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"plaintext": "Fighting Fantasy is a series of single-player role-playing gamebooks created by Steve Jackson and Ian Livingstone. The first volume in the series was published in paperback by Puffin in 1982.",
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"plaintext": "The series distinguished itself by mixing Choose Your Own Adventure-style storytelling with a dice-based role-playing element included within the books themselves. The caption on many of the covers claimed each title was an adventure \"in which YOU are the hero!\" The majority of the titles followed a fantasy theme, although science fiction, post-apocalyptic, superhero, and modern horror gamebooks were also published. The popularity of the series led to the creation of merchandise such as action figures, board games, role-playing game systems, magazines, novels, and video games.",
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"plaintext": "Puffin ended the series in 1995, but the rights to the series were eventually purchased by Wizard Books in 2002. Wizard published new editions of the original books and also commissioned six new books over two series, ending in 2012. The rights were then acquired by Scholastic in 2017, which has since published four new titles and reissued thirteen of the original books with new artwork.",
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"plaintext": "The main text of each gamebook does not progress in a linear fashion, but rather is divided into a series of numbered sections (usually 400, though a few are shorter or longer). Beginning at the first section, the reader typically must pick one of a series of options provided by the text, each option being detailed at a separate non-sequential numbered section (e.g. the reader may be presented with a choice to turn from section 1 directly to either section 83 or section 180) which in turn provides an outcome for the option chosen. The book continues in this fashion until their character is killed in combat, is stopped by the story, or completes the story. \"Fighting Fantasy gamebooks empower the reader, who felt the anxiety or joy of being fantasy heroes themselves – they lived or died by their decisions. And if at first you don’t succeed, try and try again,\" said Ian Livingstone of the format.",
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"plaintext": "The typical Fighting Fantasy gamebook tasks players with completing a quest. A successful play usually ends with the player reaching the final numbered section of the book. In some cases this can only be achieved by obtaining various story items (e.g. gems in Deathtrap Dungeon); many of the titles only feature one path to the solution.",
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"plaintext": "All Fighting Fantasy gamebooks are illustrated, including full-page pieces and smaller, repeated images scattered throughout the book as breaks or space fillers between sections. Regular contributors (excluding Scholastic editions) included Les Edwards, Terry Oakes, Russ Nicholson, Leo Hartas, Ian Miller, John Blanche, Martin McKenna, and Iain McCaig.",
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"plaintext": "Each Fighting Fantasy gamebook requires the reader to create their character, randomly assigning scores to three statistics (skill, stamina, and luck). These, in conjunction with rolling six-sided dice, are used to resolve skill challenges and the combat sections. Some titles use additional statistics or conflict resolution mechanics; most also require the reader to keep an inventory of items.",
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"plaintext": "Most early Fighting Fantasy titles were set in locations later revealed to be on the same continent called Allansia. Later a whole world named Titan was developed, with subsequent gamebooks set on three main continents—Allansia, Khul and the Old World. Other titles are set in unrelated fantasy, horror, modern day, and sci-fi environments.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, Steve Jackson (not to be confused with the US-based game designer of the same name) and Ian Livingstone attended a Games Day, and after meeting with a Penguin Books editor Geraldine Cook decided to create a series of single-player gamebooks. Their first submission, The Magic Quest, was a short adventure intended to demonstrate the style of game. The Magic Quest was eventually accepted by Penguin, although the authors devoted a further six months to expanding and improving upon their original concept.",
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"plaintext": "The end result was The Warlock of Firetop Mountain and, after several rewrites, the book was accepted and published in 1982 under Penguin's children's imprint, Puffin Books. Following the success of this title, Jackson and Livingstone began writing individually to create additional Fighting Fantasy gamebooks. In 1983, The Citadel of Chaos and The Forest of Doom were published, by Jackson and Livingstone respectively. Four more titles followed: Starship Traveller (the first title with a science fiction setting), City of Thieves, Deathtrap Dungeon, and Island of the Lizard King. In 1984, a decision was made to hire more writers to continue the series: Steve Jackson (the U.S.-based founder and owner of Steve Jackson Games) was the first, followed by others such as Andrew Chapman, Carl Sargent (aka Keith Martin), Marc Gascoigne, and Peter Darvill-Evans. Jackson and Livingstone, however, continued to be involved and approved all cover and internal illustrations within the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Jackson wrote a self-contained four-part series titled Steve Jackson's Sorcery! (1983-1985), which combined the use of combat and sorcery, and introduced the continent later known as the Old World. These featured dice images at the bottom of each page, making it possible for the player to randomly flip through the pages for the equivalent of a dice roll (the Fighting Fantasy titles published by Wizard Books used the same device).",
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"plaintext": "Andrew Chapman and Martin Allen also wrote a two-book, two-player adventure titled Clash of the Princes (1986). There were also several supplemental books produced that provided more information about the Fighting Fantasy universe, including a comprehensive bestiary of monsters and a sample adventure.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Fighting Fantasy titles had successful sales the increasing dominance of video games in the 1990s caused a gradual decline. The series was scheduled to conclude with Return to Firetop Mountain (book 50, Livingstone, 1992), but due to strong sales of that volume, ten more books were scheduled. Nine were published, the series ending with Curse of the Mummy (1995). Bloodbones, the tenth scheduled title (meant to have been book 60 in the series) was cancelled, but was eventually published by Wizard Books as part of their later reprinting efforts.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Wizard Books acquired the rights to the Fighting Fantasy series and reprinted many of the original titles in a revised order (initially only the gamebooks actually written by Jackson and/or Livingstone were published), starting with The Warlock of Firetop Mountain. They also incorporated the Sorcery! miniseries, as books 9, 11, 13, and 15. A new title, Eye of the Dragon (by Ian Livingstone) was released in 2005, followed by Bloodbones in 2006 and Howl of the Werewolf in 2007. This series used a new logo, the rationale being that the old covers did not suit the modern market.",
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"plaintext": "2007 also marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of Fighting Fantasy, and to commemorate the event Wizard Books published a special hardcover edition of The Warlock of Firetop Mountain that used the original 1982 cover image and contained extra material such as the dungeon solution and a commentary on Fighting Fantasy by Livingstone. This series concluded that same year, ending with 29 books.",
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"plaintext": "Wizard Books then began again with a new series of reprints in 2009, again featuring a different cover art style, and again starting with The Warlock of Firetop Mountain. These books were physically larger than prior releases, being produced in B-format (like the original Advanced Fighting Fantasy volumes). Three other original titles were added during this run, including Blood of the Zombies by Ian Livingstone to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary in 2012. This series was 17 books long, although Blood of the Zombies, the last volume released, is unnumbered and packaged differently than the rest.",
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"plaintext": "A new Fighting Fantasy book by Livingstone, The Port of Peril, was published in August 2017 by Scholastic in celebration of the 35th anniversary of the series. Scholastic also released five of the original books. Instead of reusing the original artwork or its style, Scholastic commissioned new artwork. In April 2018, a further six titles were published, including a new adventure by author Charlie Higson, entitled The Gates of Death. Three more titles were published in September 2019, including Livingstone's new adventure Assassins of Allansia. In October 2020, a further two titles were published, including a new adventure entitled Crystal of Storms, the first in the series by a female author, Rhianna Pratchett.",
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"plaintext": "Warlock magazine (first published by Puffin Books and later Games Workshop) provided additional information on the Fighting Fantasy universe, and each issue featured a short gamebook adventure, new rules, monsters, reviews and comic strips. It was published from 1983 to 1986 and ran for 13 issues in the UK. It was also published in other countries, and continued in Japan until 1997.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, Jackson published a roleplaying game, Fighting Fantasy – The Introductory Role-playing Game. A second game was published in 1989: Advanced Fighting Fantasy (AFF). AFF was re-released as a new and further expanded edition by Arion Games in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, Jackson wrote a picture gamebook with the title Tasks of Tantalon, in which the player was required to solve a series of puzzles which were presented as large, full-colour pictures containing hidden clues to be located and assembled.",
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"plaintext": "The Warlock of Firetop Mountain (1986) and Legend of Zagor (1993) were released as board games by Games Workshop and Parker Brothers respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1989 and 1994, seven novels were published based on Fighting Fantasy, written by Steve Jackson, Marc Gascoigne, Ian Livingstone, and Carl Sargent.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, the Fighting Fantasy 10th Anniversary Yearbook (a diary with articles, trivia and a gamebook) was published.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Jamie Wallis (not to be confused with James Wallis) adapted eight Fighting Fantasy and Sorcery! gamebooks to the D20 System. These adventures were published by Myriador (now defunct, though PDFs are still available for purchase from Greywood Publishing via third-party online retailers).",
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"plaintext": "A comic series based on Freeway Fighter was published by Titan Comics in May 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2017, a series of audio dramas based on classic Fighting Fantasy titles was launched by FoxYason Productions at Fighting Fantasy Fest 2, starting with The Warlock of Firetop Mountain: The Hero's Quest. A boxset of four more titles was released in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Several Fighting Fantasy titles have been released as video games, including seven Fighting Fantasy titles (The Warlock of Firetop Mountain, The Citadel of Chaos, The Forest of Doom, Temple of Terror, Seas of Blood, Appointment with F.E.A.R. and Rebel Planet) for the Commodore 64, Amstrad, BBC, and Sinclair ZX Spectrum (1984) and Deathtrap Dungeon for the PC and PlayStation by Eidos Interactive (1998). On 18 August 2011 an adaption of Talisman of Death was released by UK developer Laughing Jackal for the PlayStation Minis platform (playable on the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3).",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge-based studio Inkle released another interactive version of The Shamutanti Hills for iOS in May 2013, and has since gone on to release all four parts of Sorcery! on iOS, Android, Windows and Mac.",
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"plaintext": "The video game The Warlock of Firetop Mountain: Goblin Scourge Edition was released by Tin Man Games for the Nintendo Switch on 13 September 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Tin Man Games has also released the Fighting Fantasy Classics video game for Windows. Bloodbones is available for free and other titles are available as paid DLC.",
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"plaintext": "Nomad Games released Deathtrap Dungeon Trilogy for the Nintendo Switch in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 December 2006, it was announced that Jackson and Livingstone were planning to release a new series of handheld games based on Fighting Fantasy for Nintendo DS and Sony's PSP. The first of these, The Warlock of Firetop Mountain, was released for the DS in the United States on 25 November 2009, and for the Apple iPhone and iPod in early January 2010.",
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"plaintext": "On 10 February 2011 an Amazon Kindle edition of The Warlock of Firetop Mountain was launched by UK developer Worldweaver Ltd, for the US market. Warlock and four other gamebooks were released on iOS by Big Blue Bubble, but were removed from the app store in 2012 when they lost the licence.",
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"plaintext": "Australian game developers Tin Man Games have since published several iOS and Android versions of Fighting Fantasy books, including Blood of the Zombies, House of Hell, Forest of Doom, Island of the Lizard King and Starship Traveller, and an iOS version of the first part of the Sorcery! series was released by Bright Al Ltd in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1983, the top three entries of the Sunday Times bestseller list were occupied by Fighting Fantasy books. The series sold 20 million copies in the 80s and 90s.",
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"plaintext": "Fighting Fantasy was ranked 47th in the 1996 reader poll of Arcane magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time. The UK magazine's editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"To say that it is basic would be a huge understatement – Fighting Fantasy has just a couple of stats from which a character is created, and combat is a simple case of rolling six-sided dice, pitching one creature's stats against another. It's fun, quick and easy, which explains its popularity.\"",
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"plaintext": "The books were published with illustrations from Games Workshop which, though something Puffin was resistant to accept, Ian Livingstone credits as part of the series' success. However, partially as a result of the covers, the game, along with Dungeons & Dragons, became subject to a moral panic. The Evangelical Alliance issued a warning that the books would lead to players interacting with the devil, while parents reported that after reading their children developed supernatural powers, including one mother who reported that her child started to fly. When asked about the controversy, Jackson replied that they were very grateful for it, as it helped their sales figures.",
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"plaintext": " Scholastic homepage - current publisher of the range",
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"plaintext": " Fighting Fantasy Collector - website with all cover versions for entire original series",
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"plaintext": " Fighting Fantasy: An Illustrated Bibliography at SFandFantasy.co.uk",
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37,636 | 1,103,898,820 | Encephalitis | [
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"plaintext": "Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. The severity can be variable with symptoms including reduction or alteration in consciousness, headache, fever, confusion, a stiff neck, and vomiting. Complications may include seizures, hallucinations, trouble speaking, memory problems, and problems with hearing.",
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"plaintext": "Causes of encephalitis include viruses such as herpes simplex virus and rabies virus as well as bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Other causes include autoimmune diseases and certain medications. In many cases the cause remains unknown. Risk factors include a weak immune system. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms and supported by blood tests, medical imaging, and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid.",
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"plaintext": "Certain types are preventable with vaccines. Treatment may include antiviral medications (such as acyclovir), anticonvulsants, and corticosteroids. Treatment generally takes place in hospital. Some people require artificial respiration. Once the immediate problem is under control, rehabilitation may be required. In 2015, encephalitis was estimated to have affected 4.3million people and resulted in 150,000 deaths worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Adults with encephalitis present with acute onset of fever, headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures. Younger children or infants may present with irritability, poor appetite and fever. Neurological examinations usually reveal a drowsy or confused person. Stiff neck, due to the irritation of the meninges covering the brain, indicates that the patient has either meningitis or meningoencephalitis.",
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"plaintext": "Viral encephalitis can occur either as a direct effect of an acute infection, or as one of the sequelae of a latent infection. The majority of viral cases of encephalitis have an unknown cause, however the most common identifiable cause of viral encephalitis is from herpes simplex infection. Other causes of acute viral encephalitis are rabies virus, poliovirus, and measles virus.",
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"plaintext": "Additional possible viral causes are arboviral flavivirus (St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile virus), bunyavirus (La Crosse strain), arenavirus (lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus), reovirus (Colorado tick virus), and henipavirus infections. The Powassan virus is a rare cause of encephalitis.",
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"plaintext": "Other bacterial pathogens, like Mycoplasma and those causing rickettsial disease, cause inflammation of the meninges and consequently encephalitis. A non-infectious cause includes acute disseminated encephalitis which is demyelinated.",
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"plaintext": "Limbic encephalitis refers to inflammatory disease confined to the limbic system of the brain. The clinical presentation often includes disorientation, disinhibition, memory loss, seizures, and behavioral anomalies. MRI imaging reveals T2 hyperintensity in the structures of the medial temporal lobes, and in some cases, other limbic structures. Some cases of limbic encephalitis are of autoimmune origin.",
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"plaintext": "Autoimmune encephalitis signs can include catatonia, psychosis, abnormal movements, and autonomic dysregulation. Antibody-mediated anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor encephalitis and Rasmussen encephalitis are examples of autoimmune encephalitis. Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is the most common autoimmune form, and is accompanied by ovarian teratoma in 58 percent of affected women 18–45 years of age.",
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"plaintext": "Encephalitis lethargica is identified by high fever, headache, delayed physical response, and lethargy. Individuals can exhibit upper body weakness, muscular pains, and tremors, though the cause of encephalitis lethargica is not currently known. From 1917 to 1928, an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica occurred worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "People should only be diagnosed with encephalitis if they have a decreased or altered level of consciousness, lethargy, or personality change for at least twenty-four hours without any other explainable cause. Diagnosing encephalitis is done via a variety of tests:",
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"plaintext": " Brain scan, done by MRI, can determine inflammation and differentiate from other possible causes.",
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"plaintext": " Lumbar puncture (spinal tap), this helps determine via a test using the cerebral-spinal fluid, obtained from the lumbar region.",
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"plaintext": " Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of the cerebrospinal fluid, to detect the presence of viral DNA which is a sign of viral encephalitis.",
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"plaintext": "Vaccination is available against tick-borne and Japanese encephalitis and should be considered for at-risk individuals. Post-infectious encephalomyelitis complicating smallpox vaccination is avoidable, for all intents and purposes, as smallpox is nearly eradicated. Contraindication to Pertussis immunization should be observed in patients with encephalitis.",
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"plaintext": "An ideal drug to treat brain infection should be small, moderately lipophilic at pH of 7.4, low level of plasma protein binding, volume of distribution of litre per kg, does not have strong affinity towards binding with P-glycoprotein, or other efflux pumps on the surface of blood–brain barrier. Some drugs such as isoniazid, pyrazinamide, linezolid, metronidazole, fluconazole, and some fluoroquinolones have good penetration to blood brain barrier.",
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"plaintext": "Pyrimethamine-based maintenance therapy is often used to treat Toxoplasmic Encephalitis (TE), which is caused by Toxoplasma gondii and can be life-threatening for people with weak immune systems. The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), in conjunction with the established pyrimethamine-based maintenance therapy, decreases the chance of relapse in patients with HIV and TE from approximately 18% to 11%. This is a significant difference as relapse may impact the severity and prognosis of disease and result in an increase in healthcare expenditure.",
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"plaintext": "The effectiveness of intravenous immunoglobulin for the management of childhood encephalitis is unclear. Systematic reviews have been unable to draw firm conclusions because of a lack of randomised double-blind studies with sufficient numbers of patients and sufficient follow-up. There is the possibility of a benefit of intravenous immunoglobulin for some forms of childhood encephalitis on some indicators such as length of hospital stay, time to stop spasms, time to regain consciousness, and time to resolution of neuropathic symptoms and fever. Intravenous immunoglobulin for Japanese Encephalitis appeared to have no benefit when compared with placebo (pretend) treatment.",
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"plaintext": "Identification of poor prognostic factors include cerebral edema, status epilepticus, and thrombocytopenia. In contrast, a normal encephalogram at the early stages of diagnosis is associated with high rates of survival.",
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"plaintext": "The number of new cases a year of acute encephalitis in Western countries is 7.4 cases per 100,000 people per year. In tropical countries, the incidence is 6.34 per 100,000 people per year. The number of cases of encephalitis has not changed much over time, with about 250,000 cases a year from 2005 to 2015 in the US. Approximately seven per 100,000 people were hospitalized for encephalitis in the US during this time. In 2015, encephalitis was estimated to have affected 4.3million people and resulted in 150,000 deaths worldwide. Herpes simplex encephalitis has an incidence of 2–4 per million of the population per year.",
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"plaintext": "Nucleophilic describes the affinity of a nucleophile to bond with positively charged atomic nuclei. Nucleophilicity, sometimes referred to as nucleophile strength, refers to a substance's nucleophilic character and is often used to compare the affinity of atoms. Neutral nucleophilic reactions with solvents such as alcohols and water are named solvolysis. Nucleophiles may take part in nucleophilic substitution, whereby a nucleophile becomes attracted to a full or partial positive charge, and nucleophilic addition. Nucleophilicity is closely related to basicity. ",
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"plaintext": "In general, in a group across the periodic table, the more basic the ion (the higher the pKa of the conjugate acid) the more reactive it is as a nucleophile. Within a series of nucleophiles with the same attacking element (e.g. oxygen), the order of nucleophilicity will follow basicity. Sulfur is in general a better nucleophile than oxygen. ",
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"plaintext": "Many schemes attempting to quantify relative nucleophilic strength have been devised. The following empirical data have been obtained by measuring reaction rates for many reactions involving many nucleophiles and electrophiles. Nucleophiles displaying the so-called alpha effect are usually omitted in this type of treatment.",
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"plaintext": "The first such attempt is found in the Swain–Scott equation derived in 1953:",
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"plaintext": "This free-energy relationship relates the pseudo first order reaction rate constant (in water at 25°C), k, of a reaction, normalized to the reaction rate, k0, of a standard reaction with water as the nucleophile, to a nucleophilic constant n for a given nucleophile and a substrate constant s that depends on the sensitivity of a substrate to nucleophilic attack (defined as 1 for methyl bromide).",
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"plaintext": "This treatment results in the following values for typical nucleophilic anions: acetate 2.7, chloride 3.0, azide 4.0, hydroxide 4.2, aniline 4.5, iodide 5.0, and thiosulfate 6.4. Typical substrate constants are 0.66 for ethyl tosylate, 0.77 for β-propiolactone, 1.00 for 2,3-epoxypropanol, 0.87 for benzyl chloride, and 1.43 for benzoyl chloride.",
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"plaintext": "The equation predicts that, in a nucleophilic displacement on benzyl chloride, the azide anion reacts 3000 times faster than water.",
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"plaintext": "The Ritchie equation, derived in 1972, is another free-energy relationship:",
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"plaintext": "where N+ is the nucleophile dependent parameter and k0 the reaction rate constant for water. In this equation, a substrate-dependent parameter like s in the Swain–Scott equation is absent. The equation states that two nucleophiles react with the same relative reactivity regardless of the nature of the electrophile, which is in violation of the reactivity–selectivity principle. For this reason, this equation is also called the constant selectivity relationship.",
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"plaintext": "In the original publication the data were obtained by reactions of selected nucleophiles with selected electrophilic carbocations such as tropylium or diazonium cations:",
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"plaintext": "or (not displayed) ions based on malachite green. Many other reaction types have since been described.",
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"plaintext": "Typical Ritchie N+ values (in methanol) are: 0.5 for methanol, 5.9 for the cyanide anion, 7.5 for the methoxide anion, 8.5 for the azide anion, and 10.7 for the thiophenol anion. The values for the relative cation reactivities are −0.4 for the malachite green cation, +2.6 for the benzenediazonium cation, and +4.5 for the tropylium cation.",
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"plaintext": "In the Mayr–Patz equation (1994):",
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"plaintext": "The second order reaction rate constant k at 20°C for a reaction is related to a nucleophilicity parameter N, an electrophilicity parameter E, and a nucleophile-dependent slope parameter s. The constant s is defined as 1 with 2-methyl-1-pentene as the nucleophile.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the constants have been derived from reaction of so-called benzhydrylium ions as the electrophiles:",
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"plaintext": "and a diverse collection of π-nucleophiles:",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": "Typical E values are +6.2 for R = chlorine, +5.90 for R = hydrogen, 0 for R = methoxy and −7.02 for R = dimethylamine.",
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"plaintext": "Typical N values with s in parenthesis are −4.47 (1.32) for electrophilic aromatic substitution to toluene (1), −0.41 (1.12) for electrophilic addition to 1-phenyl-2-propene (2), and 0.96 (1) for addition to 2-methyl-1-pentene (3), −0.13 (1.21) for reaction with triphenylallylsilane (4), 3.61 (1.11) for reaction with 2-methylfuran (5), +7.48 (0.89) for reaction with isobutenyltributylstannane (6) and +13.36 (0.81) for reaction with the enamine 7.",
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"plaintext": "The range of organic reactions also include SN2 reactions:",
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"plaintext": "With E = −9.15 for the S-methyldibenzothiophenium ion, typical nucleophile values N (s) are 15.63 (0.64) for piperidine, 10.49 (0.68) for methoxide, and 5.20 (0.89) for water. In short, nucleophilicities towards sp2 or sp3 centers follow the same pattern.",
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"plaintext": "In an effort to unify the above described equations the Mayr equation is rewritten as:",
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"plaintext": "with sE the electrophile-dependent slope parameter and sN the nucleophile-dependent slope parameter. This equation can be rewritten in several ways:",
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"plaintext": " with sE = 1 for carbocations this equation is equal to the original Mayr–Patz equation of 1994,",
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"plaintext": " with sN = 0.6 for most n nucleophiles the equation becomes",
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"plaintext": "or the original Scott–Swain equation written as:",
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"plaintext": " with sE = 1 for carbocations and sN = 0.6 the equation becomes:",
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"plaintext": "or the original Ritchie equation written as:",
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"plaintext": "Examples of nucleophiles are anions such as Cl−, or a compound with a lone pair of electrons such as NH3 (ammonia), PR3.",
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"plaintext": "In the example below, the oxygen of the hydroxide ion donates an electron pair to form a new chemical bond with the carbon at the end of the bromopropane molecule. The bond between the carbon and the bromine then undergoes heterolytic fission, with the bromine atom taking the donated electron and becoming the bromide ion (Br−), because a SN2 reaction occurs by backside attack. This means that the hydroxide ion attacks the carbon atom from the other side, exactly opposite the bromine ion. Because of this backside attack, SN2 reactions result in a inversion of the configuration of the electrophile. If the electrophile is chiral, it typically maintains its chirality, though the SN2 product's absolute configuration is flipped as compared to that of the original electrophile.",
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"plaintext": "An ambident nucleophile is one that can attack from two or more places, resulting in two or more products. For example, the thiocyanate ion (SCN−) may attack from either the sulfur or the nitrogen. For this reason, the SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide with SCN− often leads to a mixture of an alkyl thiocyanate (R-SCN) and an alkyl isothiocyanate (R-NCS). Similar considerations apply in the Kolbe nitrile synthesis.",
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"plaintext": "While the halogens aren't nucleophilic in their diatomic form (e.g. I2 is not a nucleophile), their anions are good nucleophiles. In polar, protic solvents, F− is the weakest nucleophile, and I− the strongest; this order is reversed in polar, aprotic solvents.",
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"plaintext": "Enols are also carbon nucleophiles. The formation of an enol is catalyzed by acid or base. Enols are ambident nucleophiles, but, in general, nucleophilic at the alpha carbon atom. Enols are commonly used in condensation reactions, including the Claisen condensation and the aldol condensation reactions.",
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"plaintext": "Of sulfur nucleophiles, hydrogen sulfide and its salts, thiols (RSH), thiolate anions (RS−), anions of thiolcarboxylic acids (RC(O)-S−), and anions of dithiocarbonates (RO-C(S)-S−) and dithiocarbamates (R2N-C(S)-S−) are used most often.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrogen nucleophiles include ammonia, azide, amines, nitrites, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, carbazide, phenylhydrazine, semicarbazide, and amide.",
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| 745,930 | 5,167 | 818 | 118 | 0 | 0 | nucleophile | chemical species that donates an electron pair to form a chemical bond in relation to a reaction. | []
|
37,640 | 1,045,188,593 | Lumbar_disc_disease | [
{
"plaintext": "Lumbar disc disease is the drying out of the spongy interior matrix of an intervertebral disc in the spine. Many physicians and patients use the term lumbar disc disease to encompass several different causes of back pain or sciatica. In this article, the term is used to describe a lumbar herniated disc. It is thought that lumbar disc disease causes about one-third of all back pain.",
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"plaintext": "Pain, loss of muscle strength and loss of touch sensation may occur if this herniation causes the compression of the most proximal part of the nerve closely neighbouring the intervertebral disc material. Pain is in the distribution of the nerve compressed, usually down the back of the leg, side of the calf and inside of the foot (sciatica). Most commonly, the nerve root between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae or between the fifth lumbar vertebra and first sacral segment are impinged.",
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"plaintext": "In symptomatic cases the diagnosis should be confirmed by an MRI scan. However, in cases with slight symptoms, a faster and cheaper CT scan (although it is inferior to MRI scan) may be recommended. While a CT scan can show the bony structures in more detail, an MRI scan can better portray soft tissue.",
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"plaintext": "An inheritable gene variation may cause increased susceptibility. People with a variation in a gene that encodes the cartilage intermediate-layer protein (CILP) were 1.6 times more likely to have the disease than persons without the variation. CILP is a normal component of disc tissue. The gene variant was hypothesized to disrupt normal building and maintenance of cartilage. However, this association was not replicated in a follow-up study of Finnish and Chinese individuals.",
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"plaintext": "Initial treatment in lumbar disc disease is one or two days of bedrest (although growing number of studies shows that it makes little difference) and pain relieving medications. In cases with ongoing pain despite conservative treatments, a surgical operation that will remove the compressing disc material, a microdiscectomy or discectomy may be recommended to treat a lumbar disc herniation.",
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"plaintext": " Degenerative disc disease",
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"plaintext": " Lumbar spinal stenosis",
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"plaintext": " E-medicine - Lumbar disc disease",
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| [
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| 6,703,059 | 478 | 6 | 24 | 0 | 0 | lumbar herniated disc | medical condition | [
"Lumbar disc disease"
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|
37,641 | 1,100,247,402 | Head_injury | [
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"plaintext": "A head injury is any injury that results in trauma to the skull or brain. The terms traumatic brain injury and head injury are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of injuries, there are many causes—including accidents, falls, physical assault, or traffic accidents—that can cause head injuries.",
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"plaintext": "The number of new cases is 1.7 million in the United States each year, with about 3% of these incidents leading to death. Adults have head injuries more frequently than any age group resulting from falls, motor vehicle crashes, colliding or being struck by an object, or assaults. Children, however, may experience head injuries from accidental falls or intentional causes (such as being struck or shaken) leading to hospitalization. Acquired brain injury (ABI) is a term used to differentiate brain injuries occurring after birth from injury, from a genetic disorder, or from a congenital disorder.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike a broken bone where trauma to the body is obvious, head trauma can sometimes be conspicuous or inconspicuous. In the case of an open head injury, the skull is cracked and broken by an object that makes contact with the brain. This leads to bleeding. Other obvious symptoms can be neurological in nature. The person may become sleepy, behave abnormally, lose consciousness, vomit, develop a severe headache, have mismatched pupil sizes, and/or be unable to move certain parts of the body. While these symptoms happen immediately after a head injury occurs, many problems can develop later in life. Alzheimer's disease, for example, is much more likely to develop in a person who has experienced a head injury.",
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"plaintext": "Brain damage, which is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells, is a common occurrence in those who experience a head injury. Neurotoxicity is another cause of brain damage that typically refers to selective, chemically induced neuron/brain damage.",
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"plaintext": "Head injuries include both injuries to the brain and those to other parts of the head, such as the scalp and skull. Head injuries can be closed or open. A closed (non-missile) head injury is where the dura mater remains intact. The skull can be fractured, but not necessarily. A penetrating head injury occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the dura mater. Brain injuries may be diffuse, occurring over a wide area, or focal, located in a small, specific area. A head injury may cause skull fracture, which may or may not be associated with injury to the brain. Some patients may have linear or depressed skull fractures. If intracranial hemorrhage occurs, a hematoma within the skull can put pressure on the brain. Types of intracranial hemorrhage include subdural, subarachnoid, extradural, and intraparenchymal hematoma. Craniotomy surgeries are used in these cases to lessen the pressure by draining off the blood.",
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"plaintext": "Brain injury can occur at the site of impact, but can also be at the opposite side of the skull due to a contrecoup effect (the impact to the head can cause the brain to move within the skull, causing the brain to impact the interior of the skull opposite the head-impact). While impact on the brain at the same site of injury to the skull is the coup effect. If the impact causes the head to move, the injury may be worsened, because the brain may ricochet inside the skull causing additional impacts, or the brain may stay relatively still (due to inertia) but be hit by the moving skull (both are contrecoup injuries).",
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"plaintext": "Specific problems after head injury can include",
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"plaintext": "A concussion is a form of a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). This injury is a result due to a blow to the head that could make the person's physical, cognitive, and emotional behaviors irregular. Symptoms may include clumsiness, fatigue, confusion, nausea, blurry vision, headaches, and others. Mild concussions are associated with sequelae. Severity is measured using various concussion grading systems.",
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"plaintext": "A slightly greater injury is associated with both anterograde and retrograde amnesia (inability to remember events before or after the injury). The amount of time that the amnesia is present correlates with the severity of the injury. In all cases, the patients develop post concussion syndrome, which includes memory problems, dizziness, tiredness, sickness and depression. Cerebral concussion is the most common head injury seen in children.",
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"plaintext": "Types of intracranial hemorrhage are roughly grouped into intra-axial and extra-axial. The hemorrhage is considered a focal brain injury; that is, it occurs in a localized spot rather than causing diffuse damage over a wider area.",
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"plaintext": "Intra-axial hemorrhage is bleeding within the brain itself, or cerebral hemorrhage. This category includes intraparenchymal hemorrhage, or bleeding within the brain tissue, and intraventricular hemorrhage, bleeding within the brain's ventricles (particularly of premature infants). Intra-axial hemorrhages are more dangerous and harder to treat than extra-axial bleeds.",
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"plaintext": "Extra-axial hemorrhage, bleeding that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue, falls into three subtypes:",
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"plaintext": " Epidural hemorrhage (extradural hemorrhage) which occur between the dura mater (the outermost meninx) and the skull, is caused by trauma. It may result from laceration of an artery, most commonly the middle meningeal artery. This is a very dangerous type of injury because the bleed is from a high-pressure system and deadly increases in intracranial pressure can result rapidly. However, it is the least common type of meningeal bleeding and is seen in 1% to 3% cases of head injury.",
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"plaintext": " Patients have a loss of consciousness (LOC), then a lucid interval, then sudden deterioration (vomiting, restlessness, LOC)",
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"plaintext": " Head CT shows lenticular (convex) deformity.",
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"plaintext": " Subdural hemorrhage results from tearing of the bridging veins in the subdural space between the dura and arachnoid mater.",
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"plaintext": " Head CT shows crescent-shaped deformity",
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"plaintext": " Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which occur between the arachnoid and pia meningeal layers, like intraparenchymal hemorrhage, can result either from trauma or from ruptures of aneurysms or arteriovenous malformations. Blood is seen layering into the brain along sulci and fissures, or filling cisterns (most often the suprasellar cistern because of the presence of the vessels of the circle of Willis and their branch points within that space). The classic presentation of subarachnoid hemorrhage is the sudden onset of a severe headache (a thunderclap headache). This can be a very dangerous entity and requires emergent neurosurgical evaluation and sometimes urgent intervention.",
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"plaintext": "Cerebral contusion is bruising of the brain tissue. The piamater is not breached in contusion in contrary to lacerations. The majority of contusions occur in the frontal and temporal lobes. Complications may include cerebral edema and transtentorial herniation. The goal of treatment should be to treat the increased intracranial pressure. The prognosis is guarded.",
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"plaintext": "Diffuse axonal injury, or DAI, usually occurs as the result of an acceleration or deceleration motion, not necessarily an impact. Axons are stretched and damaged when parts of the brain of differing density slide over one another. Prognoses vary widely depending on the extent of the damage.",
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"plaintext": "Overlying scalp laceration and soft tissue disruption in continuity with a skull fracture constitutes \"compound head injury\", and has higher rates of infection, unfavorable neurologic outcome, delayed seizures, mortality, and duration of hospital stay.",
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"plaintext": "Three categories used for classifying the severity of brain injuries are mild, moderate or severe.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms of a mild brain injury include headaches, confusion, ringing ears, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, mood or behavior. Other symptoms include trouble with memory, concentration, attention or thinking. Mental fatigue is a common debilitating experience and may not be linked by the patient to the original (minor) incident. Narcolepsy and sleep disorders are common misdiagnoses.",
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"plaintext": "Cognitive symptoms include confusion, aggressive, abnormal behavior, slurred speech, and coma or other disorders of consciousness. Physical symptoms include headaches that do not go away or worsen, vomiting or nausea, convulsions or seizures, abnormal dilation of the eyes, inability to awaken from sleep, weakness in the extremities and loss of coordination. In cases of severe brain injuries, the likelihood of areas with permanent disability is great, including neurocognitive deficits, delusions (often, to be specific, monothematic delusions), speech or movement problems, and intellectual disability. There may also be personality changes. The most severe cases result in coma or even persistent vegetative state.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms observed in children include changes in eating habits, persistent irritability or sadness, changes in attention, disrupted sleeping habits, or loss of interest in toys.",
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"plaintext": "Presentation varies according to the injury. Some patients with head trauma stabilize and other patients deteriorate. A patient may present with or without neurological deficit. Patients with concussion may have a history of seconds to minutes unconsciousness, then normal arousal. Disturbance of vision and equilibrium may also occur. Common symptoms of head injury include coma, confusion, drowsiness, personality change, seizures, nausea and vomiting, headache and a lucid interval, during which a patient appears conscious only to deteriorate later.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms of skull fracture can include:",
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"plaintext": " leaking cerebrospinal fluid (a clear fluid drainage from nose, mouth or ear) is strongly indicative of basilar skull fracture and the tearing of sheaths surrounding the brain, which can lead to secondary brain infection.",
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"plaintext": " visible deformity or depression in the head or face; for example a sunken eye can indicate a maxillar fracture",
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"plaintext": " an eye that cannot move or is deviated to one side can indicate that a broken facial bone is pinching a nerve that innervates eye muscles",
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"plaintext": " wounds or bruises on the scalp or face.",
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"plaintext": " Basilar skull fractures, those that occur at the base of the skull, are associated with Battle's sign, a subcutaneous bleed over the mastoid, hemotympanum, and cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea and otorrhea.",
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"plaintext": "Because brain injuries can be life-threatening, even people with apparently slight injuries, with no noticeable signs or complaints, require close observation; They have a chance for severe symptoms later on. The caretakers of those patients with mild trauma who are released from the hospital are frequently advised to rouse the patient several times during the next 12 to 24 hours to assess for worsening symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is a tool for measuring the degree of unconsciousness and is thus a useful tool for determining the severity of the injury. The Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale is used in young children. The widely used PECARN Pediatric Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm helps physicians weigh risk-benefit of imaging in a clinical setting given multiple factors about the patient—including mechanism/location of the injury, age of the patient, and GCS score.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms of brain injuries can also be influenced by the location of the injury and as a result, impairments are specific to the part of the brain affected. Lesion size is correlated with severity, recovery, and comprehension. Brain injuries often create impairment or disability that can vary greatly in severity.",
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"plaintext": "Studies show there is a correlation between brain lesion and language, speech, and category-specific disorders. Wernicke's aphasia is associated with anomia, unknowingly making up words (neologisms), and problems with comprehension. The symptoms of Wernicke's aphasia are caused by damage to the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the Broca's area typically produces symptoms like omitting functional words (agrammatism), sound production changes, dyslexia, dysgraphia, and problems with comprehension and production. Broca's aphasia is indicative of damage to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "An impairment following damage to a region of the brain does not necessarily imply that the damaged area is wholly responsible for the cognitive process which is impaired, however. For example, in pure alexia, the ability to read is destroyed by a lesion damaging both the left visual field and the connection between the right visual field and the language areas (Broca's area and Wernicke's area). However, this does not mean someone with pure alexia is incapable of comprehending speech—merely that there is no connection between their working visual cortex and language areas—as is demonstrated by the fact that pure alexics can still write, speak, and even transcribe letters without understanding their meaning. Lesions to the fusiform gyrus often result in prosopagnosia, the inability to distinguish faces and other complex objects from each other. Lesions in the amygdala would eliminate the enhanced activation seen in occipital and fusiform visual areas in response to fear with the area intact. Amygdala lesions change the functional pattern of activation to emotional stimuli in regions that are distant from the amygdala.",
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"plaintext": "Other lesions to the visual cortex have different effects depending on the location of the damage. Lesions to V1, for example, can cause blindsight in different areas of the brain depending on the size of the lesion and location relative to the calcarine fissure. Lesions to V4 can cause color-blindness, and bilateral lesions to MT/V5 can cause the loss of the ability to perceive motion. Lesions to the parietal lobes may result in agnosia, an inability to recognize complex objects, smells, or shapes, or amorphosynthesis, a loss of perception on the opposite side of the body.",
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"plaintext": "Head injuries can be caused by a large variety of reasons. All of these causes can be put into two categories used to classify head injuries; those that occur from impact (blows) and those that occur from shaking. Common causes of head injury due to impact are motor vehicle traffic collisions, home and occupational accidents, falls, assault, and sports related accidents. Head injuries from shaking are most common amongst infants and children.",
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"plaintext": "According to the United States CDC, 32% of traumatic brain injuries (another, more specific, term for head injuries) are caused by falls, 10% by assaults, 16.5% by being struck by or against something, 17% by motor vehicle accidents, and 21% by other/unknown ways. In addition, the highest rate of injury is among children ages 0–14 and adults age 65 and older. Brain injuries that include brain damage can also be brought on by exposure to toxic chemicals, lack of oxygen, tumors, infections, and stroke. Possible causes of widespread brain damage include birth hypoxia, prolonged hypoxia (shortage of oxygen), poisoning by teratogens (including alcohol), infection, and neurological illness. Brain tumors can increase intracranial pressure, causing brain damage.",
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"plaintext": "There are a few methods used to diagnose a head injury. A healthcare professional will ask the patient questions revolving around the injury as well as questions to help determine in what ways the injury is affecting function. In addition to this hearing, vision, balance, and reflexes may also be assessed as an indicator of the severity of the injury. A non-contrast CT of the head should be performed immediately in all those who have sustained a moderate or severe head injury. A CT is an imaging technique that allows physicians to see inside the head without surgery in order to determine if there is internal bleeding or swelling in the brain. Computed tomography (CT) has become the diagnostic modality of choice for head trauma due to its accuracy, reliability, safety, and wide availability. The changes in microcirculation, impaired auto-regulation, cerebral edema, and axonal injury start as soon as a head injury occurs and manifest as clinical, biochemical, and radiological changes. An MRI may also be conducted to determine if someone has abnormal growths or tumors in the brain or to determine if the patient has had a stroke.",
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"plaintext": "Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is the most widely used scoring system used to assess the level of severity of a brain injury. This method is based on objective observations of specific traits to determine the severity of a brain injury. It is based on three traits eye-opening, verbal response, and motor response, gauged as described below. Based on the Glasgow Coma Scale severity is classified as follows, severe brain injuries score 3–8, moderate brain injuries score 9-12 and mild score 13–15.",
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"plaintext": "There are several imaging techniques that can aid in diagnosing and assessing the extent of brain damage, such as computed tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission tomography (SPECT). CT scans and MRI are the two techniques widely used and are the most effective. CT scans can show brain bleeds, fractures of the skull, fluid build up in the brain that will lead to increased cranial pressure. MRI is able to better detect smaller injuries, detect damage within the brain, diffuse axonal injury, injuries to the brainstem, posterior fossa, and subtemporal and sub frontal regions. However, patients with pacemakers, metallic implants, or other metal within their bodies are unable to have an MRI done. Typically the other imaging techniques are not used in a clinical setting because of the cost, lack of availability.",
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"plaintext": "Most head injuries are of a benign nature and require no treatment beyond analgesics such as acetaminophen. Non-steroidal painkillers such as ibuprofen are avoided since they could make any potential bleeding worse. Due to the high risk of even minor brain injuries, close monitoring for potential complications such as intracranial bleeding. If the brain has been severely damaged by trauma, a neurosurgical evaluation may be useful. Treatments may involve controlling elevated intracranial pressure. This can include sedation, paralytics, cerebrospinal fluid diversion. Second-line alternatives include decompressive craniectomy (Jagannathan et al. found a net 65% favorable outcomes rate in pediatric patients), barbiturate coma, hypertonic saline, and hypothermia. Although all of these methods have potential benefits, there has been no randomized study that has shown unequivocal benefit.",
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"plaintext": "Clinicians will often consult clinical decision support rules such as the Canadian CT Head Rule or the New Orleans/Charity Head injury/Trauma Rule to decide if the patient needs further imaging studies or observation only. Rules like these are usually studied in depth by multiple research groups with large patient cohorts to ensure accuracy given the risk of adverse events in this area.",
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"plaintext": "There is a subspecialty certification available for brain injury medicine that signifies expertise in the treatment of brain injury.",
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"plaintext": "Prognosis, or the likely progress of a disorder, depends on the nature, location, and cause of the brain damage (see Traumatic brain injury, Focal and diffuse brain injury, Primary and secondary brain injury).",
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"plaintext": "In children with uncomplicated minor head injuries the risk of intracranial bleeding over the next year is rare at 2 cases per 1 million. In some cases transient neurological disturbances may occur, lasting minutes to hours. Malignant post traumatic cerebral swelling can develop unexpectedly in stable patients after an injury, as can post-traumatic seizures. Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover, while those who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.",
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"plaintext": "Head injury may be associated with a neck injury. Bruises on the back or neck, neck pain, or pain radiating to the arms are signs of cervical spine injury and merit spinal immobilization via application of a cervical collar and possibly a longboard. If the neurological exam is normal this is reassuring. Reassessment is needed if there is a worsening headache, seizure, one-sided weakness, or has persistent vomiting.",
