
109
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "323r: Herr Reinmar von Zweter (fl. 1230s)",
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"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6098970
],
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[
11,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "339r: Der Junge Meißner (unidentified; the poems are in Central German dialect)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "342r: Der Alte Meißner (without portrait)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "342v: Von Obernburg (unidentified; probably mid 13th century, of Obernburg near Celje)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
50054
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
80,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "344v: Bruder Wernher (unidentified; mid 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
69746977
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "349r: Der Marner (probably marinaere \"the mariner\"; unidentified, but mentioned by Meister Rumslant below)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "355r: Süßkind, der Jude von Trimberg (unidentified, 2nd half of the 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
2193983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "358r: (isolated anonymous poem)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "359r: Von Buwenburg (Baumburg near Hundersingen, probably Ulrich von Buwenburg, fl. 1260)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
33484598
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
36,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "361r: Heinrich von Dettingen (well documented during 1236–1300; of a family of ministeriales of Reichenau abbey)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
3176907
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
96,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "362r: Rudolf der Schreiber (unidentified)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "364r: Meister Gottfried von Straßburg (died c. 1210)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
557409
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "371r: Meister Johannes Hadlaub (of Zürich, fl. 1300, possibly the redactor of the codex)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
33447125,
40334603
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"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
30
],
[
35,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "381r: Regenbogen (\"Rainbow\", an unidentified Alemannic poet, depicted as a smith)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "383r: Meister Konrad von Würzburg (died 1287)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
560209
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "394r: Kunz von Rosenheim (unidentified, perhaps not a poet but the owner of a songbook used as a source)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "395r: Rubin von Rüdeger (unidentified)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "396r: Der Kol von Nüssen (unidentified, perhaps of Neunzen near Zwettl; the poems date to the 1230s or 1240s)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
3523179
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
64,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "397v: Der Dürner (unidentified, perhaps of Mengen, Swabia)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
5799376
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
43,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "399r: Meister Heinrich Frauenlob (Heinrich von Meißen, born c. 1250)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
1802945
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "407r: Meister Friedrich von Sonnenburg (unidentified; poems date to the 3rd quarter of the 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
6540067
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
28,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "410r: Meister Sigeher (fl. 1250–1260s; perhaps identical with a Sicherius iuculator active in Metz, possibly a Tyrolian)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
57906
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
94,
98
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "412r: Der wilde Alexander (an unidentified Alemannic poet of the late 13th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
31900453
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "413v: Meister Rumslant (fl. late 13th century, of Northern Germany)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "415v: Spervogel (\"Sparrow\"; recorded under this nickname are poems by two separate authors, with floruits in the mid and the late 12th century)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "418r: Boppe (of Bonndorf, died 1320; from 1276–1305 serving as reeve of the count of Nellenburg)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [
5853417,
3198568
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"anchor_spans": [
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17,
25
],
[
86,
96
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},
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"plaintext": "422r: Der Litschauer (unidentified)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "423v: Der Kanzler (\"The Chancellor\", 2nd half of the 13th century, possibly Alemannic)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of poets",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The compilation of the codex was patronized by the Manesse family of Zürich, presumably by Rüdiger II Manesse (born before 1252, died after 1304). The house of Manesse declined in the late 14th century, selling their castle in 1393. The fate of the codex during the 15th century is unknown, but by the 1590s it had passed into possession of baron Johann Philipp of Hohensax (two of whose forebears are portrayed in the codex, on foll. 48v and 59v). In 1604, Melchior Goldast published excerpts of its didactic texts.",
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373
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459,
475
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{
"plaintext": "After 1657 it was in the French royal library, from which it passed to the Bibliothèque Nationale, where the manuscript was studied by Jacob Grimm in 1815. In 1888, after long bargaining, it was sold to the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg, following a public subscription headed by William I and Otto von Bismarck.",
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199503,
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151112,
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135,
146
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207,
227
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[
231,
241
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[
285,
294
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[
299,
316
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{
"plaintext": "The first critical editions of the Codex Manesse appeared in the early nineteenth century. The codex is frequently referred to by Minnesang scholars and in editions simply by the abbreviation C, introduced by Karl Lachmann, who used A and B for the two main earlier Minnesang codices (the Kleine Heidelberger Liederhandschrift and the Weingartner Liederhandschrift respectively).",
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"plaintext": "Two leaves of a 15th-century copy of the manuscript, called the Troßsche Fragment (Tross Fragment), were held in the Berlin State Library, but went missing in 1945.",
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"plaintext": "The possibility that the compiler was the Minnesinger Johannes Hadlaub provided the subject of a poetic novella, Hadlaub (in the Züricher Novellen, 1878), by Gottfried Keller.",
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"section_name": "Modern reception",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Walter Koschorreck and Wilfried Werner, editors, Kommentar zum Faksimile des Codex Manesse: Die grosse Heidelberger Liederhandschrift (Kassel: Ganymed) 1981. Commentary to the facsimile edition, with essays by Wilfried Werner, Ewald Vetter, Walter Koschorreck, Hugo Kuhn, Max Wehrli and Ewald Jammers.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Encyclopædia Britannica 1911",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Complete facsimile",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"14th-century_books",
"Poetry_anthologies",
"Middle_High_German_literature",
"Middle_High_German_manuscripts",
"Minnesang",
"Literary_illuminated_manuscripts",
"German_anthologies"
] | 165,353 | 1,898 | 100 | 154 | 0 | 0 | Codex Manesse | German song manuscript of the Middle Ages | [] |
38,212 | 1,101,869,228 | Numismatics | [
{
"plaintext": "Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals and related objects.",
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"plaintext": "Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other means of payment used to resolve debts and exchange goods.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest forms of money used by people are referred to as \"Odd and Curious\", but the use of other goods in barter exchange is excluded, even where used as a circulating currency (e.g., cigarettes in prison). As an example, the Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit, and gave small change in lambskins; the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horses are not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as cowry shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones, and gems.",
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"plaintext": "First attested in English 1829, the word numismatics comes from the adjective numismatic, meaning \"of coins\". It was borrowed in 1792 from French numismatiques, itself a derivation from Late Latin numismatis, genitive of numisma, a variant of nomisma meaning \"coin\". Nomisma is a latinisation of the Greek νόμισμα (nomisma) which means \"current coin/custom\", which derives from νομίζειν (nomizein), \"to hold or own as a custom or usage, to use customarily\", in turn from νόμος (nomos), \"usage, custom\", ultimately from νέμειν (nemein), \"to dispense, divide, assign, keep, hold\".",
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"plaintext": "Throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, such as banknotes. Many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact.",
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"plaintext": "Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially a token – an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of the essential properties of money, such as volatility and limited supply. However, these goods are not controlled by one single authority.",
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"plaintext": "Coin collecting may have possibly existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus gave \"coins of every device, including old pieces of the kings and foreign money\" as Saturnalia gifts.",
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"plaintext": "Petrarch, who wrote in a letter that he was often approached by vinediggers with old coins asking him to buy or to identify the ruler, is credited as the first Renaissance collector. Petrarch presented a collection of Roman coins to Emperor Charles IV in 1355.",
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"plaintext": "The first book on coins was De Asse et Partibus (1514) by Guillaume Budé. During the early Renaissance ancient coins were collected by European royalty and nobility. Collectors of coins were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I, Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg who started the Berlin coin cabinet and Henry IV of France to name a few. Numismatics is called the \"Hobby of Kings\", due to its most esteemed founders.",
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"plaintext": "Professional societies organised in the 19th century. The Royal Numismatic Society was founded in 1836 and immediately began publishing the journal that became the Numismatic Chronicle. The American Numismatic Society was founded in 1858 and began publishing the American Journal of Numismatics in 1866.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "In 1931 the British Academy launched the Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum publishing collections of Ancient Greek coinage. The first volume of Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles was published in 1958.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century coins gained recognition as archaeological objects, scholars such as Guido Bruck of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna realized their value in providing a temporal context and the difficulty that curators faced when identifying worn coins using classical literature. After World War II in Germany a project, Fundmünzen der Antike (Coin finds of the Classical Period) was launched, to register every coin found within Germany. This idea found successors in many countries.",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": "In the United States, the US mint established a coin cabinet in 1838 when chief coiner Adam Eckfeldt donated his personal collection. William E. Du Bois' Pledges of History... (1846) describes the cabinet.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "C. Wyllys Betts' American colonial history illustrated by contemporary medals (1894) set the groundwork for the study of American historical medals.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "History of numismatics",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Helen Wang's \"A short history of Chinese numismatics in European languages\" (2012-2013) gives an outline history of Western countries' understanding of Chinese numismatics. Lyce Jankowski's Les amis des monnaies is an in-depth study of Chinese numismatics in China in the 19th century.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Modern numismatics is the study of the coins of the mid-17th century onward, the period of machine-struck coins. Their study serves more the need of collectors than historians and it is more often successfully pursued by amateur aficionados than by professional scholars. The focus of modern numismatics lies frequently in the research of production and use of money in historical contexts using mint or other records in order to determine the relative rarity of the coins they study. Varieties, mint-made errors, the results of progressive die wear, mintage figures and even the sociopolitical context of coin mintings are also matters of interest.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Exonumia (UK English: Paranumismatica) is the study of coin-like objects such as token coins and medals, and other items used in place of legal currency or for commemoration. This includes elongated coins, encased coins, souvenir medallions, tags, badges, counterstamped coins, wooden nickels, credit cards, and other similar items. It is related to numismatics proper (concerned with coins which have been legal tender), and many coin collectors are also exonumists.",
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],
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294,
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],
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407,
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],
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431,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Notaphily is the study of paper money or banknotes.",
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540666,
208286
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"plaintext": "It is believed that people have been collecting paper money for as long as it has been in use. However, people only started collecting paper money systematically in Germany in the 1920s, particularly the Serienscheine (Series notes) Notgeld. The turning point occurred in the 1970s, when notaphily was established as a separate area by collectors.",
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},
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"plaintext": "At the same time, some developed countries such as the United States, Germany and France began publishing their respective national catalogues of paper money, which represented major points of reference literature.",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Scripophily is the study and collection of stocks and Bonds. It is an area of collecting due to both the inherent beauty of some historical documents as well as the interesting historical context of each document. Some stock certificates are excellent examples of engraving. Occasionally, an old stock document will be found that still has value as a stock in a successor company.",
"section_idx": 3,
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54,
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264,
273
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},
{
"plaintext": "The example of the silver tetradrachm found in Byblos (ca 330-300 bc.) is indicative of Macedonian influence. Alexander's coin (To nomisma Alexandrou) is of the type of the head of beardless Heracles, with an aquiline nose on the right, represented with a headdress of lion's head and of an aetophore Zeus (holding an eagle) on the reverse, enthroned with a scepter in his left hand. The type of this tetradrachm has a very assertive Macedonian and Greek character. The choice of representations is symbolic : the reminder of his divine lineage and his heroic character. The representation of the Olympian god and the Greek hero also makes it possible to spread the Greco-Macedonian culture and in particular religious cults. The silver minting inaugurated by Alexander in -333 showed representations which, while privileging the Greco-Macedonian aspect of the divinites, did not appear to the Orientals as totally foreign (assimilated to the Baals deities).",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "History of numismatics",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Awards for numismatics",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
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57556189
],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Glossary of numismatics",
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2893298
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Numismatic associations",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
57590151
],
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1,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of numismatic collections",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12740958
],
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1,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of numismatic journals",
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57762777
],
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28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of numismatists",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
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44606172
],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pritsak, O. (1998). The Origins of the Old Rus’ Weights and Monetary Systems: Two Studies in Western Eurasian Metrology and Numismatics in the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (Harvard Series In Ukrainian Studies). Cambridge: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
] | [
"Numismatics",
"Currency"
] | 631,286 | 11,166 | 1,050 | 80 | 0 | 0 | numismatics | study of currencies, coins and paper money | [
"coin collecting"
] |
38,213 | 1,037,116,998 | Hosiery | [
{
"plaintext": "Hosiery, also referred to as legwear, describes garments worn directly on the feet and legs. The term originated as the collective term for products of which a maker or seller is termed a hosier; and those products are also known generically as hose. The term is also used for all types of knitted fabric, and its thickness and weight is defined by denier or opacity. Lower denier measurements of 5 to 15 describe a hose which may be sheer in appearance, whereas styles of 40 and above are dense, with little to no light able to come through on 100 denier items.",
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"plaintext": "The word hosiery is a morphological derivation of the Anglo Saxon word , which meant a woven garment for the lower body and legs.",
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"plaintext": "The first references to hosiery can be found in works of Hesiod, where Romans are said to have used leather or cloth in forms of strips to cover their lower body parts. Even the Egyptians are speculated to have used hosiery, as socks have been found in certain tombs.",
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"plaintext": "Most hosiery garments are made by knitting methods. Modern hosiery is usually tight-fitting by virtue of stretchy fabrics and meshes. Older forms include binding to achieve a tight fit. Due to its close fit, most hosiery can be worn as an undergarment, but it is more commonly worn as a combined under/outer garment.",
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"plaintext": "Hosiery garments are the product of hosiery fabric produced from hosiery yarn. Like the yarn used for making woven fabric, hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning (yarn making) process, and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. One or more hosiery yarn is used to make knitted or hosiery fabric, and garments produced out of this are generally referred to as hosiery garments.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Overview",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bodystockings",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
309429
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Compression stockings, support stockings",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
5796667
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hold-ups (British English), stay-ups (British English) or thigh-high stockings (American English)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
10989441,
4179,
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1890
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1,
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11,
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79
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hosen (clothing)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2168796
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Knee highs",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
6057699
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leggings, or yoga pants",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
1266636,
33740268
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
9
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14,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Socks, tube socks (American English), knee-highs and over-the-knees",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
18985156
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stockings, held by a suspender belt",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
172424,
10383135
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
9
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22,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tights (British English; also common in American usage) or pantyhose (American English)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
162834,
191736
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
7
],
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60,
69
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toe socks",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
2359461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Legwarmers",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Types",
"target_page_ids": [
592030
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pantyhose for men",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
191736
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Undergarment",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
19167764
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
}
] | [
"Hosiery",
"Undergarments",
"Lingerie"
] | 2,524,539 | 8,408 | 262 | 26 | 0 | 0 | hosiery | leg coverings, sometimes woven in one with panties, that extend to the ankle and usually cover the foot; generally knitted or woven, sheer or opaque, and of lightweight or heavy fabric | [
"legwear"
] |
38,214 | 1,104,881,520 | The_Illuminatus!_Trilogy | [
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"plaintext": "The Illuminatus! Trilogy is a series of three novels by American writers Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, first published in 1975. The trilogy is a satirical, postmodern, science fiction–influenced adventure story; a drug-, sex-, and magic-laden trek through a number of conspiracy theories, both historical and imaginary, related to the authors' version of the Illuminati. The narrative often switches between third- and first-person perspectives in a nonlinear narrative. It is thematically dense, covering topics like counterculture, numerology, and Discordianism.",
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"plaintext": "The trilogy comprises three parts which contain five books and appendices: The Eye in the Pyramid (first two books), The Golden Apple (third and part of fourth book), Leviathan (part of fourth and all of fifth book, and the appendices). The parts were first published as three separate volumes starting in September 1975. In 1984 they were published as an omnibus edition and are now more commonly reprinted in the latter form.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986 the trilogy won the Prometheus Hall of Fame Award.",
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"plaintext": "The authors went on to write several works, both fiction and nonfiction, that dealt further with the themes of the trilogy.",
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"plaintext": "Illuminatus! has been adapted for the stage, as an audio book and has influenced several modern writers, artists, musicians, and games-makers. The popularity of the word \"fnord\" and the 23 enigma can both be attributed to the trilogy.",
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"plaintext": "The plot meanders between the thoughts, hallucinations and inner voices, real and imagined, of its many characters—ranging from a squirrel to a New York City detective to an artificial intelligence—as well as through time (past, present, and future), and sometimes in mid-sentence. Much of the back story is explained via dialogue between characters, who recount unreliable, often mutually contradictory, versions of their supposed histories. There are even parts in the book in which the narrative reviews and jokingly deconstructs the work itself.",
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"plaintext": "The trilogy's story begins with an investigation by two New York City police detectives (Saul Goodman and Barney Muldoon) into the bombing of Confrontation, a leftist magazine, and the disappearance of its editor, Joe Malik. Discovering the magazine's investigation into the assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr., the two follow a trail of memos that suggest the involvement of powerful secret societies. They slowly become drawn into a web of conspiracy theories. Meanwhile, the magazine's reporter, George Dorn—having been turned loose without support deep in right-wing Mad Dog, Texas—is arrested for drug possession. He is jailed and physically threatened, at one point hallucinating about his own execution. The prison is bombed and he is rescued by the Discordians, led by the enigmatic Hagbard Celine, captain of a golden submarine. Hagbard represents the Discordians in their eternal battle against the Illuminati, the conspiratorial organization that secretly controls the world. He finances his operations by smuggling illicit substances.",
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"plaintext": "The plot meanders around the globe to such locations as Las Vegas (where a potentially deadly, secret U.S. government-developed mutated anthrax epidemic has been accidentally unleashed); Atlantis (where Howard, the talking porpoise, and his porpoise aides help Hagbard battle the Illuminati); Chicago (where someone resembling John Dillinger was killed many years ago); and to the island of Fernando Poo (the location of the next great Cold War standoff between the Soviet Union, China and the United States).",
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"plaintext": "The evil scheme uncovered late in the tale is an attempt to immanentize the eschaton, a secret scheme of the American Medical Association, an evil rock band, to bring about a mass human sacrifice, the purpose of which is the release of enough \"life-energy\" to give eternal life to a select group of initiates, including Adolf Hitler. The AMA are revealed to be four siblings (last name Saure) who comprise four of the five mysterious Illuminati Primi. The identity of the fifth remains unknown for much of the trilogy. The first European \"Woodstock\" festival, held at Ingolstadt, Bavaria (place of origin of the real historical Illuminati, also known as Bavarian Illuminati), is the chosen location for the sacrifice of the unwary victims, via the reawakening of hibernating Nazi battalions from the bottom of nearby (fictitious) Lake Totenkopf (literal translation to contemporary American styled English- \"dead head\"). The plot is foiled when, with the help of a 50-foot-tall incarnation of the goddess Eris, the four members of the AMA are killed: Wilhelm is killed by the monstrous alien being Yog-Sothoth, Wolfgang is shot by John Dillinger, Winifred is drowned by porpoises, and Werner is trapped in a sinking car.",
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"plaintext": "The major protagonists, now gathered together on board the submarine, are menaced by the Leviathan, a giant, pyramid-shaped single-cell sea monster that has been growing in size for hundreds of millions of years. The over-the-top nature of this encounter leads some of the characters to question whether they are merely characters in a book. This metafictional note is swiftly rejected (or ignored) as they turn their attention to the monster again. The threat is neutralized by offering up their onboard computer as something for the creature to communicate with to ease its loneliness. Finally Hagbard managed to defeat the Illuminati Primi and went to Alpha Centauri in 1999.",
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"plaintext": " Carmel – a pimp living in Las Vegas",
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"plaintext": " Freeman Hagbard Celine – leader of the Discordians and a central protagonist in The Illuminatus! Trilogy",
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"plaintext": " George Dorn – reporter for Confrontation",