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"plaintext": "To combat overuse of head CT scans yielding negative intracranial hemorrhage results, which unnecessarily exposes patients to radiation and increase time in the hospital and cost of the visit, multiple clinical decision support rules have been developed to help clinicians weigh the option to scan a patient with a head injury. Among these are the Canadian Head CT rule, the PECARN Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm, and the New Orleans/Charity Head Injury/Trauma Rule all help clinicians make these decisions using easily obtained information and noninvasive practices.",
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"plaintext": "Brain injuries are very hard to predict in the outcome. Many tests and specialists are needed to determine the likelihood of the prognosis. People with minor brain damage can have debilitating side effects; not just severe brain damage has debilitating effects. The side- effects of a brain injury depend on location and the body's response to injury. Even a mild concussion can have long term effects that may not resolve.",
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"plaintext": "The foundation for understanding human behavior and brain injury can be attributed to the case of Phineas Gage and the famous case studies by Paul Broca. The first case study on Phineas Gage's head injury is one of the most astonishing brain injuries in history. In 1848, Phineas Gage was paving way for a new railroad line when he encountered an accidental explosion of a tamping iron straight through his frontal lobe. Gage observed to be intellectually unaffected but exemplified post-injury behavioral deficits. These deficits include: becoming sporadic, disrespectful, extremely profane, and gave no regard for other workers. Gage started having seizures in February 1860, dying only four months later on May 21, 1860.",
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"plaintext": "Ten years later, Paul Broca examined two patients exhibiting impaired speech due to frontal lobe injuries. Broca's first patient lacked productive speech. He saw this as an opportunity to address language localization. It wasn't until Leborgne, formally known as \"tan\", died when Broca confirmed the frontal lobe lesion from an autopsy. The second patient had similar speech impairments, supporting his findings on language localization. The results of both cases became a vital verification of the relationship between speech and the left cerebral hemisphere. The affected areas are known today as Broca's area and Broca's Aphasia.",
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"plaintext": "A few years later, a German neuroscientist, Carl Wernicke, consulted on a stroke patient. The patient experienced neither speech nor hearing impairments but had a few brain deficits. These deficits included: lacking the ability to comprehend what was spoken to him and the words written down. After his death, Wernicke examined his autopsy that found a lesion located in the left temporal region. This area became known as Wernicke's area. Wernicke later hypothesized the relationship between Wernicke's area and Broca's area, which was proven fact.",
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"plaintext": "Head injury is the leading cause of death in many countries.",
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"plaintext": " Traumatic brain injury",
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"plaintext": " Brain damage",
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"plaintext": " Concussion",
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"plaintext": " Acquired brain injury",
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"plaintext": " Neurodegeneration",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Chronic traumatic encephalopathy",
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"plaintext": " Brain Injury (journal)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Cochrane Injuries Group: systematic reviews on the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of traumatic injury",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " First aid advice for head injuries from the British Red Cross",
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}
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37,642 | 1,102,208,299 | Tremor | [
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"plaintext": "A tremor is an involuntary, somewhat rhythmic, muscle contraction and relaxation involving oscillations or twitching movements of one or more body parts. It is the most common of all involuntary movements and can affect the hands, arms, eyes, face, head, vocal folds, trunk, and legs. Most tremors occur in the hands. In some people, a tremor is a symptom of another neurological disorder. A very common tremor is the teeth chattering, usually induced by cold temperatures or by fear.",
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"plaintext": "Tremor is most commonly classified by clinical features and cause or origin. Some of the better-known forms of tremor, with their symptoms, include the following:",
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"plaintext": " Cerebellar tremor (also known as intention tremor) is a slow, broad tremor of the extremities that occurs at the end of a purposeful movement, such as trying to press a button or touching a finger to the tip of one's nose. Cerebellar tremor is caused by lesions in or damage to the cerebellum resulting from stroke, tumor, or disease such as multiple sclerosis or some inherited degenerative disorder. It can also result from chronic alcoholism or overuse of some medicines. In classic cerebellar tremor, a lesion on one side of the brain produces a tremor in that same side of the body that worsens with directed movement. Cerebellar damage can also produce a \"wing-beating\" type of tremor called rubral or Holmes' tremor— a combination of rest, action, and postural tremors. The tremor is often most prominent when the affected person is active or is maintaining a particular posture. Cerebellar tremor may be accompanied by other manifestations of ataxia, including dysarthria (speech problems), nystagmus (rapid, involuntary rolling of the eyes), gait problems and postural tremor of the trunk and neck. Titubation is tremor of the head and is of cerebellar origin.",
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"plaintext": " Dystonic tremor occurs in individuals of all ages who are affected by dystonia, a movement disorder in which sustained involuntary muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive motions or painful and abnormal postures or positions. Dystonic tremor may affect any muscle in the body and is seen most often when the patient is in a certain position or moves a certain way. The pattern of dystonic tremor may differ from essential tremor. Dystonic tremors occur irregularly and can often be relieved by complete rest. Touching the affected body part or muscle may reduce tremor severity (a geste antagoniste). The tremor may be the initial sign of dystonia localized to a particular part of the body. The dystonic tremor has usually a frequency of about 7Hz.",
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"plaintext": " Essential tremor (sometimes inaccurately called benign essential tremor) is the most common of the more than 20 types of tremor. Although the tremor may be mild and nonprogressive in some people, in others, the tremor is slowly progressive, starting on one side of the body but affecting both sides within 3 years. The hands are most often affected but the head, voice, tongue, legs, and trunk may also be involved. Head tremor may be seen as a vertical or horizontal motion. Essential tremor may be accompanied by mild gait disturbance. Tremor frequency may decrease as the person ages, but the severity may increase, affecting the person's ability to perform certain tasks or activities of daily living. Heightened emotion, stress, fever, physical exhaustion, or low blood sugar may trigger tremors or increase their severity. Onset is most common after age 40, although symptoms can appear at any age. It may occur in more than one family member. Children of a parent who has essential tremor have a 50 percent chance of inheriting the condition. Essential tremor is not associated with any known pathology. Its frequency is between 4 and 8Hz.",
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"plaintext": " Orthostatic tremor is characterized by fast (>12Hz) rhythmic muscle contractions that occur in the legs and trunk immediately after standing up. Cramps are felt in the thighs and legs and the patient may shake uncontrollably when asked to stand in one spot. No other clinical signs or symptoms are present and the shaking ceases when the patient sits or is lifted off the ground. The high frequency of the tremor often makes the tremor look like rippling of leg muscles while standing. Orthostatic tremor may also occur in patients who have essential tremor, and there might be an overlap between these categories of tremor.",
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"plaintext": " Parkinsonian tremor is caused by damage to structures within the brain that control movement. This resting tremor, which can occur as an isolated symptom or be seen in other disorders, is often a precursor to Parkinson's disease (more than 25 percent of patients with Parkinson's disease have an associated action tremor). The tremor, which is classically seen as a \"pill-rolling\" action of the hands that may also affect the chin, lips, legs, and trunk, can be markedly increased by stress or emotion. Onset is generally after age 60. Movement starts in one limb or on one side of the body and usually progresses to include the other side. The tremor's frequency is between 4 and 6Hz.",
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"plaintext": " Physiological tremor occurs in every normal individual and has no clinical significance. It is rarely visible and may be heightened by strong emotion (such as anxiety or fear), physical exhaustion, hypoglycemia, hyperthyroidism, heavy metal poisoning, stimulants, alcohol withdrawal or fever. It can be seen in all voluntary muscle groups and can be detected by extending the arms and placing a piece of paper on top of the hands. Enhanced physiological tremor is a strengthening of physiological tremor to more visible levels. It is generally not caused by a neurological disease but by reaction to certain drugs, alcohol withdrawal, or medical conditions including an overactive thyroid and hypoglycemia. It is usually reversible once the cause is corrected. This tremor classically has a frequency of about 10Hz.",
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"plaintext": " Psychogenic tremor (also called hysterical tremor and functional tremor) can occur at rest or during postural or kinetic movement. The characteristics of this kind of tremor may vary but generally include sudden onset and remission, increased incidence with stress, change in tremor direction or body part affected, and greatly decreased or disappearing tremor activity when the patient is distracted. Many patients with psychogenic tremor have a conversion disorder (see Posttraumatic stress disorder) or another psychiatric disease.",
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"plaintext": " Rubral tremor is characterized by coarse slow tremor which is present at rest, at posture and with intention. This tremor is associated with conditions which affect the red nucleus in the midbrain, classically unusual strokes.",
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"plaintext": " Neuropathic tremor may occur in patients with peripheral neuropathies, when the nerves that supply the body's muscles are traumatized by injury, disease, abnormality in the central nervous system, or as the result of systemic illnesses. It is most commonly observed in patients with an immunoglobulin M paraproteinaemic neuropathy (IgMNP), but also in patients with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP). The tremor is predominantely exhibited as an action or postural tremor with a frequency of 3 to 10Hz. Peripheral neuropathy can affect the whole body or certain areas, such as the hands, and may be progressive. Resulting sensory loss may be seen as a tremor or ataxia (inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movement) of the affected limbs and problems with gait and balance. Clinical characteristics may be similar to those seen in patients with essential tremor.",
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"plaintext": "Tremor can result from other conditions as well",
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"plaintext": " Alcoholism, excessive alcohol consumption, or alcohol withdrawal can kill certain nerve cells, resulting in a tremor known as asterixis. Conversely, small amounts of alcohol may help to decrease familial and essential tremor, but the mechanism behind it is unknown. Alcohol potentiates GABAergic transmission and might act at the level of the inferior olive.",
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"plaintext": " Tobacco withdrawal symptoms include tremor.",
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"plaintext": " Most of the symptoms can also occur randomly when panicked.",
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"plaintext": "Tremor can be a symptom associated with disorders in those parts of the brain that control muscles throughout the body or in particular areas, such as the hands. Neurological disorders or conditions that can produce tremor include multiple sclerosis, stroke, traumatic brain injury, chronic kidney disease and a number of neurodegenerative diseases that damage or destroy parts of the brainstem or the cerebellum, Parkinson's disease being the one most often associated with tremor. Lesions of the Guillain-Mollaret triangle (also called myoclonic triangle or dentato-rubro-olivary pathway) impair the predictions performed by the cerebellum, causing repetitive muscle discharges by triggering oscillatory activity in the central nervous system. Other causes include the use of drugs (such as amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, corticosteroids, SSRIs) or alcohol, mercury poisoning, or the withdrawal of drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepine. Tremors can also be seen in infants with phenylketonuria (PKU), overactive thyroid or liver failure. Tremors can be an indication of hypoglycemia, along with palpitations, sweating and anxiety.",
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"plaintext": "Tremor can also be caused by lack of sleep, lack of vitamins, or increased stress. Deficiencies of magnesium and thiamine have also been known to cause tremor or shaking, which resolves when the deficiency is corrected. Tremors in animals can also be caused by some spider bites, e.g. the redback spider of Australia.",
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"plaintext": "During a physical exam, a doctor can determine whether the tremor occurs primarily during action or at rest. The doctor will also check for tremor symmetry, any sensory loss, weakness or muscle atrophy, or decreased reflexes. A detailed family history may indicate if the tremor is inherited. Blood or urine tests can detect thyroid malfunction, other metabolic causes, and abnormal levels of certain chemicals that can cause tremor. These tests may also help to identify contributing causes, such as drug interaction, chronic alcoholism, or another condition or disease. Diagnostic imaging using CT or MRI imaging may help determine if the tremor is the result of a structural defect or degeneration of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "The doctor will perform a neurological examination to assess nerve function and motor and sensory skills. The tests are designed to determine any functional limitations, such as difficulty with handwriting or the ability to hold a utensil or cup. The patient may be asked to place a finger on the tip of her or his nose, draw a spiral, or perform other tasks or exercises.",
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"plaintext": "The doctor may order an electromyogram to diagnose muscle or nerve problems. This test measures involuntary muscle activity and muscle response to nerve stimulation. The selection of the sensors used is important. In addition to studies of muscle activity, tremor can be assessed with accuracy using accelerometers .",
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"plaintext": "The degree of tremor should be assessed in four positions. The tremor can then be classified by which position most accentuates the tremor:",
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"plaintext": "There is no cure for most tremors. The appropriate treatment depends on accurate diagnosis of the cause. Some tremors respond to treatment of the underlying condition. For example, in some cases of psychogenic tremor, treating the patient's underlying psychological problem may cause the tremor to disappear. A few medications can help relieve symptoms temporarily.",
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"plaintext": "Medications remain the basis of therapy in many cases. Symptomatic drug therapy is available for several forms of tremor:",
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"plaintext": " Parkinsonian tremor drug treatment involves L-DOPA or dopamine-like drugs such as pergolide, bromocriptine and ropinirole; They can be dangerous, however, as they may cause symptoms such as tardive dyskinesia, akathisia, clonus, and in rare instances tardive (late developing) psychosis. Other drugs used to lessen parkinsonian tremor include amantadine and anticholinergic drugs like benztropine",
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"plaintext": " Cerebellar tremor symptoms may decrease with the application of alcohol (ethanol) or benzodiazepine medications, both of which carry some risk of dependence or addiction",
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"plaintext": " Dystonic tremor may respond to diazepam, anticholinergic drugs, and intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin. Botulinum toxin is also prescribed to treat voice and head tremors and several movement disorders",
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"plaintext": " Enhanced physiological tremor is usually reversible once the cause is corrected. If symptomatic treatment is needed, beta blockers can be used",
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"plaintext": "Essential tremor may benefit from slight doses of ethanol, but the potential negative consequences of regular ethanol intake need to be taken into account. Beta blockers have been used as an alternative to alcohol in sports such as competitive dart playing and carry less potential for addiction.",
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"plaintext": "Physical therapy and occupational therapy may help to reduce tremor and improve coordination and muscle control for some patients. A physical therapist or occupational therapist will evaluate the patient for tremor positioning, muscle control, muscle strength, and functional skills. Teaching the patient to brace the affected limb during the tremor or to hold an affected arm close to the body is sometimes useful in gaining motion control. Coordination and balancing exercises may help some patients. Some occupational therapists recommend the use of weights, splints, other adaptive equipment, and special plates and utensils for eating.",
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"plaintext": "Surgical intervention such as thalamotomy and deep brain stimulation may ease certain tremors. These surgeries are usually performed only when the tremor is severe and does not respond to drugs. Response can be excellent.",
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"plaintext": "Thalamotomy, involving the creation of lesions in the brain region called the thalamus, is quite effective in treating patients with essential, cerebellar, or Parkinsonian tremor. This in-hospital procedure is performed under local anesthesia, with the patient awake. After the patient's head is secured in a metal frame, the surgeon maps the patient's brain to locate the thalamus. A small hole is drilled through the skull and a temperature-controlled electrode is inserted into the thalamus. A low-frequency current is passed through the electrode to activate the tremor and to confirm proper placement. Once the site has been confirmed, the electrode is heated to create a temporary lesion. Testing is done to examine speech, language, coordination, and tremor activation, if any. If no problems occur, the probe is again heated to create a 3-mm permanent lesion. The probe, when cooled to body temperature, is withdrawn and the skull hole is covered. The lesion causes the tremor to permanently disappear without disrupting sensory or motor control.",
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"plaintext": "Deep brain stimulation (DBS) uses implantable electrodes to send high-frequency electrical signals to the thalamus. The electrodes are implanted as described above. The patient uses a hand-held magnet to turn on and turn off a pulse generator that is surgically implanted under the skin. The electrical stimulation temporarily disables the tremor and can be \"reversed\", if necessary, by turning off the implanted electrode. Batteries in the generator last about 5 years and can be replaced surgically. DBS is currently used to treat parkinsonian tremor and essential tremor. It is also applied successfully for other rare causes of tremor.",
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"plaintext": "The most common side effects of tremor surgery include dysarthria (problems with motor control of speech), temporary or permanent cognitive impairment (including visual and learning difficulties), and problems with balance.",
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"plaintext": "As well as medication, rehabilitation programmes and surgical interventions, the application of biomechanical loading on tremor movement has been shown to be a technique that is able to suppress the effects of tremor on the human body. It has been established in the literature that most of the different types of tremor respond to biomechanical loading. In particular, it has been clinically tested that the increase of damping or inertia in the upper limb leads to a reduction of the tremorous motion. Biomechanical loading relies on an external device that either passively or actively acts mechanically in parallel to the upper limb to counteract tremor movement. This phenomenon gives rise to the possibility of an orthotic management of tremor.",
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"plaintext": "Starting from this principle, the development of upper-limb non-invasive ambulatory robotic exoskeletons is presented as a promising solution for patients who cannot benefit from medication to suppress the tremor. In this area robotic exoskeletons have emerged, in the form of orthoses, to provide motor assistance and functional compensation to disabled people. An orthosis is a wearable device that acts in parallel to the affected limb. In the case of tremor management, the orthosis must apply a damping or inertial load to a selected set of limb articulations.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, some studies demonstrated that exoskeletons could achieve a consistent 40% of tremor power reduction for all users, being able to attain a reduction ratio in the order of 80% tremor power in specific joints of users with severe tremor. In addition, the users reported that the exoskeleton did not affect their voluntary motion. These results indicate the feasibility of tremor suppression through biomechanical loading.",
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"plaintext": "The main drawbacks of this mechanical management of tremor are (1) the resulting bulky solutions, (2) the inefficiency in transmitting loads from the exoskeleton to the human musculo-skeletal system and (3) technological limitations in terms of actuator technologies. In this regard, current trends in this field are focused on the evaluation of the concept of biomechanical loading of tremor through selective Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) based on a (Brain-to-Computer Interaction) BCI-driven detection of involuntary (tremor) motor activity.",
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"plaintext": "Peak-to-peak amplitude (abbreviated p–p) is the change between peak (highest amplitude value) and trough (lowest amplitude value, which can be negative). With appropriate circuitry, peak-to-peak amplitudes of electric oscillations can be measured by meters or by viewing the waveform on an oscilloscope. Peak-to-peak is a straightforward measurement on an oscilloscope, the peaks of the waveform being easily identified and measured against the graticule. This remains a common way of specifying amplitude, but sometimes other measures of amplitude are more appropriate.",
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"plaintext": " is the oscillating variable,",
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"plaintext": " and are arbitrary constants representing time and displacement offsets respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave, but are always in the same units as the oscillating variable. A more general representation of the wave equation is more complex, but the role of amplitude remains analogous to this simple case.",
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"plaintext": "Other parameters can be assigned steady state or transient amplitude envelopes: high/low frequency/amplitude modulation, Gaussian noise, overtones, etc.",
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"plaintext": "With waveforms containing many overtones, complex transient timbres can be achieved by assigning each overtone to its own distinct transient amplitude envelope. Unfortunately, this has the effect of modulating the loudness of the sound as well. It makes more sense to separate loudness and harmonic quality to be parameters controlled independently of each other.",
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"plaintext": "To do so, harmonic amplitude envelopes are frame-by-frame normalized to become amplitude proportion envelopes, where at each time frame all the harmonic amplitudes will add to 100% (or 1). This way, the main loudness-controlling envelope can be cleanly controlled.",
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"plaintext": "In Sound Recognition, max amplitude normalization can be used to help align the key harmonic features of 2 alike sounds, allowing similar timbres to be recognized independent of loudness.",
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| 159,190 | 10,422 | 907 | 78 | 0 | 0 | amplitude | physical quantity; (of a periodic variable) measure of its change over a single period (such as time or spatial period) | []
|
37,650 | 1,085,292,880 | Period | [
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"plaintext": " Period (Another American Lie), a 1987 album by B.A.L.L.",
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"plaintext": " Period of a function, length or duration after which a function repeats itself",
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"plaintext": " \"Period-\" or \"per-iod-\", in some chemical compounds, \"per\" refers to oxidation state, and \"iod\" refers to the compound containing iodine",
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"plaintext": "Menstruation, also called a \"period\"",
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37,652 | 1,106,362,865 | Kyoto | [
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"plaintext": "The original city was arranged in accordance with traditional Chinese feng shui following the model of the ancient Chinese capital of Chang'an/Luoyang. The Imperial Palace faced south, resulting in Ukyō (the right sector of the capital) being on the west, while Sakyō (the left sector) is on the east. The streets in the modern-day wards of Nakagyō, Shimogyō, and Kamigyō-ku still follow a grid pattern. Surrounding areas do not follow the same grid pattern as the center of the city, though streets throughout Kyoto are referred to by name, a practice that is rare in most regions of Japan.",
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"plaintext": "During the 8th century, when powerful Buddhist clergy became involved in the affairs of the imperial government, Emperor Kanmu chose to relocate the capital in order to distance it from the clerical establishment in Nara. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, in the Kadono district of Yamashiro Province.",
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"plaintext": "The new city, , a scaled replica of the then Chinese Tang dynasty capital Chang'an, became the seat of Japan's imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. Although military rulers established their governments either in Kyoto (Muromachi shogunate) or in other cities such as Kamakura (Kamakura shogunate) and Edo (Tokugawa shogunate), Kyoto remained Japan's capital until the transfer of the imperial court to Tokyo in 1869 at the time of the Imperial Restoration.",
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"plaintext": "In the Sengoku period, the city suffered extensive destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477, and did not really recover until the mid-16th century. During the war, battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve court nobility (kuge) and religious factions as well. Nobles' mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. At the end of the period, the Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burned down 28,000 houses in the city, which showed the rebels' dissatisfaction towards the Tokugawa Shogunate.",
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"plaintext": "At the start of the Meiji period, the emperor's move from Kyoto to Tokyo in 1869 weakened the economy of Kyoto. The modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1, 1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 was one measure taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932.",
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"plaintext": "There was some consideration by the United States of targeting Kyoto with an atomic bomb at the end of World War II because, as an intellectual center of Japan, it had a population large enough to possibly persuade the emperor to surrender. In the end, at the insistence of Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was largely spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. During the occupation, the U.S. Sixth Army and I Corps were headquartered in Kyoto.",
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"plaintext": "As a result, Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, such as the traditional townhouses known as machiya. However, modernization is continually breaking down traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex.",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1, 1956. In 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).",
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"plaintext": "Information technology and electronics are key industries in Kyoto. The city is home to the headquarters of Nintendo, Intelligent Systems, SCREEN Holdings, Tose, Hatena, Omron, Kyocera, Shimadzu, Rohm, Horiba, Nidec Corporation, Nichicon, Nissin Electric, and GS Yuasa.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional Japanese crafts are also a major industry of Kyoto; Kyoto's kimono weavers are particularly renowned, and the city remains the premier center of kimono manufacturing. Sake brewing is another prominent traditional industry in Kyoto, and the headquarters of major sake brewers Gekkeikan and Takara Holdings are found in Kyoto.",
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"plaintext": "Kintetsu Railway (Kintetsu)",
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"plaintext": "The Kyoto Municipal Transportation Bureau operates the Kyoto Municipal Subway consisting of two lines: the Karasuma Line and the Tōzai Line. The two lines are linked at Karasuma Oike Station near the center of the economic district.",
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"plaintext": "The Karasuma Line runs primarily north to south between the terminal of Kokusaikaikan Station and Takeda Station, and takes its name from the fact that trains run beneath Karasuma Street between Kitaōji Station in Kita-ku and Jūjō Station in Minami-ku. The Karasuma Line connects to the Hankyu Kyoto Main Line at the intersection of Shijō Karasuma in Kyoto's central business district and to JR lines and the Kyoto Kintetsu Line at Kyōto Station. In addition, the Transportation Bureau and Kintetsu jointly operate through services which continue to Kintetsu Nara Station in Nara.",
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"plaintext": "The Tōzai Line runs from the southeastern area of the city towards the center, then east to west (tōzai in Japanese) through the Kyoto downtown area where trains run beneath the east–west streets of Sanjō Street, Oike Street, and Oshikōji Street. The Keihan Keishin Line has been integrated into this line, and thus Keihan provides through services to in the neighboring city of Ōtsu, the capital of Shiga Prefecture. Within the city of Kyoto, the Tōzai Line also connects to Keihan lines at Yamashina Station, Misasagi Station, and Sanjō Keihan Station, and to the Keifuku Electric Railroad at the terminal of Uzumasa Tenjingawa Station.",
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"plaintext": "Eizan Kurama Line",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto's municipal bus network is extensive. Private carriers also operate within the city. Many tourists join commuters on the public buses, or take tour buses. Kyoto's buses have announcements in English and electronic signs with stops written in the Latin alphabet. Buses operating on routes within the city, the region, and the nation stop at Kyōto Station. In addition to Kyōto Station, bus transfer is available at the intersections of Shijō Kawaramachi and . The intersection of Karasuma Kitaōji, near Kitaōji Station on the Karasuma Line north of downtown, has a major bus terminal.",
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"plaintext": "Because many older streets in Kyoto are narrow, there are a significant number one-way roads without sidewalks. Cycling is a common form of personal transportation in the city, although there are few areas set aside for bicycle parking and bicycles parked in restricted areas are impounded.",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto has fewer toll-highways than other Japanese cities of comparable size. There are nine national highways in the city of Kyoto: Route 1, Route 8, Route 9, Route 24, Route 162, Route 171, Route 367, Route 477, and Route 478.",
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"plaintext": "The city is connected with other parts of Japan by the Meishin Expressway, which has two interchanges in the city: Kyoto Higashi (Kyoto East) in Yamashina-ku and Kyoto Minami (Kyoto South) in Fushimi-ku. The Kyoto Jūkan Expressway connects the city to northern regions of Kyoto Prefecture. The Second Keihan Highway is another bypass to Osaka.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, trade and haulage took place by waterway, and there continue to be a number of navigable rivers and canals in Kyoto. In contemporary Kyoto, however, waterways are no longer commonly used for transportation of passengers or goods, other than for limited sightseeing purposes such as excursion boats on the Hozu River and cormorant fishing boats on the Ōi River.",
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"plaintext": "Although ravaged by wars, fires, and earthquakes during its eleven centuries as the imperial capital, Kyoto was not entirely destroyed in World War II. It was removed from the atomic bomb target list (which it had headed) by the personal intervention of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, as Stimson wanted to save this cultural center, which he knew from his honeymoon and later diplomatic visits.",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto has been, and still remains, Japan's cultural center. About 20% of Japan's National Treasures and 14% of Important Cultural Properties exist in the city proper. The government of Japan plans to relocate the Agency for Cultural Affairs to Kyoto in 2023.",
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"plaintext": "With its 2,000 religious places – 1,600 Buddhist temples and 400 Shinto shrines, as well as palaces, gardens and architecture intact – it is one of the best preserved cities in Japan. Among the most famous temples in Japan are Kiyomizu-dera, a magnificent wooden temple supported by pillars off the slope of a mountain; Kinkaku-ji, the Temple of the Golden Pavilion; Ginkaku-ji, the Temple of the Silver Pavilion; and Ryōan-ji, famous for its rock garden. The Heian Jingū is a Shinto shrine, built in 1895, celebrating the imperial family and commemorating the first and last emperors to reside in Kyoto. Three special sites have connections to the imperial family: the Kyoto Gyoen area including the Kyoto Imperial Palace and Sentō Imperial Palace, homes of the emperors of Japan for many centuries; Katsura Imperial Villa, one of the nation's finest architectural treasures; and Shugakuin Imperial Villa, one of its best Japanese gardens. In addition, the temple of Sennyu-ji houses the tombs of the emperors from Shijō to Kōmei.",
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"plaintext": "Other sites in Kyoto include Arashiyama, the Gion and Ponto-chō geisha quarters, the Philosopher's Walk, and the canals that line some of the older streets.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto\" are listed by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. These include the Kamo Shrines (Kami and Shimo), Kyō-ō-Gokokuji (Tō-ji), Kiyomizu-dera, Daigo-ji, Ninna-ji, Saihō-ji (Kokedera), Tenryū-ji, Rokuon-ji (Kinkaku-ji), Jishō-ji (Ginkaku-ji), Ryōan-ji, Hongan-ji, Kōzan-ji, and the Nijō Castle, primarily built by the Tokugawa shōguns. Other sites outside the city are also on the list.",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto is renowned for its abundance of delicious Japanese foods and cuisine. The special circumstances of Kyoto as a city away from the sea and home to many Buddhist temples resulted in the development of a variety of vegetables peculiar to the . The oldest restaurant in Kyoto is Honke Owariya which was founded in 1465.",
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"plaintext": "Japan's television and film industry has its center in Kyoto. Many jidaigeki, action films featuring samurai, were shot at Toei Uzumasa Eigamura. A film set and theme park in one, Eigamura features replicas of traditional Japanese buildings, which are used for jidaigeki. Among the sets are a replica of the old Nihonbashi (the bridge at the entry to Edo), a traditional courthouse, a Meiji Period police box and part of the former Yoshiwara red-light district. Actual film shooting takes place occasionally, and visitors are welcome to observe the action.",
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"plaintext": "The dialect spoken in Kyoto is known as Kyō-kotoba or Kyōto-ben, a constituent dialect of the Kansai dialect. Until the late Edo period, the Kyoto dialect was the de facto standard Japanese, although it has since been replaced by modern standard Japanese. Traditional Kyoto expressions include the polite copula dosu, the honorific verb ending -haru, and the greeting phrase okoshi-yasu.",
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"plaintext": "Kyoto is well known for its traditional festivals which have been held for over 1,000 years and are a major tourist attraction. The first is the Aoi Matsuri on May 15. Two months later (July) is the Gion Matsuri known as one of the 3 great festivals of Japan, culminating in a massive parade on July 17. Kyoto marks the Bon Festival with the Gozan no Okuribi, lighting fires on mountains to guide the spirits home (August 16). The October 22 Jidai Matsuri, Festival of the Ages, celebrates Kyoto's illustrious past.",
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"plaintext": "The UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities) includes 17 locations in Kyoto, Uji in Kyoto Prefecture, and Ōtsu in Shiga Prefecture. The sites were designated as World Heritage in 1994.",
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"plaintext": " Hakusasonso Hashimoto Kansetsu Garden and Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Hosomi Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Joutenkaku Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kitamura Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Koryo Museum of Art ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Arashiyama Orgel Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Art Center ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Botanical Garden ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto City Archaeological Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto City Heiankyo Sosei-Kan Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto International Manga Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Kaleidoscope Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Museum for World Peace ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Museum of Traditional Crafts ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto National Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Prefectural Garden of Fine Arts ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Prefectural Insho-Domoto Museum of Fine Arts ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto Railway Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Kyoto University Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Museum of Kyoto ()",
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"plaintext": " Namikawa Cloisonne Museum of Kyoto ()",
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"plaintext": " National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto ()",
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"plaintext": " Nomura Art Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Onishi Seiwemon Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Raku Museum ()",
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"plaintext": " Ryozen Museum of History ()",
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"plaintext": "Fiévé, Nicolas (ed.) (2008) Atlas historique de Kyôto. Analyse spatiale des systèmes de mémoire d’une ville, de son architecture et de ses paysages urbains. Foreword Kôichirô Matsuura, Preface Jacques Gernet, Paris, Éditions de l’UNESCO / Éditions de l’Amateur, 528 pages, 207 maps et 210 ill. .",
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"plaintext": "Stewart, Harold. (1981). By the Old Walls of Kyoto: A Year's Cycle of Landscape Poems with Prose Commentaries. New York: Weatherhill. .",
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"plaintext": "Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. ...Click link for digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)",
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"plaintext": "In September 1998, CBS began contracting the time period out to other companies to provide programming and material for its Saturday morning schedule. The first of these outsourced blocks was the CBS Kidshow, which ran until 2000 and featured programming from Canadian studio Nelvana such as Anatole, Mythic Warriors, Rescue Heroes, and Flying Rhino Junior High.",
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"plaintext": "After its agreement with Nelvana ended, the network then entered into a deal with Nickelodeon to air programming from its Nick Jr. block beginning in September 2000, under the banner Nick Jr. on CBS. By the time of the deal, Nickelodeon and CBS were corporate sisters through the latter's then parent company Viacom as a result of its 2000 merger with CBS Corporation. From 2002 to 2005, live-action and animated Nickelodeon series aimed at older children also aired as part of the block under the name Nick on CBS.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Viacom-CBS split, the network decided to discontinue the Nickelodeon content deal. In March 2006, CBS entered into a three-year agreement with DIC Entertainment, which was acquired later that year by the Cookie Jar Group, to program the Saturday morning time slot as part of a deal that included distribution of select tape-delayed Formula One auto races. The KOL Secret Slumber Party on CBS replaced Nick Jr. on CBS that September, with the inaugural lineup featuring two new first-run live-action programs, one animated series that originally aired in syndication in 2005, and three shows produced prior to 2006. In mid-2007, KOL, the children's service of AOL, withdrew sponsorship from CBS's Saturday morning block, which was subsequently renamed KEWLopolis. Complementing CBS's 2007 lineup were Care Bears, Strawberry Shortcake, and Sushi Pack. On February 24, 2009, it was announced that CBS would renew its contract with Cookie Jar for another three seasons through 2012. On September 19, 2009, KEWLopolis was renamed Cookie Jar TV.",
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"plaintext": "On July 24, 2013, CBS entered into an agreement with Litton Entertainment, which already programmed a syndicated Saturday morning block exclusive to ABC stations and would later produce a block for CBS sister network The CW that would debut the following year, to launch a new Saturday morning block featuring live-action reality-based lifestyle, wildlife, and sports series. The Litton-produced CBS Dream Team block, aimed at teenagers 13 to 16 years old, debuted on September 28, 2013, replacing Cookie Jar TV.",
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"plaintext": "CBS was the original broadcast network home of the animated primetime holiday specials based on the Peanuts comic strip, beginning with A Charlie Brown Christmas in 1965. Over 30 holiday Peanuts specials (each for a specific holiday such as Halloween) were broadcast on CBS until 2000, when the broadcast rights were acquired by ABC. CBS also aired several primetime animated specials based on the works of Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel), beginning with How the Grinch Stole Christmas in 1966, as well as several specials based on the Garfield comic strip during the 1980s (which led to Garfield getting his own Saturday morning cartoon on the network, Garfield and Friends, which ran from 1988 to 1995). Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, produced in stop motion by Rankin/Bass, has been another annual holiday staple of CBS; however, that special first aired on NBC in 1964. , Rudolph and Frosty the Snowman are the only two pre-1990 animated specials remaining on CBS; the broadcast rights to the Charlie Brown specials are now held by Apple, The Grinch rights by NBC, and the rights to the Garfield specials by Boomerang.",
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"plaintext": "All of these animated specials, from 1973 to 1990, began with a fondly remembered seven-second animated opening sequence, in which the words \"A CBS Special Presentation\" were displayed in colorful lettering (the ITC Avant Garde typeface, widely used in the 1970s, was used for the title logo). The word \"SPECIAL\", in all caps and repeated multiple times in multiple colors, slowly zoomed out from the frame in a spinning counterclockwise motion against a black background, and rapidly zoomed back into frame as a single word, in white, at the end; the sequence was accompanied by a jazzy though majestic up-tempo fanfare with dramatic horns and percussion (which was edited incidental music from the CBS crime drama Hawaii Five-O, titled \"Call to Danger\" on the Capitol Records soundtrack LP). This opening sequence appeared immediately before all CBS specials of the period (such as the Miss USA pageants and the annual presentation of the Kennedy Center Honors), in addition to animated specials (this opening was presumably designed by or under the supervision of longtime CBS creative director Lou Dorfsman, who oversaw print and on-air graphics for CBS for nearly 30 years, replacing William Golden, who died in 1959).",
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"plaintext": "CBS was also responsible for airing the series of Young People's Concerts, conducted by Leonard Bernstein. Telecast every few months between 1958 and 1972, first in black-and-white and then in color beginning in 1966, these programs introduced millions of children to classical music through the eloquent commentaries of Bernstein. The specials were nominated for several Emmy Awards, including two wins in 1961 and later in 1966, and were among the first programs ever broadcast from the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.",
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"plaintext": "Over the years, CBS has broadcast three different productions of Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker– two live telecasts of the George Balanchine New York City Ballet production in 1957 and 1958 respectively, a little-known German-American filmed production in 1965 (which was subsequently repeated three times and starred Edward Villella, Patricia McBride and Melissa Hayden), and beginning in 1977, the Mikhail Baryshnikov staging of the ballet, starring the Russian dancer along with Gelsey Kirkland– a version that would become a television classic, and remains so today (the broadcast of this production later moved to PBS).",
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"plaintext": "In April 1986, CBS presented a slightly abbreviated version of Horowitz in Moscow, a live piano recital by pianist Vladimir Horowitz, which marked his return to Russia after over 60 years. The recital was televised as an episode of CBS News Sunday Morning (televised at 9:00a.m. Eastern Time in the U.S., as the recital was performed simultaneously at 4:00p.m. in Russia). It was so successful that CBS repeated it a mere two months later by popular demand, this time on videotape, rather than live. In later years, the program was shown as a standalone special on PBS; the current DVD of the telecast omits the commentary by Charles Kuralt, but includes additional selections not heard on the CBS telecast.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, CBS telecast Carnegie Hall: The Grand Reopening in primetime, in what was then a rare move for a commercial broadcast network, since most primetime classical music specials were relegated to PBS and A&E by this time. The program was a concert commemorating the re-opening of Carnegie Hall after its complete renovation. A range of artists were featured, from classical conductor Leonard Bernstein to popular music singer Frank Sinatra.",
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"plaintext": "In order to compete with NBC, which produced the televised version of the Mary Martin Broadway production of Peter Pan, CBS responded with a musical production of Cinderella, with music by Richard Rodgers and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II. Based upon the classic Charles Perrault fairy tale, it is the only Rodgers and Hammerstein musical to have been written for television. It was originally broadcast live in color on CBS on March 31, 1957, as a vehicle for Julie Andrews, who played the title role; that broadcast was seen by over 100million people. It was subsequently remade by CBS in 1965, with Lesley Ann Warren, Stuart Damon, Ginger Rogers, and Walter Pidgeon among its stars; the remake also included the new song \"Loneliness of Evening\", which was originally composed in 1949 for South Pacific but was not performed in that musical. This version was rebroadcast several times on CBS into the early 1970s, and is occasionally broadcast on various cable networks to this day; both versions are available on DVD.",
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"plaintext": "CBS was also the original broadcast home for the primetime specials produced by the National Geographic Society. The Geographic series in the U.S. started on CBS in 1964, before moving to ABC in 1973 (the specials subsequently moved to PBS– under the production of Pittsburgh member station WQED– in 1975 and NBC in 1995, before returning to PBS in 2000). The specials have featured stories on many scientific figures such as Louis Leakey, Jacques Cousteau and Jane Goodall, that not only featured their work but helped make them internationally known and accessible to millions. A majority of the specials were narrated by various actors, notably Alexander Scourby during the CBS run. The success of the specials led in part to the creation of the National Geographic Channel, a cable channel launched in January 2001 as a joint venture between the National Geographic Society and Fox Cable Networks. The specials' distinctive theme music, by Elmer Bernstein, was also adopted by the National Geographic Channel.",
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"plaintext": "From 1949 to 2002, the Pillsbury Bake-Off, an annual national cooking contest, was broadcast on CBS as a special. Hosts for the broadcast included Arthur Godfrey, Art Linkletter, Bob Barker, Gary Collins, Willard Scott (although under contract with CBS's rival NBC) and Alex Trebek.",
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"plaintext": "The Miss USA beauty pageant aired on CBS from 1963 to 2002; during a large portion of that period, the telecast was often emceed by the host of one of the network's game shows. John Charles Daly hosted the show from 1963 to 1966, succeeded by Bob Barker from 1967 to 1987 (at which point Barker, an animal rights activist who eventually convinced producers of The Price Is Right to cease offering fur coats as prizes on the program, quit in a dispute over their use), Alan Thicke in 1988, Dick Clark from 1989 to 1993, and Bob Goen from 1994 to 1996. The pageant's highest viewership was recorded in the early 1980s, when it regularly topped the Nielsen ratings on the week of its broadcast. Viewership dropped sharply throughout the 1990s and 2000s, from an estimated viewership of 20million to an average of 7million from 2000 to 2001. In 2002, Donald Trump (owner of the Miss USA pageant's governing body, the Miss Universe Organization) brokered a new deal with NBC, giving it half-ownership of the Miss USA, Miss Universe and Miss Teen USA pageants and moving them to that network as part of an initial five-year contract, which began in 2003 and ended in 2015 after 12 years amid Trump's controversial remarks about Mexican immigrants during the launch of his 2016 campaign for the Republican presidential nomination.",
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"plaintext": "On June 1, 1977, it was announced that Elvis Presley had signed a deal with CBS to appear in a new television special. Under the agreement, CBS would videotape Presley's concerts during the summer of 1977; the special was filmed during Presley's final tour at stops in Omaha, Nebraska (on June 19) and Rapid City, South Dakota (on June 21 of that year). CBS aired the special, Elvis in Concert, on October 3, 1977, nearly two months after Presley's death in his Graceland mansion on August 16.",
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"plaintext": "Since their inception in 1978, CBS has been the sole broadcaster of The Kennedy Center Honors, a two-hour performing arts tribute typically taped and edited in December for later broadcast during the holiday season.",
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"plaintext": "CBS has 15 owned-and-operated stations, and current and pending affiliation agreements with 228 additional television stations encompassing 51 states, the District of Columbia, two U.S. possessions, Bermuda and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The network has a national reach of 95.96% of all households in the United States (or 299,861,665 Americans with at least one television set). Currently, New Jersey, New Hampshire and Delaware are the only U.S. states where CBS does not have a locally licensed affiliate (New Jersey is served by New York City O&O WCBS-TV and Philadelphia O&O KYW-TV; Delaware is served by KYW and Salisbury, Maryland affiliate WBOC-TV; and New Hampshire is served by Boston O&O WBZ-TV and Burlington, Vermont affiliate WCAX-TV).",
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"plaintext": "CBS maintains affiliations with low-power stations (broadcasting either in analog or digital) in a few markets, such as Harrisonburg, Virginia (WSVF-CD), Palm Springs, California (KPSP-CD) and Parkersburg, West Virginia (WIYE-LD). In some markets, including both of those mentioned, these stations also maintain digital simulcasts on a subchannel of a co-owned/co-managed full-power television station. CBS also maintains a sizeable number of subchannel-only affiliations, the majority of which are with stations in cities located outside of the 50 largest Nielsen-designated markets; the largest CBS subchannel affiliate by market size is KOGG in Wailuku, Hawaii, which serves as a repeater of Honolulu affiliate KGMB (the sister station of KOGG parent KHNL).",
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"plaintext": "Nexstar Media Group is the largest operator of CBS stations by numerical total, owning 49 CBS affiliates (counting satellites); Tegna Media is the largest operator of CBS stations in terms of overall market reach, owning 15 CBS-affiliated stations (including affiliates in the larger markets in Houston, Tampa and Washington, D.C.) that reach 8.9% of the country.",
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"plaintext": "CBS provides video on demand access for delayed viewing of the network's programming through various means, including via its website at CBS.com; the network's apps for iOS, Android and newer version Windows devices; a traditional VOD service called CBS on Demand available on most traditional cable and IPTV providers; and through content deals with Amazon Video (which holds exclusive streaming rights to the CBS drama series Extant and Under the Dome) and Netflix. Notably, however, CBS is the only major broadcast network that does not provide recent episodes of its programming on Hulu (sister network The CW does offer its programming on the streaming service, albeit on a one-week delay after becoming available on the network's website on Hulu's free service, with users of its subscription service being granted access to newer episodes of CW series eight hours after their initial broadcast), due to concerns over cannibalizing viewership of some of the network's most prominent programs; however, episode back catalogs of certain past and present CBS series are available on the service through an agreement with CBS Television Distribution.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the release of the app in March 2013, CBS restricted streaming of the most recent episode of any of the network's program on its streaming app for Apple iOS devices until eight days after their initial broadcast in order to encourage live or same-week (via both DVR and cable on demand) viewing; programming selections on the app were limited until the release of its Google Play and Windows 8 apps in October 2013, expanded the selections to include full episodes of all CBS series to which the network does not license the streaming rights to other services.",
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"plaintext": "On October 28, 2014, CBS launched CBS All Access, an over-the-top subscription streaming service– priced at $5.99 per month ($9.99 with the no commercials option)– which allows users to view past and present episodes of CBS shows. Announced on October 16, 2014 (one day after HBO announced the launch of its over-the-top service HBO Now) as the first OTT offering by a USA broadcast television network, the service initially encompassed the network's existing streaming portal at CBS.com and its mobile app for smartphones and tablet computers; CBS All Access became available on Roku on April 7, 2015, and on Chromecast on May 14, 2015. In addition to providing full-length episodes of CBS programs, the service allows live programming streams of local CBS affiliates in 124 markets reaching 75% of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "CBS All Access offers the most recent episodes of the network's shows the day after their original broadcast, as well as complete back catalogs of most of its current series and a wide selection of episodes of classic series from the CBS Television Distribution and ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks program library, to subscribers of the service. CBS All Access also carries behind-the-scenes features from CBS programs and special events.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2018, the service was launched in Australia under the name 10 All Access, due to its affiliation with CBS-owned free to air broadcaster Network 10. Due to local programming rights, not all content is shared with its US counterpart, whilst the Australian version also features numerous full seasons of local Network 10 shows, all commercial-free.",