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"plaintext": " Saul Goodman – New York City detective",
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"plaintext": " Rebecca Murphy Goodman – Saul Goodman's wife",
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"plaintext": " Howard – a porpoise",
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"plaintext": " Joe Malik – editor of Confrontation",
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"plaintext": " Mao Tsu-Hsi – Illuminati recruiter",
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"plaintext": " Simon Moon – anarchist",
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"plaintext": " Barney Muldoon – New York City detective",
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"plaintext": " Tarantella Serpentine – an Illuminati-trained prostitute",
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"plaintext": " Markoff Chaney – a midget on a cross country mission to spread chaos",
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"plaintext": " Fission Chips – a British secret agent",
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"plaintext": " Harry Coin – a perverted assassin",
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"plaintext": " Robert Putney Drake – a mob boss obsessed with the occult",
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"plaintext": "The titles of the three volumes or parts (the front covers were titled Illuminatus! Part I The Eye in the Pyramid, Illuminatus! Part II The Golden Apple and Illuminatus! Part III Leviathan) refer to recurring symbols of elements of the plot.",
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"plaintext": "The Eye in the Pyramid refers to the Eye of Providence, which in the novel represents particularly the Bavarian Illuminati, and makes a number of appearances (for example, as an altar and a tattoo).",
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"plaintext": "The Golden Apple refers to the golden apple of discord, from the Greek myth of the Judgement of Paris. In the trilogy it is used as the symbol of the Legion of Dynamic Discord, a Discordian group; the golden apple makes a number of appearances, for example, on the cover, on a black flag, and as an emblem on a uniform.",
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"plaintext": "Leviathan refers to the Biblical sea monster Leviathan, which is a potential danger to Hagbard's submarine Leif Erickson (from the name of the Icelandic discoverer of America). It also refers to Thomas Hobbes' seminal work of political philosophy, Leviathan, as a metaphor for an all-encompassing, authoritarian state – a common metaphor used in libertarian discourse.",
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"plaintext": "The trilogy was originally written between 1969 and 1971 while Wilson and Shea were both associate editors for Playboy magazine. As part of the role, they dealt with correspondence from the general public on the subject of civil liberties, much of which involved paranoid rants about imagined conspiracies. The pair began to write a novel with the premise that \"all these nuts are right, and every single conspiracy they complain about really exists\". In a 1980 interview given to the science fiction magazine Starship, Wilson suggested the novel was also an attempt to build a myth around Discordianism:",
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"plaintext": "There was no specific division of labor in the collaborative writing process, although Shea's writing tended towards melodrama, while Wilson's parts tended towards satire. Wilson states in a 1976 interview conducted by Neal Wilgus:",
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"plaintext": "According to Ken Campbell, who created a stage adaptation of Illuminatus! with Chris Langham, the writing process was treated as a game of one-upmanship between the two co-authors, and was an enjoyable experience for both:",
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"plaintext": "The unusual end product did not appeal to publishers, and it took several years before anybody agreed to take it on. According to Wilson, the division of Illuminatus! into three parts was a commercial decision of the publisher, not the authors, who had conceived it as a single continuous volume. Shea and Wilson were required to cut 500 pages to reduce printing costs on what was seen as a risky venture, although Wilson states that most of the ideas contained therein made it into his later works. The idea that the top secrets of the Illuminati were cut from the books because the printer decided to trim the number of pages is a joke typical of the trilogy.",
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"plaintext": "Dell Publishing first released these individual editions (with covers illustrated by Carlos Victor Ochagavia) in the United States in 1975, to favorable reviews and some commercial success. It became a cult favorite but did not cross over into large mainstream sales. In Britain, Sphere Books released the individual editions (with different cover art by Tony Roberts) in 1976. The individual editions sold steadily until 1984, when the trilogy was republished in a single omnibus volume for the first time. This collected edition lost the \"what has gone before\" introduction to The Golden Apple and the \"Prologue\" to Leviathan. Some of the material in that foreword, such as the self-destruct mynah birds (taught to say \"Here, kitty-kitty-kitty!\"), appears nowhere else in the trilogy, likely a result of the 500 pages of cuts demanded by Dell. The omnibus edition gave a new lease on life to flagging sales, and became the most commonly available form of the trilogy from then on.",
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"plaintext": "The trilogy was translated and published in German, again both as separate volumes (the three covers of which formed a triptych) and an omnibus. The face of J. R. \"Bob\" Dobbs was split across the first two volumes, despite the Church of the SubGenius not being featured in the novel (although Wilson had become a member). The Church was founded by Illuminatus! fans, and the image of \"Bob\" is widely considered to be a representation of Wilson himself.",
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"plaintext": "The Illuminatus! Trilogy covers a wide range of subjects throughout the book. These include discussions about mythology, current events, conspiracy theories and counterculture.",
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"plaintext": "Although the many conspiracy theories in the book are imaginary, these are mixed in with enough truth to make them seem plausible. For example, the title of the first book, The Eye in the Pyramid, refers to the Eye of Providence, a mystical symbol which derives from the ancient Egyptian Eye of Horus and is erroneously claimed to be the symbol of the Bavarian Illuminati. Some of America's founding fathers are alleged by conspiracy theorists to have been members of this sect.",
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"plaintext": "The books are loaded with references to the Illuminati, the Argenteum Astrum, many and various world domination plans, conspiracy theories and pieces of gnostic knowledge. Many of the odder conspiracies in the book are taken from unpublished letters to Playboy magazine, where the authors were working as associate editors while they wrote the novels. Among the oddest was the suggestion that Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, killed George Washington and took on his identity as President of the United States. This is often noted in Illuminati-conspiracy discussion. Proponents of this theory point to Washington's portrait on the United States one-dollar bill, which they suggest closely resembles the face of Weishaupt.",
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"plaintext": "The nonsense word fnord, invented by the writers of Principia Discordia, is given a specific and sinister meaning in the trilogy. It is a subliminal message technique, a word that the majority of the population since early childhood has been trained to ignore (and trained to forget both the training and that they are ignoring it), but which they associate with a vague sense of unease. Upon seeing the word, readers experience a panic reaction. They then subconsciously suppress all memories of having seen the word, but the sense of panic remains. They therefore associate the unease with the news story they are reading. Fnords are scattered liberally in the text of newspapers and magazines, causing fear and anxiety in those following current events. However, there are no fnords in the advertisements, thus encouraging a consumerist society. Fnord magazine equated the fnords with a generalized effort to control and brainwash the populace. To \"see the fnords\" would imply an attempt to wrestle back individual autonomy, similar to the idea of reading between the lines, especially since the word fnord was actually said to appear between regular lines of text.",
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"plaintext": "The word makes its first appearance in The Illuminatus! Trilogy without any explanation during an acid trip by Dr. Ignotum Per Ignotius and Joe Malik: \"The only good fnord is a dead fnord\". Several other unexplained appearances follow. Only much later in the story is the secret revealed, when Malik is hypnotized by Hagbard Celine to recall suppressed memories of his first-grade teacher conditioning his class to ignore the fnords: \"If you don't see the fnord it can't eat you, don't see the fnord, don't see the fnord...\"",
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"plaintext": "Numerology is given great credence by many of the characters, with the Law of Fives in particular being frequently mentioned. Hagbard Celine states the Law of Fives in Appendix Gimmel: \"All phenomena are directly or indirectly related to the number five.\" He gives away the secret when he adds, \"given enough ingenuity on the part of the demonstrator. That's the very model of what a scientific law must always be: a statement about how the human mind relates to the cosmos.\" (Late in the work, Celine demonstrates the meaninglessness of the Law of Fives by showing another character a picture of a young girl with six fingers on each hand and saying, \"If we were all like her, there'd be a Law of Sixes.\") Another character, Simon Moon, identifies what he calls the \"23 synchronicity principle\", which he credits William S. Burroughs as having discovered. Both laws involve finding significance in the appearance of the number, and in its \"presen[ce] esoterically because of its conspicuous exoteric absence.\" One of the reasons Moon finds 23 significant is because \"All the great anarchists died on the 23rd day of some month or other.\" He also identifies a \"23/17 phenomenon.\" They are both tied to the Law of Fives, he explains, because 2 + 3 = 5, and 1 + 7 = 8 = 2³. Robert Anton Wilson claimed in a 1988 interview that \"23 is a part of the cosmic code. It's connected with so many synchronicities and weird coincidences that it must mean something, I just haven't figured out yet what it means!\".",
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"plaintext": "The books were written at the height of the late 1960s, and are infused with the popular counterculture ideas of that time. For instance, the New Age slogan \"flower power\" is referenced via its German form, Ewige Blumenkraft (literally \"eternal flower power\"), described by Shea and Wilson as a slogan of the Illuminati, the enemies of the hippie ideal. The book's attitude to New Age philosophies and beliefs are ambiguous. Wilson explained in a later interview: \"I'm some kind of antibody in the New Age movement. on the rewrite we deliberately threw in a couple of references to it, but we had worked out the structure on our own, mostly on the basis of the nut mail that Playboy gets\".",
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"plaintext": "The prevalence of kinky sex in the story reflects the hippie ideal of \"free love\"; characters are both liberal-minded and promiscuous. The authors are well aware that it also provides an excuse for mere titillation: in a typically self-referential joke, a character in the story suggests the scenes exist: \"only to sell a bad book filled with shallow characters pushing a nonsense conspiracy\". Similarly, the books espouse the use of mind-altering substances to achieve higher states of consciousness, in line with the beliefs of key counterculture figures like Timothy Leary, who is mentioned throughout the three novels. Dr. Leary himself called the trilogy \"more important than Ulysses or Finnegans Wake,\" two novels by author James Joyce—who appears as a character in The Illuminatus! Trilogy and is a favorite author of Robert Anton Wilson. This quote is blurbed on the covers or front page of its various printings.",
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"plaintext": "Every view of reality that is introduced in the story is later derided in some way, whether that view is traditional or iconoclastic. The trilogy is an exercise in cognitive dissonance, with an absurdist plot built of seemingly plausible, if unprovable, components. Ultimately, readers are left to form their own interpretations as to which, if any, of the numerous contradictory viewpoints presented by the characters are valid or plausible, and which are simply satirical gags and shaggy dog jokes. This style of building up a viable belief system, then tearing it down to replace it with another one, was described by Wilson as \"guerrilla ontology\".",
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"plaintext": "This postmodern lack of belief in consensus reality is a cornerstone of the semi-humorous Chaos-based religion of Discordianism. Extracts from its sacred text, the Principia Discordia by Malaclypse the Younger, are extensively quoted throughout the trilogy. It incorporates and shares many themes and contexts from Illuminatus. Shea and Wilson dedicated the first part \"To Gregory Hill and Kerry Thornley\", the founders of the religion. The key Discordian practice known as \"Operation Mindfuck\" is exemplified in the character of Markoff Chaney (a play on the mathematical random process called Markov chain). He is an anti-social dwarf who engages in subtle practical joking in a deliberate attempt to cause social confusion. One such joke involves the forging and placing of signs that are signed by \"The Mgt.\" (leading people to believe they are from \"The Management\" instead of \"The Midget\") that contain absurdities like \"Slippery when wet. Maintain 50mph.\"",
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"plaintext": "There are several parts in the book where it reviews and jokingly deconstructs itself. The fictional journalist Epicene Wildeblood at one point is required to critique a book uncannily similar to The Illuminatus! Trilogy:",
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"plaintext": "Several protagonists come to the realization that they are merely fictional characters, or at least begin to question the reality of their situation. George Dorn wonders early on if he \"was in some crazy surrealist movie, wandering from telepathic sheriffs to homosexual assassins, to nympho lady Masons, to psychotic pirates, according to a script written in advance by two acid-heads and a Martian humorist\". Hagbard Celine claims towards the climax that the entire story is a computer-generated synthesis of random conspiracies: \"I can fool the rest of you, but I can't fool the reader. FUCKUP has been working all morning, correlating all the data on this caper and its historical roots, and I programmed him to put it in the form of a novel for easy reading. Considering what a lousy job he does at poetry, I suppose it will be a high-camp novel, intentionally or unintentionally.\"",
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"plaintext": "For a work of fiction, Illuminatus! contains a lot of references to songs, films, articles, novels and other media. This is partly because the characters themselves are involved in doing research, but it is also a trademark of Wilson's writing.",
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"plaintext": "The novel Telemachus Sneezed by the character Atlanta Hope with its catchphrase \"What is John Guilt?\" is a spoof of Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged, the origin of the character John Galt. Ayn Rand is mentioned by name a few times in Illuminatus!, and her novel is alluded to by Hagbard who says, \"If Atlas can Shrug and Telemachus can Sneeze, why can't Satan Repent?\" Rand is also disparaged in one of the appendices concerning property, ostensibly written by Hagbard, which serves as an explanation of anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's views on the subject. There are also references to Thomas Pynchon's The Crying of Lot 49 and his Gravity's Rainbow, an equally enormous experimental novel concerning liberty and paranoia that was published two years prior to Illuminatus! Wilson claims his book was already complete by the time he and Shea read Pynchon's novel (which went on to win several awards), but they then went back and made some modifications to the text before its final publication to allude to Pynchon's work. The phrase \"So it goes\" is repeatedly used in reference to death, a deliberate echoing of Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five.",
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"plaintext": "The books have received laudatory reviews and comments from Playboy, Publishers Weekly, the American Library Association's Booklist magazine, Philadelphia Daily News, Berkeley Barb, Rolling Stone and Limit. The Village Voice called it \"The ultimate conspiracy book ... the biggest sci-fi-cult novel to come along since Dune ... hilariously raunchy!\" John White of the New Age Journal described it as:",
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"plaintext": "Illuminatus! even garnered some attention outside literary criticism, having several pages devoted to it in a chapter on the American New Right in Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics by George Johnson (1983).",
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"plaintext": "It was also included in the \"Slack Syllabus\" in The Official Slacker Handbook by Sarah Dunn (1994), a satirical guide aimed at Generation X.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson and Robert Shea went on to become prolific authors. While Shea concentrated mainly on historical novels, Wilson produced over 30 works, mixing fictional novels with nonfiction. Although both authors' later work often elaborated on concepts first discussed in Illuminatus!, the pair never collaborated again. The trilogy inspired a number of direct adaptations, including a stage play and a comic book series, and numerous indirect adaptations that borrowed from its themes.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson subsequently wrote a number of prequels, sequels and spin-offs based upon the Illuminatus! concept, including an incomplete pentalogy called The Historical Illuminatus Chronicles, a standalone work entitled Masks of the Illuminati and The Illuminati Papers, in which several chapters are attributed to the trilogy's characters. Many of Wilson's other works, fictional and nonfictional, also make reference to the Illuminati or the Illuminatus! books. Several of the characters from Illuminatus!, for example, Markoff Chaney (\"The Midget\") and Epicene Wildeblood, return in Wilson's Schrödinger's Cat Trilogy, which also carries on some of its themes. The third book of the Cat trilogy, The Homing Pigeons, is actually mentioned as a sequel to Illuminatus! in \"Appendix Mem\". In 1998, Wilson published an encyclopedia of conspiracy theories called Everything is Under Control, which explains the origins of many of the theories mentioned in Illuminatus!.",
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"plaintext": "Wilson and Shea did plan to collaborate again on a true sequel, Bride of Illuminatus, taking place in 2026. It was rumored that it would feature a resurrected Winifred Saure (the only female member of the American Medical Association) exerting her influence through virtual reality. However, Robert Shea died in 1994 before this project came to fruition. An excerpt was published in Robert Anton Wilson's Trajectories Newsletter: The Journal of Futurism and Heresy in spring 1995. In a 1994 interview for FringeWare Review, Wilson suggested he may even \"do a Son of Illuminatus later\". In Intelligence Agents by Timothy Leary (1996) he was credited with having already authored Son of Illuminatus in the 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "Shea, meanwhile, never wrote another Illuminatus!-related book, although many of his later novels include references to the themes of that work. Locus describes Shea's Saracen novels as \"Deep background for the Illuminatus trilogy\".",
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"plaintext": "An audacious proposal by the English experimental theater director Ken Campbell to stage Illuminatus! in its entirety at The National Theatre in London was met with surprisingly open arms, particularly given its inordinate length: a cycle of five plays—The Eye of the Pyramid, Swift Kick Inc., The Man Who Murdered God, Walpurgisnacht Rock and Leviathan—each consisting of five 23-minute-long acts. Sir Peter Hall, director of the National at the time, wrote of Campbell in his Diaries, \"He is a total anarchist and impossible to pin down. He more or less said it was a crime to be serious.\"",
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"plaintext": "The adaptation became the very first production at the National's Cottesloe Theatre space, running from 4 March to 27 March 1977. It had first opened in Liverpool on 23 November 1976. The first night of the London version featured Robert Anton Wilson, accompanied by Shea, as a naked extra in the witches' sabbat scene. Wilson was delighted with the adaptation, saying: \"I was thunderstruck at what a magnificent job they did in capturing the exact tone and mixture of fantasy and reality in the book. I've come to the conclusion that this isn't literature. It's too late in the day for literature. This is magic!\"",
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"plaintext": "The 23-strong cast featured several actors, such as Jim Broadbent, David Rappaport and Chris Langham, who went on to successful film, stage and television careers. Broadbent alone played more than a dozen characters in the play. Bill Drummond designed sets for the show, and it was eventually seen (when it moved to London, with Bill Nighy then joining the cast) by the young Jimmy Cauty. Drummond and Cauty later went on to form the Illuminatus!-inspired electronica band The KLF.",
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"plaintext": "In thanks, Wilson dedicated his The Final Secret of the Illuminati (1977) to \"Ken Campbell and the Science-Fiction Theatre Of Liverpool, England.\" The play was later staged in Seattle, Washington in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "No film or video exists of the performances at The National Theatre. However a full audio recording does exist and is available as a limited edition perk in the crowdfunding for the 2014 stage play of Wilson's book The Final Secret of the Illuminati, adapted by Daisy Eris Campbell (Ken Campbell's daughter).",
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"plaintext": "An attempt was made to adapt the trilogy in comic book form beginning in the 1980s, by \"Eye-n-Apple Productions\" headed by Icarus! Icarus! met with Wilson in 1984 and subsequently obtained permission from Wilson's agent to adapt the trilogy. Illuminatus! #1 was issued in July 1987, then reissued in substantially revised form later that year by Rip Off Press (who had published the original 4th edition of the Principia Discordia in 1970).",
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"plaintext": "A second issue followed in 1990, and a third in March 1991, after which the venture stalled (although several ashcans of the as yet unpublished Fourth Trip were distributed at comic book conventions in the Detroit and Chicago areas between 1991 and 2006).",
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"plaintext": "The infamous 1980s computer hacker Karl Koch was heavily influenced by The Illuminatus! Trilogy. Besides adopting the pseudonym \"Hagbard\" from the character Hagbard Celine, he also named his computer \"FUCKUP\", after a computer designed and built by that character. He was addicted to cocaine and became extremely paranoid, convinced he was fighting the Illuminati like his literary namesake. In 1987 he wrote a rambling seven-page \"hacking manifesto of sorts, complete with his theories on Hagbard Celine and the Illuminati\". The 1998 German motion picture 23 told a dramatized version of his story; Robert Anton Wilson appeared as himself.",
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"plaintext": "A card game, Illuminati, inspired by the trilogy, was created by Steve Jackson Games. Using the Illuminatus! books as \"spiritual guides but not as actual source material\", it incorporated competing conspiracies of the Bavarian Illuminati and Discordians and others, though no characters or groups specific to the novels. A trading card game ( New World Order) and role-playing game supplement (GURPS Illuminati) followed. The instruction booklets' bibliographies praise the novel and Wilson particularly, calling Illuminatus! in part \"required reading for any conspiracy buff\". Robert Shea provided a four-paragraph introduction to the rulebook for the Illuminati Expansion Set 1 (1983), in which he wrote, \"Maybe the Illuminati are behind this game. They must be—they are, by definition, behind everything.\" Despite this initial involvement, Wilson later criticized some of these products for exploiting the Illuminatus! name without paying royalties (taking advantage of what he viewed as a legal loophole).",
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"plaintext": "The Illuminatus! Trilogy is steeped with references to the 1960s popular music scene (at one point a list of 200 fictional bands performing at the Walpurgisnacht rock festival is reeled off (including a handful of actual bands of the 60s), and there are numerous references to the famous rock and roll song, \"Rock Around the Clock\"), and has influenced many bands and musicians. One of the aliases of anarchic British band The KLF was named after a secret society from the trilogy. They released much of their early material under the name \"The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu\"/\"The JAMMs\", cf. \"The Justified Ancients of Mummu\"/\"The JAMs\" from the trilogy, and much of their work was Discordian in nature. They mirrored the fictional JAMs' gleeful political tactics of causing chaos and confusion by bringing a direct, humorous but nevertheless revolutionary approach to making records. The American band Machines of Loving Grace took the name of a sex act performed by one of the main characters during a Black Mass for the title of their song \"Rite of Shiva\" on their eponymous album. UK chillout maestro Mixmaster Morris also named his band The Irresistible Force after one that appears at the festival in the last part of the trilogy. Together with Coldcut he organised a huge Robert Anton Wilson Memorial Show at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London on 18 March 2007.",
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"plaintext": "In general, The Illuminatus! Trilogy can be credited with popularizing the genre of conspiracy fiction, a field later mined by authors like Umberto Eco (Foucault's Pendulum), Charles Cecil ( The Shadow of the Templars) and Dan Brown (Angels & Demons, The Da Vinci Code, The Lost Symbol), comic book writers like Alan Moore (V for Vendetta, From Hell), Dave Sim (Cerebus) and Grant Morrison (The Invisibles), and screenwriters like Chris Carter (The X-Files) and Damon Lindelof (Lost). In particular, the regular use of the Illuminati in popular culture as shadowy central puppet masters in this type of fiction can be traced back to their exposure via The Illuminatus! Trilogy.",
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"plaintext": "Major English-language editions include:",
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"plaintext": " 1975, US, Dell, Separate editions, The Eye in the Pyramid , The Golden Apple Leviathan ",
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"plaintext": " 1984, US, Dell , Paperback (collected edition)",
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"plaintext": " 1986, UK, Sphere, Paperback (separate editions), The Eye in the Pyramid The Golden Apple Leviathan ",
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"plaintext": " 1988, US, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group , Paperback (collected edition)",
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"plaintext": " 1998, US, MJF Books , Hardback (collected edition)",
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"plaintext": " 1998, US, Constable and Robinson , Paperback (collected edition)",
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"plaintext": " Celine's laws",
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"plaintext": " Robert Anton Wilson's website – features excerpts from The Illuminatus! Trilogy.",
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"plaintext": " Robert Shea's website – features historical information about the book and its writing",
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38,217 | 1,076,970,938 | Fnord | [
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"plaintext": "\"Fnord\" () is a word coined in 1965 by Kerry Thornley and Greg Hill in the Discordian religious text Principia Discordia. It entered the popular culture after appearing in The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1975) of satirical and parody conspiracy fiction novels by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. In these novels, the interjection \"fnord\" is given hypnotic power over the unenlightened, and children in grade school are taught to be unable to see the word consciously. For the rest of their lives, every appearance of the word subconsciously generates a feeling of unease and confusion, preventing rational consideration of the text in which it appears.",
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"plaintext": "The word has been used in newsgroup and hacker culture to indicate irony, humor, or Surrealism. Placement at the end of a statement in brackets (fnord) explicitly tags the intent, and may be so applied to any random or surreal sentence, coercive subtext, or anything jarringly out of context, intentional or not. It is sometimes used as a metasyntactic variable in programming. Fnord appears in the Church of the SubGenius recruitment film Arise! and has been used in the SubGenius newsgroup alt.slack.",