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"plaintext": "It was announced in September 2020 that the service would be rebranded as Paramount+ in early 2021, and would feature content from the wider ViacomCBS library following the re-merger between CBS and Viacom. The name was also extended to international markets and services such as 10 All Access. The rebrand to Paramount+ took place on March 4, 2021.",
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"plaintext": "CBS's master feed is transmitted in 1080i high definition, the native resolution format for CBS Corporation's television properties. However, seven of its affiliates transmit the network's programming in 720p HD, while seven others carry the network feed in 480i standard definition either due to technical considerations for affiliates of other major networks that carry CBS programming on a digital subchannel or because a primary feed CBS affiliate has not yet upgraded their transmission equipment to allow content to be presented in HD. A small number of CBS stations and affiliates are also currently broadcasting at 1080p via an ATSC 3.0 multiplex station to simulcast a station's programing such as WNCN through WRDC in Durham, North Carolina, WTVF through WUXP-TV in Nashville, and KLAS-TV through KVCW in Las Vegas, Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "CBS began its conversion to high definition with the launch of its simulcast feed CBS HD in September 1998, at the start of the 1998–99 season. That year, the network aired the first NFL game broadcast in high-definition, with the telecast of the New York Jets–Buffalo Bills game on November 8. The network gradually converted much of its existing programming from standard definition to high definition beginning with the 2000–01 season, with select shows among that season's slate of freshmen scripted series being broadcast in HD starting with their debuts. The Young and the Restless became the first daytime soap opera to broadcast in HD on June 27, 2001.",
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"plaintext": "CBS's 14-year conversion to an entirely high definition schedule ended in 2014, with Big Brother and Let's Make a Deal becoming the final two series to convert from 3 standard definition to HD (in contrast, NBC, Fox and The CW were already airing their entire programming schedules– outside of Saturday mornings– in high definition by the 2010–11 season, while ABC was broadcasting its entire schedule in HD by the 2011–12 midseason). All of the network's programming has been presented in full HD since then (with the exception of certain holiday specials produced prior to 2005– such as the Rankin-Bass specials– which continue to be presented in 4:3 SD, although some have been remastered for HD broadcast).",
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"plaintext": "On September 1, 2016, when ABC converted to a 9 widescreen presentation, CBS and The CW were the only remaining networks that framed their promotions and on-screen graphical elements for a 3 presentation, though with CBS Sports' de facto 16:9 conversion with Super Bowl 50 and their new graphical presentation designed for 16:9 framing, in practice, most CBS affiliates ask pay-TV providers to pass down a 16:9 widescreen presentation by default over their standard definition channels. This continued for CBS until September 24, 2018, when the network converted its on-screen graphical elements to a 16:9 widescreen presentation for all non-news and sports programs. Litton Entertainment continues to frame the graphical elements in their programs for Dream Team within a 4:3 frame due to them being positioned for future syndicated sales, though all of its programming has been in high definition.",
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"plaintext": "The CBS television network's initial logo, used from the 1940s to 1951, consisted of an oval spotlight which shone on the block letters \"CBS\". The present-day Eye device was conceived by William Golden, based on a Pennsylvania Dutch hex sign and a Shaker drawing. While the logo is commonly attributed to Golden, some design work may have been done by CBS staff designer Georg Olden, one of the first African-Americans to attract some attention in the postwar graphic design field. The Eye device made its broadcast debut on October 20, 1951. The following season, as Golden prepared a new \"ident\", CBS President Frank Stanton insisted on keeping the Eye device and using it as much as possible. Golden died unexpectedly in 1959, and was replaced by Lou Dorfsman, one of his top assistants, who would go on to oversee all print and on-air graphics for CBS for the next 30 years.",
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"plaintext": "The CBS eye has since become a widely recognized symbol. While the logo has been used in different ways, the Eye device itself has not been redesigned in its history. As part of a new graphical identity created by Trollbäck + Company that was introduced by the network in 2006, the eye was placed in a \"trademark\" position on show titles, days of the week and descriptive words, an approach highly respecting the value of the design. The logo is alternately known as the \"Eyemark\", a branding used for CBS's domestic television syndication division, under the Eyemark Entertainment name, in the mid-to-late 1990s after Westinghouse Electric bought CBS, but before the King World acquisition (which Eyemark was folded into), and subsequent merger with Viacom; Eyemark Entertainment was the result of the merger of MaXaM Entertainment (an independent television syndication firm which Westinghouse acquired shortly after its merger with CBS in 1996), Group W Productions (Westinghouse Broadcasting's own syndication division), & CBS Enterprises (CBS's syndication arm from the late 1960s to the early 1970s).",
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"plaintext": "The eye logo has served as inspiration for the logos of Associated Television (ATV) in the United Kingdom, Canal 4 in El Salvador, Televisa in Mexico, France 3, Frecuencia Latina in Peru, Fuji Television in Japan, Rede Bandeirantes and Rede Globo in Brazil, and Canal 10 in Uruguay.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2011, the network celebrated the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the Eye logo, featuring special IDs of logo versions from previous CBS image campaigns being shown during the network's primetime lineup.",
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"plaintext": "CBS historically used a specially-commissioned variant of Didot, a close relative to Bodoni, as its corporate font until 2021.",
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"plaintext": "CBS has developed several notable image campaigns, and several of the network's most well-known slogans were introduced in the 1980s. The \"Reach for the Stars\" campaign used during the 1981–82 season features a space theme to capitalize on both CBS's stellar improvement in the ratings and the historic launch of the space shuttle Columbia. 1982's \"Great Moments\" juxtaposed scenes from classic CBS programs such as I Love Lucy with scenes from the network's then-current classics such as Dallas and M*A*S*H. From 1983 to 1986, CBS (by now firmly atop the ratings) featured a campaign based on the slogan \"We've Got the Touch\". Vocals for the campaign's jingle were contributed by Richie Havens (1983–84; one occasion in 1984–85) and Kenny Rogers (1985–86).",
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"plaintext": "The 1986–87 season ushered in the \"Share the Spirit of CBS\" campaign, the network's first to completely use computer graphics and digital video effects. Unlike most network campaign promos, the full-length version of \"Share the Spirit\" not only showed a brief clip preview of each new fall series, but also utilized CGI effects to map out the entire fall schedule by night. The success of that campaign led to the 1987–88 \"CBS Spirit\" (or \"CBSPIRIT\") campaign. Like its predecessor, most \"CBSpirit\" promos utilized a procession of clips from the network's programs. However, the new graphic motif was a swirling (or \"swishing\") blue line that was used to represent \"the spirit\". The full-length promo, like the previous year, had a special portion that identified new fall shows, but the mapped-out fall schedule shot was abandoned.",
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"plaintext": "For the 1988–89 season, CBS unveiled a new image campaign officially known as \"Television You Can Feel\", but more commonly identified as \"You Can Feel It On CBS\". The goal was to convey a more sensual, new-age image through distinguished, advanced-looking computer graphics and soothing music, backgrounding images and clips of emotionally powerful scenes and characters. However, it was this season in which CBS saw its ratings freefall, the deepest in the network's history. CBS ended the decade with \"Get Ready for CBS\", introduced with the 1989–90 season. The initial version was an ambitious campaign that attempted to elevate CBS out of last place (among the major networks); the motif centered around network stars interacting with each other in a remote studio set, getting ready for photo and television shoots, as well as for the new season on CBS. The high-energy promo song and the campaign's practices saw many customized variations by all of CBS's owned-and-operated stations and affiliates, which participated in the campaign per a network mandate. In addition, for the first time in history, CBS became the first broadcast network to partner with a national retailer (in this case, Kmart) to encourage viewership, with the \"CBS/Kmart Get Ready Giveaway\".",
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"plaintext": "For the 1990–91 season, the campaign featured a new jingle performed by the Temptations, which featured an altered version of their hit \"Get Ready\". The early 1990s featured less-than-memorable campaigns, with simplified taglines such as \"This is CBS\" (1992) and \"You're on CBS\" (1995). Eventually, the promotions department gained momentum again late in the decade with \"Welcome Home to a CBS Night\" (1996–1997), simplified to \"Welcome Home\" (1997–1999) and succeeded by the spin-off campaign \"The Address is CBS\" (1999–2000), whose history can be traced back to a CBS slogan from the radio era of the 1940s, \"The Stars' Address is CBS\". During the 1992 season for the end-of-show network identification sequence, a four-note sound mark was introduced, which was eventually adapted into the network's IDs and production company vanity cards following the closing credits of most of its programs during the \"Welcome Home\" era.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 2000s, CBS's ratings resurgence was backed by the network's \"It's All Here\" campaign (which introduced updated versions of the 1992 sound mark used during certain promotions and production company vanity cards during the closing credits of programs); in 2005 campaign introduced the slogan \"Everybody's Watching\", the network's strategy led to the proclamation that it was \"America's Most Watched Network\". The network's 2006 campaign introduced the slogan \"We Are CBS\", with Don LaFontaine providing the voiceover for the IDs (as well as certain network promos) during this period. In 2009, the network introduced a campaign entitled \"Only CBS\", in which network promotions proclaim several unique qualities it has (the slogan was also used in program promotions following the announcement of the timeslot of a particular program). The \"America's Most Watched Network\" was re-introduced by CBS in 2011, used alongside the \"Only CBS\" slogan.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020, CBS announced that it will begin to employ a more unified branding between the network and its divisions to strengthen brand awareness across platforms. This includes a new frontcap (featuring an animation of the eyemark as shapes and a new typeface) and five-note sonic branding that will be aired before all CBS-produced programming and event telecasts (with CBS entertainment programming using a dark blue version, CBS News using black and white, and CBS Sports using electric blue), as well as CBS Television Studios being renamed CBS Studios and CBS Television Distribution being renamed CBS Media Ventures. The network also dropped the \"America's Most Watched Network\" and \"Only CBS\" taglines, with chief marketing officer Michael Benson explaining that they aimed to \"be something where people feel like they are part of the family. It's tough to unify if you're bragging about yourself.\" These new elements are being rolled out in stages, with CBS News beginning to use them ahead of the 2020 presidential election, and CBS Sports launching the elements at Super Bowl LV.",
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"plaintext": "CBS programs are shown outside the United States: through various Paramount Global international networks and/or content agreements, and in two North American countries, through U.S.-based CBS stations.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, CBS network programming is carried on cable, satellite and IPTV providers through affiliates and owned-and-operated stations of the network that are located within proximity to the Canada–United States border (such as KIRO-TV in Seattle; KBJR-DT2 in Duluth, Minnesota: WWJ-TV in Detroit; WIVB-TV in Buffalo, New York; and WCAX-TV in Burlington, Vermont), some of which may also be receivable over-the-air in parts of southern Canada depending on the signal coverage of the station. Most programming is generally the same as it airs in the United States; however, some CBS programming on U.S.-based affiliates permitted for carriage by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission by Canadian cable and satellite providers are subject to simultaneous substitutions, a practice in which a pay television provider supplants an American station's signal with a feed from a Canadian station/network airing a particular program in the same time slot to protect domestic advertising revenue.",
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"plaintext": "In Bermuda, CBS maintains an affiliation with Hamilton-based ZBM-TV, locally owned by Bermuda Broadcasting Company.",
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"plaintext": "CBS programming is available in Mexico through affiliates in markets located within proximity to the Mexico–United States border (such as KYMA-DT/Yuma, Arizona; KVTV/Laredo, Texas; KDBC-TV/El Paso, Texas; KVEO-DT2/Brownsville/Harlingen/McAllen, Texas; and KFMB-TV/San Diego), whose signals are readily receivable over-the-air in border areas of northern Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "In the U.S. territory of Guam, the network is affiliated with low-power station KUAM-LP in Hagåtña. Entertainment and non-breaking news programming is shown day and date on a one-day broadcast delay, as Guam is located on the west side of the International Date Line (for example, NCIS, which airs on Tuesday nights, is carried Wednesdays on KUAM-LP, and is advertised by the station as airing on the latter night in on-air promotions), with live programming and breaking news coverage airing as scheduled, meaning live sports coverage often airs early in the morning.",
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"plaintext": "Sky News broadcasts the CBS Evening News on its channels serving the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Italy.",
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"plaintext": "On September 14, 2009, the international arm of CBS, CBS Studios International, reached a joint venture deal with Chellomedia to launch six CBS-branded channels in the United Kingdom– which would respectively replace Zone Romantica, Zone Thriller, Zone Horror and Zone Reality, as well as timeshift services Zone Horror +1 and Zone Reality +1– during the fourth quarter of that year. On October 1, 2009, it was announced that the first four channels, CBS Reality, CBS Reality +1, CBS Drama and CBS Action (later CBS Justice), would launch on November 16– respectively replacing Zone Reality, Zone Reality +1, Zone Romantica and Zone Thriller. On April 5, 2010, Zone Horror and Zone Horror +1 were rebranded as Horror Channel and Horror Channel +1.",
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"plaintext": "CBS News and BBC News have maintained a news sharing agreement since 2017, replacing the BBC's longtime agreement with ABC News and CBS's with Sky News (which would have ended in any event in 2018 due to that entity's purchase by NBCUniversal).",
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"plaintext": "As of the close of the Viacom merger on December 4, 2019, Channel 5 is now a sister operation to CBS, though no major changes to CBS's relationship with the BBC are expected in the near future, as Channel 5 sub-contracts its news programming obligations to ITN.",
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"plaintext": "Australian free-to-air broadcaster Ten Network Holdings has been owned by CBS Corporation since 2017 (and subsequently, Paramount Global). Network Ten's channels, 10, 10 Peach, 10 Bold and 10 Shake, all carry CBS programming, with 10 Shake drawing extensively from the wider Paramount Global library including MTV and Nickelodeon. Prior to the acquisition, CBS had long been a major supplier of international programs to the network. The cost of maintaining program supply agreements with CBS and 21st Century Fox was a major factor in the network's unprofitability during the mid-2010s. Network Ten entered voluntary administration in June 2017. CBS Corporation was the network's largest creditor. CBS Corporation chose to acquire the network, completing the transaction in November 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In Hong Kong, the CBS Evening News was broadcast live during the early morning hours on ATV; networks in that country maintains agreement to rebroadcast portions of the program 12 hours after the initial broadcast to provide additional content in case their affiliates have insufficient news content to fill time during their local news programs.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines, CBS Evening News is broadcast on satellite network Q (a sister channel of GMA Network which is now GMA News TV), while CBS This Morning is shown in that country on Lifestyle Network (now Metro Channel). The Late Show with David Letterman is broadcast by Studio 23 (now S+A) and Maxxx, which are both owned by ABS-CBN. 60 Minutes is currently broadcast on CNN Philippines as a part of their Stories block, which includes documentaries and is broadcast on Wednesday at 8:00p.m. before CNN Philippines Nightly News with replays in a capacity as a stand-alone program on Saturdays at 8:00a.m. & 5:00 pm and Sundays at 6:00 a.m, all in local time (UTC + 8).",
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"plaintext": "With the merger of RTL it is known as RTL CBS Entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "In India, CBS maintained a brand licensing agreement with Reliance Broadcast Network Ltd. for three CBS-branded channels: Big CBS Prime, Big CBS Spark and Big CBS Love. These channels were shut down in late November 2013. Following the CBS and Viacom merger, Hindi-language general entertainment channel Colors TV became a sister network to CBS through the Viacom 18 joint venture with TV18.",
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"plaintext": "In Israel, in 2012 the channels Zone Reality and Zone Romanatica have been rebranded as CBS Reality and CBS Drama, respectively. The channels were carried by Israeli television providers yes and HOT, although they both only carry CBS Reality.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, CBS refused to air a 60 Minutes segment that featured an interview with a former president of research and development for Brown & Williamson, the U.S.'s third largest tobacco company. The controversy raised questions about the legal roles in decision-making and whether journalistic standards should be compromised despite legal pressures and threats. The decision nevertheless sent shockwaves throughout the television industry, the journalism community, and the country. This incident was the basis for the 1999 Michael Mann-directed drama film, The Insider.",
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37,654 | 1,104,326,965 | Owl | [
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"plaintext": "Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes (), which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers adapted for silent flight. Exceptions include the diurnal northern hawk-owl and the gregarious burrowing owl.",
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"plaintext": "Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, although a few species specialize in hunting fish. They are found in all regions of the Earth except the polar ice caps and some remote islands.",
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"plaintext": "Owls are divided into two families: the true (or typical) owl family, Strigidae, and the barn-owl family, Tytonidae.",
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"plaintext": "A group of owls is called a \"parliament\".",
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"plaintext": "Owls possess large, forward-facing eyes and ear-holes, a hawk-like beak, a flat face, and usually a conspicuous circle of feathers, a facial disc, around each eye. The feathers making up this disc can be adjusted to sharply focus sounds from varying distances onto the owls' asymmetrically placed ear cavities. Most birds of prey have eyes on the sides of their heads, but the stereoscopic nature of the owl's forward-facing eyes permits the greater sense of depth perception necessary for low-light hunting. Although owls have binocular vision, their large eyes are fixed in their sockets—as are those of most other birds—so they must turn their entire heads to change views. As owls are farsighted, they are unable to clearly see anything within a few centimeters of their eyes. Caught prey can be felt by owls with the use of filoplumes—hairlike feathers on the beak and feet that act as \"feelers\". Their far vision, particularly in low light, is exceptionally good.",
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"plaintext": "Owls can rotate their heads and necks as much as 270°. Owls have 14 neck vertebrae compared to seven in humans, which makes their necks more flexible. They also have adaptations to their circulatory systems, permitting rotation without cutting off blood to the brain: the foramina in their vertebrae through which the vertebral arteries pass are about 10 times the diameter of the artery, instead of about the same size as the artery as in humans; the vertebral arteries enter the cervical vertebrae higher than in other birds, giving the vessels some slack, and the carotid arteries unite in a very large anastomosis or junction, the largest of any bird's, preventing blood supply from being cut off while they rotate their necks. Other anastomoses between the carotid and vertebral arteries support this effect.",
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"plaintext": "The smallest owl—weighing as little as and measuring some —is the elf owl (Micrathene whitneyi). Around the same diminutive length, although slightly heavier, are the lesser known long-whiskered owlet (Xenoglaux loweryi) and Tamaulipas pygmy owl (Glaucidium sanchezi). The largest owls are two similarly sized eagle owls; the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) and Blakiston's fish owl (Bubo blakistoni). The largest females of these species are long, have a wing span, and weigh .",
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"plaintext": "Different species of owls produce different sounds; this distribution of calls aids owls in finding mates or announcing their presence to potential competitors, and also aids ornithologists and birders in locating these birds and distinguishing species. As noted above, their facial discs help owls to funnel the sound of prey to their ears. In many species, these discs are placed asymmetrically, for better directional location.",
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"plaintext": "Owl plumage is generally cryptic, although several species have facial and head markings, including face masks, ear tufts, and brightly colored irises. These markings are generally more common in species inhabiting open habitats, and are thought to be used in signaling with other owls in low-light conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Sexual dimorphism is a physical difference between males and females of a species. Female owls are typically larger than the males. The degree of size dimorphism varies across multiple populations and species, and is measured through various traits, such as wing span and body mass.",
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"plaintext": "One theory suggests that selection has led males to be smaller because it allows them to be efficient foragers. The ability to obtain more food is advantageous during breeding season. In some species, female owls stay at their nest with their eggs while it is the responsibility of the male to bring back food to the nest. If food is scarce, the male first feeds himself before feeding the female. Small birds, which are agile, are an important source of food for owls. Male burrowing owls have been observed to have longer wing chords than females, despite being smaller than females. Furthermore, owls have been observed to be roughly the same size as their prey. This has also been observed in other predatory birds, which suggests that owls with smaller bodies and long wing chords have been selected for because of the increased agility and speed that allows them to catch their prey.",
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"plaintext": "Another popular theory suggests that females have not been selected to be smaller like male owls because of their sexual roles. In many species, female owls may not leave the nest. Therefore, females may have a larger mass to allow them to go for a longer period of time without starving. For example, one hypothesized sexual role is that larger females are more capable of dismembering prey and feeding it to their young, hence female owls are larger than their male counterparts.",
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"plaintext": "A different theory suggests that the size difference between male and females is due to sexual selection: since large females can choose their mate and may violently reject a male's sexual advances, smaller male owls that have the ability to escape unreceptive females are more likely to have been selected.",
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"plaintext": "If the character is stable, there can be different optimums for both sexes. Selection operates on both sexes at the same time; therefore it is necessary to explain not only why one of the sexes is relatively bigger, but also why the other sex is smaller. If owls are still evolving toward smaller bodies and longer wing chords, according to V. Geodakyan's Evolutionary Theory of Sex, males should be more advanced on these characters. Males are viewed as an evolutionary vanguard of a population, and sexual dimorphism on the character, as an evolutionary “distance” between the sexes. “Phylogenetic rule of sexual dimorphism” states that if there exists a sexual dimorphism on any character, then the evolution of this trait goes from the female form toward the male one.",
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"plaintext": "All owls are carnivorous birds of prey and live on diets of insects, small rodents and lagomorphs. Some owls are also specifically adapted to hunt fish. They are very adept in hunting in their respective environments. Since owls can be found in nearly all parts of the world and across a multitude of ecosystems, their hunting skills and characteristics vary slightly from species to species, though most characteristics are shared among all species.",
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"plaintext": "Most owls share an innate ability to fly almost silently and also more slowly in comparison to other birds of prey. Most owls live a mainly nocturnal lifestyle and being able to fly without making any noise gives them a strong advantage over prey alert to the slightest sound in the night. A silent, slow flight is not as necessary for diurnal and crepuscular owls given that prey can usually see an owl approaching. Owls’ feathers are generally larger than the average birds’ feathers, have fewer radiates, longer pennulum, and achieve smooth edges with different rachis structures. Serrated edges along the owl's remiges bring the flapping of the wing down to a nearly silent mechanism. The serrations are more likely reducing aerodynamic disturbances, rather than simply reducing noise. The surface of the flight feathers is covered with a velvety structure that absorbs the sound of the wing moving. These unique structures reduce noise frequencies above 2kHz, making the sound level emitted drop below the typical hearing spectrum of the owl's usual prey and also within the owl's own best hearing range. This optimizes the owl's ability to silently fly to capture prey without the prey hearing the owl first as it flies, and to hear any noise the prey makes. It also allows the owl to monitor the sound output from its flight pattern.",
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"plaintext": "The feather adaption that allows silent flight means that barn owl feathers are not waterproof. To retain the softness and silent flight, the barn owl cannot use the preen oil or powder dust that other species use for waterproofing. In wet weather, they cannot hunt and this may be disastrous during the breeding season. Barn owls are frequently found drowned in livestock drinking troughs, since they land to drink and bathe, but are unable to climb out. Owls can struggle to keep warm, because of their lack of waterproofing, so large numbers of downy feathers help them to retain body heat.",
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"plaintext": "Eyesight is a particular characteristic of the owl that aids in nocturnal prey capture. Owls are part of a small group of birds that live nocturnally, but do not use echolocation to guide them in flight in low-light situations. Owls are known for their disproportionally large eyes in comparison to their skulls. An apparent consequence of the evolution of an absolutely large eye in a relatively small skull is that the eye of the owl has become tubular in shape. This shape is found in other so-called nocturnal eyes, such as the eyes of strepsirrhine primates and bathypelagic fishes. Since the eyes are fixed into these sclerotic tubes, they are unable to move the eyes in any direction. Instead of moving their eyes, owls swivel their heads to view their surroundings. Owls' heads are capable of swiveling through an angle of roughly 270°, easily enabling them to see behind them without relocating the torso. This ability keeps bodily movement at a minimum, thus reduces the amount of sound the owl makes as it waits for its prey. Owls are regarded as having the most frontally placed eyes among all avian groups, which gives them some of the largest binocular fields of vision. Owls are farsighted and cannot focus on objects within a few centimeters of their eyes. These mechanisms are only able to function due to the large-sized retinal image. Thus, the primary nocturnal function in the vision of the owl is due to its large posterior nodal distance; retinal image brightness is only maximized to the owl within secondary neural functions. These attributes of the owl cause its nocturnal eyesight to be far superior to that of its average prey.",
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"plaintext": "Owls exhibit specialized hearing functions and ear shapes that also aid in hunting. They are noted for asymmetrical ear placements on the skull in some genera. Owls can have either internal or external ears, both of which are asymmetrical. Asymmetry has not been reported to extend to the middle or internal ear of the owl. Asymmetrical ear placement on the skull allows the owl to pinpoint the location of its prey. This is especially true for strictly nocturnal species such as the barn owls Tyto or Tengmalm's owl. With ears set at different places on its skull, an owl is able to determine the direction from which the sound is coming by the minute difference in time that it takes for the sound waves to penetrate the left and right ears.The Hearing of the Barn Owl The owl turns its head until the sound reaches both ears at the same time, at which point it is directly facing the source of the sound. This time difference between ears is about 30 microseconds. Behind the ear openings are modified, dense feathers, densely packed to form a facial ruff, which creates an anterior-facing, concave wall that cups the sound into the ear structure. This facial ruff is poorly defined in some species, and prominent, nearly encircling the face, in other species. The facial disk also acts to direct sound into the ears, and a downward-facing, sharply triangular beak minimizes sound reflection away from the face. The shape of the facial disk is adjustable at will to focus sounds more effectively.",
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"plaintext": "The prominences above a great horned owl's head are commonly mistaken as its ears. This is not the case; they are merely feather tufts. The ears are on the sides of the head in the usual location (in two different locations as described above).",
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"plaintext": "While the auditory and visual capabilities of the owl allow it to locate and pursue its prey, the talons and beak of the owl do the final work. The owl kills its prey using these talons to crush the skull and knead the body. The crushing power of an owl's talons varies according to prey size and type, and by the size of the owl. The burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), a small, partly insectivorous owl, has a release force of only 5N. The larger barn owl (Tyto alba) needs a force of 30N to release its prey, and one of the largest owls, the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) needs a force over 130N to release prey in its talons. An owl's talons, like those of most birds of prey, can seem massive in comparison to the body size outside of flight. The Tasmanian masked owl has some of the proportionally longest talons of any bird of prey; they appear enormous in comparison to the body when fully extended to grasp prey. An owl's claws are sharp and curved. The family Tytonidae has inner and central toes of about equal length, while the family Strigidae has an inner toe that is distinctly shorter than the central one. These different morphologies allow efficiency in capturing prey specific to the different environments they inhabit.",
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"plaintext": "The beak of the owl is short, curved, and downward-facing, and typically hooked at the tip for gripping and tearing its prey. Once prey is captured, the scissor motion of the top and lower bill is used to tear the tissue and kill. The sharp lower edge of the upper bill works in coordination with the sharp upper edge of the lower bill to deliver this motion. The downward-facing beak allows the owl's field of vision to be clear, as well as directing sound into the ears without deflecting sound waves away from the face.",
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"plaintext": "The coloration of the owl's plumage plays a key role in its ability to sit still and blend into the environment, making it nearly invisible to prey. Owls tend to mimic the coloration and sometimes the texture patterns of their surroundings, the barn owl being an exception. The snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus) appears nearly bleach-white in color with a few flecks of black, mimicking their snowy surroundings perfectly, while the speckled brown plumage of the tawny owl (Strix aluco) allows it to lie in wait among the deciduous woodland it prefers for its habitat. Likewise, the mottled wood-owl (Strix ocellata) displays shades of brown, tan and black, making the owl nearly invisible in the surrounding trees, especially from behind. Usually, the only tell-tale sign of a perched owl is its vocalizations or its vividly colored eyes.",
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"plaintext": "Most owls are nocturnal, actively hunting their prey in darkness. Several types of owls are crepuscular—active during the twilight hours of dawn and dusk; one example is the pygmy owl (Glaucidium). A few owls are active during the day, also; examples are the burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia) and the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus).",
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"plaintext": "Much of the owls' hunting strategy depends on stealth and surprise. Owls have at least two adaptations that aid them in achieving stealth. First, the dull coloration of their feathers can render them almost invisible under certain conditions. Secondly, serrated edges on the leading edge of owls' remiges muffle an owl's wing beats, allowing an owl's flight to be practically silent. Some fish-eating owls, for which silence has no evolutionary advantage, lack this adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "An owl's sharp beak and powerful talons allow it to kill its prey before swallowing it whole (if it is not too big). Scientists studying the diets of owls are helped by their habit of regurgitating the indigestible parts of their prey (such as bones, scales, and fur) in the form of pellets. These \"owl pellets\" are plentiful and easy to interpret, and are often sold by companies to schools for dissection by students as a lesson in biology and ecology.",
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"plaintext": "Owl eggs typically have a white color and an almost spherical shape, and range in number from a few to a dozen, depending on species and the particular season; for most, three or four is the more common number. In at least one species, female owls do not mate with the same male for a lifetime. Female burrowing owls commonly travel and find other mates, while the male stays in his territory and mates with other females.",
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"plaintext": "Recent phylogenetic studies place owls within the clade Telluraves, most closely related to the Accipitrimorphae and the Coraciimorphae, although the exact placement within Telluraves is disputed.",
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"plaintext": "See below cladogram:",
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"plaintext": "Cladogram of Telluraves relationships based on Braun & Kimball (2021)",
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"plaintext": "Some 220 to 225 extant species of owls are known, subdivided into two families: 1. true owls or typical owls family (Strigidae) and 2. barn-owls family (Tytonidae). Some entirely extinct families have also been erected based on fossil remains; these differ much from modern owls in being less specialized or specialized in a very different way (such as the terrestrial Sophiornithidae). The Paleocene genera Berruornis and Ogygoptynx show that owls were already present as a distinct lineage some 60–57 million years ago (Mya), hence, possibly also some 5 million years earlier, at the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. This makes them one of the oldest known groups of non-Galloanserae landbirds. The supposed \"Cretaceous owls\" Bradycneme and Heptasteornis are apparently non-avialan maniraptors.",
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"plaintext": "During the Paleogene, the Strigiformes radiated into ecological niches now mostly filled by other groups of birds. The owls as known today, though, evolved their characteristic morphology and adaptations during that time, too. By the early Neogene, the other lineages had been displaced by other bird orders, leaving only barn-owls and typical owls. The latter at that time were usually a fairly generic type of (probably earless) owls similar to today's North American spotted owl or the European tawny owl; the diversity in size and ecology found in typical owls today developed only subsequently.",
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"plaintext": "Around the Paleogene-Neogene boundary (some 25 Mya), barn-owls were the dominant group of owls in southern Europe and adjacent Asia at least; the distribution of fossil and present-day owl lineages indicates that their decline is contemporary with the evolution of the different major lineages of true owls, which for the most part seems to have taken place in Eurasia. In the Americas, rather, an expansion of immigrant lineages of ancestral typical owls occurred.",
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"plaintext": "The supposed fossil herons \"Ardea\" perplexa (Middle Miocene of Sansan, France) and \"Ardea\" lignitum (Late Pliocene of Germany) were more probably owls; the latter was apparently close to the modern genus Bubo. Judging from this, the Late Miocene remains from France described as \"Ardea\" aureliensis should also be restudied. The Messelasturidae, some of which were initially believed to be basal Strigiformes, are now generally accepted to be diurnal birds of prey showing some convergent evolution toward owls. The taxa often united under Strigogyps were formerly placed in part with the owls, specifically the Sophiornithidae; they appear to be Ameghinornithidae instead.",
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"plaintext": "For fossil species and paleosubspecies of extant taxa, see the genus and species articles. For a full list of extant and recently extinct owls, see the article List of owl species.",
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"plaintext": "Unresolved and basal forms (all fossil)",
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"plaintext": " Berruornis (Late Paleocene of France) basal? Sophornithidae?",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Strigiformes gen. et sp. indet. (Late Paleocene of Zhylga, Kazakhstan)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
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{
"plaintext": " Primoptynx (Early Eocene of Wyoming, U.S.)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Palaeoglaux (Middle – Late Eocene of West-Central Europe) own family Palaeoglaucidae or Strigidae?",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Palaeobyas (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of Quercy, France) Tytonidae? Sophiornithidae?",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Palaeotyto (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of Quercy, France) Tytonidae? Sophiornithidae?",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Strigiformes gen. et spp. indet. (Early Oligocene of Wyoming, U.S.)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ogygoptynx (Middle/Late Paleocene of Colorado, U.S.)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Eostrix (Early Eocene of United States, Europe, and Mongolia). E. gulottai is the smallest known fossil (or living) owl.",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
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},
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"plaintext": " Minerva (Middle – Late Eocene of western U.S.) formerly Protostrix, includes \"Aquila\" ferox, \"Aquila\" lydekkeri, and \"Bubo\" leptosteus",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
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},
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"plaintext": " Oligostrix (mid-Oligocene of Saxony, Germany)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Sophiornis",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Genus Tyto – the barn owls, grass owls and masked owls, stand up to tall; some 15 extant species and possibly one recently extinct",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genus Phodilus – the bay owls, two to three extant species and possibly one recently extinct",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Fossil genera",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nocturnavis (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene) includes \"Bubo\" incertus",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Selenornis (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene) – includes \"Asio\" henrici",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Necrobyas (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – Late Miocene) includes \"Bubo\" arvernensis and Paratyto",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Prosybris (Early Oligocene? – Early Miocene)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Placement unresolved",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Tytonidae gen. et sp. indet. \"TMT 164\" (Middle Miocene) – Prosybris?",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Genus Aegolius – the saw-whet owls, four species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Asio – the eared owls, eight species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Genus Athene – two to four species (depending on whether the genera Speotyto and Heteroglaux are included or not)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Genus Bubo – the horned owls, eagle-owls and fish-owls; paraphyletic with the genera Nyctea, Ketupa, and Scotopelia, some 25 species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Glaucidium – the pygmy owls, about 30–35 species",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Gymnasio – the Puerto Rican owl",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Gymnoglaux – the bare-legged owl or Cuban screech-owl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Lophostrix – the crested owl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Jubula – the maned owl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Megascops – the screech owls, some 20 species",
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"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": " Genus Micrathene – the elf owl",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Ninox – the Australasian hawk-owls or boobooks, some 20 species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Otus – the scops owls; probably paraphyletic, about 45 species",
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Pseudoscops – the Jamaican owl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Psiloscops – the flammulated owl",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Ptilopsis – the white-faced owls, two species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Pulsatrix – the spectacled owls, three species",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Strix – the earless owls, about 15 species, including four previously assigned to Ciccaba",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Surnia – the northern hawk-owl",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Genus Taenioptynx - the collared owlet",
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"plaintext": " Genus Uroglaux – the Papuan hawk-owl",
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"plaintext": " Genus Xenoglaux – the long-whiskered owlet",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "Extinct genera",
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Genus Grallistrix – the stilt-owls, four species; prehistoric",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
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"anchor_spans": [
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51,
62
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},
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"plaintext": " Genus Ornimegalonyx – the Caribbean giant owls, one to two species; prehistoric",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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2011694
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"anchor_spans": [
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7,
20
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[
69,
80
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"plaintext": "Fossil genera",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Mioglaux (Late Oligocene? – Early Miocene of West-Central Europe) – includes \"Bubo\" poirreiri",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Intutula (Early/Middle – ?Late Miocene of Central Europe) – includes \"Strix/Ninox\" brevis",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Alasio (Middle Miocene of Vieux-Collonges, France) – includes \"Strix\" collongensis",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Oraristrix – the Brea owl (Late Pleistocene)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
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},
{
"plaintext": "Placement unresolved",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Otus/Strix\" wintershofensis: fossil (Early/Middle Miocene of Wintershof West, Germany) – may be close to extant genus Ninox",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " \"Strix\" edwardsi – fossil (Middle/Late? Miocene)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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20,
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"plaintext": " \"Asio\" pygmaeus – fossil (Early Pliocene of Odessa, Ukraine)",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
10958
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"anchor_spans": [
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19,
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},
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"plaintext": " Strigidae gen. et sp. indet. UMMP V31030 (Late Pliocene)– Strix/Bubo?",
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"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " the Ibizan owl, Strigidae gen. et sp. indet. – prehistoric",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Evolution and systematics",
"target_page_ids": [
2011694
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"anchor_spans": [
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48,
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},
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"plaintext": "Among the Kikuyu of Kenya, it was believed that owls were harbingers of death. If one saw an owl or heard its hoot, someone was going to die. In general, owls are viewed as harbingers of bad luck, ill health, or death. The belief is widespread even today.",
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"plaintext": "In Mongolia, the owl is regarded as a benign omen. In one story, Genghis Khan was hiding from enemies in a small coppice when an owl roosted in the tree above him, which caused his pursuers to think no man could be hidden there.",
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"plaintext": "In modern Japan, owls are regarded as lucky and are carried in the form of a talisman or charm.",
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"plaintext": "Hootum Pyanchar Naksha by Kaliprasanna Singha (1841–1870), first published in 1861, is a book of social commentaries influential in Bengali literature. The name literally means \"Sketches by a Watching Owl\".",
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"plaintext": "In Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian culture, the owl was associated with Lilith. This association also occurs in the Bible (in some translations) in Isaiah 34:14.",
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"plaintext": "The modern West generally associates owls with wisdom and vigilance. This link goes back at least as far as Ancient Greece, where Athens, noted for art and scholarship, and Athena, Athens' patron goddess and the goddess of wisdom, had the owl as a symbol. Marija Gimbutas traces veneration of the owl as a goddess, among other birds, to the culture of Old Europe, long pre-dating Indo-European cultures.",
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"plaintext": "T. F. Thiselton-Dyer, in his 1883 Folk-lore of Shakespeare, says that \"from the earliest period it has been considered a bird of ill-omen,\" and Pliny tells us how, on one occasion, even Rome itself underwent a lustration, because one of them strayed into the Capitol. He represents it also as a funereal bird, a monster of the night, the very abomination of human kind. Virgil describes its death-howl from the top of the temple by night, a circumstance introduced as a precursor of Dido's death. Ovid, too, constantly speaks of this bird's presence as an evil omen; and indeed the same notions respecting it may be found among the writings of most of the ancient poets.\" A list of \"omens drear\" in John Keats' Hyperion includes the \"gloom-bird's hated screech.\" Pliny the Elder reports that owl's eggs were commonly used as a hangover cure.",
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"plaintext": "One of the etymologies offered for the name of the German folk hero Till Eulenspiegel is that it means \"Mirror for Owls\".",
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"plaintext": "In Hinduism, an owl is the vahana (mount) of the goddess Lakshmi, specially in eastern region of India. Owl is considered a symbol of wealth, prosperity, wisdom, good luck and Fortune. This is the reason why Owl is seen with Godden Lakshmi, who is also the goddess the fortune, wealth and prosperity. The Goddess Lakshmi, is known to have a White Barn Owl as her vahana.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time, owls are also associated with evil times in Hinduism. At times, Chamunda (fearsome form of Chandi) is depicted seated on an owl, her vahana (mount or vehicle). Hindus believed that owls are messengers of death.",
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"plaintext": "People often allude to the reputation of owls as bearers of supernatural danger when they tell misbehaving children, \"the owls will get you\", and in most Native American folklore, owls are a symbol of death.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Apache and Seminole tribes, hearing owls hooting is considered the subject of numerous \"bogeyman\" stories told to warn children to remain indoors at night or not to cry too much, otherwise the owl may carry them away. In some tribal legends, owls are associated with spirits of the dead, and the bony circles around an owl's eyes are said to comprise the fingernails of apparitional humans. Sometimes owls are said to carry messages from beyond the grave or deliver supernatural warnings to people who have broken tribal taboos.",
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"plaintext": "The Aztecs and the Maya, along with other natives of Mesoamerica, considered the owl a symbol of death and destruction. In fact, the Aztec god of death, Mictlantecuhtli, was often depicted with owls. There is an old saying in Mexico that is still in use: Cuando el tecolote canta, el indio muere (\"When the owl cries/sings, the Indian dies\"). The Popol Vuh, a Mayan religious text, describes owls as messengers of Xibalba (the Mayan \"Place of Fright\").",
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"plaintext": "The belief that owls are messengers and harbingers of the dark powers is also found among the Hočągara (Winnebago) of Wisconsin. When in earlier days the Hočągara committed the sin of killing enemies while they were within the sanctuary of the chief's lodge, an owl appeared and spoke to them in the voice of a human, saying, \"From now on, the Hočągara will have no luck.\" This marked the beginning of the decline of their tribe. An owl appeared to Glory of the Morning, the only female chief of the Hočąk nation, and uttered her name. Soon after, she died.",
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"plaintext": "According to the culture of the Hopi, a Uto-Aztec tribe, taboos surround owls, which are associated with sorcery and other evils.",
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"plaintext": "The Ojibwe tribes, as well as their Aboriginal Canadian counterparts, used an owl as a symbol for both evil and death. In addition, they used owls as a symbol of very high status of spiritual leaders of their spirituality.",
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"plaintext": "The Pawnee tribes viewed owls as the symbol of protection from any danger within their realms.",
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"plaintext": "The Puebloan peoples associated owls with Skeleton Man, the god of death and the spirit of fertility.",
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"plaintext": "The Yakama tribes use an owl as a totem, to guide where and how forests and natural resources are useful with management.",
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"plaintext": "Encouraging natural predators to control rodent population is a natural form of pest control, along with excluding food sources for rodents. Placing a nest box for owls on a property can help control rodent populations (one family of hungry barn owls can consume more than 3,000 rodents in a nesting season) while maintaining the naturally balanced food chain.",
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"plaintext": "Although humans and owls frequently live together in harmony, there have been incidents when owls have attacked humans. For example, in January 2013, a man from Inverness, Scotland suffered heavy bleeding and went into shock after being attacked by an owl, which was likely a eagle-owl. The photographer Eric Hosking lost his left eye after attempting to photograph a tawny owl, which inspired the title of his 1970 autobiography, An Eye for a Bird.",
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"plaintext": "Almost all owls are listed in Appendix II of the international CITES treaty (the Convention on Illegal Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) with four species listed in Appendix I. Although owls have long been hunted, a 2008 news story from Malaysia indicates that the magnitude of owl poaching may be on the rise. In November 2008, TRAFFIC reported the seizure of 900 plucked and \"oven-ready\" owls in Peninsular Malaysia. Said Chris Shepherd, Senior Programme Officer for TRAFFIC's Southeast Asia office, \"This is the first time we know of where 'ready-prepared' owls have been seized in Malaysia, and it may mark the start of a new trend in wild meat from the region. We will be monitoring developments closely.\" TRAFFIC commended the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Malaysia for the raid that exposed the huge haul of owls. Included in the seizure were dead and plucked barn owls, spotted wood owls, crested serpent eagles, barred eagles, and brown wood owls, as well as 7,000 live lizards.",
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"plaintext": " Calaprice, Alice & Heinrich, Bernd (1990): Owl in the House: A Naturalist's Diary. Joy Street Books, Boston. .",
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"plaintext": " Duncan, James (2013). The Complete Book of North American Owls. Thunder Bay Press, San Diego. .",
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"plaintext": " Duncan, James (2003). Owls of the World. Key Porter Books, Toronto. .",
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"plaintext": " Heinrich, Bernd (1987): One Man's Owl. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. . .",
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"plaintext": " Johnsgard, Paul A. (2002): North American Owls: Biology and Natural History, 2nd ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. .",
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"plaintext": " Maslow, Jonathan Evan (1983): The Owl Papers, 1st Vintage Books ed. Vintage Books, New York. .",
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"plaintext": " Sibley, Charles Gald & Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1990): Distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ",
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"plaintext": " The Owl Pages",
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"plaintext": " Owl Brain Atlas",
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"plaintext": " Smithsonian Snowy Owl Info",
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"plaintext": " World Owl Trust",
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"plaintext": " Athenian Owl coins",
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"plaintext": "Eurasia:",
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"plaintext": " World of Owls – Northern Ireland's only owl, bird of prey and exotic animal centre",
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"plaintext": " Current Blakiston's Fish Owl Research in Russia",
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"plaintext": "North America:",
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"plaintext": " List of Owl Species Breeding In North American and Owl Photos",
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"plaintext": "Oceania:",
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"plaintext": " iprimus info. re Australian owls and frogmouths",
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"Extant_Paleocene_first_appearances"
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| 25,222 | 57,087 | 2,172 | 215 | 0 | 0 | Strigiformes | birds from the order Strigiforme | [
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]
|
37,656 | 1,095,862,230 | Concurrent_Versions_System | [
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"plaintext": "Concurrent Versions System (CVS, also known as the Concurrent Versioning System) is a revision control system originally developed by Dick Grune in July 1986.",
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"plaintext": "CVS operates as a front end to Revision Control System (RCS), an older version control system that manages individual files but not whole projects. It expands upon RCS by adding support for repository-level change tracking, and a client-server model. Files are tracked using the same history format as in RCS, with a hidden directory containing a corresponding history file for each file in the repository.",
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"plaintext": "CVS excludes symbolic links because when they are stored in a version control system they can pose a security risk. For instance, a symbolic link to a sensitive file can be stored in the repository, making the sensitive file accessible even when it is not checked in. In place of symbolic links, scripts that require certain privileges and conscious intervention to execute may be checked into CVS.",
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"plaintext": "The server software normally runs on Unix (although at least the CVSNT server also supports various flavors of Microsoft Windows), while CVS clients may run on any major operating system platform.",
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"plaintext": " Cervisia",
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9508743
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},
{
"plaintext": " OpenGrok",
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5768711
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},
{
"plaintext": " StatCVS",
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975979
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " TortoiseCVS",
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1808820
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " ViewVC",
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1937784
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[
1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Version Management with CVS: manual for CVS 1.12.13, by Per Cederqvist et al.",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Concurrent_Versions_System",
"1990_software",
"Free_software_programmed_in_C",
"Free_version_control_software",
"Software_using_the_GPL_license",
"Unix_archivers_and_compression-related_utilities"
]
| 467,252 | 4,747 | 181 | 32 | 0 | 0 | Concurrent Versions System | historical centralized version control system | [
"CVS"
]
|
37,657 | 1,045,652,327 | CVS | [
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},
{
"plaintext": " CVS Health, a US pharmacy chain",
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},
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},
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"plaintext": " CVS Caremark, a prescription benefit management subsidiary",
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3902072
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"plaintext": " Former US Cable Video Store",
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10020267
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"plaintext": " CVS Ferrari, an Italian mobile handling equipment manufacturer",
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15114138
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chicago Vocational High School, US",
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11873389
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cardiovascular system",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cyclic vomiting syndrome",
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"target_page_ids": [
1173050
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1,
25
]
]
},
{
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697843
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]
},
{
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1653184
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " CVS (enzyme), the enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of valencene",
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},
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},
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},
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1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crankcase ventilation system, a system for allowing engine blow-by gases to escape",
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3183915
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},
{
"plaintext": " Anti-submarine warfare carrier, US hull classification symbol CVS",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " C. V. S. Rao (1918–1993), a senior officer in the Indian police",
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}
]
| []
| 298,494 | 1,144 | 1 | 18 | 0 | 0 | CVS | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,660 | 1,077,132,448 | List_of_parasitic_organisms | [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rafflesia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cuscuta",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mistletoe",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "These can be categorized into three groups; cestodes, nematodes and trematodes. Examples include:",
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[
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],
[
68,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Acanthocephala ",
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43147
],
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ascariasis (roundworms)",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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413928
],
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cestoda (tapeworms) including: Taenia saginata (human beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (human pork tapeworm), Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm) and Echinococcosis (hydatid tapeworm)",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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20648143,
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1,
8
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32,
47
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[
71,
84
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[
108,
130
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[
151,
165
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clonorchis sinensis (the Chinese liver fluke) ",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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663302
],
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[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dracunculus medinensis (Guinea worm)",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm)",
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1,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Filariasis",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hookworm",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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],
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loa loa",
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"target_page_ids": [
186643
],
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Onchocerciasis (river blindness)",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
276846
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Schistosomiasis",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Strongyloides stercoralis",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
60212
],
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1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tapeworm",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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],
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1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toxocara canis (dog roundworm)",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
12303761
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Trichinella",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Whipworm",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
60211
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba coli - can cause Amoebiasis",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
334768,
428670,
20927048
],
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1,
22
],
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27,
41
],
[
54,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Acanthamoeba",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
369857
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Balamuthia mandrillaris",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
6510698
],
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[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Giardia",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
140970
],
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cyclospora cayetanensis",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
3387097
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cryptosporidium",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
2206845
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toxoplasma gondii",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leishmania - L. tropica, L. donovani, and L. mexicana are known to cause Leishmaniasis.",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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21898168,
198491
],
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1,
11
],
[
14,
24
],
[
26,
37
],
[
43,
54
],
[
74,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Plasmodium - causes the fatal disease, Malaria. P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. malariae are pathogenic to humans.",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
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2191408
],
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1,
11
],
[
40,
47
],
[
49,
62
],
[
64,
72
],
[
78,
89
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Babesia",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gymnosporangium and other rusts",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
58857,
59400
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
],
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31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pyrenophora teres",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cordyceps",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
571490
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pentastomida",
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"section_name": "Endoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "(ecto = outside; parasites that live on but not within their hosts, for example, attached to their skin)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Acari",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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217387
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Varroa destructor",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cymothoa exigua",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bed bugs",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
14338748
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Culicidae (mosquitoes) ",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
37789
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Calyptra (moth) (vampire moths)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
4326717
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hippoboscoidea",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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643431
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tsetse fly",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lipoptena",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Melophagus ovinus, (sheep keds) and relatives",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oestridae (bot flies)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
643440
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Human botfly",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
5630479
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cuterebra fontinella (mouse botfly)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
56891362
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phlebotominae (sand flies)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
5594239
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phthiraptera (Lice)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
58288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Body louse",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crab louse",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
105953
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Head louse",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
243916
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Siphonaptera (fleas)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
77305
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tabanidae (horse flies)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tantulocarida",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
370166
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Triatominae",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pea crab",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sacculina",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hirudinea (some leeches)",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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18603849
],
"anchor_spans": [
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10
],
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22
]
]
},
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"plaintext": "Monogeneans are flatworms, generally ectoparasites on fish.",
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"section_name": "Ectoparasites",
"target_page_ids": [
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9
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24
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Calydiscoides euzeti",
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"plaintext": " Lethacotyle vera",
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"plaintext": " Protocotyle euzetmaillardi",
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"plaintext": " Pseudorhabdosynochus spp.",
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"plaintext": " Cancellaria cooperii",
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"plaintext": " Pyramidellidae",
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"plaintext": " †Platyceratidae",
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"plaintext": " Candiru (vampire fish of Brazil, a facultative parasite)",
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"plaintext": " Oxpeckers (cleaning symbiosis)",
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"plaintext": " Snubnosed eel",
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"plaintext": " Vampire bat",
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430306
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"plaintext": " Vampire finch",
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"plaintext": " Cuckoo (brood parasite)",
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7
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9,
23
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{
"plaintext": " Cowbird (brood parasite)",
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1428324
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8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mistletoe ",
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70129
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"plaintext": "Monotropa uniflora",
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2327158
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"plaintext": " Certain orchids",
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22719
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{
"plaintext": " Nuytsia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Santalum album",
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{
"plaintext": " Corn smut",
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303084
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},
{
"plaintext": " Certain mushrooms",
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20264
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},
{
"plaintext": "Asterotremella albida",
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"target_page_ids": [
60530781
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of fictional parasites",
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"section_name": "See also",
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}
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| [
"Biology-related_lists",
"Nature-related_lists",
"Parasites"
]
| 6,631,919 | 929 | 0 | 113 | 0 | 0 | list of parasitic organisms | Wikimedia list article | []
|
37,661 | 1,107,425,319 | Alfred_Kinsey | [
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"plaintext": "Alfred Charles Kinsey (; June 23, 1894 – August 25, 1956) was an American biologist, professor of entomology and zoology, and sexologist who, in 1947, founded the Institute for Sex Research at Indiana University, now known as the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. He is best known for writing Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953), also known as the Kinsey Reports, as well as the Kinsey scale. Kinsey's research on human sexuality, foundational to the field of sexology, provoked controversy in the 1940s and 1950s. His work has influenced social and cultural values in the United States as well as internationally.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred Kinsey was born on June 23, 1894, in Hoboken, New Jersey, the son of Sarah Ann (née Charles) and Alfred Seguine Kinsey. He was the eldest of three children. His mother received little formal education; his father was a professor at Stevens Institute of Technology.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey's parents were devout Christians. His father was known as one of the most devout members of the local Methodist church. Most of Kinsey's social interactions were with other members of the church, often as a silent observer, while his parents discussed religion. Kinsey's father imposed strict rules on the household, including mandating Sunday as a day of prayer and little else.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey's parents were poor for most of his childhood, often unable to afford proper medical care. This may have led to a young Kinsey receiving inadequate treatment for a variety of diseases including rickets, rheumatic fever, and typhoid fever. His health records indicate that Kinsey received suboptimal exposure to sunlight (often the cause of rickets, before milk and other foods were fortified with vitamin D) and lived in unsanitary conditions for at least part of his childhood. Rickets led to a curvature of the spine, which resulted in a slight stoop that prevented Kinsey from being drafted in 1917 for World War I.",
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"plaintext": "At age 10, Kinsey moved with his family to South Orange, New Jersey. Also at a young age, he showed great interest in nature and camping. He worked and camped with the local YMCA throughout his early years, and enjoyed these activities to such an extent that he intended to work for the YMCA after completing his education. Kinsey's senior undergraduate thesis for psychology, a dissertation on the group dynamics of young boys, echoed this interest. He joined the Boy Scouts when a troop was formed in his community. His parents strongly supported this (and joined as well) because the Boy Scouts was an organization that was based on the principles of Christianity. Kinsey worked his way up through the Scouting ranks to earn Eagle Scout in 1913, making him one of the earliest Eagle Scouts. Despite earlier disease having weakened his heart, Kinsey followed an intense sequence of difficult hikes and camping expeditions throughout his early life.",
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"plaintext": "In high school, Kinsey was a quiet but hard-working student. While attending Columbia High School, he devoted his energy to academic work and playing the piano. At one time, Kinsey had hoped to become a concert pianist, but decided to concentrate on his scientific pursuits instead. Kinsey's ability to spend immense amounts of time deeply focused on study was a trait that would serve him well in college and during his professional career. He seems not to have formed strong social relationships during high school, but earned respect for his academic ability. While there, Kinsey became interested in biology, botany and zoology. Kinsey was later to claim that his high school biology teacher, Natalie Roeth, was the most important influence on his decision to become a scientist.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey approached his father with plans to study botany at college. His father demanded that he study engineering at Stevens Institute of Technology instead. At Stevens, he primarily took courses related to English and engineering, but was unable to satisfy his interest in biology. Kinsey was not successful there, and decided engineering was not a field at which he could excel. At the end of two years at Stevens, Kinsey gathered the courage to confront his father about his interest in biology and his intent to continue studying at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, where he majored in biology.",
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"plaintext": "In the fall of 1914, Kinsey entered Bowdoin College, where he studied entomology under Manton Copeland, and was admitted to the Zeta Psi fraternity, in whose house he lived for much of his time at college. In 1916 Kinsey was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa society and graduated magna cum laude, with degrees in biology and psychology. Alfred Seguine Kinsey did not attend his son's graduation ceremony at Bowdoin, possibly as another sign of disapproval of his son's choice of career and studies.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey continued his graduate studies at Harvard University's Bussey Institute, which had one of the most highly regarded biology programs in the United States. It was there that Kinsey studied applied biology under William Morton Wheeler, a scientist who made outstanding contributions to entomology. Under Wheeler, Kinsey worked almost completely autonomously, which suited both men quite well.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey wrote his doctoral thesis on gall wasps, zealously collecting samples of the species. He traveled widely and took 26 detailed measurements of hundreds of thousands of gall wasps; his methodology was itself an important contribution to entomology as a science. In 1919, Kinsey was awarded a ScD degree by Harvard University, and he accepted an academic post in biology at Indiana University. In 1920 he published several papers under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, introducing the gall wasp to the scientific community and describing its phylogeny. Of the more than 18million insects in the museum's collection, some 5million are gall wasps collected by Kinsey.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey wrote a widely used high-school textbook, An Introduction to Biology, which was published in October 1926. The book endorsed evolution and unified, at the introductory level, the previously separate fields of zoology and botany.",
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"plaintext": " An Introduction to Biology was unlike any other textbook on the market... Kinsey's textbook was noteworthy for the strong position it took on evolution... In his textbook Kinsey laid out the basic facts of evolution in a manner-of-fact matter, as though he were discussing the life cycle of the fruit fly.... The chapter called \"Further Evidence of Change\" was especially blunt... Kinsey defined evolution as \"the scientific word for change\", and while he acknowledged that there are some people who \"think they don't believe in evolution\", he tried to show his students the folly of such reasoning. To find proof of evolution, students had only to look at things they used daily... Kinsey ridiculed the man who denounced evolution but owned a new breed of dog or smoked a cigar made from a recently improved variety of tobacco, saying, \"When he says he doesn't believe in evolution, I wonder what he means.\" ",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey co-authored Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, published in 1943, with Merritt Lyndon Fernald. The original draft of the book was written in 1919–1920, while Kinsey was still a doctoral student at the Bussey Institute, and Fernald was working at the Arnold Arboretum.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey is widely regarded as the first major figure in American sexology; his research helped pave the way for a deeper exploration into sexuality among sexologists and the general public, as well as liberating female sexuality. For example, Kinsey's work disputed the notions that women generally are not sexual and that female orgasms experienced vaginally are superior to clitoral orgasms. He initially became interested in different forms of sexual practices in 1933, after discussing the topic extensively with a colleague, Robert Kroc. Kinsey had been studying the variations in mating practices among gall wasps. During this time, he developed a scale measuring sexual orientation, now known as the Kinsey scale, which ranges from 0 to 6, where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 is exclusively homosexual; a rating of X for \"no socio-sexual contacts or reactions\" was later added.",
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"plaintext": "In 1935, Kinsey delivered a lecture to a faculty discussion group at Indiana University, his first public discussion of the topic, wherein he attacked the \"widespread ignorance of sexual structure and physiology\" and promoted his view that \"delayed marriage\" (that is, delayed sexual experience) was psychologically harmful. Kinsey obtained research funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, which enabled him to further study human sexual behavior. He published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male in 1948, followed in 1953 by Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, both of which reached the top of the bestseller lists and turned Kinsey into a celebrity. These publications later became known as the Kinsey Reports. Articles about him appeared in magazines such as Time, Life, Look, and McCall's. The Kinsey Reports, which led to a storm of controversy, are regarded by many as a precursor to the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey's research went beyond theory and interview to include observation of and participation in sexual activity, sometimes involving co-workers. Kinsey justified this sexual experimentation as being necessary to gain the confidence of his research subjects. He encouraged his staff to do likewise, and to engage in a wide range of sexual activity, to the extent that they felt comfortable; he argued that this would help his interviewers understand the participants' responses. Kinsey filmed sexual acts which included co-workers in the attic of his home as part of his research; Biographer Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy explains that this was done to ensure the films' secrecy, which would have caused a scandal had it become public knowledge. James H. Jones, author of Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life, and British psychiatrist Theodore Dalrymple, among others, have speculated that Kinsey was driven by his own sexual needs.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the data published in the two Kinsey Reports books is controversial in the scientific and psychiatric communities, due to Kinsey's decision to interview volunteers who may not have been representative of the general population. University of Chicago sociology professor Edward Laumann also argued that Kinsey's work was focused on the biology of sex and lacked psychological and clinical information and analysis.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey collected sexual material from around the world, which brought him to the attention of the U.S. Customs Service when they seized some pornographic films in 1956; he died before this matter was resolved legally. Kinsey wrote about pre-adolescent orgasms using data in tables 30 to 34 of the male volume, which report observations of orgasms in over 300 children aged from two months up to fifteen years. This information was said to have come from adults' childhood memories, or from parent or teacher observation. Kinsey said he also interviewed nine men who had sexual experiences with children and who told him about the children's responses and reactions. Little attention was paid to this part of Kinsey's research at the time, but where Kinsey had gained this information began to be questioned nearly 40 years later. It was later revealed that Kinsey used data from a single pedophile and presented it as being from various sources. Kinsey had seen the need for participant confidentiality and anonymity as necessary to gain \"honest answers on such taboo subjects\". Years later, the Kinsey Institute said that the data on children in tables 31–34 came from one man's journal (started in 1917) and that the events concerned predated the Kinsey Reports.",
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"plaintext": "Jones wrote that Kinsey's sexual activity influenced his work, that he over-represented prisoners and prostitutes, classified some single people as \"married\", and that he included a disproportionate number of homosexual men, which may have distorted his studies. While he has been criticized for omitting African-Americans from his research, his report on the human male includes numerous references to African-American participants. Historian Vern Bullough writes that the data was later reinterpreted, excluding prisoners and data derived from an exclusively gay sample, and the results indicate that it does not appear to have skewed the data. Kinsey may have over-represented homosexuals, but Bullough considers that this may have been because homosexual behavior was stigmatized and needed to be better understood. Paul Gebhard, who was Kinsey's colleague from 1946 to 1956 and who also succeeded Kinsey as Director of the Kinsey Institute following his death, attempted to justify Kinsey's work in the 1970s by removing some of the suspect data where Kinsey allegedly showed a bias towards homosexuality. After Gebhard recalculated the findings in Kinsey's work, he found only slight differences between the original and updated figures.",
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"plaintext": "Bailey et al., in their 2016 review of the sexual orientation literature, stated that Kinsey's survey likely overestimated the frequencies of nonheterosexual attractions and expressions.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey was raised as a Methodist, and for a time converted to a much less fundamentalist Congregationalism. During his studies at Harvard, he apparently became agnostic or atheist, replacing religious fervor with fervor for science. He married Clara McMillen in 1921. Their marriage ceremony, like his college graduation, was avoided by Alfred Sr. The couple had four children. Their first son, Donald, born in 1922, died from the acute complications of juvenile diabetes in 1927, just before his fifth birthday. Their first daughter, Anne, was born in 1924, followed by Joan in 1925, and then by their second son Bruce in 1928.",
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"plaintext": "Kinsey was bisexual and, as a young man, would punish himself for having homoerotic feelings. He and his wife agreed that both could have sex with other people as well as with each other. Kinsey had sex with other men, including his student Clyde Martin.",
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"plaintext": "The popularity of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male prompted widespread media interest in 1948. Time magazine declared, \"Not since Gone With the Wind had booksellers seen anything like it.\" A character called \"Dr. Kinsey\" appeared on the September 15, 1953, television episode of The Jack Benny Program as a bow-tied man interviewing a young woman on board a cruise ship that has left Hawaii. When \"Dr. Kinsey\" identifies himself to Jack Benny, Benny steps away in embarrassment. The first pop culture references to Kinsey appeared not long after the book's publication; \"Martha Raye [sold] a half-million copies of 'Ooh, Dr. Kinsey!\" Cole Porter's song \"Too Darn Hot\", from the Tony Award-winning Broadway musical Kiss Me, Kate, devoted its bridge to \"the Kinsey report / Every average man you know / Much prefers to play his favorite sport\". In 1949 Mae West, reminiscing on the days when the word \"sex\" was rarely uttered, said of Kinsey, \"That guy merely makes it easy for me. Now I don't have to draw 'em any blueprints... We are both in the same business... Except I saw it first.\"",
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"plaintext": "The publication of Sexual Behavior in the Human Female prompted even more intensive news coverage. Kinsey appeared on the cover of the August 24, 1953, issue of Time. The national news magazine featured two articles on the scientist, one focusing on his research, career and new book, the other on his background, personality, and lifestyle. In the magazine's cover portrait, \"Flowers, birds, and a bee surround Kinsey; the mirror-of-Venus female symbol decorates his bow tie.\" The lead article concluded: Kinsey... has done for sex what Columbus did for geography,' declared a pair of enthusiasts... forgetting that Columbus did not know where he was when he got there.... Kinsey's work contains much that is valuable, but it must not be mistaken for the last word.\" On September 15, 1953, Kinsey appeared on TV as a character on The Jack Benny Program. Kinsey and his research were written into a sketch about Benny's \"fantasy\" about Marilyn Monroe, a guest on the program.",
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"plaintext": "The early 2000s saw a renewed interest in Kinsey. In 2003 Theatre of NOTE produced the Steve Morgan Haskell play titled Fucking Wasps which followed Kinsey's life from childhood until death. Matt Sesow's paintings adorned the theater along with David Bickford playing piano live. Written and directed by Steve Morgan Haskell, Fucking Wasps received many accolades, including a Playwriting of the Year nomination from Backstage West. Premiering in 2003, the musical Dr. Sex focuses on the relationship between Kinsey, his wife, and their shared lover Wally Matthews (based on Clyde Martin). The play had a score by Larry Bortniker, a book by Bortniker and Sally Deering, and won seven Jeff Awards. It was produced off-Broadway in 2005. The 2004 biographical film Kinsey, written and directed by Bill Condon, stars Liam Neeson as the scientist and Laura Linney as his wife. In 2004 T. Coraghessan Boyle's novel about Kinsey, The Inner Circle, was published. The following year, PBS produced the documentary Kinsey in cooperation with the Kinsey Institute, which allowed access to many of its files. Mr. Sex, a BBC radio play by Steve Coombes concerning Kinsey and his work, won the 2005 Imison Award.",
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"plaintext": " Christenson, Cornelia (1971). Kinsey: A Biography. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.",
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"plaintext": " Drucker, Donna J. (2014). The Classification of Sex: Alfred Kinsey and the Organization of Knowledge. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Gathorne-Hardy, Jonathan (1998). Alfred C. Kinsey: Sex the Measure of All Things. London: Chatto & Windus. ",
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"plaintext": " Hegarty, Peter (2013). Gentlemen's Disagreement: Alfred Kinsey, Lewis Terman, and the Sexual Politics of Smart Men. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": " Jones, James H. (1997). Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: Norton. ",
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"plaintext": " Pomeroy, Wardell (1972). Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research. New York: Harper & Row.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo V was the bishop of Rome and nominal ruler of the Papal States from July 903 to his death in February 904. He was pope immediately before the period known as the Saeculum obscurum, when popes wielded little temporal authority.",
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"plaintext": "Leo V was born at a place called Priapi, near Ardea. Although he was a priest when he was elected pope following the death of Pope Benedict IV (900–903), he was not a cardinal priest of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "During his brief pontificate, Leo granted the canons of Bologna a special bull (epistola tuitionis) where he exempted them from the payment of taxes. However, after a reign of a little over two months, Leo was captured by Christopher, the cardinal-priest of San Lorenzo in Damaso, and thrown into prison. Christopher then had himself elected pope (903–904). Although now considered an antipope, he had until recently been considered a legitimate pope. If Leo never acquiesced to his deposition, then he can be considered legitimate pope until his death in 904.",
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"plaintext": "Leo died shortly after being deposed. He was either murdered on the orders of Christopher, who was in turn executed by Sergius III (904–911) in 904, or, possibly, both were ordered to be killed at the beginning of Sergius’ pontificate, either on the orders of Sergius himself, or by the direction of Sergius' patron, Theophylact I of Tusculum. According to Horace K. Mann, it is more likely that Leo died a natural death in prison or in a monastery.",
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"plaintext": " DeCormenin, Louis Marie; Gihon, James L., A Complete History of the Popes of Rome, from Saint Peter, the First Bishop to Pius the Ninth (1857)",
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"plaintext": " Norwich, John Julius, The Popes: A History (2011)",
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37,666 | 1,091,153,546 | Pope_Leo_VI | [
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo VI (880 – 12 February 929) was the bishop of Rome and nominal ruler of the Papal States for just over seven months, from June 928 to his death. His pontificate occurred during the period known as the Saeculum obscurum.",
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"plaintext": "During his brief pontificate, Leo confirmed the decisions of the Synod of Spalato. He completed his predecessor’s investigations into the ecclesiastical situation in Dalmatia, and proceeded to give the pallium to Archbishop John of Salona, and ordered all the bishops of Dalmatia to obey him. He also ordered the bishop of Nona and others to limit themselves to the extent of their dioceses. Leo then banned castrati from marrying. He also issued an appeal for help against the Arab raiders who were threatening Rome, stating that:",
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"plaintext": "”Through the virtue of Peter, Leo the sixth was taken and received, he was preserved for seven months and five days, and like his predecessors, he joined the company of the prophets.” ",
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"plaintext": " Entry on Leo VI in the Catholic Encyclopedia",
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"plaintext": " Catholic Forum: Leo VI",
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37,667 | 1,091,153,051 | Pope_Leo_VII | [
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37,669 | 1,105,314,567 | William_Tyndale | [
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"plaintext": "A copy of Tyndale's The Obedience of a Christian Man (1528), which some claim or interpret to argue that the king of a country should be the head of that country's church rather than the Pope, came to the hands of King Henry VIII, providing a rationalization for breaking the Church in England from the Catholic Church in 1534. In 1530, Tyndale wrote The Practice of Prelates, opposing Henry's annulment of his own marriage on the grounds that it contravened scripture. Fleeing England, Tyndale sought refuge in the Flemish territory of the Catholic Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. ",
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"plaintext": "Partial English translations had been made from the 7th century onwards, but the religious foment caused by Wycliffe's Bible in the late 14th century led to the death penalty for anyone found guilty of unlicensed possession of an English translation of the Bible, although translations were available in all other major European languages. Tyndale worked during a renaissance of scholarship, which saw the publication of Johann Reuchlin's Hebrew grammar in 1506. Greek texts became available to the European scholarly community for the first time in centuries, as it welcomed Greek-speaking scholars, philosophers, intellectuals, and texts following the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Notably, Erasmus compiled, edited, and published the Greek scriptures of the Christian Bible in 1516. ",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale began a Bachelor of Arts degree at Magdalen Hall (later Hertford College) of Oxford University in 1506 and received his B.A. in 1512, the same year becoming a subdeacon. He was made Master of Arts in July 1515 and was held to be a man of virtuous disposition, leading an unblemished life. The M.A. allowed him to start studying theology, but the official course did not include the systematic study of scripture. As Tyndale later complained:",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale became chaplain at the home of Sir John Walsh at Little Sodbury in Gloucestershire and tutor to his children around 1521. His opinions proved controversial to fellow clergymen, and the next year he was summoned before John Bell, the Chancellor of the Diocese of Worcester, although no formal charges were laid at the time. After the meeting with Bell and other church leaders, Tyndale, according to John Foxe, had an argument with a \"learned but blasphemous clergyman\", who allegedly asserted: \"We had better be without God's laws than the Pope's\", to which Tyndale responded: \"I defy the Pope and all his laws; and if God spares my life, ere many years, I will cause the boy that driveth the plow to know more of the Scriptures than thou dost!\"",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale left for London in 1523 to seek permission to translate the Bible into English. He requested help from Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall, a well-known classicist who had praised Erasmus after working together with him on a Greek New Testament. The bishop, however, declined to extend his patronage, telling Tyndale that he had no room for him in his household. Tyndale preached and studied \"at his book\" in London for some time, relying on the help of cloth merchants Humphrey Monmouth. During this time, he lectured widely, including at St Dunstan-in-the-West at Fleet Street in London.",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale left England for continental Europe, perhaps at Hamburg, in the spring of 1524, possibly traveling on to Wittenberg. There is an entry in the matriculation registers of the University of Wittenberg of the name \"Guillelmus Daltici ex Anglia\", and this has been taken to be a Latinisation of \"William Tyndale from England\". He began translating the New Testament at this time, possibly in Wittenberg, completing it in 1525 with assistance from Observant Friar William Roy.",
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"plaintext": "From an entry in George Spalatin's diary for 11 August 1526, Tyndale remained at Worms for about a year. It is not clear exactly when he moved to Antwerp. Here he stayed at the house of Thomas Poyntz. The colophon to Tyndale's translation of Genesis and the title pages of several pamphlets from this time purported to have been printed by Hans Lufft at Marburg, but this is a false address. Lufft, the printer of Luther's books, never had a printing press at Marburg.",
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"plaintext": "Following the hostile reception of his work by Tunstall, Wolsey, and Thomas More in England, Tyndale retreated into hiding in Hamburg and continued working. He revised his New Testament and began translating the Old Testament and writing various treatises.",
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"plaintext": "In 1530, he wrote The Practice of Prelates, opposing Henry VIII's planned annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in favour of Anne Boleyn, because it was unscriptural and that it was a plot by Cardinal Wolsey to get Henry entangled in the papal courts of Pope Clement VII. The king's wrath was aimed at Tyndale. Henry asked Emperor Charles V to have the writer apprehended and returned to England under the terms of the Treaty of Cambrai; however, the emperor responded that formal evidence was required before extradition. Tyndale developed his case in An Answer unto Sir Thomas More's Dialogue.",
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"plaintext": "Eventually, Tyndale was betrayed by Henry Phillips to authorities representing the Holy Roman Empire. He was seized in Antwerp in 1535, and held in the castle of Vilvoorde (Filford) near Brussels. Some suspect that Phillips was hired by Bishop Stokesley to gain Tyndale's confidence and then betray him.",
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"plaintext": "He was tried on a charge of heresy in 1536 and was found guilty and condemned to be burned to death, despite Thomas Cromwell's intercession on his behalf. Tyndale \"was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned\". His final words, spoken \"at the stake with a fervent zeal, and a loud voice\", were reported as \"Lord! Open the King of England's eyes.\" The traditional date of commemoration is 6 October, but records of Tyndale's imprisonment suggest that the actual date of his execution might have been some weeks earlier. Foxe gives 6 October as the date of commemoration (left-hand date column), but gives no date of death (right-hand date column). Biographer David Daniell states his date of death only as \"one of the first days of October 1536\".",
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"plaintext": "Within four years, four English translations of the Bible were published in England at the king's behest, including Henry's official Great Bible. All were based on Tyndale's work.",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale seems to have come out of the Lollard tradition, which was strong in Gloucestershire. Tyndale denounced the practice of prayer to saints. He also rejected the then-orthodox view that the scriptures could be interpreted only by approved clergy. While his views were influenced by Luther, Tyndale also deliberately distanced himself from the German reformer on several key theological points, adopting a symbolical interpretation of the Lord's Supper in opposition to Luther's doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.",
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"plaintext": "Although best known for his translation of the Bible, Tyndale was also an active writer and translator. As well as his focus on how religion should be lived, he had a focus on political issues.",
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"plaintext": "In translating the Bible, Tyndale introduced new words into the English language; many were subsequently used in the King James Bible, such as Passover (as the name for the Jewish holiday, Pesach or Pesah) and scapegoat. Coinage of the word atonement (a concatenation of the words 'At One' to describe Christ's work of restoring a good relationship—a reconciliation—between God and people) is also sometimes ascribed to Tyndale. However, the word was probably in use by at least 1513, before Tyndale's translation. Similarly, sometimes Tyndale is said to have coined the term mercy seat. While it is true that Tyndale introduced the word into English, mercy seat is more accurately a translation of Luther's German Gnadenstuhl.",
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"plaintext": "As well as individual words, Tyndale also coined such familiar phrases as:",
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"plaintext": " my brother's keeper",
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"plaintext": " knock and it shall be opened unto you",
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"plaintext": " a moment in time",
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"plaintext": " fashion not yourselves to the world",
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"plaintext": " seek and ye shall find",
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"plaintext": " ask and it shall be given you",
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"plaintext": " judge not that ye be not judged",
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"plaintext": " the word of God which liveth and lasteth forever",
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"plaintext": " let there be light ",
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"plaintext": " the salt of the earth",
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"plaintext": " a law unto themselves",
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"plaintext": " it came to pass",
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"plaintext": " the signs of the times",
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"plaintext": " filthy lucre",
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"plaintext": " the spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak (which is like Luther's translation of Matthew 26,41: der Geist ist willig, aber das Fleisch ist schwach; Wycliffe for example translated it with: for the spirit is ready, but the flesh is sick.)",
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"plaintext": " live, move and have our being",
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"plaintext": "The hierarchy of the Catholic Church did not approve of some of the words and phrases introduced by Tyndale, such as \"overseer\", where it would have been understood as \"bishop\", \"elder\" for \"priest\", and \"love\" rather than \"charity\". Tyndale, citing Erasmus, contended that the Greek New Testament did not support the traditional readings. More controversially, Tyndale translated the Greek ekklesia (), (literally \"called out ones\") as \"congregation\" rather than \"church\". It has been asserted this translation choice \"was a direct threat to the Church's ancient – but so Tyndale here made clear, non-scriptural – claim to be the body of Christ on earth. To change these words was to strip the Church hierarchy of its pretensions to be Christ's terrestrial representative, and to award this honor to individual worshipers who made up each congregation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale was accused of translation errors. Thomas More commented that searching for errors in the Tyndale Bible was similar to searching for water in the sea and charged Tyndale's translation of The Obedience of a Christian Man with having about a thousand false translations. Bishop Tunstall of London declared that there were upwards of 2,000 errors in Tyndale's Bible, having already in 1523 denied Tyndale the permission required under the Constitutions of Oxford (1409), which were still in force, to translate the Bible into English. In response to allegations of inaccuracies in his translation in the New Testament, Tyndale in the Prologue to his 1525 translation wrote that he never intentionally altered or misrepresented any of the Bible but that he had sought to \"interpret the sense of the scripture and the meaning of the spirit.\"",
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"plaintext": "While translating, Tyndale followed Erasmus's 1522 Greek edition of the New Testament. In his preface to his 1534 New Testament (\"WT unto the Reader\"), he not only goes into some detail about the Greek tenses but also points out that there is often a Hebrew idiom underlying the Greek. The Tyndale Society adduces much further evidence to show that his translations were made directly from the original Hebrew and Greek sources he had at his disposal. For example, the Prolegomena in Mombert's William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses show that Tyndale's Pentateuch is a translation of the Hebrew original. His translation also drew on the Latin Vulgate and Luther's 1521 September Testament.",
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"plaintext": "Of the first (1526) edition of Tyndale's New Testament, only three copies survive. The only complete copy is part of the Bible Collection of Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart. The copy of the British Library is almost complete, lacking only the title page and list of contents. Another rarity is Tyndale's Pentateuch, of which only nine remain.",
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"plaintext": "The translators of the Revised Standard Version in the 1940s noted that Tyndale's translation, including the 1537 Matthew Bible, inspired the translations that followed: The Great Bible of 1539; the Geneva Bible of 1560; the Bishops' Bible of 1568; the Douay-Rheims Bible of 1582–1609; and the King James Version of 1611, of which the RSV translators noted: \"It [the KJV] kept felicitous phrases and apt expressions, from whatever source, which had stood the test of public usage. It owed most, especially in the New Testament, to Tyndale\".",
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"plaintext": "Brian Moynahan writes: \"A complete analysis of the Authorised Version, known down the generations as 'the AV' or 'the King James', was made in 1998. It shows that Tyndale's words account for 84% of the New Testament and for 75.8% of the Old Testament books that he translated.\" Joan Bridgman comments on the Contemporary Review that, \"He [Tyndale] is the mainly unrecognized translator of the most influential book in the world. Although the Authorised King James Version is ostensibly the production of a learned committee of churchmen, it is mostly cribbed from Tyndale with some reworking of his translation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Many of the English versions since then have drawn inspiration from Tyndale, such as the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Bible, and the English Standard Version. Even the paraphrases like the Living Bible have been inspired by the same desire to make the Bible understandable to Tyndale's proverbial plowboy.",
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"plaintext": "George Steiner in his book on translation After Babel refers to \"the influence of the genius of Tyndale, the greatest of English Bible translators.\" He has also appeared as a character in two plays dealing with the King James Bible, Howard Brenton's Anne Boleyn (2010) and David Edgar's Written on the Heart (2011).",
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"plaintext": "A memorial to Tyndale stands in Vilvoorde, Flanders, where he was executed. It was erected in 1913 by Friends of the Trinitarian Bible Society of London and the Belgian Bible Society. There is also a small William Tyndale Museum in the town, attached to the Protestant church. A bronze statue by Sir Joseph Boehm commemorating the life and work of Tyndale was erected in Victoria Embankment Gardens on the Thames Embankment, London, in 1884. It shows his right hand on an open Bible, which is itself resting on an early printing press. A life-sized bronze statue of a seated William Tyndale at work on his translation by Lawrence Holofcener (2000) was placed in the Millennium Square, Bristol, United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "The Tyndale Monument was built in 1866 on a hill above his supposed birthplace, North Nibley, Gloucestershire. A stained-glass window commemorating Tyndale was made in 1911 for the British and Foreign Bible Society by James Powell and Sons. In 1994, after the Society had moved their offices from London to Swindon, the window was reinstalled in the chapel of Hertford College in Oxford. Tyndale was at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, which became Hertford College in 1874. The window depicts a full-length portrait of Tyndale, a cameo of a printing shop in action, some words of Tyndale, the opening words of Genesis in Hebrew, the opening words of John's Gospel in Greek, and the names of other pioneering Bible translators. The portrait is based on the oil painting that hangs in the college's dining hall. A stained glass window by Arnold Robinson in Tyndale Baptist Church, Bristol, also commemorates the life of Tyndale.",
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"plaintext": "Several colleges, schools and study centres have been named in his honour, including Tyndale House (Cambridge), Tyndale University (Toronto), the Tyndale-Carey Graduate School affiliated to the Bible College of New Zealand, William Tyndale College (Farmington Hills, Michigan), and Tyndale Theological Seminary (Shreveport, Louisiana, and Fort Worth, Texas), the independent Tyndale Theological Seminary in Badhoevedorp, near Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Tyndale Christian School in South Australia and Tyndale Park Christian School in New Zealand. An American Christian publishing house, also called Tyndale House, was named after Tyndale.",
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"plaintext": "There is an Anglican communion setting in memoriam William Tyndale, The Tyndale Service, by David Mitchell.",