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"plaintext": "The word was coined as a nonsensical term with religious undertones in the Discordian parody of religious texts, Principia Discordia (1965) by Kerry Thornley and Greg Hill, but was popularized by The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1975) of satirical conspiracy fiction novels by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. Illuminatus! was produced, in the United Kingdom, as a cycle of plays by anarchic theatre director Ken Campbell and his Jungian Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool. The plays further popularized the term.",
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"plaintext": "In the novel trilogy (and the plays), the interjection \"fnord\" is given hypnotic power over the unenlightened. Under the Illuminati program, children in grade school are taught to be unable to consciously see the word \"fnord\". For the rest of their lives, every appearance of the word subconsciously generates a feeling of unease and confusion, preventing rational consideration of the text it appears in. The uneasiness and confusion create a perpetual low-level state of fear in the populace. The government acts on the premise that a fearful populace keeps them in power.",
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"plaintext": "In the Shea/Wilson construct, fnords—occurrences of the word \"fnord\"—are scattered liberally in the text of newspapers and magazines, causing fear and anxiety in those following current events. However, there are no fnords in the advertisements, encouraging a consumerist society. The exclusion of the text from rational consciousness also enables the Illuminati to publish messages to each other in newspapers, etc., without fear that other people will be aware of them. It is implied in the books that fnord is not the actual word used for this task, but merely a substitute, since most readers would be unable to see the actual word.",
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"plaintext": "To \"see the fnords\" means to be unaffected by the supposed hypnotic power of the word or, more loosely, of other fighting words. The term may also be used to refer to the experience of becoming aware of a phenomenon's ubiquity after first observing it. The phrase \"I have seen the fnords\" was graffitied on a British railway bridge throughout the 1980s and 1990s, until the bridge was upgraded. The bridge, located between Earlsdon and Coventry city centre, is known locally as \"Anarchy Bridge\". The bridge and the phrase were mentioned in the novel A Touch of Love by Jonathan Coe.",
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"plaintext": "The lack of a clear definition of the word, and its popularity among certain groups on the internet, allowed it to be appropriated as a placeholder word (a metasyntactic variable) in computer programming, particularly by those with ties to Discordianism or the Church of the SubGenius. It has also been found useful as the name for a \"techno cultural\" conference, computer programs, and as a general placeholder word in computing literature.",
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"plaintext": "Fnord! is the name of a (now defunct) freeware NT web server created by Brian Morin in 1995 and transferred to the care of Stephen Kazmierczak in 1997 when Brian was initiated into the summer Internet Server group at Microsoft. In his final transmission, Brian cites imaginary legal backlash from the established tech giant as the reason for abandoning development of the free Fnord! server solution. Microsoft released Windows 95 and the accompanying Microsoft Network in the same time frame, which was seen as a play by the tech giant to monopolize the emerging online experience of dial-up users by introducing a toll road style business plan for accessing the world's information. Fnord! was as a free and open source or is direct competitor to the then nascent Microsoft Personal Web Server (PWS) for Windows 95.",
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"plaintext": "Paulo Goode, a typeface designer from West Cork, Ireland, created a serif font named Fnord in 2016 which contains 23 fonts in five weights. The geometry of the upper case 'O' is drawn on an axis of 23 degrees while the lower case 'o' falls on a 17-degree axis. The 23 / 17 numerology is reflective of similar numerical themes from The Illuminatus! Trilogy.",
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"plaintext": " The Game (mind game)",
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"plaintext": " The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, (hardback collected edition) & (paperback collected edition)",
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"plaintext": " \"A Short Discourse on the Ancient and Accepted Discordian Practice of Fnording Dollar Bills\" Ol' Sam, U:M, PS!, A/B.",
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"plaintext": " Steve Jackson Games: Fnorder, a program for generating \"fnord\" sentences",
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38,218 | 1,104,921,667 | Émile_Durkheim | [
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"plaintext": "Durkheim was deeply preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate science. He refined the positivism originally set forth by Auguste Comte, promoting what could be considered as a form of epistemological realism, as well as the use of the hypothetico-deductive model in social science. For Durkheim, sociology was the science of institutions, understanding the term in its broader meaning as the \"beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the collectivity,\" with its aim being to discover structural social facts. As such, Durkheim was a major proponent of structural functionalism, a foundational perspective in both sociology and anthropology. In his view, social science should be purely holistic in the sense that sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large, rather than being limited to the study of specific actions of individuals.",
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"plaintext": "He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death in 1917, presenting numerous lectures and published works on a variety of topics, including the sociology of knowledge, morality, social stratification, religion, law, education, and deviance. Some terms that he coined, such as \"collective consciousness\", are now also used by laypeople.",
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"plaintext": "A precocious student, Durkheim entered the École Normale Supérieure (ENS) in 1879, at his third attempt. The entering class that year was one of the most brilliant of the nineteenth century, as many of his classmates, such as Jean Jaurès and Henri Bergson, went on to become major figures in France's intellectual history as well. At the ENS, Durkheim studied under the direction of Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, a classicist with a social-scientific outlook, and wrote his Latin dissertation on Montesquieu. At the same time, he read Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer, whereby Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society very early on in his career. This meant the first of many conflicts with the French academic system, which had no social science curriculum at the time. Durkheim found humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his attention from psychology and philosophy to ethics and, eventually, sociology. He obtained his agrégation in philosophy in 1882, though finishing next to last in his graduating class owing to serious illness the year before.",
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"plaintext": "The opportunity for Durkheim to receive a major academic appointment in Paris was inhibited by his approach to society. From 1882 to 1887 he taught philosophy at several provincial schools. In 1885 he decided to leave for Germany, where for two years he studied sociology at the universities of Marburg, Berlin and Leipzig. As Durkheim indicated in several essays, it was in Leipzig that he learned to appreciate the value of empiricism and its language of concrete, complex things, in sharp contrast to the more abstract, clear and simple ideas of the Cartesian method. By 1886, as part of his doctoral dissertation, he had completed the draft of his The Division of Labour in Society, and was working towards establishing the new science of sociology.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim's period in Germany resulted in the publication of numerous articles on German social science and philosophy; Durkheim was particularly impressed by the work of Wilhelm Wundt. Durkheim's articles gained recognition in France, and he received a teaching appointment in the University of Bordeaux in 1887, where he was to teach the university's first social science course. His official title was , thus he taught both pedagogy and sociology (the latter having never been taught in France before). The appointment of the social scientist to the mostly humanistic faculty was an important sign of changing times and the growing importance and recognition of the social sciences. From this position Durkheim helped reform the French school system, introducing the study of social science in its curriculum. However, his controversial beliefs that religion and morality could be explained in terms purely of social interaction earned him many critics.",
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"plaintext": "The 1890s were a period of remarkable creative output for Durkheim. In 1893, he published The Division of Labour in Society, his doctoral dissertation and fundamental statement of the nature of human society and its development. Durkheim's interest in social phenomena was spurred on by politics. France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War led to the fall of the regime of Napoleon III, which was then replaced by the Third Republic. This in turn resulted in a backlash against the new secular and republican rule, as many people considered a vigorously nationalistic approach necessary to rejuvenate France's fading power. Durkheim, a Jew and a staunch supporter of the Third Republic with a sympathy towards socialism, was thus in the political minority, a situation that galvanized him politically. The Dreyfus affair of 1894 only strengthened his activist stance.",
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"plaintext": "By 1902, Durkheim had finally achieved his goal of attaining a prominent position in Paris when he became the chair of education at the Sorbonne. Durkheim had aimed for the position earlier, but the Parisian faculty took longer to accept what some called \"sociological imperialism\" and admit social science to their curriculum. He became a full professor (specifically, Professor of the Science of Education) there in 1906, and in 1913 he was named chair in \"Education and Sociology\". Because French universities are technically institutions for training secondary school teachers, this position gave Durkheim considerable influence—his lectures were the only ones that were mandatory for the entire student body. Durkheim had much influence over the new generation of teachers; around that time he also served as an advisor to the Ministry of Education. In 1912, he published his last major work, The Elementary Forms of The Religious Life.",
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"plaintext": "The outbreak of World War I was to have a tragic effect on Durkheim's life. His leftism was always patriotic rather than internationalist, in that he sought a secular, rational form of French life. However, the onset of the war, and the inevitable nationalist propaganda that followed, made it difficult to sustain this already nuanced position. While Durkheim actively worked to support his country in the war, his reluctance to give in to simplistic nationalist fervor (combined with his Jewish background) made him a natural target of the now-ascendant French Right. Even more seriously, the generations of students that Durkheim had trained were now being drafted to serve in the army, many of them perishing in the trenches.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, Durkheim's own son, André, died on the war front in December 1915—a loss from which Durkheim never recovered. Emotionally devastated, Durkheim collapsed of a stroke in Paris on 15 November, two years later in 1917. He was buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "In The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Durkheim expressed his will to establish a method that would guarantee sociology's truly scientific character. One of the questions raised concerns the objectivity of the sociologist: how may one study an object that, from the very beginning, conditions and relates to the observer? According to Durkheim, observation must be as impartial and impersonal as possible, even though a \"perfectly objective observation\" in this sense may never be attained. A social fact must always be studied according to its relation with other social facts, never according to the individual who studies it. Sociology should therefore privilege comparison rather than the study of singular independent facts.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with Herbert Spencer, he was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in maintaining the quotidian (i.e. by how they make society \"work\"). He also agreed with Spencer's organic analogy, comparing society to a living organism. Thus his work is sometimes seen as a precursor to functionalism. Durkheim also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, he did not focus on what motivates the actions of individuals (an approach associated with methodological individualism), but rather on the study of social facts.",
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"plaintext": "During his university studies at the ENS, Durkheim was influenced by two neo-Kantian scholars: Charles Bernard Renouvier and Émile Boutroux. The principles Durkheim absorbed from them included rationalism, scientific study of morality, anti-utilitarianism, and secular education. His methodology was influenced by Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, a supporter of the scientific method.",
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"plaintext": "A fundamental influence on Durkheim's thought was the sociological positivism of Auguste Comte, who effectively ought to extend and apply the scientific method found in the natural sciences to the social sciences. According to Comte, a true social science should stress empirical facts, as well as induce general scientific laws from the relationship among these facts. There were many points on which Durkheim agreed with the positivist thesis:",
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"plaintext": " First, he accepted that the study of society was to be founded on an examination of facts. ",
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"plaintext": " Second, like Comte, he acknowledged that the only valid guide to objective knowledge was the scientific method. ",
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"plaintext": " Third, he agreed with Comte that the social sciences could become scientific only when they were stripped of their metaphysical abstractions and philosophical .",