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"plaintext": "By tradition Tyndale's death is commemorated on 6 October. There are commemorations on this date in the church calendars of members of the Anglican Communion, initially as one of the \"days of optional devotion\" in the American Book of Common Prayer (1979), and a \"black-letter day\" in the Church of England's Alternative Service Book. The Common Worship that came into use in the Church of England in 2000 provides a collect proper to 6 October (Lesser Festival), beginning with the words:",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale is honored in the Calendar of saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as a translator and martyr the same day.",
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"plaintext": "The first biographical film about Tyndale, titled William Tindale, was released in 1937. Arnold Wathen Robinson depicted Tyndale's life in stained glass windows for the Tyndale Baptist Church ca. 1955. The 1975 novel The Hawk that Dare Not Hunt by Day by Scott O'Dell fictionalizes Tyndale and the smuggling of his Bible into England. The film God's Outlaw: The Story of William Tyndale, was released in 1986. The 1998 film Stephen's Test of Faith includes a long scene with Tyndale, how he translated the Bible, and how he was put to death.",
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"plaintext": "A cartoon film about his life, titled Torchlighters: The William Tyndale Story, was released ca. 2005. The documentary film, William Tyndale: Man with a Mission, was released ca. 2005. The movie included an interview with David Daniell. In 2007, the 2-hour Channel 4 documentary, The Bible Revolution, presented by Rod Liddle, details the roles of historically significant English Reformers John Wycliffe, William Tyndale, and Thomas Cranmer. The \"Battle for the Bible\" (2007) episode of the PBS Secrets of the Dead series, narrated by Liev Schreiber, features Tyndale's story and legacy and includes historical context. This film is an abbreviated and revised version of the PBS/Channel 4 version.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, BYUtv produced a documentary miniseries, Fires of Faith, on the creation of the King James Bible, which focused heavily on Tyndale's life. In 2013, BBC Two aired a 60-minute documentary The Most Dangerous Man in Tudor England, written and presented by Melvyn Bragg.",
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"plaintext": "Another known documentary is the film William Tyndale: His Life, His Legacy.",
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"plaintext": "Tyndale was writing at the beginning of the Early Modern English period. His pronunciation must have differed in its phonology from that of Shakespeare at the end of the period. In 2013 linguist David Crystal made a transcription and a sound recording of Tyndale's translation of the whole of the Gospel of Matthew in what he believes to be the pronunciation of the day, using the term \"original pronunciation\". The recording has been published by The British Library on two compact discs with an introductory essay by Crystal.",
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"plaintext": "Luther Bible",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " .",
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37,670 | 1,104,254,190 | Pope_John_XXII | [
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII (; 1244 – 4 December 1334), born Jacques Duèze (or d'Euse), was head of the Catholic Church from 7 August 1316 to his death in 1334.",
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII faced controversy in theology involving his views on the beatific vision, and he opposed the Franciscan understanding of the poverty of Christ and his apostles, famously leading William of Ockham to write against unlimited papal power. In 1323, he canonized Thomas Aquinas.",
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"plaintext": "Scion of an important merchant and banking family in Cahors, Jacques Duèze studied medicine in Montpellier and law in Paris, yet could not read a regal letter written to him in French.",
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"plaintext": "Duèze taught both canon and civil law at Toulouse and Cahors. On the recommendation of Charles II of Naples he was made Bishop of Fréjus in 1300. In 1309 he was appointed chancellor of Charles II, and in 1310 he was transferred to Avignon. He delivered legal opinions favorable to the suppression of the Templars, but he also defended Boniface VIII and the Bull Unam Sanctam. On 23 December 1312, Clement V made him Cardinal-Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina.",
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"plaintext": "The death of Pope Clement V in 1314 was followed by an interregnum of two years due to disagreements between the cardinals, who were split into two factions. After two years, Philip, in 1316, finally managed to arrange a papal conclave of twenty-three cardinals in Lyon. This conclave elected Duèze, who took the name John XXII and was crowned in Lyon. He set up his residence in Avignon rather than Rome, continuing the Avignon Papacy of his predecessor.",
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"plaintext": "John XXII involved himself in the politics and religious movements of many European countries in order to advance the interests of the church. His close links with the French crown created widespread distrust of the papacy.",
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII was an excellent administrator and efficient at reorganizing the Catholic Church. He had sent a letter of thanks to the Muslim ruler Uzbeg Khan, who was very tolerant of Christians and treated Christians kindly.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to John XXII's election, a contest had begun for the Holy Roman Empire's crown between Louis IV of Bavaria and Frederick I of Austria. John XXII was neutral at first, but in 1323, when Louis IV became Holy Roman Emperor, the Guelph (papal) party and the Ghibelline (imperial) party quarreled, which was partly provoked by John XXII's extreme claims of authority over the empire and partly by Louis IV's support of the spiritual Franciscans, whom John XXII condemned in the papal bull Quorumdam exigit. Louis IV was assisted in his doctrinal dispute with the papacy by Marsilius of Padua and later by the English Franciscan friar and scholar William of Ockham. Louis IV invaded Italy, entered Rome and set up Pietro Rainalducci as Antipope Nicholas V in 1328. The project was a fiasco. Guelphic predominance at Rome was later restored, and Pope John excommunicated William of Ockham. However, Louis IV had silenced the papal claims and John XXII stayed the rest of his life in Avignon.",
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII was determined to suppress what he considered to be the excesses of the Spirituals, who contended eagerly for the view that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, citing Pope Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat in support of their view. In 1317, John XXII formally condemned the group of them known as the Fraticelli. On 26 March 1322, with Quia nonnunquam, he removed the ban on discussion of Exiit qui seminat and commissioned experts to examine the idea of poverty based on belief that Christ and the apostles owned nothing. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the church's right to have possessions. The Franciscan chapter held in Perugia in May 1322 declared on the contrary: \"To say or assert that Christ, in showing the way of perfection, and the Apostles, in following that way and setting an example to others who wished to lead the perfect life, possessed nothing either severally or in common, either by right of ownership and dominium or by personal right, we corporately and unanimously declare to be not heretical, but true and catholic.\" By the bull Ad conditorem canonum of 8 December 1322, John XXII declared it ridiculous to pretend that every scrap of food given to the friars and eaten by them belonged to the pope, refused to accept ownership over the goods of the Franciscans in future and granted them exemption from the rule that absolutely forbade ownership of anything even in common, thus forcing them to accept ownership. On 12 November 1323, he issued the bull Quum inter nonnullos, which declared \"erroneous and heretical\" the doctrine that Christ and his apostles had no possessions whatsoever.",
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"plaintext": "Influential members of the order protested, such as the minister general Michael of Cesena, the English provincial William of Ockham, and Bonagratia of Bergamo. In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the Pope of heresy. In reply to the argument of his opponents that Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat was fixed and irrevocable, John XXII issued the bull Quia quorundam on 10 November 1324, in which he declared that it cannot be inferred from the words of the 1279 bull that Christ and the apostles had nothing, adding: \"Indeed, it can be inferred rather that the Gospel life lived by Christ and the Apostles did not exclude some possessions in common, since living 'without property' does not require that those living thus should have nothing in common.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1328 Michael of Cesena was summoned to Avignon to explain the Order's intransigence in refusing the Pope's orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria. Michael was imprisoned in Avignon, together with Francesco d'Ascoli, Bonagratia and William of Ockham. In January of that year Louis entered Rome and had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Three months later, he declared John XXII deposed and installed the Spiritual Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as Pope Nicholas V. The Franciscan chapter that opened in Bologna on 28 May reelected Michael of Cesena, who two days before had escaped with his companions from Avignon. In August Louis the Bavarian and his pope had to flee Rome before an attack by Robert, King of Naples. Only a small part of the Franciscan Order joined the opponents of John XXII, and at a general chapter held in Paris in 1329 the majority of all the houses declared their submission to the Pope. With the bull Quia vir reprobus of 16 November 1329, John XXII replied to Michael of Cesena's attacks on Ad conditorem canonum, Quum inter nonnullos, and Quia quorundam. In 1330, Antipope Nicholas V submitted, followed later by the ex-general Michael, and finally, just before the Pope's death, by Ockham. John XXII died in Avignon in 1334 (aged 89/90), probably of stomach cancer.",
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"plaintext": "Pope John XXII was involved in a theological controversy concerning the beatific vision. Even before he was pope, John XXII argued that those who died in the faith did not see the presence of God until the Last Judgment. He continued this argument for a time in sermons while he was pope, although he never taught it in official documents. He eventually backed down from his position, and agreed that those who died in grace do indeed immediately enjoy the beatific vision.",
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"plaintext": "Despite holding for many years a view widely held to be heretical, John XXII is not considered a heretic because the doctrine he had contradicted had not been formally defined by the church until his successor, Benedict XII, addressed it by the encyclical Benedictus Deus, which formally defined this doctrine as contrary to church teaching.",
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"plaintext": "Although, according to Alan C. Kors, Pope John XXII was a \"brilliant organizer and administrator\" and the thought of witchcraft seemed to be in its early stages at this point, Kors states the pope had a personal reason for setting out to stop witchcraft. Kors points to the fact that Pope John had been the victim of an assassination attempt via poisoning and sorcery. As such, Pope John's involvement with witchcraft persecution can be officially traced to his 1326 papal bull Super illius specula in which he laid out a description of those who engage in witchcraft. Pope John also warned people against not only learning magic or teaching it but against the more “execrable” act of performing magic. Pope John stated that anyone who did not heed his “most charitable” warning would be excommunicated. Pope John officially declared witchcraft to be heresy, and thus it could be tried under the Inquisition. Although this was the official ruling for the church, Pope John's first order dealing with magic being tried by the Inquisition was in a letter written in 1320 by Cardinal William of Santa Sabina. The letter was addressed to the Inquisitors of Carcassonne and Toulouse. In the letter Cardinal William states that with the authority of Pope John the Inquisitors there were to investigate witches by “whatever means available” as if witches were any other heretic. The letter went on to describe the actions of those who would be seen as witches and extended power to the Inquisition for the prosecution of any and all cases that fit any part of the description laid out in the letter.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Succession (French: La Loi des mâles), the 1957 fourth novel in Maurice Druon's Les Rois maudits historical novel series, features Duèze's rise from cardinal to pope as one of its plotlines. His character remains present throughout the following books. He was portrayed by Henri Virlogeux in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Claude Rich in the 2005 adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "The papacy of John XXII—the conflict with Louis of Bavaria and the condemnation of the Franciscans over the poverty of Christ—is the central backdrop of Umberto Eco's historical murder mystery The Name of the Rose, which is set in 1327.",
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"plaintext": " Spondent Pariter – papal decretal issued by Pope John XXII forbidding fraudulent alchemy.",
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"plaintext": " Boudet, Jean-Patrice and Julien Théry (2012). « Le procès de Jean XXII contre l'archevêque d'Aix Robert de Mauvoisin : astrologie, arts prohibés et politique (1317–1318) », in Jean XXII et le Midi (Cahiers de Fanjeaux, 45), Toulouse, Privat, 2012, pp.159–235.",
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"plaintext": " Brown, Jaqueline (1991). \"The Declaratio on Jon XXII's Decree Exercrabilis and the Early History of the Rota,\" Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law, 47 (n.s. Vol. 21), pp.47–139.",
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"plaintext": " Heft, James (1986). John XXII and Papal Teaching Authority (Lewiston, 1986) (Texts and Studies in Religion, 27).",
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"plaintext": " Mollat, Guillaume (1963). The Popes at Avignon (London, 1963), 9–25.",
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"plaintext": " Nold, Patrick (2003). Pope John XXII and his Franciscan Cardinal: Bertrand de la Tour and the Apostolic Poverty Controversy. Oxford.",
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"plaintext": " Joseph Shatzmiller, Justice et injustice au début du XIVe siècle : L'enquête sur l'archevêque d'Aix et sa renonciation en 1318'', Rome, École française de Rome, 1999. (in French)",
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37,671 | 1,098,033,796 | Aristocracy | [
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"plaintext": "The concept of aristocracy per Plato, has an ideal state ruled by the philosopher king. Plato describes these \"philosopher kings\" as \"those who love the sight of truth\" (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to its original conceptual drawing in classical antiquity, aristocracy has been associated in the modern era with its more general and degenerated form of oligarchy, specifically an aristocracy class based oligarchy, with entitled nobility as in monarchies or aristocratic merchant republics. Its original classical understanding has been taken up by the modern concepts that can be loosely equivalent to meritocracy or technocracy.",
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"plaintext": "Aristocracies dominated political and economic power for most of the medieval and modern periods almost everywhere in Europe, using their wealth and land-ownership to form a powerful political force. The English Civil War involved the first sustained, organised effort to reduce aristocratic power in Europe. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 18th century, the rising merchant class attempted to use money to buy into the aristocracy, with some success. However, the French Revolution in the 1790s forced many French aristocrats into exile and caused consternation and shock in the aristocratic families of neighbouring countries. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, some surviving exiles returned but their position within French society was not recovered. ",
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"plaintext": "Beginning with Great Britain, industrialization in the 19th century brought urbanization, with wealth increasingly concentrated in the cities, which absorbed political power. However, as late as 1900, aristocrats maintained political dominance in Britain, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Austria and Russia, but it was an increasingly precarious dominion. World War I had the effect of dramatically reducing the power of aristocrats in all major countries. In Russia they were imprisoned and murdered by the communists. After 1900, Liberal and socialist governments levied heavy taxes on landowners, spelling their loss of economic power.",
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"plaintext": " Elitism",
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"plaintext": " Gentry",
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"plaintext": " Nobility",
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"plaintext": " Old money",
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"plaintext": " Timocracy",
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"plaintext": " Tyranny",
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"plaintext": " Bengtsson, Erik, et al. \"Aristocratic wealth and inequality in a changing society: Sweden, 1750–1900.\" Scandinavian Journal of History 44.1 (2019): 27–52. Online",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " Cannon, John. History, Oxford University Press, 1997, ",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liu, Jia. \"Study on the Decline of the British Aristocracy from the Perspective of Modernization.\" 2018 4th International Conference on Economics, Management and Humanities Science (2018). Online",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Schutte, Kimberly. Women, Rank, and Marriage in the British Aristocracy, 1485-2000: An Open Elite? (Springer, 2014).",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Wasson, Ellis. Aristocracy in the Modern World, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.",
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"plaintext": " Aristocracy at Encyclopedia Britannica",
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| [
"Ancient_Greek_government",
"Oligarchy",
"Social_classes",
"Social_groups"
]
| 123,432 | 16,448 | 1,414 | 56 | 0 | 0 | aristocracy | form of government in which power is in the hands of a small, privileged, ruling class | [
"Aristocratism"
]
|
37,673 | 1,106,345,341 | Symbol | [
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"plaintext": "A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences. All communication (and data processing) is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or visual images and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs. For example, a red octagon is a common symbol for \"STOP\"; on maps, blue lines often represent rivers; and a red rose often symbolizes love and compassion. Numerals are symbols for numbers; letters of an alphabet may be symbols for certain phonemes; and personal names are symbols representing individuals. The variable 'x', in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space.",
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"plaintext": "The academic study of symbols is semiotics. In cartography, an organized collection of symbols forms a legend for a map.",
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"plaintext": "The word symbol derives from the late Middle French masculine noun symbole, which appeared around 1380 in a theological sense signifying a formula used in the Roman Catholic Church as a sort of synonym for 'the credo'; by extension in the early Renaissance it came to mean 'a maxim' or 'the external sign of a sacrament'; these meanings were lost in secular contexts. It was during the Renaissance in the mid-16th century that the word took on the meaning that is dominant today, that of 'a natural fact or object evoking by its form or its nature an association of ideas with something abstract or absent'; this appears, for example, in François Rabelais, Le Quart Livre, in 1552. This French word derives from Latin, where both the masculine noun symbolus and the neuter noun symbolum refer to \"a mark or sign as a means of recognition.\" The Latin word derives from the Greek σύμβολον symbolon, from a verb meaning 'throw together, put together, compare,' alluding to the Classical practice of breaking a piece of ceramic in two and giving one half to the person who would receive a future message, and one half to the person who would send it: when the two fit perfectly together, the receiver could be sure that the messenger bearing it did indeed also carry a genuine message from the intended person. A literary or artistic symbol as an \"outward sign\" of something else is a metaphorical extension of this notion of a message from a sender to a recipient. In English, the meaning \"something which stands for something else\" was first recorded in 1590, in Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene.",
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"plaintext": "Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. Symbols are the basis of all human understanding and serve as vehicles of conception for all human knowledge. Symbols facilitate understanding of the world in which we live, thus serving as the grounds upon which we make judgments. In this way, people use symbols not only to make sense of the world around them, but also to identify and cooperate in society through constitutive rhetoric.",
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"plaintext": "Human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture. Thus, symbols carry meanings that depend upon one's cultural background. As a result, the meaning of a symbol is not inherent in the symbol itself but is culturally learned.",
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"plaintext": "Heinrich Zimmer gives a concise overview of the nature, and perennial relevance, of symbols.",
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"plaintext": "{{quote|A symbol ... is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of universal truth.}}",
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"plaintext": "Semiotics is the study of signs, symbols, and signification as communicative behavior. Semiotics studies focus on the relationship of the signifier and the signified, also taking into account the interpretation of visual cues, body language, sound, and other contextual clues. Semiotics is linked with linguistics and psychology. Semioticians not only study what a symbol implies but also how it got its meaning and how it functions to make meaning in society. Symbols allow the human brain continuously to create meaning using sensory input and decode symbols through both denotation and connotation.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative definition of symbol, distinguishing it from the term sign was proposed by Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung. In his studies on what is now called Jungian archetypes, a sign stands for something known, as a word stands for its referent. He contrasted a sign with a symbol: something that is unknown and that cannot be made clear or precise. An example of a symbol in this sense is Christ as a symbol of the archetype called self.",
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"plaintext": "Kenneth Burke described Homo sapiens as a \"symbol-using, symbol making, and symbol misusing animal\" to suggest that a person creates symbols as well as misuses them. One example he uses to indicate what he means by the misuse of symbol is the story of a man who, when told that a particular food item was whale blubber, could barely keep from throwing it up. Later, his friend discovered it was actually just a dumpling. But the man's reaction was a direct consequence of the symbol of \"blubber\" representing something inedible in his mind. In addition, the symbol of \"blubber\" was created by the man through various kinds of learning.",
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"plaintext": "Burke goes on to describe symbols as also being derived from Sigmund Freud's work on condensation and displacement, further stating that symbols are not just relevant to the theory of dreams but also to \"normal symbol systems\". He says they are related through \"substitution\", where one word, phrase, or symbol is substituted for another in order to change the meaning. In other words, if one person does not understand a certain word or phrase, another person may substitute a synonym or symbol in order to get the meaning across. However, upon learning the new way of interpreting a specific symbol, the person may change his or her already-formed ideas to incorporate the new information.",
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"plaintext": "Jean Dalby Clift says that people not only add their own interpretations to symbols, they also create personal symbols that represent their own understanding of their lives: what she calls \"core images\" of the person. Clift argues that symbolic work with these personal symbols or core images can be as useful as working with dream symbols in psychoanalysis or counseling.",
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"plaintext": "William Indick suggests that the symbols that are commonly found in myth, legend, and fantasy fulfill psychological functions and hence are why archetypes such as \"the hero,\" \"the princess\" and \"the witch\" have remained popular for centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Symbols can carry symbolic value in three primary forms: Ideological, comparative, and isomorphic. Ideological symbols such as religious and state symbols convey complex sets of beliefs and ideas that indicate \"the right thing to do\". Comparative symbols such as prestigious office addresses, fine art, and prominent awards indicate answers to questions of \"better or worse\" and \"superior or inferior\". Isomorphic symbols blend in with the surrounding cultural environment such that they enable individuals and organizations to conform to their surroundings and evade social and political scrutiny. Examples of symbols with isomorphic value include wearing a professional dress during business meetings, shaking hands to greet others in the West, or bowing to greet others in the East. A single symbol can carry multiple distinct meanings such that it provides multiple types of symbolic value.",
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"plaintext": "Paul Tillich argued that, while signs are invented and forgotten, symbols are born and die. There are, therefore, dead and living symbols. A living symbol can reveal to an individual hidden levels of meaning and transcendent or religious realities. For Tillich a symbol always \"points beyond itself\" to something that is unquantifiable and mysterious; symbols open up the \"depth dimension of reality itself\". Symbols are complex, and their meanings can evolve as the individual or culture evolves. When a symbol loses its meaning and power for an individual or culture, it becomes a dead symbol.",
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"plaintext": "When a symbol becomes identified with the deeper reality to which it refers, it becomes idolatrous as the \"symbol is taken for reality.\" The symbol itself is substituted for the deeper meaning it intends to convey. The unique nature of a symbol is that it gives access to deeper layers of reality which are otherwise inaccessible.",
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"plaintext": "A symbol's meaning may be modified by various factors including popular usage, history, and contextual intent.",
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"plaintext": "The history of a symbol is one of many factors in determining a particular symbol's apparent meaning. Consequently, symbols with emotive power carry problems analogous to false etymologies.",
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"plaintext": "The context of a symbol may change its meaning. Similar five-pointed stars might signify a law enforcement officer or a member of the armed services, depending upon the uniform.",
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"plaintext": "Symbols are used in cartography to communicate geographical information (generally as point, line, or area features). As with other symbols, visual variables such as size, shape, orientation, texture, and pattern provide meaning to the symbol. According to semiotics, map symbols are \"read\" by map users when they make a connection between the graphic mark on the map (the sign), a general concept (the interpretant), and a particular feature of the real world (the referent''). Map symbols can thus be categorized by how they suggest this connection:",
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"plaintext": " Pictorial symbols (also \"image\", \"iconic\", or \"replicative\") appear as the real-world feature, although it is often in a generalized manner; e.g. a tree icon to represent a forest, or green denoting vegetation.",
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"plaintext": " Functional symbols (also \"representational\") directly represent the activity that takes place at the represented feature; e.g. a picture of a skier to represent a ski resort or a tent to represent a campground.",
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"plaintext": " Conceptual symbols directly represent a concept related to the represented feature; e.g. a dollar sign to represent an ATM, or a Star of David to represent a Jewish synagogue.",
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"plaintext": " Conventional symbols (also \"associative\") do not have any intuitive relationship but are so commonly used that map readers eventually learn to recognize them; e.g. a red line to represent a highway or a cross to represent a hospital.",
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"plaintext": "Abstract/geometric symbols (also \"adhHoc\") are arbitrary shapes chosen by the cartographer to represent a certain feature.",
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"plaintext": "A symbolic action is an action that symbolizes or signals what the actor wants or believes. The action conveys meaning to the viewers. Symbolic action may overlap with symbolic speech, such as the use of flag burning to express hostility or saluting the flag to express patriotism. In response to intense public criticism, businesses, organizations, and governments may take symbolic actions rather than, or in addition to, directly addressing the identified problems.",
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"plaintext": " Symbolic interactionism",
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"plaintext": " Symbolism (arts)",
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| [
"Concepts",
"Notation",
"Semiotics",
"Symbols",
"Syntactic_entities"
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| 80,071 | 23,415 | 1,318 | 82 | 0 | 0 | symbol | something that represents an idea, a process, or a physical entity | [
"symbols"
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|
37,674 | 1,101,816,491 | Duck | [
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"plaintext": "Duck is the common name for numerous species of waterfowl in the family Anatidae. Ducks are generally smaller and shorter-necked than swans and geese, which are members of the same family. Divided among several subfamilies, they are a form taxon; they do not represent a monophyletic group (the group of all descendants of a single common ancestral species), since swans and geese are not considered ducks. Ducks are mostly aquatic birds, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes, gallinules and coots.",
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"plaintext": "The word duck comes from Old English 'diver', a derivative of the verb 'to duck, bend down low as if to get under something, or dive', because of the way many species in the dabbling duck group feed by upending; compare with Dutch and German 'to dive'.",
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"plaintext": "This word replaced Old English / 'duck', possibly to avoid confusion with other words, like 'end' with similar forms. Other Germanic languages still have similar words for duck, for example, Dutch , German and Norwegian . The word / was inherited from Proto-Indo-European; cf. Latin anas \"duck\", Lithuanian 'duck', Ancient Greek / (/) 'duck', and Sanskrit 'water bird', among others.",
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"plaintext": "A duckling is a young duck in downy plumage or baby duck, but in the food trade a young domestic duck which has just reached adult size and bulk and its meat is still fully tender, is sometimes labelled as a duckling.",
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"plaintext": "A male is called a drake and the female is called a duck, or in ornithology a hen.",
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"plaintext": "All ducks belong to the biological order Anseriformes, a group that contains the ducks, geese and swans, as well as the screamers, and the magpie goose. All except the screamers belong to the biological family Anatidae. Within the family, ducks are split into a variety of subfamilies and 'tribes'. The number and composition of these subfamilies and tribes is the cause of considerable disagreement among taxonomists. Some base their decisions on morphological characteristics, others on shared behaviours or genetic studies. The number of suggested subfamilies containing ducks ranges from two to five. The significant level of hybridisation that occurs among wild ducks complicates efforts to tease apart the relationships between various species.",
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"plaintext": "In most modern classifications, the so-called 'true ducks' belong to the subfamily Anatinae, which is further split into a varying number of tribes. The largest of these, the Anatini, contains the 'dabbling' or 'river' ducks – named for their method of feeding primarily at the surface of fresh water. The 'diving ducks', also named for their primary feeding method, make up the tribe Aythyini. The 'sea ducks' of the tribe Mergini are diving ducks which specialise on fish and shellfish and spend a majority of their lives in saltwater. The tribe Oxyurini contains the 'stifftails', diving ducks notable for their small size and stiff, upright tails.",
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"plaintext": "A number of other species called ducks are not considered to be 'true ducks', and are typically placed in other subfamilies or tribes. The whistling ducks are assigned either to a tribe (Dendrocygnini) in the subfamily Anatinae or the subfamily Anserinae, or to their own subfamily (Dendrocygninae) or family (Dendrocyganidae). The freckled duck of Australia is either the sole member of the tribe Stictonettini in the subfamily Anserinae, or in its own family, the Stictonettinae. The shelducks make up the tribe Tadornini in the family Anserinae in some classifications, and their own subfamily, Tadorninae, in others, while the steamer ducks are either placed in the family Anserinae in the tribe Tachyerini or lumped with the shelducks in the tribe Tadorini. The perching ducks make up in the tribe Cairinini in the subfamily Anserinae in some classifications, while that tribe is eliminated in other classifications and its members assigned to the tribe Anatini. The torrent duck is generally included in the subfamily Anserinae in the monotypic tribe Merganettini, but is sometimes included in the tribe Tadornini. The pink-eared duck is sometimes included as a true duck either in the tribe Anatini or the tribe Malacorhynchini, and other times is included with the shelducks in the tribe Tadornini.",
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"plaintext": "The overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, and they are also relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans. The body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded. The bill is usually broad and contains serrated pectens, which are particularly well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the bill is long and strongly serrated. The scaled legs are strong and well developed, and generally set far back on the body, more so in the highly aquatic species. The wings are very strong and are generally short and pointed, and the flight of ducks requires fast continuous strokes, requiring in turn strong wing muscles. Three species of steamer duck are almost flightless, however. Many species of duck are temporarily flightless while moulting; they seek out protected habitat with good food supplies during this period. This moult typically precedes migration.",
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"plaintext": "The drakes of northern species often have extravagant plumage, but that is moulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the \"eclipse\" plumage. Southern resident species typically show less sexual dimorphism, although there are exceptions such as the paradise shelduck of New Zealand, which is both strikingly sexually dimorphic and in which the female's plumage is brighter than that of the male. The plumage of juvenile birds generally resembles that of the female. Female ducks have evolved to have a corkscrew shaped vagina to prevent rape.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks have a cosmopolitan distribution, and are found on every continent except Antarctica. Several species manage to live on subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the Auckland Islands. Ducks have reached a number of isolated oceanic islands, including the Hawaiian Islands, Micronesia and the Galápagos Islands, where they are often and less often . A handful are endemic to such far-flung islands.",
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"plaintext": "Some duck species, mainly those breeding in the temperate and Arctic Northern Hemisphere, are migratory; those in the tropics are generally not. Some ducks, particularly in Australia where rainfall is erratic, are nomadic, seeking out the temporary lakes and pools that form after localised heavy rain.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks eat food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs.",
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"plaintext": "Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging. Along the edge of the bill, there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water squirting from the side of the bill and traps any food. The pecten is also used to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items.",
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"plaintext": "Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater. To be able to submerge more easily, the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, and therefore have more difficulty taking off to fly.",
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"plaintext": "A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to catch and swallow large fish.",
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"plaintext": "The others have the characteristic wide flat bill adapted to dredging-type jobs such as pulling up waterweed, pulling worms and small molluscs out of mud, searching for insect larvae, and bulk jobs such as dredging out, holding, turning head first, and swallowing a squirming frog. To avoid injury when digging into sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn.",
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"plaintext": "The Guardian (British newspaper) published an article advising that ducks should not be fed with bread because it damages the health of the ducks and pollutes waterways.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks generally only have one partner at a time, although the partnership usually only lasts one year. Larger species and the more sedentary species (like fast-river specialists) tend to have pair-bonds that last numerous years. Most duck species breed once a year, choosing to do so in favourable conditions (spring/summer or wet seasons). Ducks also tend to make a nest before breeding, and, after hatching, lead their ducklings to water. Mother ducks are very caring and protective of their young, but may abandon some of their ducklings if they are physically stuck in an area they cannot get out of (such as nesting in an enclosed courtyard) or are not prospering due to genetic defects or sickness brought about by hypothermia, starvation, or disease. Ducklings can also be orphaned by inconsistent late hatching where a few eggs hatch after the mother has abandoned the nest and led her ducklings to water.",
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"plaintext": "Female mallard ducks (as well as several other species in the genus Anas, such as the American and Pacific black ducks, spot-billed duck, northern pintail and common teal) make the classic \"quack\" sound while males make a similar but raspier sound that is sometimes written as \"breeeeze\", but, despite widespread misconceptions, most species of duck do not \"quack\". In general, ducks make a range of calls, including whistles, cooing, yodels and grunts. For example, the scaup which are diving ducks make a noise like \"scaup\" (hence their name). Calls may be loud displaying calls or quieter contact calls.",
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"plaintext": "A common urban legend claims that duck quacks do not echo; however, this has been proven to be false. This myth was first debunked by the Acoustics Research Centre at the University of Salford in 2003 as part of the British Association's Festival of Science. It was also debunked in one of the earlier episodes of the popular Discovery Channel television show MythBusters.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks have many predators. Ducklings are particularly vulnerable, since their inability to fly makes them easy prey not only for predatory birds but also for large fish like pike, crocodilians, predatory testudines such as the alligator snapping turtle, and other aquatic hunters, including fish-eating birds such as herons. Ducks' nests are raided by land-based predators, and brooding females may be caught unaware on the nest by mammals, such as foxes, or large birds, such as hawks or owls.",
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"plaintext": "Adult ducks are fast fliers, but may be caught on the water by large aquatic predators including big fish such as the North American muskie and the European pike. In flight, ducks are safe from all but a few predators such as humans and the peregrine falcon, which uses its speed and strength to catch ducks.",
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"plaintext": "Humans have hunted ducks since prehistoric times. Excavations of middens in California dating to 7800 - 6400 BP have turned up bones of ducks, including at least one now-extinct flightless species. Ducks were captured in \"significant numbers\" by Holocene inhabitants of the lower Ohio River valley, suggesting they took advantage of the seasonal bounty provided by migrating waterfowl. Neolithic hunters in locations as far apart as the Caribbean, Scandinavia, Egypt, Switzerland, and China relied on ducks as a source of protein for some or all of the year. Archeological evidence shows that Māori people in New Zealand hunted the flightless Finsch's duck, possibly to extinction, though rat predation may also have contributed to its fate. A similar end awaited the Chatham duck, a species with reduced flying capabilities which went extinct shortly after its island was colonised by Polynesian settlers. It is probable that duck eggs were gathered by Neolithic hunter-gathers as well, though hard evidence of this is uncommon.",
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"plaintext": "In many areas, wild ducks (including ducks farmed and released into the wild) are hunted for food or sport, by shooting, or formerly by being trapped using duck decoys. Because an idle floating duck or a duck squatting on land cannot react to fly or move quickly, \"a sitting duck\" has come to mean \"an easy target\". These ducks may be contaminated by pollutants such as PCBs.",
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"plaintext": "Ducks have many economic uses, being farmed for their meat, eggs, and feathers (particularly their down). Approximately 3 billion ducks are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. They are also kept and bred by aviculturists and often displayed in zoos. Almost all the varieties of domestic ducks are descended from the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), apart from the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata). The call duck is another example of a domestic duck breed. Its name comes from its original use established by hunters, as a decoy to attract wild mallards from the sky, into traps set for them on the ground. The call duck is the world's smallest domestic duck breed, as it weighs less than .",
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"plaintext": "Ducks appear on several coats of arms, including the coat of arms of Lubāna (Latvia) and the coat of arms of Föglö (Åland).",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, psychologist Richard Wiseman and colleagues at the University of Hertfordshire, UK, finished a year-long LaughLab experiment, concluding that of all animals, ducks attract the most humor and silliness; he said, \"If you're going to tell a joke involving an animal, make it a duck.\" The word \"duck\" may have become an inherently funny word in many languages, possibly because ducks are seen as silly in their looks or behavior. Of the many ducks in fiction, many are cartoon characters, such as Walt Disney's Donald Duck, and Warner Bros.' Daffy Duck. Howard the Duck started as a comic book character in 1973 and was made into a movie in 1986.",
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"plaintext": "The 1992 Disney film The Mighty Ducks, starring Emilio Estevez, chose the duck as the mascot for the fictional youth hockey team who are protagonists of the movie, based on the duck being described as a fierce fighter. This led to the duck becoming the nickname and mascot for the eventual National Hockey League professional team of the Anaheim Ducks, who were founded with the name the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The duck is also the nickname of the University of Oregon sports teams as well as the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team.",
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"plaintext": " Duck as food",
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"plaintext": " Duck test",
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"plaintext": " Fictional ducks",
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"plaintext": " Rubber duck",
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"plaintext": " list of books (useful looking abstracts)",
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"plaintext": " Ducks on postage stamps",
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{
"plaintext": " - A modern illustrated guide to identification of US waterfowl",
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| [
"Ducks",
"Game_birds",
"Articles_containing_video_clips",
"Bird_common_names"
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| 3,736,439 | 43,915 | 1,943 | 138 | 0 | 0 | duck | common name for many species in the bird family Anatidae | []
|
37,678 | 1,054,721,045 | Denver_(disambiguation) | [
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"plaintext": " Denver, Victoria, a locality in Australia",
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"plaintext": " \"Denver\" (song), by Larry Gatlin & the Gatlin Brothers Band",
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"plaintext": " The Denver Dry Goods Company or The Denver, a defunct company in Denver, Colorado",
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| 225,608 | 911 | 1 | 45 | 0 | 0 | Denver | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,684 | 1,106,355,474 | Libertarian_Movement_(Costa_Rica) | [
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"plaintext": "The Libertarian Movement Party (; PML) is a political party based on libertarian conservatism in Costa Rica. It was founded in May 1994. After an important protagonism during early 2000s with its perennial nominee Otto Guevara among the main candidates and reaching third place in 2006 and 2010, it was affected by several corruption scandals and lack of funds, the party gradually suffered a debacle in 2014 ending in fourth on the presidential ticket, and fifth in Parliament. Later losing all its mayors in the mid-term local election of 2016, to finally having bad results in 2018 with Guevara's candidacy reaching only 1% of support and losing all seats in Congress.",
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"plaintext": "Due to previous fraud allegations against the party, Otto Guevara's campaign had difficulty finding a bank willing to give the party a loan for campaigning. This changed on January 20, when Promérica Bank loaned the party 500 million colones for the purpose of financing their electoral campaign. On November, 2019 Guevara announced the foundation of a new political party named Liberal Union as the Libertarian Movement is unable to pay its debts.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2014 campaign, the party expressed opposition to abortion and same-sex marriage, although Congressman and Presidential candidate Otto Guevara has since said that his major concern about legalizing gay marriage is that the debate over such libertarian legislation would distract the nation from more important matters.",
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"plaintext": " Moderate intervention of the State in health, education, infrastructure and other areas",
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"plaintext": " Break up of all of the state-owned monopolies and eliminate legal barriers on private economic activities",
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"plaintext": " Provide a low flat tax for the income produced within the country, eliminate many of the current taxes",
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"plaintext": " Free trade – eliminate tariffs and barriers to the entry of goods",
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"plaintext": " Freedom to choose the currency that consenting individuals want",
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},
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"plaintext": " Freedom to choose your own doctor within the social security system",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Strengthen individual pension accounts",
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},
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"plaintext": " Freedom of parents to choose schools through vouchers",
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"plaintext": " Respect for private property",
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"plaintext": " Reduction of the participation of government in the economy",
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"plaintext": " Freedom of speech and press",
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"plaintext": " Transfer of responsibility from central government to local",
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"plaintext": " Strengthening of immigration, particularly from Nicaraguans",
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"plaintext": " Reason Magazine interview with Otto Guevara",
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| [
"1994_establishments_in_Costa_Rica",
"Catholic_political_parties",
"Classical_liberal_parties",
"Conservative_parties_in_Costa_Rica",
"Liberal_conservative_parties",
"Liberal_parties_in_Costa_Rica",
"Libertarian_parties",
"Political_parties_established_in_1994",
"Political_parties_in_Costa_Rica",
"Right-libertarianism",
"Social_conservative_parties"
]
| 3,326,706 | 209 | 34 | 42 | 0 | 0 | Libertarian Movement | Political party in Costa Rica | []
|
37,686 | 1,087,664,682 | Parasports | [
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"plaintext": "Parasports are sports played by people with a disability, including physical and intellectual disabilities. Some parasports are forms of adapted physical activities from existing able-bodied sports, while others have been specifically created for persons with a disability and do not have an able-bodied equivalent. Disability exists in four categories: physical, mental, permanent and temporary. At a competitive level, disability sport classifications are applied to allow people of varying abilities to face similar opposition.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"parasports\" arose as a portmanteau of the words paraplegic and sports. Though the sport has since included athletes of disabilities other than paraplegia, the term persists as a catch-all. Other terms for the concept include adapted sports, adaptive sports, disability sports, and disabled sports. The term Paralympic sports may also be used interchangeably with parasports, though technically this only refers to sports contested at the Paralympic Games.",
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"plaintext": "Organized sport for athletes with a disability is generally divided into three broad disability groups: the deaf, people with physical disabilities, and people with intellectual disabilities. Each group has a distinct history, organization, competition program, and approach to sport.",
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"plaintext": "Formal international competition in deaf sport began with the 1924 Paris Silent Games, organized by the Comité International des Sports des Sourds, CISS (The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf). These games evolved into the modern Deaflympics, governed by the CISS, which maintains separate games for deaf athletes based on their numbers, their special communication needs on the sports field, and the social interaction that is a vital part of sports.",
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"plaintext": "Sports for persons with intellectual disabilities began to be organized in the 1960s through the Special Olympics movement. This grew out of a series of summer camps organized by Eunice Kennedy Shriver, beginning in 1962. In 1968 the first international Special Olympics were held, in Chicago. Today, Special Olympics provides training and competition in a variety of sports for persons with intellectual disabilities.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, the International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disability (INAS-FID) was formed to support elite competition for athletes with intellectual disabilities. This was established in contrast to the more participative, \"sport for all\" approach of Special Olympics. For a time, athletes with intellectual disabilities were included in the Paralympic Games. After a cheating scandal at the 2000 Summer Paralympics, where a number of athletes participating in intellectual disability events were revealed to not be disabled, INAS-FID athletes were banned from Paralympic competition, but the ban on intellectually disabled athletes has since been lifted.",
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"plaintext": "Organized sport for persons with physical disabilities existed as early as 1911, when the \"Cripples Olympiad\" was held in the U.S.A. One of the successful athletes was Walter William Francis, a Welshman, who won both the running and wrestling championships. Later, events often developed out of rehabilitation programs. Following the Second World War, in response to the needs of large numbers of injured ex-service members and civilians, sport was introduced as a key part of rehabilitation. Sport for rehabilitation grew into recreational sport and then into competitive sport. The pioneer of this approach was Sir Ludwig Guttmann of the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England. In 1948, while the Olympic Games were being held in London, he organized a sports competition for wheelchair athletes at Stoke Mandeville. This was the origin of the Stoke Mandeville Games, from which evolved both the IWAS World Games and the Paralympic Games. The first official Paralympic Games, which were simultaneously the 9th International Stoke Mandeville Games ('international' having been added when Dutch service personnel first took part in the Games in 1952), were held in Rome in 1960. The 2nd, 3rd and 4th Paralympic Games were simultaneously the 13th, 17th and 21st international Stoke Mandeville Games.",
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"plaintext": "Sports for persons with physical disabilities began to be organized in the US in the late 1960s through Disabled Sports USA. Disabled Sports USA was established in 1967 by disabled military veterans, including Jim Winthers, to help rehabilitate the injured soldiers returning from Vietnam and originally named the National Amputee Skiers Association. In 1970, Hal O'Leary founded the National Sports Center for the Disabled (NSCD) at Winter Park in Colorado. Today, NSCD has 19 certified instructors and more than 1,000 volunteers. Disabled Sports USA has become one of the largest national multi-sport, multi-disability organizations in the United States, serving more than 60,000 wounded warriors, youth and adults annually.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, the Paralympic Games expanded to include those with limb amputations and visual impairments. Individuals with cerebral palsy were allowed to compete beginning in 1980.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1988, the International Olympic Committee has chosen to validate Disabled Sports (physical disabilities) and incorporate it as a part of the Games: the staging of the Paralympic Games immediately follows the Olympic Games. This scheduling helps to foster greater interest in disabled sports. An investigation published on a Swiss website has shown that more and more International Sports Federations list disabled athletes than any other sportsmen or sportswomen.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, the Extremity Games were formed for people with limb loss or limb difference to compete in extreme sports. College Park Industries, a manufacturer of prosthetic feet, organized this event to give amputee athletes a venue to compete in this increasingly popular sports genre also referred to as action sports. This annual event held in the summer in Orlando, includes competitions in skateboarding, wakeboarding, rock climbing, mountain biking, surfing, moto-x and kayaking. Various organizations, such as Paradox Sports, have arisen to help empower and inspire disabled people through equipping and welcoming them into the extreme sports community.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2006, The Federation de Internationale Powerchair Football Association and The United States Power Soccer Association were formed to standardize the rules of play and promote one of the few competitive team sports for motorized wheelchair users. Powerchair football (or power soccer).",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, a group of athletes, coaches, volunteers, and parents based in San Diego split from Special Olympics Southern California to gain local control over disabled athletics programs. This group – SPORTS for Exceptional Athletes (S4EA) – serves people with developmental disabilities within the age range of 5 years old through adults. By combining people with and without disabilities, S4EA hopes that participating athletes will interact and form lasting bonds of friendship through shared sports and recreational activities in S4EA's served communities. Although the organization's focus is primarily San Diego County, S4EA has grown from this base to satellite programs in Ventura and Temecula, California.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, Paralympic sport is governed by the International Paralympic Committee, in conjunction with a wide range of other international sport organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Today, there are many sport opportunities throughout the United States for injured service members, including cycling, shooting, wheelchair tennis and basketball, track and field, adapted water sports, and snow skiing. The Army Wounded Warrior Program offers sitting volleyball to injured service members, and some organizations also offer sport opportunities to family and friends of injured service members in addition to the members themselves. Two Paralympic-style multi-sport events exist exclusively for wounded, injured or sick armed services personnel and veterans: the Warrior Games in the United States and the Invictus Games which originated in the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "A wide range of sports have been adapted to be played by people with various disabilities, as well as several that are unique just to disabled athletes, such as goalball. Within each movement, different sports are practiced at different levels; for example, not all sports in the Paralympic movement are part of the Paralympic Games. In addition, many sports are practiced by persons with a disability outside the formal sports movements.",
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"plaintext": "Adapted sports help society learn about disability. They also can help remove some of the stigma associated with having a disability.",
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"plaintext": "There is evidence to support that the use of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) as a training intervention can be implemented to increase the aerobic fitness, respiratory function, and overall quality of life in this population of athletes. Inspiratory Muscle Training in particular has been shown to improve respiratory muscle function and might help to reduce dyspnea on exertion. Long term physiological adaptations through prolonged training demonstrated within athletes with disabilities include increased respiratory volume, improved executive functions and increased reaction time among other benefits in relation to non athletes in the same age group.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s, work began within several countries and organizations to include athletes with disabilities in the non-disabled sport system. This included adding events for athletes with disabilities to major games such as the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games, and integration of these athletes into non-disabled sports organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1984, the Olympics have included exhibition events for Paralympic athletes. However, integration of full medal events has not taken place, and the status of athletes with a disability in the Olympic movement remains controversial.",
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"plaintext": "Within the Commonwealth Games, athletes with a disability were first included in 1990 Auckland Commonwealth Games, then at the exhibition events in 1994, and at the 2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games they were included as full members of their national teams, making these the first fully inclusive international multi-sport games. This policy has continued with the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games, where Canadian Chantal Petitclerc became the first athlete with a disability to carry her country's flag in the Opening Ceremonies of an integrated games.",
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"plaintext": "Individual athletes such as swimmer Natalie du Toit and track athlete Oscar Pistorius have competed as equals against able bodied athletes at various events including the Olympic Games.",
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"plaintext": "2013 the FIFA decided that Austrian footballer Martin Hofbauer can continue to play competitive football with prosthetics after he lost his right lower leg due to cancer.",
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"plaintext": "The self-determination theory has been one of the most proven theories on how athletes participate in competitions of this level. Studies have supported this theory especially in intellectually or developmentally disabled athletes. Studies have continued to question the motivation for joining such competitions like the Special Olympics as well as the Paralympic Games. The Motivations for joining the Special Olympics uncover themes among individuals and families for their participation or abstention from these Olympic programs.",
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"plaintext": "There are specific strategies that may be employed to increase inclusion of people with disabilities in sports. This includes modifying rules or adapting activities for a particular individual. As well, maintaining a non-competitive focus helps to increase the inclusion of participants with disabilities.",
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"plaintext": "Including children with intellectual disabilities in sports programs in which they play with non-disabled athletes results in these children becoming more involved in mainstream sports, incorporating more physical activity in their daily lives and it increases their interactions with children who are not disabled. It is important for children with disabilities to get different types of support while participating in sports programs, for example, direct support from coaches and other athletes, indirect support from parents and non-human support from therapy dogs. Activities should be modified to suit different types of children's abilities and inclusivity is easier when activities are non-competitive.",
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"plaintext": "\"Unified sports\" involve heterogeneous teams with athletes of mixed ability. Since the 1990s, Special Olympics Unified Sports have been promoting social inclusion through shared sports training and competition. This initiative has expanded globally and now involves more than 700,000 players in 127 countries worldwide. The principle behind unified sports is simple: training together and playing together is a quick path to friendship and understanding.",
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"plaintext": "The NBA has been a major supporter of Unified Sports, sponsoring the annual NBA Cares Special Olympics Unified Basketball Game during the NBA All-Star Weekend. The Walt Disney Company, ESPN and Special Olympics are also working on a two-year global initiative that will leverage the power of sports to promote an environment of social inclusion and acceptance.",
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"plaintext": "Disabled drivers have competed in motorsport versus fully able drivers; for example Alex Zanardi, Albert Llovera, Clay Regazzoni and Jason Watt.",
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"plaintext": " Assistive technology in sport",
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"plaintext": " ASEAN ParaGames",
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"plaintext": " Défi sportif",
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"plaintext": " FESPIC Games",
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"plaintext": " IWAS World Games",
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"plaintext": " Special Hockey",
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"plaintext": " 1st World Deaf Ice Hockey and Curling Championships",
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"plaintext": " World Deaf Football Championships",
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"plaintext": " International Paralympic Committee",
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"plaintext": " Deaflympics",
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| [
"Parasports",
"Sports_by_type"
]
| 814,517 | 2,362 | 370 | 75 | 0 | 0 | disabled sport | sports practiced by disabled people | [
"disabled sports",
"adaptive sport",
"parasport",
"disability sport"
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|
37,688 | 1,106,913,571 | Gaelic_football | [
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"plaintext": "Gaelic football (; short name ), commonly known as simply Gaelic, GAA or football is an Irish team sport. It is played between two teams of 15 players on a rectangular grass pitch. The objective of the sport is to score by kicking or punching the ball into the other team's goals (3 points) or between two upright posts above the goals and over a crossbar above the ground (1 point).",
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"plaintext": "Players advance the football up the field with a combination of carrying, bouncing, kicking, hand-passing, and soloing (dropping the ball and then toe-kicking the ball upward into the hands). In the game, two types of scores are possible: points and goals. A point is awarded for kicking or hand-passing the ball over the crossbar, signalled by the umpire raising a white flag. A goal is awarded for kicking the ball under the crossbar into the net, signalled by the umpire raising a green flag. Positions in Gaelic football are similar to those in other football codes, and comprise one goalkeeper, six backs, two midfielders, and six forwards, with a variable number of substitutes.",
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"plaintext": "Gaelic football is one of four sports (collectively referred to as the \"Gaelic games\") controlled by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), the largest sporting organisation in Ireland. Along with hurling and camogie, Gaelic football is one of the few remaining strictly amateur sports in the world, with players, coaches, and managers prohibited from receiving any form of payment. Gaelic football is mainly played on the island of Ireland, although units of the Association exist in Great Britain, mainland Europe, North America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.",
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"plaintext": "The final of the All-Ireland Senior Championship, held every year at Croke Park, Dublin, draws crowds of more than 80,000 people. Outside Ireland, football is mainly played among members of the Irish diaspora. Gaelic Park in New York City is the largest purpose-built Gaelic sports venue outside Ireland. Three major football competitions operate throughout the year: the National Football League and the All-Ireland Senior Championship operate on an inter-county basis, while the All-Ireland Club Championship is contested by individual clubs. The All-Ireland Senior Championship is considered the most prestigious event in Gaelic football.",
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"plaintext": "Under the auspices of the GAA, Gaelic football is a male-only sport; however, the related sport of ladies' Gaelic football is governed by the Ladies' Gaelic Football Association. Similarities between Gaelic football and Australian rules football have allowed the development of international rules football, a hybrid sport, and a series of Test matches has been held regularly since 1998.",
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"plaintext": "While Gaelic football as it is known today dates back to the late 19th century, various kinds of football were played in Ireland before this time.",
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"plaintext": "The first legal reference to football in Ireland was in 1308, when John McCrocan, a spectator at a football game at Novum Castrum de Leuan (the New Castle of the Lyons or Newcastle) was charged with accidentally stabbing a player named William Bernard. A field near Newcastle, South Dublin is still known as the football field. The Statute of Galway of 1527 allowed the playing of \"foot balle\" and archery but banned \"hokie'—the hurling of a little ball with sticks or staves\" as well as other sports.",
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"plaintext": "By the 17th century, the situation had changed considerably. The games had grown in popularity and were widely played. This was due to the patronage of the gentry. Now instead of opposing the games it was the gentry and the ruling class who were serving as patrons of the games. Games were organised between landlords with each team comprising 20 or more tenants. Wagers were commonplace with purses of up to 100 guineas (Prior, 1997).",
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"plaintext": "The earliest record of a recognised precursor to the modern game dates from a match in County Meath in 1670, in which catching and kicking the ball were permitted.",
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"plaintext": "However even \"foot-ball\" was banned by the severe Sunday Observance Act of 1695, which imposed a fine of one shilling (a substantial amount at the time) for those caught playing sports. It proved difficult, if not impossible, for the authorities to enforce the Act and the earliest recorded inter-county match in Ireland was one between Louth and Meath, at Slane, in 1712, about which the poet James Dall McCuairt wrote a poem of 88 verses beginning \"Ba haigeanta\".",
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"plaintext": "A six-a-side version was played in Dublin in the early 18th century, and 100 years later there were accounts of games played between County sides (Prior, 1997).",
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"plaintext": "By the early 19th century, various football games, referred to collectively as caid, were popular in Kerry, especially the Dingle Peninsula. Father W. Ferris described two forms of caid: the \"field game\" in which the object was to put the ball through arch-like goals, formed from the boughs of two trees, and; the epic \"cross-country game\", which lasted the whole of a Sunday (after mass) and was won by taking the ball across a parish boundary. \"Wrestling\", \"holding\" opposing players, and carrying the ball were all allowed.",
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"plaintext": "Some accounts of traditional Irish football come not from Ireland, but other colonies around the world, often to celebrate St Patrick's Day. Many of the earliest football matches in Australia date back to the 1840s were Irish immigrants. In the Colony of South Australia there are several accounts of Irish football being played at Thebarton in 1843 and again in 1853. There were similar accounts of football in the 1840s in colonial Melbourne at Batman's Hill and the goldfields in the Colony of Victoria. Irish football was also played in the Colony of New Zealand in the 1860s and 1870s in Auckland during Thomas Croke's term as Archbishop there.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1860s and 1870s, rugby football started to become popular in Ireland. Trinity College Dublin was an early stronghold of rugby, and the rules of the (English) Football Association were codified in 1863 and distributed widely. By this time, according to Gaelic football historian Jack Mahon, even in the Irish countryside, caid had begun to give way to a \"rough-and-tumble game\", which even allowed tripping.",
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"plaintext": "The first account of what the founders of modern Gaelic football referred to as Irish football date to 1873. Paddy Begley notes that in County Kerry in 1870 only soccer and rugby were played, although historian Paddy Foley notes that by 1874 a third, very different form of football began to emerge and spread across South-West Ireland. At Killarney, these highly popular matches were virtually indistinguishable from the Victorian Rules (first codified in 1859 and then played extensively in the Colony of Victoria and Colony of Queensland and to a lesser extent in the colonies of New South Wales and New Zealand). This kicking variety of football was even played with an oval ball which became customary in Australia in the 1870s and that scoring was achieved only by kicking goals. A major difference between the two styles is that Irish variety featured high kicking \"up and under\" whereas in colonial Victoria, the little marks or foot passes were much more common. While the founders of the game were all familiar with or played rugby, including Cusack and Davin, few had actually played Irish football as it was so rare outside of the South-West, though the influence of this football on the founders was obvious, this is most likely the \"football kicking under the Irish rules\" that Thomas Croke later recalled in County Cork.",
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"plaintext": "Irish historian Garnham, citing R.M. Peter's Irish Football Annual of 1880, argued that Gaelic Football did not actually exist prior to the 1880s and curious on the origin of the distinctive features was of the belief that clubs from England in 1868 most likely introduced elements of their codes including the \"mark\" (a free kick to players who cleanly catch the ball, which was a feature of the matches played in the 1880s) and scoring by kicking between the upright posts. Unable to identify the source of these peculiar traits he believed they were introduced from English clubs Trinity (1854) and Blackheath (1862) who had their own distinctive rules.",
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"plaintext": "County Limerick was a stronghold of the game in the 1880s, and the Commercials Club in Limerick, founded by employees of Cannock's Drapery Store, was one of the first to impose a set of rules, which was adapted by other clubs in the city. These rules are believed to be the basis for the rules that were later adopted by the GAA and appear to have contained some of the Victorian Rules of 1866. It is not known how or when these Victorian Rules reached Ireland, though many of the goldrush Irish immigrants returned to Ireland during the 1870s and 1880s as the colonial fortunes faded. Playing the code under its own rules the club (representing County Limerick) later won the inaugural 1887 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final.",
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"plaintext": "English (Association) football started to take hold, especially in Ulster, in the 1880s. By the mid-1880s it had become so popular that it was feared by many to completely displace Irish football.",
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"plaintext": "Irish football however, continued its grip on the southern counties. Accounts from 1889 state that the variety of football that was becoming popular in Ireland in 1884 bore little resemblance at all to the old mob football and was received by the public as more a hybrid of English and Scotch football.",
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"plaintext": "Irish forms of football were not formally arranged into an organised playing code by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) until 1884 with the rules widely distributed in 1887. The GAA sought to promote traditional Irish sports, such as hurling and to reject \"foreign\" (particularly English) imports. The first Gaelic football rules, showing the influence of hurling (and incorporating some of the Victorian Rules of 1866 and 1877) represented the strong desire to differentiate from association football (and rugby)—for example in their lack of an offside rule. The rules were first drawn up by Maurice Davin in 1884 and later published in the United Ireland magazine on 7 February 1887. The original rules bear many similarities to modern football with the requirement to kick, handpass and the basic scoring system, however the original rules also included many Australian features including additional scoring posts (removed later in 1910). The code had already begun to diverge, with the mark being deprecated, the soccer ball being adopted, and carrying the ball not allowed, as such there was no requirement to bounce or solo the ball which was introduced later. The game was intended to promote peace and harmony, rejecting the violence of other football codes, and Davin even included a requirement for players to hold hands with their opponents though this practice fell out of favour.",
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"plaintext": "The first game of Gaelic Football under GAA rules (developed by Maurice Davin) was played near Callan, Co Kilkenny in February 1885.",
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"plaintext": "The widely published GAA rules were as follows:",
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"plaintext": "1. The ground for full teams (21 aside) shall be 140 yards long by 84 yards broad, or as near that size as can be got. The ground must be properly marked by boundary lines. Boundary lines to be at least five yards from the fences. Note— There is no objection to a larger ground.",
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"plaintext": "2. There shall not be less than 14 or more than 21 players aside in regular matches.",
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"plaintext": "3. There shall be two umpires and a referee. Where the umpires disagree the referee's decision shall be final. There shall also be a goal umpire at each end of the ground to watch for goals and points. The referee shall keep the time, and throw up the ball at the commencement of each goal.",
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"plaintext": "4. The goal posts shall stand at each end in centre of goal line. They shall be 21 feet apart, with a cross bar 8 feet from the ground. Besides the goal posts, there shall be two upright posts standing in each goal line 21 feet from the goal posts. A goal is won when the ball is driven between the goal posts and under the cross-bar. A point is counted when the ball is driven over the cross-bar, or over the goal line, within 21 feet of either goal post.",
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"plaintext": "5. The captains of the teams shall toss for choice of sides before commencing play, and the players shall stand in two ranks opposite each other in the centre of the field until the ball is thrown up, each holding the hand of one of the other side.",
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"plaintext": "6. Pushing or tripping behind, holding from behind, catching below knees, or butting with the head, shall be deemed foul, and the player so offending shall be ordered to stand aside for such time as the referee may think fit, and his side cannot substitute another man. Wrestling shall not be allowed.",
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"plaintext": "7. The time of actual play shall be one hour, and sides to be changed only at half time.",
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"plaintext": "8. When a player drives the ball over the side line, it shall be thrown back from the point where it first crossed the line by a player on the opposite side. It may be thrown in any direction. When the ball is driven over the goal line, and not through the goal, the goal-keeper shall have a free kick from goal, no player on the opposite side to approach nearer than the 21 yards line until the ball is kicked. If the ball is driven over the goal line by a player whose goal line it is, it shall count one point for the opposite side; if driven over the goal line within 21 feet of either goal post, it shall count three points; if through the goal it shall count a goal.",
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"plaintext": "9. The match shall be decided by the greater number of goals. When no goal is made, or when the goals are even, it shall be decided by the greater number of points.",
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"plaintext": "10. The ball must be struck with the hand. It may be caught when off the ground, and the player so catching it may kick it any way he please, but must not carry it or throw it forward. Note. — There is nothing in this rule to prevent a player throwing the ball a little in front to allow himself more freedom in kicking it.",
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"plaintext": "11. Where the rules are broken the referee may allow a free kick if he thinks fit. In such free kick the ball must be kicked from the ground. No player on the opposite side to approach nearer that 14 yards until the ball is kicked ; but if the free kick is allowed nearer than 14 yards of the goal line, the opposite players need not stand behind that line.",
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"plaintext": "12. If the ball strikes a bystander near the side line, except the referee or umpire, it shall be considered out of play, and must be thrown in as directed in Rule 8. If it occurs near the goal line it shall be considered out of play and must be kicked from the goal. In the latter case, the referee may allow one point or more if he thinks fit.",
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"plaintext": "13. The referee shall have, during the match, full power to disqualify any player, or order him to stand aside and discontinue play, for any act he may consider unfair, as set out in Rule 6, or for vicious play.",
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"plaintext": "No nails or iron tips allowed on the boots. Strips of leather fastened on the soles will prevent slipping. The dress for hurling and football to be knee breeches and stockings and shoes or boots.",
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"plaintext": "Gaelic football spread throughout the world in the late 19th century. It was introduced to North America in the 1890s including Canada and the United States in 1892. The first clubs appeared in England in 1896. The first match played in Australia was in 1902.",
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"plaintext": "Some Gaelic Athletic Associations began to impose strict nationalistic policies during this time. For example, in Connacht free kicks began to be introduced into some leagues penalising speaking of any language but Irish, and imposed a rule that the referee may speak only in Irish.",
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"plaintext": "On Bloody Sunday in 1920, during the Irish War of Independence, a football match at Croke Park was attacked by the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), including its Auxiliary Division. 14 people were killed and 65 were injured. Among the dead was Tipperary footballer Michael Hogan, for whom the Hogan Stand at Croke Park (completed in 1924) was named.",
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"plaintext": "In 1930 the GAA banned children found to play rugby instead of Gaelic football.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939 at Yankee Stadium New York City Kerry played Galway in front of a crowd of 70,000 spectators.",
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"plaintext": "By 1958, Wembley Stadium hosted annual exhibition games of Gaelic football in England, before tens of thousands of spectators.",
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"plaintext": "Ladies' Gaelic football has become increasingly popular with women since the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "In 1967, Australian journalist, broadcaster and VFL umpire Harry Beitzel, inspired by watching the 1966 All-Ireland senior football final on television, sent an Australian team known as the \"Galahs\" including South Melbourne's Bob Skilton, Richmond's Royce Hart, Carlton's Alex Jesaulenko and Melbourne and Carlton legend Ron Barassi as captain-coach – to play against Mayo and All-Ireland champions Meath, which was the first recorded major interaction between the two codes.",
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"plaintext": "What then followed is the current International Rules Series between players of both codes and utilizing rules from both codes, which also gives them a chance to represent their country. The GAA chooses the team to represent Ireland, while the AFL chooses the team to represent Australia and has added a stipulation that each member of their team must have been named an All-Australian at least once. The two countries take turns hosting the series, and both countries' and sports' respective most prestigious venues – Croke Park and the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) – have hosted series Tests. What is known as the Irish experiment also occurred, with Australian rules football clubs recruiting Gaelic football players. Irishmen who have distinguished themselves in both codes include Dublin's Jim Stynes – a 1984 minor All-Ireland football champion who became the 1991 Brownlow Medallist, a recipient of the Medal of the Order of Australia and a member of Melbourne's Team of the Century – and Kerry's Tadhg Kennelly, the first man to become both a senior All-Ireland football champion (2009) and an AFL Premiership player (2005 with Sydney, the Swans' first flag in 72 years).",
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"plaintext": "Players advance the football up the field with a combination of carrying, bouncing, kicking, hand-passing, and soloing (dropping the ball and then toe-kicking the ball upward into the hands). In the game, two types of scores are possible: points and goals. A point is awarded for kicking or hand-passing the ball over the crossbar, signalled by the umpire raising a white flag. A goal is awarded for kicking the ball under the crossbar into the net, signalled by the umpire raising a green flag. Positions in Gaelic football are similar to that in other football codes, and comprise one goalkeeper, six backs, two midfielders, and six forwards, with a variable number of substitutes.",
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"plaintext": "A Gaelic pitch is similar in some respects to a rugby pitch but larger. The grass pitch is rectangular, stretching long and wide. There are H-shaped goalposts at each end, formed by two posts, which are usually high, set apart, and connected above the ground by a crossbar. A net extending behind the goal is attached to the crossbar and lower goal posts. The same pitch is used for hurling; the GAA, which organises both sports, decided this to facilitate dual usage. Lines are marked at distances of , , and ( in hurling) from each end-line. Shorter pitches and smaller goals are used by youth teams.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of adult football and all minor and under-21 matches last for 60 minutes, divided into two halves of 30 minutes, with the exception of senior inter-county games, which last for 70 minutes (two halves of 35 minutes). Draws are decided by replays or by playing 20 minutes of extra time (two halves of 10 minutes). Juniors have a half of 20 minutes or 25 minutes in some cases. Half-time intermission lasts from 5 to 15 minutes. Championship matches have a 30-minute intermission.",
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"plaintext": "Teams consist of fifteen players (a goalkeeper, two corner backs, a full back, two wing backs, a centre back, two mid fielders, two wing forwards, a centre forward, two corner forwards and a full forward) plus up to fifteen substitutes, of which six may be used. As for younger teams or teams that do not have enough players for fifteen-a-side, it is not uncommon to play thirteen-a-side (the same positions except without the full back and the full forward). Each player is numbered 1–15, starting with the goalkeeper, who must wear a jersey colour different from that of his or her teammates. Up to 15 substitutes may be named on the team sheet, number 16 usually being the reserve goalkeeper.",
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"plaintext": "The game is played with a round leather football made of 18 stitched leather panels, with a circumference of , weighing between when dry. It may be kicked or hand passed. A hand pass is not a punch but rather a strike of the ball with the side of the closed fist, using the knuckle of the thumb.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the GAA introduced the 'mark' across the board in Gaelic football. Similar to the mark in Australian rules football, a player who catches the ball from a kick-out is awarded a free kick. The rule in full states: \"When a player catches the ball cleanly from a Kick-Out without it touching the ground, on or past the line nearest the Kick Out point, he shall be awarded 'a Mark' by the Referee. The player awarded a 'Mark' shall have the options of (a) Taking a free kick or (b) Playing on immediately.\" In comparison, the Australian rules equivalent requires the ball not to have touched the ground and for the kick to have travelled at least .",
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"plaintext": "In the experimental rules of 2019 a player can now also call a mark inside the opposition's line after a clean catch from a kick played over from outside the line that does not touch the ground or any other player.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, additional versions of the Mark came into force in gaelic football. The Advanced Mark allowed a ball to be fielded cleanly inside the opposition 45, when kicked forward over a distance greater than from outside the opposition 45. The referee is required to blow the whistle as this occurs, at which point the player has the option to take the Mark, or play-on.",
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"plaintext": "There is also a Defensive Mark, which a defender can get from a long-ball played into him.",
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"plaintext": "There are three main types of fouls in Gaelic Football, which can result in the ball being given to the other team, a player being cautioned, a player being removed from the field, or even the game being terminated.",
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"plaintext": "The following are considered technical fouls (\"fouling the ball\"):",
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"plaintext": " Going five steps without releasing, bouncing or soloing the ball (soloing involves kicking the ball into one's own hands)",
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"plaintext": " Bouncing the ball twice in a row (It may be soloed continuously)",
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"plaintext": " Changing hands: Throwing the ball between the hands (legal in the ladies' game)",
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"plaintext": " Throwing the ball (it may be \"hand-passed\" by striking with the fist).",
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"plaintext": " Hand passing a goal. To hand pass a ball with an open palm there must be a clear striking action (the ball may be punched over the bar from up in the air, but not into the goal).",
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"plaintext": " Picking the ball directly off the ground (it must be scooped up into the hands by the foot). However, in ladies' Gaelic football the ball may be picked up directly.",
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"plaintext": " Square ball is an often controversial rule: \"If, at the moment the ball enters the small square, there is already an attacking player inside the small rectangle, then a free out is awarded.\" As of 2012 square balls are only counted if the player is inside the square when the ball is kicked from a free or set piece. An opposing player is allowed in the square during open play.",
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"plaintext": "Aggressive fouls are physical or verbal fouls committed by a player against an opponent or the referee. The player can be cautioned (shown a yellow card), ordered off the pitch without a substitute (red card), or (as of January 2020) ejected from the match to the Sin Bin, where they must remain for ten minutes before returning to the field (black card). Picking up two black cards risks a red card, and the substitute will serve out whatever time imposed by officials.",
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"plaintext": "A dissent foul is a foul where a player fails to comply with the officials' judgment and/or instructions. The player can be cautioned (shown a yellow card), ordered off the pitch without a substitute (red card), the free kick placement moved further down-field, or in certain circumstances, the game can be terminated. The following are considered dissent fouls:",
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"plaintext": " To challenge the authority of a referee, umpire, linesman or sideline official.",
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"plaintext": " To fail to comply with a referee's instruction to use an orifice guard.",
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"plaintext": " To refuse to leave the field of play, on the instruction of the referee, for attention, after an injury involving bleeding.",
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"plaintext": " To show dissent with the referee's decision to award a free kick to the opposing team.",
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"plaintext": " To refuse to leave the field of play when ordered off (red card) or rejoin the game after being ordered off.",
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"plaintext": " A team or player(s) leaving the field without the referee's permission or refusing to continue playing.",
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"plaintext": "If the ball goes over the crossbar, a point is scored and a white flag is raised by an umpire. A point is scored by either kicking the ball over the crossbar, or fisting it over, in which case the hand must be closed while striking the ball. If the ball goes below the crossbar, a goal, worth three points, is scored, and a green flag is raised by an umpire. A goal is scored by kicking the ball into the net, not by fist passing the ball into it. However, a player can strike the ball into the net with a closed fist if the ball was played to him by another player or came in contact with the post/crossbar/ground prior to connection. The goal is guarded by a goalkeeper. Scores are recorded in the format Goal Total-Point Total. To determine the score-line goals must be converted to points and added to the other points. For example, in a match with a final score of Team A 0–21 Team B 4–8, Team A is the winner with 21 points, as Team B scored only 20 points (4 times 3, plus 8).",
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"plaintext": "The level of tackling allowed is less robust than in rugby or Australian rules.",
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"plaintext": "Shoulder-to-shoulder contact and slapping the ball out of an opponent's hand are permitted, but the following are all fouls:",
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"plaintext": " Blocking a shot with the foot",
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"plaintext": " Pulling an opponent's jersey",
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"plaintext": " Pushing an opponent",
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"plaintext": " Sliding tackles",
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"plaintext": " Striking an opponent",
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"plaintext": " Touching the goalkeeper when he/she is inside the small rectangle",
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"plaintext": " Tripping",
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"plaintext": " Using both hands to tackle",
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"plaintext": " Wrestling the ball from an opponent's hands",
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"plaintext": " A match begins with the referee throwing the ball up between the four mid-fielders.",
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"plaintext": " After an attacker has put the ball wide of the goals or scored a point or a goal, the goalkeeper may take a kick out from the ground at the line. All players must be beyond the line. However, in the 2019 experimental rules (rules tested in pre-season competitions), kick-outs must be taken from the line.",
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"plaintext": " After a defender has put the ball wide of the goals, an attacker may take a \"45\" from the ground on the line, level with where the ball went wide.",
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"plaintext": " After a player has put the ball over the sideline, the other team may take a sideline kick at the point where the ball left the pitch. It may be kicked from the ground or the hands. The player who is taking the sideline kick must not pass the boundary line while taking.",
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"plaintext": " After a player has committed a foul, the other team may take a free kick (usually shortened to \"free\" in reports/commentaries) at the point where the foul was committed. It may be kicked from the ground or the hands.",
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"plaintext": " If a player has been fouled while passing the ball, the free may be taken from the point where the ball landed.",
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"plaintext": " After a defender has committed a foul inside the large rectangle, the other team may take a penalty kick from the ground from the centre of the line. Only the goalkeeper may guard the goals.",
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"plaintext": " If many players are struggling for the ball and it is unclear who was fouled first, the referee may throw the ball up between two opposing players.",
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"plaintext": "A football match is overseen by up to eight officials:",
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{
"plaintext": " The referee",
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"plaintext": " Two linesmen",
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"plaintext": " Sideline official/Standby linesman (often referred to as \"fourth official\"; inter-county games only)",
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"plaintext": " Four umpires (two at each goal)",
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"plaintext": "The referee is responsible for starting and stopping play, recording the score, awarding frees and booking and sending off players.",
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"plaintext": "Linesmen are responsible for indicating the direction of line balls to the referee.",
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"plaintext": "The fourth official is responsible for overseeing substitutions, and also indicating the amount of stoppage time (signalled to him by the referee) and the players substituted using an electronic board.",
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"plaintext": "The umpires are responsible for judging the scoring. They indicate to the referee whether a shot was: wide (spread both arms), a kick (raise one arm), a point (wave white flag), square ball (cross arms) or a goal (wave green flag). A disallowed score is indicated by crossing the green and white flags.",
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"plaintext": "Other officials are not obliged to indicate any misdemeanours to the referee; they are only permitted to inform the referee of violent conduct they have witnessed that has occurred without the referee's knowledge. A linesman/umpire is not permitted to inform the referee of technical fouls such as a \"double bounce\" or an illegal pick-up of the ball. Such decisions can only be made at the discretion of the referee.",
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"plaintext": "The Team of the Century was nominated in 1984 by Sunday Independent readers and selected by a panel of experts including journalists and former players. It was not chosen as part of the Gaelic Athletic Association's centenary year celebrations. The goal was to single out the best ever 15 players who had played the game in their respective positions. Naturally many of the selections were hotly debated by fans around the country.",
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"plaintext": "The Team of the Millennium was a team chosen in 1999 by a panel of GAA past presidents and journalists. The goal was to single out the best ever 15 players who had played the game in their respective positions, since the foundation of the GAA in 1884 up to the Millennium year, 2000. Naturally many of the selections were hotly debated by fans around the country.",
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"plaintext": "Gaelic sports at all levels are amateur, in the sense that the athletes, even those playing at elite level, do not receive payment for their performance.",
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"plaintext": "The main competitions at all levels of Gaelic football are the League and the Championship. Of these it is the Championship (a knock-out tournament) that tends to attain the most prestige.",
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"plaintext": "The basic unit of each game is organised at the club level, which is usually arranged on a parochial basis. Local clubs compete against other clubs in their county with the intention of winning the County Club Championship at senior, junior or intermediate levels (for adults) or under-21, minor or under-age levels (for children). A club may field more than one team, for example a club may field a team at senior level and a \"seconds\" team at junior or intermediate level. This format is laid out in the table below:",
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"plaintext": "Clubs may come together in districts for the County Championship or compete on their own.",
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"plaintext": "Though the island of Ireland was partitioned between two states by the British parliament in 1920, the organisation of Gaelic games (like that of most cultural organisations and religions) continues on an All-Ireland basis. At the national level, Ireland's Gaelic games are organised in 32 GAA counties, most of which are identical in name and extent to the 32 administrative counties on which local government throughout the island was based until the late 20th century. The term \"county\" is also used for some overseas GAA places, such as London and New York. Clubs are also located throughout the world, in other parts of the United States, in Great Britain, in Canada, in Asia, in Australasia and in continental Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The level at which county teams compete against each other is referred to as inter-county (i.e. similar to international). A county panel—a team of 15 players, plus a similar number of substitutes—is formed from the best players playing at club level in each county. The most prestigious inter-county competition in Gaelic football is the All-Ireland Championship. The highest level national championship is called the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. Nearly all counties contest this tournament on an annual basis, with crowds of people thronging venues the length and breadth of Ireland—the most famous of these stadiums being Croke Park—to support their local county team, a team comprising players selected from the clubs in that county. These modified knock-out games start as provincial championships contested by counties against other counties in their respective province, the four Irish provinces of Ulster, Munster, Leinster and Connacht. The four victors in these then progress automatically to the All-Ireland series.",
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"plaintext": "In the past, the team winning each provincial championship would play one of the others, at a stage known as the All-Ireland semi-finals, with the winning team from each game playing each other in the famed All-Ireland Final to determine the outright winner. A recent (1990s/2000s) re-organisation created a \"back door\" method of qualifying, with teams knocked out during the provincial rounds of the All-Ireland Championship now acquiring a second chance at glory. Now the four victorious teams at provincial level enter the recently created All-Ireland quarter-finals instead, where they compete against the four remaining teams from the All-Ireland Qualifiers to progress to the All-Ireland semi-finals and then the All-Ireland Final. This re-organisation means that one team may defeat another team in an early stage of the championship, yet be defeated and knocked out of the tournament by the same team at a later stage. It also means a team may be defeated in an early stage of the championship, yet be crowned All-Ireland champions—as Tyrone were in 2005 and 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The secondary competition at inter-county level is the National League. The National Football League is held every spring and groups counties in four divisions according to their relative strength. As at local (county) levels of Gaelic football, the League at national level is less prestigious than the Championship—however, in recent years attendances have grown, as has interest from the public and from players. This is due in part to the 2002 adoption of a February–April timetable, in place of the former November start, as well as the provision of Division 2 final stages. Live matches are aired on the international channel Setanta Sports and the Irish language channel TG4, with highlights shown on RTÉ Two.",
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"plaintext": "There are also All-Ireland championships for county teams at Junior, Under-21 and Minor levels, and provincial and national club championships, contested by the teams that win their respective county championships.",
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"plaintext": " All-Ireland Senior Football Championship",
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"plaintext": " All-Ireland Sevens Football",
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"plaintext": " List of footballers (Gaelic football)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Comparison of Gaelic football and Australian rules football",
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"plaintext": " Jack Mahon, 2001, A History of Gaelic Football Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. ()",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gaelic football on GAA website",
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"section_name": "External links",
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},
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"plaintext": " Watch All Live Sports Match on GAA website",
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"section_name": "External links",
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}
]
| [
"Gaelic_football",
"Football_codes",
"Gaelic_games",
"Sports_originating_in_Ireland",
"Team_sports",
"1885_introductions"
]
| 204,632 | 31,586 | 6,201 | 160 | 0 | 0 | Gaelic football | Irish team sport, form of football | []
|
37,689 | 1,100,369,913 | Martin_Brennan_(engineer) | [
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"plaintext": "Martin Brennan is a computer engineer who developed pioneering personal computers such as the Loki (for Sinclair Research) and the Atari Jaguar video game console.",
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"plaintext": "A physics graduate of Cambridge University, he was a co-founder of Flare Technology, a design house involved in the design of the ill-fated Konix Multisystem.",
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"plaintext": "Brennan initially worked for Sinclair Research where he designed the digital electronics and software in ZX Interface 1 before going on to found Flare with ex-Sinclair colleagues John Mathieson and Ben Cheese. After working at Flare on the Flare 1 and its development into the Konix Multisystem he went on to work for Atari developing the Atari Panther and the Atari Jaguar.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997 Brennan founded the \"Cheap & Cheerful Chip Company\" which later went on to become Global Silicon Limited.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007 Brennan designed the Brennan JB7 digital jukebox produced by 3GA Ltd (Third Generation Audio). The second generation audio player, Brennan B2 with web interface, based on the Raspberry PI chipset, is available as of 2015. In 2019, Brennan released the Brennan BB1 audio player which shares the same software and architecture of the B2 but packages it in portable radio format at a lower price. Featuring an integrated speaker and able to run on 4 AA batteries the BB1 is controllable via physical buttons or a smartphone/web app and can act also integrate with Spotify and Sonos. ",
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| 6,775,054 | 163 | 11 | 21 | 0 | 0 | Martin Brennan | Computer engineer | []
|
37,694 | 1,100,791,282 | Seed | [
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"plaintext": "A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after the embryo sac is fertilized by sperm from pollen, forming a zygote. The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote, and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted. The seed coat arises from the integuments of the ovule.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and success of vegetable gymnosperm and angiosperm plants, relative to more primitive plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"seed\" also has a general meaning that antedates the above– anything that can be sown, e.g. \"seed\" potatoes, \"seeds\" of corn or sunflower \"seeds\". In the case of sunflower and corn \"seeds\", what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, whereas the potato is a tuber.",
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"plaintext": "In the flowering plants, the ovary ripens to a fruit which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as \"seeds\" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut.",
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"plaintext": "The first land plants evolved around 468 million years ago, they reproduced using spores. The oldest seed bearing plants were gymnosperms, which had no ovaries to contain the seeds, arising sometime during the late Devonian period (416 million to 358 million years ago) From these early gymnosperms, seed ferns evolved during the Carboniferous period (359 to 299 million years ago); they had ovules that were borne in a cupule, which were groups of enclosing branches likely used to protect the developing seed.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms (\"enclosed seeds\") from the gymnosperms (\"naked seeds\"). Angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds for protection in order to secure healthy growth. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development \"naked\" on the bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer.",
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"plaintext": "Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year to year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, and internal cycles within the plants themselves. Over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5.5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, when evaluated for production of adequate seedlings for natural forest reproduction.",
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"plaintext": "Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with double fertilization, which involves the fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination.",
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"plaintext": "After fertilization, the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components:",
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"plaintext": " The funicle (funiculus, funiculi) or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, at the pericarp.",
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"plaintext": " The nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops.",
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"plaintext": " The micropyle, a small pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization.",
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"plaintext": " The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, where integument and nucellus are joined together.",
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"plaintext": "The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds. Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called anatropous, with a curved shape. Orthotropous ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed. Campylotropous ovules have a curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight \"C\" shape. The last ovule shape is called amphitropous, where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or funiculus).",
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"plaintext": "In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes the main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or micropylar pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth.",
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"plaintext": "The main components of the embryo are:",
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"plaintext": " The cotyledons, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There may be one (Monocotyledons), or two (Dicotyledons). The cotyledons are also the source of nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which case they replace the endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic seeds, the cotyledons are thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of attachment opposite one another on the axis.",
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"plaintext": " The epicotyl, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s).",
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"plaintext": " The plumule, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to the presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot upon germination.",
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"plaintext": " The hypocotyl, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s), connecting the epicotyl and the radicle, being the stem-root transition zone.",
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"plaintext": " The radicle, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root.",
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"plaintext": "Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with a coleoptile that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a coleorhiza that connects to the primary root and adventitious roots form the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile, and coleorhiza– these last two structures are sheath-like and enclose the plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering.",
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"plaintext": "The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganization but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the tegmen and the outer forms the testa. (The seed coats of some monocotyledon plants, such as the grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a pericarp.) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are homologous from one species to the next. The funiculus abscisses (detaches at fixed point– abscission zone), the scar forming an oval depression, the hilum. Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or raphe, just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. Gossypium described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While the inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred to as the colourless layer. By contrast, the outer epidermis becomes tanniferous. The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. (Kozlowski 1972)",
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"plaintext": "As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while the cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells which are broader on their inner surface are called palisade cells. In the inner epidermis, the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15–20 layers, while the innermost layer is known as the fringe layer. (Kozlowski 1972)",