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"plaintext": "A second influence on Durkheim's view of society beyond Comte's positivism was the epistemological outlook called social realism. Although he never explicitly espoused it, Durkheim adopted a realist perspective in order to demonstrate the existence of social realities outside the individual and to show that these realities existed in the form of the objective relations of society. As an epistemology of science, realism can be defined as a perspective that takes as its central point of departure the view that external social realities exist in the outer world and that these realities are independent of the individual's perception of them.",
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"plaintext": "This view opposes other predominant philosophical perspectives such as empiricism and positivism. Empiricists, like David Hume, had argued that all realities in the outside world are products of human sense perception, thus all realities are merely perceived: they do not exist independently of our perceptions, and have no causal power in themselves. Comte's positivism went a step further by claiming that scientific laws could be deduced from empirical observations. Going beyond this, Durkheim claimed that sociology would not only discover \"apparent\" laws, but would be able to discover the inherent nature of society.",
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"plaintext": "Scholars also debate the exact influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's work. The answer remains uncertain; some scholars have argued that Durkheim's thought is a form of secularized Jewish thought, while others argue that proving the existence of a direct influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's achievements is difficult or impossible.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout his career, Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals. First, to establish sociology as a new academic discipline. Second, to analyse how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. To that end he wrote much about the effect of laws, religion, education and similar forces on society and social integration. Lastly, Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of scientific knowledge. The importance of social integration is expressed throughout Durkheim's work:",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced. His concern was to establish sociology as a science. Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences, he wrote, \"sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science.\"",
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"plaintext": "To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science, it must have an object that is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology, and its own methodology. He argued that \"there is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from those studied by the other natural sciences.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the Tarde-Durkeim debate of 1903, the \"anthropological view\" of Gabriel Tarde was ridiculed and hastily dismissed.",
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"plaintext": "A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural \"social facts\". The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism or structural functionalism.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim's work revolved around the study of social facts, a term he coined to describe phenomena that have an existence in and of themselves, are not bound to the actions of individuals, but have a coercive influence upon them. Durkheim argued that social facts have, sui generis, an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that compose society. Only such social facts can explain the observed social phenomena. Being exterior to the individual person, social facts may thus also exercise coercive power on the various people composing society, as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations, but also in situations implying the presence of informal rules, such as religious rituals or family norms. Unlike the facts studied in natural sciences, a social fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena: \"the determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness.\"",
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"plaintext": "Such facts are endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they may control individual behaviors. According to Durkheim, these phenomena cannot be reduced to biological or psychological grounds. Social facts can be material (i.e. physical objects ) or immaterial (i.e. meanings, sentiments, etc.). Though the latter cannot be seen or touched, they are external and coercive, thus becoming real and gaining \"facticity\". Physical objects, too, can represent both material and immaterial social facts. For example, a flag is a physical social fact that is often ingrained with various immaterial social facts (e.g. its meaning and importance).",
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"plaintext": "Many social facts, however, have no material form. Even the most \"individualistic\" or \"subjective\" phenomena, such as love, freedom, or suicide, were regarded by Durkheim as objective social facts. Individuals composing society do not directly cause suicide: suicide, as a social fact, exists independently in society, and is caused by other social facts—such as rules governing behavior and group attachment—whether an individual likes it or not. Whether a person \"leaves\" a society does not alter the fact that this society will still contain suicides. Suicide, like other immaterial social facts, exists independently of the will of an individual, cannot be eliminated, and is as influential—coercive—as physical laws like gravity. Sociology's task therefore consists of discovering the qualities and characteristics of such social facts, which can be discovered through a quantitative or experimental approach (Durkheim extensively relied on statistics).",
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"plaintext": "[[File:Emile Durkheim, Division du travail social maitrier.jpg|thumb|right|Cover of the French edition of The Division of Labour in Society]]Regarding the society itself, like social institutions in general, Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts. Even more than \"what society is,\" Durkheim was interested in answering \"how is a society created\" and \"what holds a society together.\" In The Division of Labour in Society, Durkheim attempts to answer the latter question.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim assumes that humans are inherently egoistic, while \"collective consciousness\" (i.e. norms, beliefs, and values) forms the moral basis of the society, resulting in social integration. Collective consciousness is therefore of key importance to the society; its requisite function without which the society cannot survive. This consciousness produces the society and holds it together, while, at the same time, individuals produce collective consciousness through their interactions. Through collective consciousness human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals.The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own. It can be termed the collective or common consciousness.In particular, the emotional part of the collective consciousness overrides our egoism: as we are emotionally bound to culture, we act socially because we recognize it is the responsible, moral way to act. A key to forming society is social interaction, and Durkheim believes that human beings, when in a group, will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed.",
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"plaintext": "Groups, when interacting, create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it, thus making culture another key social fact. Durkheim was one of the first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely. Durkheim was interested in cultural diversity, and how the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society. To that, Durkheim answered that any apparent cultural diversity is overridden by a larger, common, and more generalized cultural system, and the law.",
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"plaintext": "In a socio-evolutionary approach, Durkheim described the evolution of societies from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity (one rising from mutual need). As the societies become more complex, evolving from mechanical to organic solidarity, the division of labour is counteracting and replacing to collective consciousness. In the simpler societies, people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions; in the larger, modern society they are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks needed for the modern, highly complex society to survive. In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little integration and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together. Also, in such societies, people have much fewer options in life. In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent and specialization and cooperation is extensive. Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on population growth and increasing population density, second on increasing \"morality density\" (development of more complex social interactions) and thirdly, on the increasing specialization in workplace. One of the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law: in mechanical society the law is focused on its punitive aspect, and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community, often by making the punishment public and extreme; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused on individuals than the community.",
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"plaintext": "One of the main features of the modern, organic society is the importance, sacredness even, given to the concept—social fact—of the individual. The individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function once performed by the religion. To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the \"cult of the individual\":Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed, moral individualism, the cult of the individual, is in fact the product of society itself. It is society that instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.Durkheim saw the population density and growth as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent of modernity. As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. Growing competition between the more numerous people also leads to further division of labour. In time, the importance of the state, the law and the individual increases, while that of the religion and moral solidarity decreases.",
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"plaintext": "In another example of evolution of culture, Durkheim pointed to fashion, although in this case he noted a more cyclical phenomenon. According to Durkheim, fashion serves to differentiate between lower classes and upper classes, but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes, they will eventually adapt the upper class fashion, depreciating it, and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion.",
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"plaintext": "As the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible pathologies that could lead to a breakdown of social integration and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are anomie and forced division of labour; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide. To Durkheim, anomie refers to a lack of social norms; where too rapid of population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turn leads to a breakdown of understanding (i.e. norms, values, etc.). Forced division of labour, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which those who hold power, driven by their desire for profit (greed), results in people doing work that they are unsuited for. Such people are unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is \"bound up with the fundamental conditions of all social life\" and serves a social function. He states that crime implies \"not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes.\" Examining the trial of Socrates, he argues that \"his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country\" as \"it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed.\" As such, his crime \"was a useful prelude to reforms.\" In this sense, he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society. ",
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"plaintext": "The authority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no-one would dare to criticize it, and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to express itself…[even] the originality of the criminal…shall also be possible. ",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim thought deviance to be an essential component of a functional society. He believed that deviance had three possible effects on society:",
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"plaintext": " Deviance challenges the perspective and thoughts of the general population, leading to social change by pointing out a flaw in society.",
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"plaintext": " Deviant acts may support existing social norms and beliefs by evoking the population to discipline the actors.",
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"plaintext": " Reactions to deviant activity could increase camaraderie and social support among the population affected by the activity.",
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"plaintext": "In Suicide (1897), Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society has normal levels of integration while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, Durkheim treated suicide as a social fact, explaining variations in its rate on a macro level, considering society-scale phenomena such as lack of connections between people (group attachment) and lack of regulations of behavior, rather than individuals' feelings and motivations.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim believed there was more to suicide than extremely personal individual life circumstances: for example, a loss of a job, divorce, or bankruptcy. Instead, he took suicide and explained it as a social fact instead of a result of one's circumstances. Durkheim believed that suicide was an instance of social deviance. Social deviance being any transgression of socially established norms.",
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"plaintext": "He created a normative theory of suicide focusing on the conditions of group life. Proposing four different types of suicide, which include egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic, Durkheim began his theory by plotting social regulation on the x-axis of his chart, and social integration on the y-axis:",
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"plaintext": " Egoistic suicide corresponds to a low level of social integration. When one is not well integrated into a social group it can lead to a feeling that they have not made a difference in anyone's lives. ",
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"plaintext": " Altruistic suicide corresponds to too much social integration. This occurs when a group dominates the life of an individual to a degree where they feel meaningless to society. ",
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"plaintext": " Anomic suicide occurs when one has an insufficient amount of social regulation. This stems from the sociological term anomie, meaning a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises from the inability to reasonably expect life to be predictable. ",
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"plaintext": " Fatalistic suicide results from too much social regulation. An example of this would be when one follows the same routine day after day. This leads to a belief that there is nothing good to look forward to. Durkheim suggested this was the most popular form of suicide for prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged. First, Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers, notably Adolph Wagner and Henry Morselli, who were much more careful in generalizing from their own data. Second, later researchers found that the Protestant–Catholic differences in suicide seemed to be limited to German-speaking Europe and thus may have always been the spurious reflection of other factors. Durkheim's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the logical error termed the ecological fallacy. However, diverging views have contested whether Durkheim's work really contained an ecological fallacy. More recent authors such as Berk (2006) have also questioned the micro–macro relations underlying Durkheim's work. Some, such as Inkeles (1959), Johnson (1965), and Gibbs (1968), have claimed that Durkheim's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically within a holistic perspective, emphasizing that \"he intended his theory to explain variation among social environments in the incidence of suicide, not the suicides of particular individuals.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite its limitations, Durkheim's work on suicide has influenced proponents of control theory, and is often mentioned as a classic sociological study. The book pioneered modern social research and served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "In The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912), Durkheim's first purpose was to identify the social origin and function of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity. His second purpose was to identify links between certain religions in different cultures, finding a common denominator. He wanted to understand the empirical, social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts of spirituality and God.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim defined religion as: \"a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.\"In this definition, Durkheim avoids references to supernatural or God. Durkheim argued that the concept of supernatural is relatively new, tied to the development of science and separation of supernatural—that which cannot be rationally explained—from natural, that which can. Thus, according to Durkheim, for early humans, everything was supernatural. Similarly, he points out that religions that give little importance to the concept of god exist, such as Buddhism, where the Four Noble Truths are much more important than any individual deity. With that, Durkheim argues, we are left with the following three concepts:",
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"plaintext": " The sacred: ideas and sentiments kindled by the spectacle of society and which inspire awe, spiritual devotion or respect;",
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"plaintext": " The beliefs & practices: creating an emotional state of collective effervescence, investing symbols with sacred importance;",
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"plaintext": " The moral community: a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Out of those three concepts, Durkheim focused on the sacred, noting that it is at the very core of a religion:They are only collective forces hypostasized, that is to say, moral forces; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by the spectacle of society, and not of sensations coming from the physical world.Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental social institution of humankind, and one that gave rise to other social forms. It was the religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of collective consciousness. Durkheim saw the religion as a force that emerged in the early hunter and gatherer societies, as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups, forcing them to act in a new ways, and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them. Over time, as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized, religion became more organized, giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane. However, Durkheim also believed that religion was becoming less important, as it was being gradually superseded by science and the cult of an individual.Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped itself.However, even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim, it still laid the foundation of modern society and the interactions that governed it. And despite the advent of alternative forces, Durkheim argued that no replacement for the force of religion had yet been created. He expressed his doubt about modernity, seeing the modern times as \"a period of transition and moral mediocrity.\"",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion. It is religion, Durkheim writes, that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs, including the larger society. Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society, and thus are collective creations. Thus as people create societies, they also create categories, but at the same time, they do so unconsciously, and the categories are prior to any individual's experience. In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing categories as constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience. Our understanding of the world is shaped by social facts; for example the notion of time is defined by being measured through a calendar, which in turn was created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals; those in turn on their most basic level originated from religion. In the end, even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins to religion. Durkheim states that, \"Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society.",
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"plaintext": "In his work, Durkheim focused on totemism, the religion of the Aboriginal Australians and Native Americans. Durkheim saw this religion as the most ancient religion, and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease the discussion of the essential elements of religion. As such, he wrote:Now the totem is the flag of the clan. It is therefore natural that the impressions aroused by the clan in individual minds—impressions of dependence and of increased vitality—should fix themselves to the idea of the totem rather than that of the clan: for the clan is too complex a reality to be represented clearly in all its complex unity by such rudimentary intelligences.Durkheim's work on religion was criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in the field. The most important critique came from Durkheim's contemporary, Arnold van Gennep, an expert on religion and ritual, and also on Australian belief systems. Van Gennep argued that Durkheim's views of primitive peoples and simple societies were \"entirely erroneous\". Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated a lack of critical stance towards his sources, collected by traders and priests, naively accepting their veracity, and that Durkheim interpreted freely from dubious data. At the conceptual level, van Gennep pointed out Durkheim's tendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme.",
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"plaintext": "Despite such critiques, Durkheim's work on religion has been widely praised for its theoretical insight and whose arguments and propositions, according to Robert Alun Jones, \"have stimulated the interest and excitement of several generations of sociologists irrespective of theoretical 'school' or field of specialization.\"",
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"plaintext": "While Durkheim's work deals with a number of subjects, including suicide, the family, social structures, and social institutions, a large part of his work deals with the sociology of knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "While publishing short articles on the subject earlier in his career, Durkheim's definitive statement concerning the sociology of knowledge comes in his 1912 magnum opus, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. This book has as its goal not only the elucidation of the social origins and function of religion, but also the social origins and impact of society on language and logical thought. Durkheim worked largely out of a Kantian framework and sought to understand how the concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life. He argued, for example, that the categories of space and time were not a priori. Rather, the category of space depends on a society's social grouping and geographical use of space, and a group's social rhythm that determines our understanding of time. In this Durkheim sought to combine elements of rationalism and empiricism, arguing that certain aspects of logical thought common to all humans did exist, but that they were products of collective life (thus contradicting the tabula rasa empiricist understanding whereby categories are acquired by individual experience alone), and that they were not universal a prioris (as Kant argued) since the content of the categories differed from society to society.",
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"plaintext": "Another key elements to Durkheim's theory of knowledge outlined in Elementary Forms is the concept of (\"collective representations\"). are the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents. They can include words, slogans, ideas, or any number of material items that can serve as a symbol, such as a cross, a rock, a temple, a feather etc. As Durkheim elaborates, are created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity. As such, these representations have the particular, and somewhat contradictory, aspect that they exist externally to the individual—since they are created and controlled not by the individual but by society as a whole—yet, simultaneously within each individual of the society, by virtue of that individual's participation within society.",
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"plaintext": "Arguably the most important \"\" is language, which according to Durkheim is a product of collective action. And because language is a collective action, language contains within it a history of accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own:If concepts were only general ideas, they would not enrich knowledge a great deal, for, as we have already pointed out, the general contains nothing more than the particular. But if before all else they are collective representations, they add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries. Thinking by concepts, is not merely seeing reality on its most general side, but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it, penetrates it and transforms it.As such, language, as a social product, literally structures and shapes our experience of reality. This discursive approach to language and society was developed by later French philosophers, such as Michel Foucault.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim defines morality as \"a system of rules for conduct.\" His analysis of morality is strongly marked by Immanuel Kant and his notion of duty. While Durkheim was influenced by Kant, he was highly critical of aspects of the latter's moral theory and developed his own positions.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim agrees with Kant that within morality, there is an element of obligation, \"a moral authority which, by manifesting itself in certain precepts particularly important to it, confers upon [moral rules] an obligatory character.\" Morality tells us how to act from a position of superiority. There exists a certain, pre-established moral norm to which we must conform. It is through this view that Durkheim makes a first critique of Kant in saying that moral duties originate in society, and are not to be found in some universal moral concept such as the categorical imperative. Durkheim also argues that morality is characterized not just by this obligation, but is also something that is desired by the individual. The individual believes that by adhering to morality, they are serving the common Good, and for this reason, the individual submits voluntarily to the moral commandment.",
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"plaintext": "However, in order to accomplish its aims, morality must be legitimate in the eyes of those to whom it speaks. As Durkheim argues, this moral authority is primarily to be located in religion, which is why in any religion one finds a code of morality. For Durkheim, it is only society that has the resources, the respect, and the power to cultivate within an individual both the obligatory and the desirous aspects of morality.",
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"plaintext": "Durkheim has had an important impact on the development of anthropology and sociology as disciplines. The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline, in particular, is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies. Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism, or structural functionalism. Scholars inspired by Durkheim include Marcel Mauss, Maurice Halbwachs, Célestin Bouglé, Gustave Belot, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Jean Piaget, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Ferdinand de Saussure, Michel Foucault, Clifford Geertz, Peter Berger, social reformer Patrick Hunout, and others.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as Steven Lukes, Robert N. Bellah, and Pierre Bourdieu. His description of collective consciousness also deeply influenced the Turkish nationalism of Ziya Gökalp, the founding father of Turkish sociology. Randall Collins has developed a theory of what he calls interaction ritual chains, a synthesis of Durkheim's work on religion with that of Erving Goffman's micro-sociology. Goffman himself was also deeply influenced by Durkheim in his development of the interaction order.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of sociology, Durkheim has influenced philosophers, including Henri Bergson and Emmanuel Levinas, and his ideas can be identified, inexplicitly, in the work of certain structuralist theorists of the 1960s, such as Alain Badiou, Louis Althusser, and Michel Foucault.",
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"plaintext": "Much of Durkheim's work remains unacknowledged in philosophy, despite its direct relevance. As proof, one can look to John Searle, whose book, The Construction of Social Reality, elaborates a theory of social facts and collective representations that Searle believed to be a landmark work that would bridge the gap between analytic and continental philosophy. Neil Gross, however, demonstrates how Searle's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of Durkheim's theories of social facts, social institutions, collective representations, and the like. Searle's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim's. Searle responded by arguing that Durkheim's work was worse than he had originally believed, and, admitting that he had not read much of Durkheim's work: \"Because Durkheim’s account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work.\" Stephen Lukes, however, responded to Searle's reply to Gross, refuting, point by point, the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim, essentially upholding the argument of Gross, that Searle's work bears great resemblance to that of Durkheim's. Lukes attributes Searle's miscomprehension of Durkheim's work to the fact that Searle, quite simply, never read Durkheim.",