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"plaintext": "In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature– naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus and the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote is then aborted or absorbed during early development. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as pine and spruce.",
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"plaintext": "A large number of terms are used to describe seed shapes, many of which are largely self-explanatory such as Bean-shaped (reniform) – resembling a kidney, with lobed ends on either side of the hilum, Square or Oblong – angular with all sides more or less equal or longer than wide, Triangular – three sided, broadest below middle, Elliptic or Ovate or Obovate – rounded at both ends, or egg shaped (ovate or obovate, broader at one end), being rounded but either symmetrical about the middle or broader below the middle or broader above the middle.",
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"plaintext": "Other less obvious terms include discoid (resembling a disc or plate, having both thickness and parallel faces and with a rounded margin), ellipsoid, globose (spherical), or subglobose (Inflated, but less than spherical), lenticular, oblong, ovoid, reniform and sectoroid. Striate seeds are striped with parallel, longitudinal lines or ridges. The commonest colours are brown and black, other colours are infrequent. The surface varies from highly polished to considerably roughened. The surface may have a variety of appendages (see Seed coat), and be described by terms such as papillate or digitiform (finger-like). A seed coat with the consistency of cork is referred to as suberose. Other terms include crustaceous (hard, thin or brittle).",
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"plaintext": "A typical seed includes two basic parts:",
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"plaintext": " an embryo;",
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"plaintext": " a seed coat.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the endosperm forms a supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946). These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus obliterate it.",
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"plaintext": "Six types occur amongst the monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate). This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm.",
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"plaintext": "In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The embryo is the fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of grains (caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a scutellum. The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food and passes it to the growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved, and curled.",
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"plaintext": "Within the seed, there usually is a store of nutrients for the seedling that will grow from the embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm, which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via double fertilization. It is usually triploid, and is rich in oil or starch, and protein. In gymnosperms, such as conifers, the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female gametophyte, a haploid tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the aleurone layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains.",
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"plaintext": "Originally, by analogy with the animal ovum, the outer nucellus layer (perisperm) was referred to as albumen, and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as \"albuminous\". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which the cells are filled with starch, as for instance cereal grains, or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as \"fleshy\" or \"cartilaginous\" with thicker soft cells such as coconut, but may also be oily as in Ricinus (castor oil), Croton and Poppy. The endosperm is called \"horny\" when the cell walls are thicker such as date and coffee, or \"ruminated\" if mottled, as in nutmeg, palms and Annonaceae.",
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"plaintext": "In most monocotyledons (such as grasses and palms) and some (endospermic or albuminous) dicotyledons (such as castor beans) the embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon germination. In the non-endospermic dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as exalbuminous seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include the legumes (such as beans and peas), trees such as the oak and walnut, vegetables such as squash and radish, and sunflowers. According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl, this place of storage is uncommon among seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous.",
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"plaintext": "The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut), or fleshy as in the sarcotesta of pomegranate. The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators, and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either bitegmic or unitegmic. Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and a tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually, parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of lignified sclereids.",
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"plaintext": "The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing tannin and starch, and (c) inner epidermis. The endotegmen is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the exotegmen from the outer surface of the inner integument. The endotesta is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the exotesta. If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if the mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. Fabaceae), hence 'palisade exotesta'.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an aril, a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle (funiculus), (as in yew and nutmeg) or an oily appendage, an elaiosome (as in Corydalis), or hairs (trichomes). In the latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop cotton. Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, caruncles (a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles.",
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"plaintext": "A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the hilum, where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing the micropyle of the ovule.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At over 20kg, the largest seed is the coco de mer. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so autumn all blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least a few will end in a favorable place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of the embryo, dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability on which natural selection acts. Plant seeds hold endophytic microorganisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which is protection against disease.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction). A seed must somehow \"arrive\" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include capsules, follicles, legumes, silicles and siliques. When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include the fruits achenes, caryopses, nuts, samaras, and utricles.",
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"plaintext": " Some seeds (e.g., pine) have a wing that aids in wind dispersal.",
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"plaintext": " The dustlike seeds of orchids are carried efficiently by the wind.",
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"plaintext": " Some seeds (e.g. milkweed, poplar) have hairs that aid in wind dispersal.",
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"plaintext": "Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways:",
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"plaintext": " Dandelion achenes have hairs.",
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"plaintext": " Maple samaras have two wings.",
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"plaintext": " Some plants, such as Mucuna and Dioclea, produce buoyant seeds termed sea-beans or drift seeds because they float in rivers to the oceans and wash up on beaches.",
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"plaintext": " Seeds (burrs) with barbs or hooks (e.g. acaena, burdock, dock) which attach to animal fur or feathers, and then drop off later.",
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"plaintext": " Seeds with a fleshy covering (e.g. apple, cherry, juniper) are eaten by animals (birds, mammals, reptiles, fish) which then disperse these seeds in their droppings.",
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"plaintext": " Seeds (nuts) are attractive long-term storable food resources for animals (e.g. acorns, hazelnut, walnut); the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal forgets them.",
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"plaintext": "Myrmecochory is the dispersal of seeds by ants. Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called elaiosomes (e.g. bloodroot, trilliums, acacias, and many species of Proteaceae). Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them. The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where the elaiosomes are eaten. The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants. This dispersal relationship is an example of mutualism, since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food. As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of the other. In South Africa, the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) has invaded and displaced native species of ants. Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of Mimetes cucullatus or eat the elaiosomes. In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of Mimetes seedlings have dropped.",
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"plaintext": "Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with the optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought, herbivory) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant (bet-hedging). Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment. Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry.",
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"plaintext": "Seed dormancy is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms.",
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"plaintext": "Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy.",
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"plaintext": "Exogenous dormancy is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including:",
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"plaintext": " Physical dormancy or hard seed coats occurs when seeds are impermeable to water. At dormancy break, a specialized structure, the ‘water gap’, is disrupted in response to environmental cues, especially temperature, so water can enter the seed and germination can occur. Plant families where physical dormancy occurs include Anacardiaceae, Cannaceae, Convulvulaceae, Fabaceae and Malvaceae.",
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"plaintext": " Chemical dormancy considers species that lack physiological dormancy, but where a chemical prevents germination. This chemical can be leached out of the seed by rainwater or snow melt or be deactivated somehow. Leaching of chemical inhibitors from the seed by rain water is often cited as an important cause of dormancy release in seeds of desert plants, but little evidence exists to support this claim.",
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"plaintext": "Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including:",
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"plaintext": " In morphological dormancy, germination is prevented due to morphological characteristics of the embryo. In some species, the embryo is just a mass of cells when seeds are dispersed; it is not differentiated. Before germination can take place, both differentiation and growth of the embryo have to occur. In other species, the embryo is differentiated but not fully grown (underdeveloped) at dispersal, and embryo growth up to a species specific length is required before germination can occur. Examples of plant families where morphological dormancy occurs are Apiaceae, Cycadaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae and Ranunculaceae.",
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"plaintext": " Morphophysiological dormancy includes seeds with underdeveloped embryos, and also have physiological components to dormancy. These seeds, therefore, require a dormancy-breaking treatments, as well as a period of time to develop fully grown embryos. Plant families where morphophysiological dormancy occurs include Apiaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae, Papaveraceae and Ranunculaceae. Some plants with morphophysiological dormancy, such as Asarum or Trillium species, have multiple types of dormancy, one affects radicle (root) growth, while the other affects plumule (shoot) growth. The terms \"double dormancy\" and \"two-year seeds\" are used for species whose seeds need two years to complete germination or at least two winters and one summer. Dormancy of the radicle (seedling root) is broken during the first winter after dispersal while dormancy of the shoot bud is broken during the second winter.",
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"plaintext": " Physiological dormancy means the embryo, due to physiological causes, cannot generate enough power to break through the seed coat, endosperm or other covering structures. Dormancy is typically broken at cool wet, warm wet, or warm dry conditions. Abscisic acid is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds, and its production can be affected by light.",
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"plaintext": "Drying, in some plants, including a number of grasses and those from seasonally arid regions, is needed before they will germinate. The seeds are released, but need to have a lower moisture content before germination can begin. If the seeds remain moist after dispersal, germination can be delayed for many months or even years. Many herbaceous plants from temperate climate zones have physiological dormancy that disappears with drying of the seeds. Other species will germinate after dispersal only under very narrow temperature ranges, but as the seeds dry, they are able to germinate over a wider temperature range.",
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"plaintext": " In seeds with combinational dormancy, the seed or fruit coat is impermeable to water and the embryo has physiological dormancy. Depending on the species, physical dormancy can be broken before or after physiological dormancy is broken.",
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"plaintext": " Secondary dormancy* is caused by conditions after the seed has been dispersed and occurs in some seeds when nondormant seed is exposed to conditions that are not favorable to germination, very often high temperatures. The mechanisms of secondary dormancy are not yet fully understood, but might involve the loss of sensitivity in receptors in the plasma membrane.",
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"plaintext": "The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see Germination):",
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"plaintext": " Photodormancy or light sensitivity affects germination of some seeds. These photoblastic seeds need a period of darkness or light to germinate. In species with thin seed coats, light may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the soil.",
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"plaintext": " Thermodormancy is seed sensitivity to heat or cold. Some seeds, including cocklebur and amaranth, germinate only at high temperatures (30°C or 86°F); many plants that have seeds that germinate in early to midsummer have thermodormancy, so germinate only when the soil temperature is warm. Other seeds need cool soils to germinate, while others, such as celery, are inhibited when soil temperatures are too warm. Often, thermodormancy requirements disappear as the seed ages or dries.",
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"plaintext": "Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy. Seeds of some mangroves are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to the parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it. After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out.",
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"plaintext": "For annuals, seeds are a way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks.",
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"plaintext": "Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above the soil surface is the next phase of the plant's growth and is called seedling establishment.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Germination",
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"plaintext": "Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination.",
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"section_name": "Germination",
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"plaintext": "Far red light can prevent germination.",
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"section_name": "Germination",
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"plaintext": "Seed viability is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of the seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "Seed vigor is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate, and the strength of the seedlings produced.",
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"plaintext": "The germination percentage is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The germination rate is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage plus the rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy. It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if the seeds dry they go into physiological dormancy). There is great variation amongst plants and a dormant seed is still a viable seed even though the germination rate might be very low.",
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"plaintext": "Environmental conditions affecting seed germination include; water, oxygen, temperature and light.",
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"plaintext": "Three distinct phases of seed germination occur: water imbibition; lag phase; and radicle emergence.",
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"plaintext": "In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water), which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate germination. The rate of imbibition is dependent on the permeability of the seed coat, amount of water in the environment and the area of contact the seed has to the source of water. For some seeds, imbibing too much water too quickly can kill the seed. For some seeds, once water is imbibed the germination process cannot be stopped, and drying then becomes fatal. Other seeds can imbibe and lose water a few times without causing ill effects, but drying can cause secondary dormancy.",
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"plaintext": "During seed dormancy, often associated with unpredictable and stressful environments, DNA damage accumulates as the seeds age. In rye seeds, the reduction of DNA integrity due to damage is associated with loss of seed viability during storage. Upon germination, seeds of Vicia faba undergo DNA repair. A plant DNA ligase that is involved in repair of single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination is an important determinant of seed longevity. Also, in Arabidopsis seeds, the activities of the DNA repair enzymes Poly ADP ribose polymerases (PARP) are likely needed for successful germination. Thus DNA damages that accumulate during dormancy appear to be a problem for seed survival, and the enzymatic repair of DNA damages during germination appears to be important for seed viability.",
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"plaintext": "A number of different strategies are used by gardeners and horticulturists to break seed dormancy.",
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"plaintext": "Scarification allows water and gases to penetrate into the seed; it includes methods to physically break the hard seed coats or soften them by chemicals, such as soaking in hot water or poking holes in the seed with a pin or rubbing them on sandpaper or cracking with a press or hammer. Sometimes fruits are harvested while the seeds are still immature and the seed coat is not fully developed and sown right away before the seed coat become impermeable. Under natural conditions, seed coats are worn down by rodents chewing on the seed, the seeds rubbing against rocks (seeds are moved by the wind or water currents), by undergoing freezing and thawing of surface water, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from digestion, while often weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it is deposited, along with a bit of fecal matter that acts as fertilizer, far from the parent plant. Microorganisms are often effective in breaking down hard seed coats and are sometimes used by people as a treatment; the seeds are stored in a moist warm sandy medium for several months under nonsterile conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Stratification, also called moist-chilling, breaks down physiological dormancy, and involves the addition of moisture to the seeds so they absorb water, and they are then subjected to a period of moist chilling to after-ripen the embryo. Sowing in late summer and fall and allowing to overwinter under cool conditions is an effective way to stratify seeds; some seeds respond more favorably to periods of oscillating temperatures which are a part of the natural environment.",
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"plaintext": "Leaching or the soaking in water removes chemical inhibitors in some seeds that prevent germination. Rain and melting snow naturally accomplish this task. For seeds planted in gardens, running water is best– if soaked in a container, 12 to 24 hours of soaking is sufficient. Soaking longer, especially in stagnant water, can result in oxygen starvation and seed death. Seeds with hard seed coats can be soaked in hot water to break open the impermeable cell layers that prevent water intake.",
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"plaintext": "Other methods used to assist in the germination of seeds that have dormancy include prechilling, predrying, daily alternation of temperature, light exposure, potassium nitrate, the use of plant growth regulators, such as gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, thiourea, sodium hypochlorite, and others. Some seeds germinate best after a fire. For some seeds, fire cracks hard seed coats, while in others, chemical dormancy is broken in reaction to the presence of smoke. Liquid smoke is often used by gardeners to assist in the germination of these species.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds may be sterile for few reasons: they may have been irradiated, unpollinated, cells lived past expectancy, or bred for the purpose.",
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"plaintext": "The issue of the origin of seed plants remains unsolved. However, more and more data tends to place this origin in the middle Devonian. The description in 2004 of the proto-seed Runcaria heinzelinii in the Givetian of Belgium is an indication of that ancient origin of seed-plants. As with modern ferns, most land plants before this time reproduced by sending into the air spores that would land and become whole new plants.",
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"plaintext": "Taxonomists have described early \"true\" seeds from the upper Devonian, which probably became the theater of their true first evolutionary radiation. With this radiation came an evolution of seed size, shape, dispersal and eventually the radiation of gymnosperms and angiosperms and monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Seed plants progressively became one of the major elements of nearly all ecosystems.",
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"plaintext": "Also called growing true, refers to plants whose seed will yield the same type of plant as the original plant. Open pollinated plants, which include heirlooms, will almost always grow true to seed if another variety does not cross-pollinate them.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds harbor a diverse microbial community. Most of these microorganisms are transmitted from the seed to the developing seedlings.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States farmers spent $22 billion on seeds in 2018, a 35 percent increase since 2010. DowDuPont and Monsanto account for 72 percent of corn and soybean seed sales in the U.S. with the average price of a bag of GMO corn seed is priced at $270.",
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"plaintext": "Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds, especially from cereals, legumes and nuts. Seeds also provide most cooking oils, many beverages and spices and some important food additives. In different seeds the seed embryo or the endosperm dominates and provides most of the nutrients. The storage proteins of the embryo and endosperm differ in their amino acid content and physical properties. For example, the gluten of wheat, important in providing the elastic property to bread dough is strictly an endosperm protein.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes, forest trees, turfgrasses, and pasture grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get the seed to poor farmers. Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains quite common.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are also eaten by animals (seed predation), and are also fed to livestock or provided as birdseed.",
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"plaintext": "While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly. Plants and seeds often contain chemical compounds to discourage herbivores and seed predators. In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in mustard), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the digestive system. Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.",
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"plaintext": "A deadly poison, ricin, comes from seeds of the castor bean. Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds,",
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"plaintext": "though only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, seeds containing amygdalin– apple, apricot, bitter almond, peach, plum, cherry, quince, and others– when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause cyanide poisoning.",
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"plaintext": "Other seeds that contain poisons include annona, cotton, custard apple, datura, uncooked durian, golden chain, horse-chestnut, larkspur, locoweed, lychee, nectarine, rambutan, rosary pea, sour sop, sugar apple, wisteria, and yew. The seeds of the strychnine tree are also poisonous, containing the poison strychnine.",
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"plaintext": "The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), contain proteins called lectins which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without cooking. The common bean and many others, including the soybean, also contain trypsin inhibitors which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme trypsin. Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton fiber grows attached to cotton plant seeds. Other seed fibers are from kapok and milkweed.",
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"plaintext": "Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds. Linseed oil is used in paints. Oil from jojoba and crambe are similar to whale oil.",
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"plaintext": "Seeds are the source of some medicines including castor oil, tea tree oil and the quack cancer drug Laetrile.",
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"plaintext": "Many seeds have been used as beads in necklaces and rosaries including Job's tears, Chinaberry, rosary pea, and castor bean. However, the latter three are also poisonous.",
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"plaintext": "Other seed uses include:",
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{
"plaintext": " Seeds once used as weights for balances.",
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"plaintext": " Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game Conkers.",
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"plaintext": " Resin from Clusia rosea seeds used to caulk boats.",
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"plaintext": " Nematicide from milkweed seeds.",
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"plaintext": " Cottonseed meal used as animal feed and fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": " The oldest viable carbon-14-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at Herod the Great's palace on Masada in Israel. It was germinated in 2005. (A reported regeneration of Silene stenophylla (narrow-leafed campion) from material preserved for 31,800 years in the Siberian permafrost was achieved using fruit tissue, not seed.)",
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"plaintext": " The largest seed is produced by the coco de mer, or \"double coconut palm\", Lodoicea maldivica. The entire fruit may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed.",
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"plaintext": " The smallest seeds are produced by epiphytic orchids. They are only 85 micrometers long, and weigh 0.81 micrograms. They have no endosperm and contain underdeveloped embryos.",
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"plaintext": " The earliest fossil seeds are around 365 million years old from the Late Devonian of West Virginia. The seeds are preserved immature ovules of the plant Elkinsia polymorpha.",
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"plaintext": "The Book of Genesis in the Old Testament begins with an explanation of how all plant forms began:",
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"plaintext": "And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after its kind: and God saw that it was good. And the evening and the morning were the third day.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran speaks of seed germination thus:",
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"plaintext": "It is Allah Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from the dead, and He is the one to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is Allah: then how are ye deluded away from the truth?",
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"plaintext": " Biological dispersal",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Carpology",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Genetically modified crops",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of world's largest seeds",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Recalcitrant seed",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seed company",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seed enhancement",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seed library",
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"section_name": "See also",
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{
"plaintext": " Seed orchard",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Seed paper",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seed saving",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seed testing",
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},
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"plaintext": " Seed trap",
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"plaintext": " Selective embryo abortion",
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"plaintext": " A.C. Martin. The Comparative Internal Morphology of Seeds. American Midland Naturalist Vol. 36, No. 3 (Nov., 1946), pp. 513–660",
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"plaintext": " M.B. McDonald, Francis Y. Kwong (eds.). Flower Seeds: Biology and Technology. CABI, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": " also available on line Volume I",
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"plaintext": " Edred John Henry Corner. The Seeds of Dicotyledons. Cambridge University Press, 1976. ",
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"plaintext": " United States Forest Service. Woody Plant Seed Manual. 1948",
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"plaintext": " Stuppy, W. Glossary of Seed and Fruit Morphological Terms. Royal botanical gardens, Kew 2004",
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"plaintext": "Royal Holloway, University of London: The Seed Biology Place",
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"plaintext": "The Millennium Seed Bank Project Kew Garden's ambitious preservation project",
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"plaintext": "The Svalbard Global Seed Vault – a backup facility for the world's seed banks",
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"plaintext": "Canadian Grain Commission:Seed characters used in the identification of small oilseeds and weed seeds",
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"plaintext": "The Seed Site: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings.",
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"plaintext": "The History of East Asia generally encompasses the histories of China, Korea, Japan, and Mongolia from prehistoric times to the present. East Asia is not a uniform term and each of its countries has a different national history, but scholars maintain that the region is also characterized by a distinct pattern of historical development. This is evident in the interrelationship among East Asian countries, which not only involve the sum total of historical patterns but also a specific set of patterns that has affected all or most of East Asia in successive layers. It is also argued that East Asia and Southeast Asia form a single ethno-cultural unit, sharing history and common ethnic roots.",
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"plaintext": "The study of East Asian history as an area study is a part of the rise of East Asian studies as an academic field in the Western World. The teaching and studying of East Asian history began in the West during the late 19th century. In the United States, Asian Americans around the time of the Vietnam War believed that most history courses were Eurocentric and advocated for an Asian-based curriculum. At the present time, East Asian History remains a major field within Asian Studies. Nationalist historians in the region tend to stress the uniqueness of their respective country's tradition, culture, and history because it helps them legitimize their claim over territories and minimize internal disputes. There is also the case of individual authors influenced by different concepts of society and development, which lead to conflicting accounts. These, among other factors, led some scholars to stress the need for broader regional and historical frameworks. There have been issues with defining exact parameters for what East Asian history which as an academic study has focused on East Asia's interactions with other regions of the world. It has been argued that East Asia and Southeast Asia form a single ethno-cultural area, sharing common roots and history with each other, while being distinct from other world regions.",
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"plaintext": "These regions, or the civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea, were under the rule of many dynasties or government systems and their boundaries changed due to inter dynasty wars on a same region or wars between regions. In prehistory, Homo Erectus lived in East and Southeast Asia from 1.8 million to 40,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Many belief systems or religions which have evolved and spread in East Asia include Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. China was under the rule of Xia (historicity disputed), Shang and Zhou dynasties followed by the Qin and Han dynasties. During the prehistorical period, these three regions had their own style of inter-regional politics, culture and trades, which were relatively less affected by outside world.",
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"plaintext": "Recorded civilization dates to approximately 2000 BC in China's Shang Dynasty along the Yellow River Valley. Civilization expanded to other areas in East Asia gradually. In Korea Gojoseon became the first organized state approximately around 195 BC. Japan emerged as a unitary state with the creation of its first constitution in 604 AD. The introduction of Buddhism and the Silk Road were instrumental in building East Asia's culture and economy.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese dynasties such as the Sui, Tang and Song interacted with and influenced the character of early Japan and Korea. At the turn of the first millennium AD, China was the most advanced civilization in East Asia at the time and was responsible for the Four Great Inventions. China's GDP was likely the largest in the world as well. Japan and Korea had fully coalesced as centralized states in the regimes of Goryeo and Heian,",
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"plaintext": "The rise of the nomadic Mongol Empire disrupted East Asia, and under the leadership of leaders such as Genghis Khan, Subutai, and Kublai Khan brought the majority of East Asia under rule of a single state. The Yuan dynasty came to rule most of modern China and all of the Korean Peninsula. The Yuan dynasty also attempted and failed to conquer Japan in maritime invasions. The Mongol era in East Asia was short-lived due to natural disasters and poor administrative management. In the aftermath of the Yuan dynasty's collapse, new regimes such as the Ming dynasty and Joseon dynasty embraced Neo-Confucianism as the official state ideology. Japan at this time fell into feudal civil war known as the Sengoku Jidai which persisted for over a century and a half. At the turn of the 16th century European merchants and missionaries traveled to East Asia by sea for the first time. The Portuguese established a colony in Macau, China and attempted to Christianize Japan. In the last years of the Sengoku period, Japan attempted to create a larger empire by invading Korea only being defeated by the combined forces of Korea and China in the late 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "From the 17th century onward, East Asian nations such as China, Japan, and Korea chose a policy of isolationism in response to European contact. The 17th and 18th centuries saw great economic and cultural growth. Qing China dominated the region but Edo Japan remained completely independent. At this time limited interactions with European merchants and intellectuals led to the rise of Great Britain's East India Company and the beginning of Japan's Dutch Studies. The 1800s however saw the rise of direct European Imperialism upon the region. Qing China was unable to defend itself from various colonial expeditions from Great Britain, France and Russia during the Opium Wars. Japan meanwhile choose the path of westernization under the Meiji Period and attempted to modernize by following the political and economic models of Europe and the Western World. The rising Japanese Empire forcibly annexed Korea in 1910. After years of civil war and decline, China's last emperor Puyi abdicated in 1912 ending China's imperial history which had persisted for over two millennium from the Qin to Qing.",
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"plaintext": "In the midst of the Republic of China's attempts to build a modern state, Japanese expansionism pressed onward in the first half of the twentieth century, culminating in the brutal Second Sino-Japanese War where over twenty million people died during Japan's invasion of China. Japan's wars in Asia became a part of WWII after Japan's attack of the United States' Pearl Harbor. Japan's defeat in Asia by the hand of the allies contributed to the creation of a new world order under American and Soviet influence across the world. Afterwards, East Asia was caught in the cross hairs of the Cold War. The People's Republic of China initially fell under the sphere of the Soviet Camp but Japan under American occupation was solidly tied to Western nations. Japan's recovery became known as the Post-war economic miracle. Soviet and Western competition led to the Korean War, which created two separate states that exist in present times.",
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"plaintext": "The end of the Cold War and the rise of globalization have brought South Korea, and the People's Republic of China into the world economy. Since 1980, the economies and living standards of South Korea and China have increased exponentially. In contemporary times, East Asia is a pivotal world region with a major influence on world events. In 2010, East Asia's population made up approximately 24% of the world's population.",
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"plaintext": "In China specifically, fossils representing 40 Homo erectus individuals, known as Peking Man, were found near Beijing at Zhoukoudian that date to about 400,000 years ago. The species was believed to have lived for at least several hundred thousand years in China, and possibly until 200,000 years ago in Indonesia. They may have been the first to use fire and cook food. Homo sapiens migrated into inland Asia, likely by following herds of bison and mammoth and arrived in southern Siberia by about 43,000 years ago and some people moved south or east from there.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest sites of neolithic culture include Nanzhuangtou culture around 9500 BC to 9000 BC, Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC. China's first villages appeared on the landscape at this time.",
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"plaintext": "In Korea the Jeulmun pottery period is sometimes labeled the \"Korean Neolithic\", but since intensive agriculture and evidence of European-style 'Neolithic' lifestyle is sparse at best, such terminology is misleading. The Jeulmun was a period of hunting, gathering, and small-scale cultivation of plants from 20,000 BC to 8000 BC Archaeologists sometimes refer to this life-style pattern as 'broad-spectrum hunting-and-gathering'.",
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"plaintext": "Following this was the Shang dynasty, which ruled in the Yellow River valley. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals and Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology, the Shang ruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the \"current text\" of Bamboo Annals, they ruled from 1556 BC to 1046 BC.",
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"plaintext": "In 58 BC, the Korean Peninsula was divided into three kingdoms, Baekje, Silla and Goguryeo. Although they shared a similar language and culture, these three kingdoms constantly fought with each other for control of the peninsula. Furthermore, Goguryeo had been engaged in constant wars with the Chinese. This included the Goguryeo–Sui War, where the Kingdom of Goguryeo managed to repel the invading forces of the Sui dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "The Silla–Tang forces turned their attention to Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo had repelled the Sui Dynasty a century earlier, attacks by the Tang Dynasty from the west proved too formidable. The Silla–Tang alliance emerged victorious in the Goguryeo–Tang War. Silla thus unified most of the Korean Peninsula in 668. The kingdom's reliance on China's Tang dynasty had its price. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula. Silla then fought for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. ",
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"plaintext": "Japan was inhabited more than 30,000 years ago, when land bridges connected Japan to Korea and China to the south and Siberia to the north. With rising sea levels, the 4 major islands took form around 20,000 years ago, and the lands connecting today's Japan to the continental Asia completely disappeared 15,000 ~ 10,000 years ago. Thereafter, some migrations continued by way of the Korean peninsula, which would serve as Japan's main avenue for cultural exchange with the continental Asia until the medieval period. The mythology of ancient Japan is contained within the Kojiki ('Records of Ancient Matters') which describes the creation myth of Japan and its lineage of Emperors to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient pottery has been uncovered in Japan, particularly in Kyushu, that points to two major periods: the Jōmon (c. 7,500–250 BC, 縄文時代 Jōmon Jidai ) and the Yayoi (c. 250 BC – 250 AD, 弥生時代 Yayoi Jidai). Jōmon can be translated as 'cord marks' and refers to the pattern on the pottery of the time; this style was more ornate than the later Yayoi type, which has been found at more widespread sites (e.g. around Tokyo) and seems to have been developed for more practical purposes.",
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"plaintext": "Confucianism and Taoism originated in the Spring and Autumn period, arising from the historic figures of Confucius and Laozi. They have functioned has both competing and complementary belief systems. Confucianism emphasizes social order and filial piety while Taoism emphasizes the universal force of the Tao and spiritual well being.",
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"plaintext": "Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system that developed during the Spring and Autumn period. It later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han dynasty. Following the official abandonment of Legalism in China after the Qin dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology of the Han. Nonetheless, from the Han period onwards, most Chinese emperors have used a mix of Legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine. The disintegration of the Han in the second century CE opened the way for the soteriological doctrines of Buddhism and Taoism to dominate intellectual life at that time.",
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"plaintext": "A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty. In the late Tang, Confucianism developed aspects on the model of Buddhism and Taoism that gradually evolved into what is now known as Neo-Confucianism. This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in the Song dynasty. Confucianism would reign supreme as an ideology influencing all of East Asia until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.",
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"plaintext": "Taoism as a movement originates from the semi mystical figure of Laozi, who allegedly lived during the 6th–5th century BC. His teachings revolved around personal serenity, balance in the universe and the life source of the Tao. The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142. The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.",
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"plaintext": "Taoism, in form of the Shangqing School, gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370.",
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"plaintext": "In 221 BC, the state of Qin succeeded in conquering the other six states, creating the first imperial dynasty of China for the first time. Following the death of the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the Qin dynasty collapsed and control was taken over by the Han dynasty in 206 BC. In 220 AD, the Han empire collapsed into the Three Kingdoms. The series of trade routes known as Silk Road began during the Han dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "Qin Shi Huang ruled the unified China directly with absolute power. In contrast to the decentralized and feudal rule of earlier dynasties the Qin set up a number of 'commanderries' around the country which answered directly to the emperor. Nationwide the political philosophy of Legalism was used as a means of the statecraft and writings promoting rival ideas such as Confucianism were prohibited or controlled. In his reign China created the first continuous Great Wall with the use of forced labor and Invasions were launched southward to annex Vietnam. Eventually, rebels rose against the Qin's brutal reign and fought civil wars for control of China. Ultimately the Han dynasty arose and ruled China for over four centuries in what accounted for a long period in prosperity, with a brief interruption by the Xin dynasty. The Han dynasty fought constant wars with nomadic Xiongnu for centuries before finally dissolving the tribe.",
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"plaintext": "The Han dynasty played a great role in developing the Silk Road which would transfer wealth and ideas across Eurasia for millennia, and also invented paper. Though the Han enjoyed great military and economic success it was strained by the rise of aristocrats who disobeyed the central government. Public frustration provoked the Yellow Turban Rebellion – though a failure it nonetheless accelerated the empire's downfall. After 208 AD the Han dynasty broke up into rival kingdoms. China would remain divided until 581 under the Sui dynasty, during the era of division Buddhism would be introduced to China for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "The Three Kingdoms period consisted of the kingdom of Wei, Shu, and Wu. It began when the ruler of Wei, Cao Cao, was defeated by Liu Bei and Sun Quan at the Battle of Red Cliffs. After Cao Cao's death in AD 220, his son Cao Pi became emperor of Wei. Liu Bei and Sun Quan declared themselves emperor of Shu and Wu respectively. Many famous personages in Chinese history were born during this period, including Hua Tuo and the great military strategist Zhuge Liang. Buddhism, which was introduced during the Han dynasty, also became popular in this period. Two years after Wei conquered Shu in AD 263, Sima Yan, Wei's Imperial Chancellor, overthrew Wei and started the Western Jin dynasty. The conquest of Wu by the Western Jin dynasty ended the Three Kingdoms period, and China was unified again. However, the Western Jin did not last long. Following the death of Sima Yan, the War of the Eight Princes began. This war weakened the Jin dynasty, and it soon fell to the kingdom of Han Zhao. This ushered in the Sixteen Kingdoms.",
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"plaintext": "The Northern Wei was established by the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei people in AD 386, when they united the northern part of China. During the Northern Wei, Buddhism flourished, and became an important tool for the emperors of the Northern Wei, since they were believed to be living incarnations of Buddha. Soon, the Northern Wei was divided into the Eastern Wei and Western Wei. These were followed by the Northern Zhou and Northern Qi. In the south, the dynasties were much less stable than the Northern dynasties. The four Southern dynasties were weakened by conflicts between the ruling families.",
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"plaintext": "Buddhism, also one of the major religions in East Asia, was introduced into China during the Han dynasty from Nepal in the 1st century BC. Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China in 372, and eventually arrived in Japan around the turn of the 6th century.",
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"plaintext": "For a long time Buddhism remained a foreign religion with a few believers in China. During the Tang dynasty, a fair amount of translations from Sanskrit into Chinese were done by Chinese priests, and Buddhism became one of the major religions of the Chinese along with the other two indigenous religions. In Korea, Buddhism was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship; it was allowed to blend in with Shamanism. Thus, the mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times became the sites of Buddhist temples. Though Buddhism initially enjoyed wide acceptance, even being supported as the state ideology during the Goguryeo, Silla, Baekje, Balhae, and Goryeo periods, Buddhism in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, Buddhism and Shinto were combined using the theological theory \"Ryōbushintō\", which says Shinto deities are avatars of various Buddhist entities, including Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (Shinbutsu-shūgō). This became the mainstream notion of Japanese religion. In fact until the Meiji government declared their separation in the mid-19th century, many Japanese people believed that Buddhism and Shinto were one religion.",
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"plaintext": "In Mongolia, Buddhism flourished two times; first in the Mongol Empire (13th–14th centuries), and finally in the Qing dynasty (16th–19th centuries) from Tibet in the last 2000 years. It was mixed in with Tengeriism and Shamanism.",
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"plaintext": "In AD 581, Yang Jian overthrew the Northern Zhou, and established the Sui dynasty. Later, Yang Jian, who became Sui Wendi, conquered the Chen dynasty, and united China. However, this dynasty was short-lived. Sui Wendi's successor, Sui Yangdi, expanded the Grand Canal, and launched four disastrous wars against the Goguryeo. These projects depleted the resources and the workforce of the Sui. In AD 618, Sui Yangdi was murdered. Li Yuan, the former governor of Taiyuan, declared himself the emperor, and founded the Tang dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "A government system supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service examinations was perfected under Tang rule. This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talents into government. But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers, aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences, was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base. As it turned out, these scholar-officials acquired status in their local communities, family ties, and shared values that connected them to the imperial court. From Tang times until the closing days of the Qing dynasty in 1911–1912, scholar officials often functioned often as between the grassroots level and the government. This model of government had an influence on Japan and Korea.",
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"plaintext": "Silla slowly began to decline and the power vacuum this created led to several rebellious states rising up and taking on the old historical names of Korea's ancient kingdoms. Gyeon Hwon, a peasant leader and Silla army officer, taking over the old territory of Baekje and declared himself the king of Hubaekje (\"later Baekje\"). Meanwhile, an aristocratic Buddhist monk leader, Gung Ye, declared a new Goguryeo state in the north, known as Later Goguryeo (Hugoguryo). There then followed a protracted power struggle for control of the peninsula.",
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"plaintext": "Gung Ye began to refer to himself as the Buddha, began to persecute people who expressed their opposition against his religious arguments. He executed many monks, then later even his own wife and two sons, and the public began to turn away from him. His costly rituals and harsh rule caused even more opposition. He also moved the capital in 905, changed the name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911. In 918, Gung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Geon, the previous chief minister was raised to the throne. Gung Ye is said to have escaped the palace, but was killed shortly thereafter either by a soldier or by peasants who mistook him for a thief. Wang Geon, who would posthumously be known by his temple name of Taejo of Goryeo.",
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"plaintext": "Soon thereafter, the Goryeo dynasty was proclaimed, and Taejo went on to defeat the rivaling Silla and Hubaekje to reunite the three kingdoms in 936. Following the destruction of Balhae by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included the Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a \"true national unification\" of Korea.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 13th century Genghis Khan united warring Mongol tribes into the united Mongol Empire in 1206. The Mongols would proceed to conquer the majority of modern East Asia. Meanwhile, China were divided into five competing states. From 1211, Mongol forces invaded North China. In 1227 the Mongol Empire conquered Western Xia. In 1234, Ogedei Khan extinguished the Jin dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "The northern part of China was annexed by Mongol Empire. In 1231, the Mongols began to invade Korea, and quickly captured all the territory of the Goryeo outside the southernmost tip. The Goryeo royal family retreated to the sea outside the city of Seoul to Ganghwa Island. Goryeo was divided between collaborators and resisters to the invaders. However, at the time, the Goryeo Sannotei on the peninsula resisted until 1275.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1250s, the Mongols invaded the last remaining state in southern China – the Southern Song. The invasion carried on for over thirty years, and likely resulted in millions of casualties. In 1271, Kublai Khan proclaimed the Yuan dynasty of China in the traditional Chinese style. The last remnants of the Song were defeated at sea in 1279. China was unified under the Yuan dynasty. Kublai Khan and his administration shifted to the Central Plains area and embraced Confucianism.",
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"plaintext": "By 1275, Goryeo had surrendered to the Yuan dynasty as a vassal. Members of the Goryeo royal family were raised to understand Mongol culture, and intermarried with the Yuan imperial family.",
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"plaintext": "Japan was seriously threatened by the Yuan forces from the East Asian mainland. In 1274, Kublai Khan appointed Yudu. In order to recruit Marshal Dongdu to command the Yuan forces, Han Bing and the Goryeo army began the first expedition to Japan. The Yuan dynasty invaded Japan in two separate invasions, both of which were disrupted by natural typhoons. These two invasions both occupied the town of Kitakyushu before being swept into the sea. At the time the Yuan dynasty fleet was the largest fleet in the history of the world.",
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"plaintext": "In order to cope with the nationwide mobilization of the powerful Yuan army, Japan's economy and military were placed under severe pressure. The Japanese Kamakura Shogunate had difficulty compensating its soldiers who had defended the country, which intensified the contradiction between the domestic warrior groups. The ruling system collapsed in the first half of the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": " Most sources credit the discovery of gunpowder to Chinese alchemists in the 9th century searching for an elixir of immortality. The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicine combinations. A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpeter gave off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare purification techniques. By most accounts, the earliest Arabic and Latin descriptions of the purification of saltpeter do not appear until the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "The first reference to gunpowder is probably a passage in the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, a Taoism text tentatively dated to the mid-9th century:",