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"plaintext": "Margaret Gilbert, a contemporary British philosopher of social phenomena, has offered a close, sympathetic reading of Durkheim's discussion of social facts in chapter 1 and the prefaces of The Rules of Sociological Method. In her 1989 book, On Social Facts—the title of which may represent an homage to Durkheim, alluding to his \"\"—Gilbert argues that some of his statements that may seem to be philosophically untenable are important and fruitful.",
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"plaintext": " \"Montesquieu's contributions to the formation of social science\" (1892)",
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"plaintext": " The Division of Labour in Society (1893)",
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"plaintext": " On the Normality of Crime (1895)",
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"plaintext": " Suicide (1897)",
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"plaintext": " The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins (1897), in L'Année Sociologique 1:1–70",
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789458
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"plaintext": " Sociology and its Scientific Domain (1900), translation of an Italian text entitled \"La sociologia e il suo dominio scientifico\"",
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},
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"plaintext": " Primitive Classification (1903), in collaboration with Marcel Mauss",
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"plaintext": " The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912)",
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"plaintext": " Who Wanted War? (1914), in collaboration with Ernest Denis",
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21550664
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"plaintext": " Germany Above All (1915)",
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"plaintext": "Published posthumously",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Selected works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Education and Sociology (1922)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Selected works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Sociology and Philosophy (1924)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Selected works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Moral Education (1925)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Selected works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Socialism (1928)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Selected works",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Pragmatism and Sociology (1955)",
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"section_name": "Selected works",
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},
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"plaintext": " Normlessness",
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"section_name": "See also",
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]
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"plaintext": " Bellah, Robert N. (ed.) (1973). Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press ().",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Cotterrell, Roger (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Edinburgh University Press / Stanford University Press (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Douglas, Jack D. (1973). The Social Meanings of Suicide. Princeton University Press ().",
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"plaintext": " Eitzen, Stanley D. and Maxine Baca Zinn (1997). Social Problems (11th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon ().",
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"plaintext": " Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (1972). Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London: Cambridge University Press (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Henslin, James M. (1996). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Jones, Susan Stedman (2001). Durkheim Reconsidered. Polity (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Lemert, Charles (2006). Durkheim's Ghosts: Cultural Logics and Social Things. Cambridge University Press (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Leroux, Robert, Histoire et sociologie en France. De l'histoire-science à la sociologie durkheimienne, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998.",
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"plaintext": " Lockwood, David (1992). Solidarity and Schism: \"The Problem of Disorder\" in Durkheimian and Marxist Sociology. Oxford: Clarendon Press (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Macionis, John J. (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. .",
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"plaintext": " Pickering, W. S. F. (2000). Durkheim and Representations, Routledge ().",
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"plaintext": " Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1979). Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education, Routledge & Kegan Paul ().",
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"plaintext": " Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1975). Durkheim on Religion, Routledge & Kegan Paul ().",
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"plaintext": " Siegel, Larry J (2007). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies (7th ed.) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning (, ).",
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"plaintext": " Tekiner, Deniz (2002). \"German Idealist Foundations of Durkheim's Sociology and Teleology of Knowledge\", Theory and Science'', III, 1, Online publication.",
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"plaintext": " Resources related to research : BEROSE - International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology. \"Durkheim, Émile (1858-1917)\", Paris, 2015. ()",
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"plaintext": " L'Ecoles des Hautes Etudes Internationales et Poltiques HEI-HEP",
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"plaintext": " Bibliography on Durkheim (McMaster University)",
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"plaintext": " Annotated bibliography on Durkheim and Religion (University of North Carolina) ",
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"plaintext": " Review material for studying Émile Durkheim",
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"plaintext": " Institut Marcel Mauss à l'EHESS",
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"plaintext": " Sociological theory basing on theory of A.Comte",
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38,219 | 1,107,034,374 | Toilet_humour | [
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"plaintext": "Toilet humour, or potty or scatological humour (compare scatology), is a type of off-colour humour dealing with defecation, constipation, urination and flatulence, and to a lesser extent vomiting and other bodily functions. It sees substantial crossover with sexual humour, such as dick jokes.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet humour is commonly an interest of children and young teenagers, for whom cultural taboos related to acknowledgement of waste excretion still have a degree of novelty. The humour comes from the rejection of such taboos, and is a part of modern culture.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet humour is sometimes found in song and rhyme, particularly schoolboy songs. Examples of this are found in Mozart and scatology, and variants of the German folk schoolboys' song known as the Scheiße-Lied (English: \"Shit-Song\") which is indexed in the German Volksliederarchiv. A children's Spanish musical duo, Enrique y Ana, made a song called \"Caca Culo Pedo Pis\", which literally translates to \"Poop Butt Fart Pee\".",
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"plaintext": "American musician Matt Farley is known for writing and performing a multitude of songs related to urine, feces, vomit, and various other bodily fluids under the pseudonym The Toilet Bowl Cleaners, including one of his most popular songs entitled \"Poop In My Fingernails\".",
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"plaintext": "Detroit rapper Eminem famously utilises crude humour throughout his discography. His most notorious example of toilet humour was featured on the 2017 album Revival, where he raps \"Your booty is heavy duty, like diarrhoea\", a line which received extensive lament from critics. The Los Angeles Times comments: \"If Hannibal Lecter could have recorded a rap album, this would have been it. Brilliant, sinister, scatological and a parent's nightmare.\"",
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"plaintext": "Paul Oldfield, who performed under the name Mr Methane, performed a stage act that included him farting the notes of music. Joseph Pujol, who performed under the name Le Pétomane (French for \"fart maniac\"), performed a similar stage act for the Paris music hall scene.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most popular books about defecation and accidents in toilets is a guide that began as Shitting Pretty and then was relaunched as How to Shit around the World.",
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"plaintext": "The children's book series Captain Underpants copiously uses toilet humor. \"Doctor Diaper\", \"The Bionic Booger Boy\", and \"Professor Pippy Pee-Pee Poopypants\" are among the villains in the series.",
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"plaintext": "The American comedy duo Tim & Eric have made numerous comedy sketches based around toilet humour. For example, they have made fake commercials for non-existent products such as the \"Poop Tube\" (a device that lets people release liquefied faecal matter into a urinal while standing up), the \"fla'Hat\" (a hat that is connected to the wearer's anus which expands when storing flatulence), and \"D-Pants\" (an undergarment invented by \"Diah Riha-Jones\" that captures \"uncontrollable diarrhea\").",
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"plaintext": "English actor Adrian Edmondson, who appeared in many shows utilising toilet humour, is quoted as saying, \"Toilet humour is like jazz: everybody has an idea what it is, and most people don't like it. But the people who do like it are fervent about it and like it until they die.\"",
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"plaintext": "A game notorious for its juvenile humour, Conker's Bad Fur Day contains a plentiful amount of scatological jokes. One of the landmark areas is a \"Poo Mountain\" and some of its missions involve getting cows to drink a laxative prune juice to produce \"pooballs\" and another fighting The Great Mighty Poo, a giant opera-singing pile of feces as a boss. In a later mission, the game's protagonist also has urination as an attack, after drinking a lot of beer and getting drunk.",
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"plaintext": "Toilet humour is also versatile in the Metal Gear franchise. Solid Snake can protect himself from wolf attacks by having one urinate on him. In Sons of Liberty, Solid Snake can spot soldiers relieving themselves several times and also stand under them. In Revengeance, Raiden is instructed in order to use a terminal, he first needs to \"take a DOOMP\", which is an abbreviation for \"digital-optical output mounted proxy\".",
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"plaintext": "A trait of Wario from the eponymous spin-off franchise is a powerful flatulence attack extensively used in his Super Smash Bros. appearance.",
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"plaintext": "The Moose Toys franchise Little Live \"Gotta Go\" Pets is a toy line of interactive plush animals that \"poop\" when fed colourful sand. The toys make graphic noises of passing gas, panic and say the words \"uh-oh! Gotta go!\" and have scatological names including \"turdle\" (turtle). Famous internet critic Doug Walker called the toys \"disgusting\" and found them immature and inappropriate. Parenting blogs praised the toy line for its crude humour approach to potty training.",
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"plaintext": "Mattel fashion doll Barbie has a plastic golden retriever, named Tanner, which has been an available toy in different variations since the 1990s. Tanner the dog eats brown bean-like beads and then poops them out when its tail is pressed. Barbie can then pick up the plastic poop with a scooper that comes with the playsets.",
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"plaintext": "Infant dolls, typically targeted towards little girls, have existed for decades that urinate and defecate (into diapers or potties) as a play feature. Variants include \"Magic Potty Baby\" (a 1990s Tyco brand doll) and \"Baby Alive\" (and Amazon knock-off counterfeit variants) that pee, poop and release glitter from their rear ends. The trend of scatological dolls for girls was mocked on the 1970s British comedy TV series Are You Being Served? in the episode \"A Change Is as Good as a Rest\"; salesman Mr. Lucas fills Ms. Brahms's peeing dollies with fizzy carbonated lemonade; another gag features character Mrs. Slocombe displaying two doll variants to a customer: the one manufactured in Britain is blonde-haired and says \"I want to go to the potty\" when a string on its back is pulled, while a similar doll with sandy hair manufactured in India says \"my name is Yasmin, and I have just been to the potty\" when its string is pulled.",
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"plaintext": " Bum trilogy",
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"plaintext": " Dick joke",
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"plaintext": " Grotesque body",
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"plaintext": " Interactive urinal",
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"plaintext": " Le Pétomane",
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"plaintext": " Lighting farts",
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"plaintext": " Pull my finger",
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1003029
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"plaintext": " Roland the Farter",
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"plaintext": " Scatology",
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"plaintext": "Whoopee cushion",
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"plaintext": "Henderson, Jeffrey The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic Comedy 1991 Oxford University Press ",
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"plaintext": "Slater, W. J. review of The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic Comedy by Jeffrey Henderson. Phoenix, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp.291–293 ",
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] | [
"Humour",
"Toilets",
"Vomiting",
"Euphemisms"
] | 2,284,331 | 5,928 | 187 | 62 | 0 | 0 | toilet humor | type of off-colour humour dealing with defecation, urination and flatulence | [
"Gross-out humor"
] |
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