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"plaintext": "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest surviving recipes for gunpowder can be found in the Chinese military treatise Wujing zongyao of 1044 AD, which contains three: two for use in incendiary bombs to be thrown by siege engines and one intended as fuel for poison smoke bombs. The formulas in the Wujing zongyao range from 27 to 50 percent nitrate. Experimenting with different levels of saltpetre content eventually produced bombs, grenades, and land mines, in addition to giving fire arrows a new lease on life. By the end of the 12th century, there were cast iron grenades filled with gunpowder formulations capable of bursting through their metal containers. The 14th century Huolongjing contains gunpowder recipes with nitrate levels ranging from 12 to 91 percent, six of which approach the theoretical composition for maximal explosive force.",
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"plaintext": "In China, the 13th century saw the beginnings of rocketry and the manufacture of the oldest gun still in existence, a descendant of the earlier fire-lance, a gunpowder-fueled flamethrower that could shoot shrapnel along with fire. The Huolongjing text of the 14th century also describes hollow, gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs.",
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"plaintext": "In the 13th century contemporary documentation shows gunpowder beginning to spread from China by the Mongols to the rest of the world, starting with Europe and the Islamic world. The Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpetre– which they called \"Chinese snow\" ( )– around 1240 and, soon afterward, of gunpowder; they also learned of fireworks (\"Chinese flowers\") and rockets (\"Chinese arrows\"). Persians called saltpeter \"Chinese salt\" or \"salt from Chinese salt marshes\" ( ). Historian Ahmad Y. al-Hassan argues– contra the general notion– that the Chinese technology passed through Arabic alchemy and chemistry before the 13th century. Gunpowder arrived in India by the mid-14th century, but could have been introduced by the Mongols perhaps as early as the mid-13th century.",
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"plaintext": "The first known movable type system was invented in China around 1040 AD by Pi Sheng (990–1051) (spelled Bi Sheng in the Pinyin system). Pi Sheng's type was made of baked clay, as described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo (1031–1095). The world's first metal-based movable type printing press was invented in Korea in 1234, 210 years before Johannes Gutenberg invented a similar press in Germany. Jikji is the world's oldest extant movable metal print book. It was published in Heungdeok Temple in 1377, 78 years prior to Gutenberg's \"42-Line Bible\" printed during the years 1452–1455.",
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"plaintext": "The Ming period is the only era of later imperial history during which all of China proper was ruled by ethnic Han.",
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"plaintext": "All the counties in China had a county government, a Confucian school, and the standard Chinese family system. Typically the dominant local elite consisted of high status families composed of the gentry owners and managers of land and of other forms of wealth, as well as smaller groups that were subject to elite domination and protection. Much attention was paid to genealogy to prove that high status was inherited from generations back. Substantial land holdings were directly managed by the owning families in the early Ming period, but toward the end of the era marketing and ownership were depersonalized by the increased circulation of silver as money, and estate management gravitated into the hands of hired bailiffs. Together with the departure of the most talented youth into the imperial service, the result was direct contacts between the elite and subject groups were disrupted, and romantic images of country life disappeared from the literature. In villages across China elite families participated in the life of the empire by sending their sons into the very high status imperial civil service. Most of the successful sons had a common education in the county and prefectural schools, had been recruited by competitive examination, and were posted to offices that might be anywhere in the empire, including the imperial capital. At first the recommendation of an elite local sponsor was important; increasing the imperial government relied more on merit exams, and thus entry into the national ruling class became more difficult. Downward social mobility into the peasantry was possible for less successful sons; upward mobility from the peasant class was unheard of.",
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"plaintext": "The Manchus (a tribe from Manchuria) conquered the Shun dynasty (which was established after the Ming fell due to a peasant rebellion) around 1644–1683 in wars that killed perhaps 25 million people. The Manchus ruled it as the Qing dynasty until the early 20th century. Notably, Han men were forced to wear the long queue (or pigtail) as a mark of their inferior status. That said, some Han did achieve high rank in the civil service via the Imperial Examination system. Until the 19th century, Han immigration into Manchuria was forbidden. Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums and remote villages, except in for the ever-popular forms of traditional medicine like acupuncture. In the late Qing era (1900 to 1911), the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. Final collapse came in 1911.",
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"plaintext": "The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Inner Asia. During the peak of the Qing dynasty, the empire ruled over the entirety of today's Mainland China, Hainan, Taiwan, Mongolia, Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its origin in military conquest, and the long warlike tradition of the Manchu people who formed its ruling class, by the 19th century the Qing state was militarily extremely weak, poorly trained, lacking modern weapons and plagued by corruption and incompetence.",
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"plaintext": "They repeatedly lost against the Western powers. Two Opium Wars (鸦片战争 yāpiàn zhànzhēng), pitted China against Western powers, notably Britain and France. China quickly lost both wars. After each defeat, the victors forced the Chinese government to make major concessions. After the first war 1839–1842, the treaty ceded Hong Kong island to Britain, and opened five \"treaty ports\" including Shanghai and Guangzhou (Canton), and others of less importance Xiamen, Fuzhou, and Ningbo) to Western trade. After the second, Britain acquired Kowloon (the peninsula opposite Hong Kong island), and inland cities such as Nanjing and Hangkou (now part of Wuhan) were opened to trade.",
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"plaintext": "Defeat in the Second Opium War, 1856–1860, was utterly humiliating for China. The British and French sent ambassadors, escorted by a small army, to Beijing to see the treaty signed. The Emperor, however, did not receive ambassadors in anything like the Western sense; the closest Chinese expression translates as \"tribute-bearer\". To the Chinese court, Western envoys were just a group of new outsiders who should show appropriate respect for the emperor like any other visitors; of course the kowtow (knocking one's head on the floor) was a required part of the protocol. For that matter, the kowtow was required in dealing with any Chinese official. From the viewpoint of Western powers, treating China's decadent medieval regime with any respect at all was being generous. The envoy of Queen Victoria or another power might give some courtesies, even pretend for form's sake that the Emperor was the equal of their own ruler. However, they considered the notion that they should kowtow utterly ludicrous. In fact, it was official policy that no Briton of any rank should kowtow in any circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "China engaged in various stalling tactics to avoid actually signing the humiliating treaty to which their envoys had already agreed, and the scandalous possibility of an envoy coming before the Emperor and failing to kowtow. The ambassadors' progress to Beijing was impeded at every step. Several battles were fought, in each of which Chinese forces were soundly thrashed by numerically inferior Western forces. Eventually, Beijing was occupied, the treaty signed and embassies established. The British took the luxurious house of a Manchu general prominent in opposing their advance as their embassy.",
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"plaintext": "In retaliation for Chinese torture and murder of captives, including envoys taken while under a flag of truce, British and French forces also utterly destroyed the Yuan Ming Yuan (Old Summer Palace), an enormous complex of gardens and buildings outside Beijing. It took 3500 troops to loot it, wreck it and set it alight, and it burned for three days sending up a column of smoke clearly visible in Beijing. Once the Summer Palace was reduced to ruins a sign was raised with an inscription in Chinese stating \"This is the reward for perfidy and cruelty\". The choice to destroy the Palace was quite deliberate; they wanted something quite visible that struck at the upper classes who had ordered the crimes. Like the Forbidden City, no ordinary Chinese citizen had ever been allowed into the Summer Palace, as it was used exclusively by the Imperial family.",
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"plaintext": "In 1884–1885, China and France fought a war that resulted in China's accepting French control over their former tributary states in what is now Vietnam. The Qing armies acquitted themselves well in campaigns in Guangxi and Taiwan. However, the French sank much of China's modernized Fuzhou-based naval fleet in an afternoon.",
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"plaintext": "They also lost repeatedly against Japan, partly because Britain had helped modernise Japanese forces as a counter to Russian influence in the region. In 1879, Japan annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom, then a Chinese tributary state, and incorporated it as Okinawa prefecture. Despite pleas from a Ryukyuan envoy, China was powerless to send an army. The Chinese sought help from the British, who refused to intervene. In 1895, China lost the Sino-Japanese war and ceded Taiwan, the Penghu islands and the Liaodong peninsula to Japan. In addition, it had to relinquish control of Korea, which had been a tributary state of China for a long time.",
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"plaintext": "The Qing also had internal troubles, notably several Muslim rebellions in the West and the Taiping Rebellion in the South, with millions dead and tens of millions more impoverished.",
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"plaintext": "The Taiping Rebellion, 1851–1864, was led by a charismatic figure claiming to be Christ's younger brother. It was largely a peasant revolt. The Taiping program included land reform and eliminating slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium, footbinding, judicial torture and idolatry. The Qing government, with some Western help, eventually defeated the Taiping rebels, but not before they had ruled much of southern China for over ten years. This was one of the bloodiest wars ever fought; only World War II killed more people.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese resented much during this period notably Christian missionaries, opium, annexation of Chinese land and the extraterritoriality that made foreigners immune to Chinese law. To the West, trade and missionaries were obviously good things, and extraterritoriality was necessary to protect their citizens from the corrupt Chinese system. To many Chinese, however, these were yet more examples of the West exploiting China.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1898, these feelings exploded. The Boxers, also known as the \"Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists\" (义和团 yì hé tuán) led a peasant religious/political movement whose main goal was to drive out evil foreign influences. Some believed their kung fu and prayer could stop bullets. While initially anti-Qing, once the revolt began they received some support from the Qing court and regional officials. The Boxers killed a few missionaries and many Chinese Christians, and eventually besieged the embassies in Beijing. An eight-nation alliance Germany, France, Italy, Russia, Great Britain, the United States, Austria-Hungary and Japan sent a force up from Tianjin to rescue the legations. The Qing had to accept foreign troops permanently posted in Beijing and pay a large indemnity as a result. In addition, Shanghai was divided among China and the eight nations.",
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"plaintext": "The Hundred Days' Reform was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement in 1898. It was undertaken by the young Guangxu Emperor and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of the reformative edicts, a coup d'état (\"The Coup of 1898\", Wuxu Coup) was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by Empress Dowager Cixi, who became a virtual dictator.",
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"plaintext": "The Boxer Rebellion was a humiliating fiasco for China: the Qing rulers proved visibly incompetent and lost prestige irreparably, while the foreign powers gained greater influence in Chinese affairs. The humiliation stimulated a second reform movement—this time sanctioned by the empress dowager Cixi herself. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the \"one hundreds days\" of 1898. In 1905 the examination system itself was abolished and the entire Confucian tradition of merit entry into the elite collapsed. The abolition of the traditional civil service examination was itself a revolution of immense significance. After many centuries, the scholar's mind began to be liberated from the shackles of classical studies, and social mobility no longer depended chiefly on the writing of stereotyped and flowery prose. New ministries were created in Beijing and revised law codes were drafted. Work began on a national budget—the national government had no idea how much taxes were collected in its name and spent by regional officials. New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the \"new army\" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. . More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.",
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"plaintext": "The movement for constitutionalism gathered momentum following the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, for Japan's victory signalled the triumph of constitutionalism over absolutism. Under pressure from gentry and student groups, the Qing court in 1908 issued plans for the inauguration of consultative provincial assemblies in 1909, a consultative national assembly in 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament in 1917. The consultative assemblies were to play a pivotal role in the unfolding events, politicizing the provincial gentry and providing them with new leverage with which to protect their interests.",
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"plaintext": "Ironically, the measures designed to preserve the Qing dynasty hastened its death, for the nationalistic and modernizing impulses generated or nurtured by the reforms brought a greater awareness of the Qing government's extreme backwardness. Modernizing forces emerged as business, students, women, soldiers, and overseas Chinese became mobilized and demanded change. Government-sponsored education in Japan, available to both civilian and military students, exposed Chinese youths to revolutionary ideas produced by political exiles and inspired by the West. Anti-Manchu revolutionary groups were formed in the Yangtze cities by 1903, and those in Tokyo banded together to form the \"Revolutionary Alliance\" in 1905, led by Sun Yat-sen.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1392, General Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded a new dynasty, Joseon. As King Taejo of Joseon, he chose Hanyang (Seoul) as the capital of the new dynasty. During its 500-year reign, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new dynasty's state ideology. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current Korea and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. Joseon dynasty was a highly centralized monarchy and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by Gyeongguk daejeon, a sort of Joseon constitution. The king had absolute authority, the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings, Gyeongguk daejeon, and Confucian teachings. In theory, there were three social classes, but in practice, there were four. The top class were the yangban, or \"scholar-gentry\", the commoners were called sangmin or yangmin, and the lowest class was that of the cheonmin. Between the yangban and the commoners was a fourth class, the chungin, \"middle people\". Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civil bureaucrats and military officers who were collectively called Yangban. Yangban strove to do well at the royal examinations to obtain high positions in the government. They had to excel in calligraphy, poetry, classical Chinese texts, and Confucian rites. In order to become an official, one had to pass a series of gwageo examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams - literary, military, and miscellaneous.",
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"plaintext": "In 1603, the Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to secure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Early modern Japanese society had an elaborate social structure, in which everyone knew their place and level of prestige. At the top were the emperor and the court nobility, invincible in prestige but weak in power. Next came the \"bushi\" of shōgun, daimyō and layers of feudal lords whose rank was indicated by their closeness to the Tokugawa. They had power. The \"daimyō\" were about 250 local lords of local \"han\" with annual outputs of 50,000 or more bushels of rice. The upper strata was much given to elaborate and expensive rituals, including elegant architecture, landscaped gardens, nō drama, patronage of the arts, and the tea ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "Three distinct cultural traditions operated during the Tokugawa era, having little to do with each other. In the villages the peasants had their own rituals and localistic traditions. In the high society of the imperial court, daimyō and samurai, Chinese cultural influence was paramount, especially in the areas of ethics and political ideals. Neo-Confucianism became the approved philosophy, and was taught in official schools; Confucian norms regarding personal duty and family honor became deeply implanted in elite thought. Equally pervasive was the Chinese influence in painting, decorative arts and history, economics, and natural science. One exception came in religion, where there was a revival of Shinto, which had originated in Japan. Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801) freed Shinto from centuries of Buddhist accretions and gave a new emphasis to the myth of imperial divine descent, which later became a political tool for imperialist conquest until it was destroyed in 1945. The third cultural level was the popular art of the low-status artisans, merchants and entertainers, especially in Edo and other cities. It revolved around \"ukiyo\", the floating world of the city pleasure quarters and theaters that was officially off-limits to samurai. Its actors and courtesans were favorite subjects of the woodblock color prints that reached high levels of technical and artistic achievement in the 18th century. They also appeared in the novels and short stories of popular prose writers of the age like Ihara Saikaku (1642–1693). The theater itself, both in the puppet drama and the newer kabuki, as written by the greatest dramatist, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1724), relied on the clash between duty and inclination in the context of revenge and love.",
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"plaintext": "Edo (Tokyo) had been a small settlement for 400 years but began to grow rapidly after 1603 when Shōgun Ieyasu built a fortified city as the administrative center of the new Tokugawa Shogunate. Edo resembled the capital cities of Europe with military, political, and economic functions. The Tokugawa political system rested on both feudal and bureaucratic controls, so that Edo lacked a unitary administration. The typical urban social order was composed of samurai, unskilled workers and servants, artisans, and businessmen. The artisans and businessmen were organized in officially sanctioned guilds; their numbers grew rapidly as Tokyo grew and became a national trading center. Businessmen were excluded from government office, and in response they created their own subculture of entertainment, making Edo a cultural as well as a political and economic center. With the Meiji Restoration, Tokyo's political, economic, and cultural functions simply continued as the new capital of imperial Japan.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States of America in 1854, Japan opened its ports and began to intensively modernise and industrialise. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 ended the Tokugawa period, and put Japan on a course of centralized modern government in the name of the Emperor. During late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Japan became a regional power that was able to defeat the militaries of both China and Russia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island.",
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"plaintext": "In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria (\"Dongbei\") after the Manchurian Incident, and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of China. The U.S. undertook large scale military and economic aid to China and demanded Japanese withdrawal. Instead of withdrawing, Japan invaded French Indochina in 1940–41. In response, the U.S., Britain and the Netherlands cut off oil imports in 1941, which accounted for over 90% of Japan's oil supply. Negotiations with the US led nowhere. Japan attacked U.S. forces at the Battle of Pearl Harbor in December 1941, triggering America's entry into World War II. Japan rapidly expanded at sea and land, capturing Singapore and the Philippines in early 1942, and threatening India and Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Although it was to be a long and bloody war, Japan began to lose the initiative in 1942. At the Battle of the Coral Sea, a Japanese offensive was turned back, for the first time, at sea. The June Battle of Midway cost Japan four of its six large aircraft carriers and destroyed its capability for future major offensives. In the Guadalcanal Campaign, the U.S. took back ground from Japan.",
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"plaintext": "After its defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by the U.S. until 1951, and recovered from the effects of the war to become an economic power, staunch American ally and a liberal democracy. While Emperor Hirohito was allowed to retain his throne as a symbol of national unity, actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives.",
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"plaintext": "The Japanese growth in the postwar period was often called a \"miracle\". It was led by manufacturing; starting with textiles and clothing and moving to high-technology, especially automobiles, electronics and computers. The economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major global economic power.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese Civil War resumed after World War II concluded. In 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China, which had governed mainland China until this point, retreated to Taiwan. Since then, the jurisdiction of the Republic of China has been limited to the Taiwan Area.",
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"plaintext": "After the surrender of Japan, at the end of World War II, on 15 August (officially 2 September) 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into two zones of occupation. The Soviets administered the northern-half and the Americans administered the southern-half. In 1948, as a result of Cold War tensions, the occupation zones became two sovereign states. This led to the establishment of the Republic of Korea in South Korea on 15 August 1948, promptly followed by the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in North Korea on 9 September 1948. In 1950, after years of mutual hostilities, North Korea invaded South Korea in an attempt to re-unify the peninsula under its communist rule. The subsequent Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, ended with a stalemate and has left the two Koreas separated by the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) up to the present day.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, cultures and regions strongly influenced by Confucianism include Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Japan, North Korea, and South Korea, as well as territories settled predominantly by Overseas Chinese, such as Singapore. The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The New culture intellectuals of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses. They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucianism, some of these new ideologies include the \"Three Principles of the People\" with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China.",
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"plaintext": "Around the turn of the 21st centuries there were talks of a \"Confucian Revival\" in the academia and the scholarly community. Across the region cultural institutions of religions have remained, even while actual belief has declined.",
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"plaintext": " East Asia–United States relations",
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"plaintext": " History of Macau",
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{
"plaintext": " Buss, Claude A. The Far East A History Of Recent And Contemporary International Relations In East Asia (1955) online free ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History (2 vol. 2008–2013) online free to borrow 703pp",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) ",
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"plaintext": "vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Fitzgerald, C. P. A concise history of East Asia (1966) online free to borrow",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hamashita, Takeshi. \"Changing Regions and China: Historical Perspectives.\" China Report 37.3 (2001): 333–351. How countries in region related to China in 19th-20th centuries",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Holcombe, Charles. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century (2010)",
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"plaintext": " Jansen, Marius B. Japan and China: from war to peace, 1894-1972 (1975).",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kang, David. East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (Columbia University Press, 2010).",
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"plaintext": " Lipman, Jonathan N. and Barbara A. Molony. Modern East Asia: An Integrated History (2011)",
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"plaintext": " Miller, David Y. Modern East Asia: An Introductory History (2007).",
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{
"plaintext": " Murphey, Rhoads. East Asia: a new history (2001) online free to borrow",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Morris-Suzuki, Tessa; Low, Morris; Petrov, Leonid; Tsu, Timothy. East Asia Beyond the History Wars: Confronting the Ghosts of Violence (2013)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 (2014) new approaches to military and diplomatic history of China, Japan & Russia excerpt",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Park, Hye Jeong \"East Asian Odyssey towards One Region: The Problem of East Asia as a Historiographical Category\". History Compass (2014). 12 (12): 889–900. doi:10.1111/hic3.12209. ISSN 1478-0542.",
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{
"plaintext": " Prescott, Anne. East Asia in the World: An Introduction (2015)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Rozman, Gilbert, and Sergey Radchenko, eds. International Relations and Asia’s Northern Tier: Sino-Russia Relations, North Korea, and Mongolia (Springer, 2017).",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Thorne, Christopher G. The limits of foreign policy; the West, the League, and the Far Eastern crisis of 1931-1933 (1972) online",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Walker, Hugh. East Asia: A New History (2012)",
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{
"plaintext": " Zurndorfer, Harriet. \"Oceans of history, seas of change: recent revisionist writing in western languages about China and East Asian maritime history during the period 1500–1630.\" International Journal of Asian Studies 13.1 (2016): 61–94.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Asian Journal of Political Science See webpage ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History, In Japanese",
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"target_page_ids": [
34632049
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"plaintext": " Central Asian Survey",
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"target_page_ids": [
18487281
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " China Report published in India and covers China and East Asia",
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"target_page_ids": [
49638045
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"plaintext": " Journal of Japanese Studies",
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2752421
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17121542
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"plaintext": " Late Imperial China",
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5921250
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{
"plaintext": " Monumenta Nipponica, Japanese studies (in English)",
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1489841
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"plaintext": " Journal of Northeast Asian Studies",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Social Science Japan Journal",
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"plaintext": " Journal of Modern Chinese History",
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{
"plaintext": " Modern China: An International Journal of History and Social Science",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Modern China: East Asian History ",
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"plaintext": " Sino-Japanese Studies",
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| [
"History_of_East_Asia"
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| 831,198 | 2,161 | 34 | 422 | 0 | 0 | history of East Asia | aspect of history | [
"East Asian history",
"East Asia history"
]
|
37,701 | 1,096,433,586 | Outline_of_South_Asian_history | [
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"plaintext": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the history of South Asia:",
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"plaintext": "History of South Asia South Asia includes the contemporary political entities of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bhutan, and the island nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.",
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"plaintext": "James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into \"ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods\", although this periodisation has also been criticised.",
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"plaintext": "Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to \"ruling dynasties and foreign invasions\", neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division into Ancient-Medieval-Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on \"significant social and economic changes\", which are not strictly related to the change of ruling powers.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Chronology",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Madrasian culture ( 1.5 MYA)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Soanian culture",
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14836963
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"plaintext": "(c. 500,000–125,000 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "South Asian Stone Age (c. 50,000–5000 BCE)",
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4624191
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"plaintext": " Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BCE)",
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"plaintext": "Bronze Age India (3500–1500 BCE)",
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8869314
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"plaintext": " Kalibangan (3500–2000 BCE)",
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2934297
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"plaintext": " Indus Valley civilization (3300–1300 BCE)",
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46853
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"plaintext": " Early Harappan Culture (3300–2600 BCE)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mature Harappan Culture (2600–1750 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Late Harappan Culture (1750–1300 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Ahar Banas culture",
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0,
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"plaintext": "Copper Hoard culture",
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"plaintext": "Painted Grey Ware culture",
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"plaintext": "Black and red ware culture",
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"plaintext": "Bara culture",
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29795107
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"plaintext": "Malwa culture",
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55776887
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"plaintext": "Jorwe culture",
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"target_page_ids": [
55776986
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"plaintext": "Other chalcolithic sites include Patapadu (Andhra Pradesh)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
7446
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"plaintext": " Vedic period (c. 1500–600 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
21476772
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"plaintext": " Puru Kingdom (c. 1500–1200 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4548591
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{
"plaintext": " Brihadratha Dynasty (c. 1700–689 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1466307
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500–500 BCE)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4328103
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kuru Dynasty (c. 1200–350 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4294542
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Panchala Dynasty (c. 1200–500 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Avanti Kingdom (c. 1200–300 BCE)",
"section_idx": 2,
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3499055
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[
1,
15
]
]
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21476772
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[
7,
19
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Matsya Kingdom ( c.1000–500 BCE )",
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"target_page_ids": [
4327680
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
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"target_page_ids": [
4327331
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
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"target_page_ids": [
62726881
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[
1,
17
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
1533700
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
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"plaintext": "Videha Kingdom (c. 800–300 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
4317982
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Pradyota dynasty (c. 682–544 BCE)",
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8570010
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Haryanka Kingdom (544–415 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
6237209
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[
1,
17
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
975385
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[
1,
16
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
2799982
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[
1,
14
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
3118873
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[
1,
14
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
4668878
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[
1,
12
]
]
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"target_page_ids": [
817070
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Nanda Empire (421–345 BCE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
817030
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[
1,
13
]
]
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"plaintext": " Malava Dynasty (392 BCE–78 CE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
844184
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Macedonian Empire (330–323 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
42012
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maurya Empire (321–184 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
554578
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pallava Kingdom (250 BCE–800 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1060317
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (250 BCE–400 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
18331745
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Satavahana Empire (230 BCE–220 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1458025
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kuninda Kingdom (200 BCE–300 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1397674
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Indo-Scythian Kingdom (200 BCE–400 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
839407
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shunga Empire (185–73 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
958457
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE–10 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
779319
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kanva Empire (75–26 BCE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1015260
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Indo-Parthian Kingdom (21–130s CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
837299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Western Satrap Empire (35–405 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
3099408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kushan Empire (60–240 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
345041
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
38128240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nagas of Padmavati (210–340 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
38128240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
5876413
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
3099423
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vakataka Empire (250s–6th century CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
3427621
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kalabhra Empire (250–600 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4245743
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gupta Empire (280–550 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
227918
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kadamba Empire (345–525 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1140368
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
3503653
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
2653212
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vishnukundina Empire (420–624 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4410547
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maitraka Empire (475–767 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1315690
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Huna Kingdom (475–576 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
30862684
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rai Kingdom (489–632 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
2838390
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guhila dynasty (500-1950 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
51181978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Turk Shahis (500–850 CE) ",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
54626547
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hindu Shahis (850–1026 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
30994122
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chalukya Empire (543–753 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
30874039
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maukhari Empire (550s–8th century CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4458081
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kalachuris of Mahishmati (6th-7th century CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
52033678
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harsha Empire (606–647 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1198073
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4620655
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE)",
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"target_page_ids": [
8588509
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
870663
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[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
49855
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kalachuris of Tripuri (7th-12th century CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
50850244
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[
1,
22
]
]
},
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1193780
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
3099417
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
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"target_page_ids": [
18505543
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yadava Empire (850–1334 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
6119559
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
43526619
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4900499
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
32366381
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hoysala Empire (1040–1346 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
37522
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sena Empire (1070–1230 CE)",
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1989483
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
14314789
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
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"target_page_ids": [
11448667
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[
1,
16
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{
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
1804336
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[
1,
17
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},
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"target_page_ids": [
20757514
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[
1,
16
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]
},
{
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"section_name": "By period",
"target_page_ids": [
4976123
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[
1,
22
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]
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2131094
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[
0,
20
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295402
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[
1,
16
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1404049
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[
1,
17
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1921242
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[
1,
17
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1646781
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[
1,
18
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745113
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[
1,
17
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1721605
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[
1,
15
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23723179
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[
1,
13
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5260104
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[
1,
13
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"target_page_ids": [
6198804
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[
1,
20
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2514136
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[
1,
14
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478684
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[
1,
20
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"target_page_ids": [
22286204
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[
1,
17
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10299957
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[
1,
22
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23699215
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[
1,
24
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37243390
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[
1,
18
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27692949
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[
1,
16
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938699
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[
1,
15
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[
1,
16
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6204328
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[
1,
15
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846757
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[
1,
18
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},
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4245432
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[
1,
13
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14533
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[
0,
19
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22286204
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[
1,
17
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18
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14
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1,
11
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1,
16
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18
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15
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19
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15
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17
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15
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19
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12
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0,
15
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1,
17
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1,
12
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13
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1,
13
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1,
12
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1,
12
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265059
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1,
27
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1,
22
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27
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1,
21
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18
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23
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15
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23
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1,
20
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22
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19
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19
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17
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20
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17
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18
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13
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15
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23
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18
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22
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18
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17
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27
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26
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29
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"plaintext": " History of Assam",
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17
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17
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24
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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15
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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19
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19
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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28
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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29
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
21
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"plaintext": " History of Karnataka",
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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21
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"plaintext": " History of Kerala",
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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18
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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26
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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23
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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19
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"plaintext": " History of Meghalaya",
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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21
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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19
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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20
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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18
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
18
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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21
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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18
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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22
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
"target_page_ids": [
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21
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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19
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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25
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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23
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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23
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},
{
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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33
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
24
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
17
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
20
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{
"plaintext": " Pakistan studies",
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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17
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
24
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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33
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
28
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
21
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
30
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"section_name": "History of South Asia, by region",
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1,
22
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1,
17
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{
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1,
51
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1,
21
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[
1,
42
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{
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{
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1,
21
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"plaintext": "Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus, that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.",
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"plaintext": "Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian settlers continued the lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era. Many areas in Southeast Asia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, a diverse sea-based trade network which functioned for 3,000 years, mostly in Southeast Asia, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.",
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"plaintext": "Earliest known copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia has been found at the site of Ban Chiang in North-east Thailand and among the Phung Nguyen culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "The Dong Son culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of ever more refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrow and spearheads and small ornamented items. By about 500 BCE large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, that weighed more than were produced in the laborious lost-wax casting process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing has been developed locally bare of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of well organised, centralised and hierarchical communities and a large population.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1,000 BCE and 100 CE the Sa Huỳnh culture flourished along the south-central coast of Vietnam. Ceramic jar burial sites, that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled, terracotta jars, ornamented and colourised cooking pots, glass items, jade earrings and metal objects had been deposited near the rivers and at the coast.",
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"plaintext": "The Buni culture is the name given to another early independent centre of refined pottery production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coastal north-western Java. The objects and artefacts of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors. Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliest Indian Rouletted Ware recorded in Southeast Asia are subject of ongoing research.",
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"plaintext": "The first true maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was the Austronesian maritime trade network by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia, who built the first ocean-going ships. They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 1500 BC, ushering an exchange of material culture (like catamarans, outrigger boats, sewn-plank boats and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas and sugarcane); as well as connecting the material cultures of India and China. They constituted the majority of the Indian Ocean component of the spice trade network. Indonesians, in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with East Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the first half of the first millennium AD. It continued up to historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road. This trade network also included smaller trade routes within Island Southeast Asia, including the lingling-o jade network and the trepanging network.",
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"plaintext": "In eastern Austronesia, various traditional maritime trade networks also existed. Among them was the ancient Lapita trade network of Island Melanesia; the Hiri trade cycle, Sepik Coast exchange and the Kula ring of Papua New Guinea; the ancient trading voyages in Micronesia between the Mariana Islands and the Caroline Islands (and possibly also New Guinea and the Philippines); and the vast inter-island trade networks of Polynesia.",
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"plaintext": "Since around 500 B.C. Asia's expanding land and maritime trade had led to socio-economic interaction and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainly Hindu beliefs into the regional cosmology of Southeast Asia. Iron Age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The concept of the Indianised kingdoms, a term coined by George Coedès, describes Southeast Asian principalities that since the early common era as a result of prolonged interaction had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of Indian civilisation elements and individual suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Ambitious local leaders realised the benefits of Hindu worship. Rule in accord with universal moral principles represented in the concept of the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries.",
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"plaintext": "The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Debated are most claims over whether it was Indian merchants, Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants who played a central role in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Debated is the depth of the influence of traditions for the people. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasized the thorough Indianisation of Southeast Asia, more recent authors argued that this influence was very limited and affected only a small section of the elite.",
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"plaintext": "Sea trade from China to India passed Champa, Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along the coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow and transhipped for distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor Chenla and the Malayan states of Langkasuka on the eastern and Kedah on the western coast.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous coastal communities in maritime Southeast Asia adopted Hindu and Buddhist cultural and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties. Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia are 4th century Kutai that rose in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java and Kalingga in Central Java.",
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"plaintext": "Earliest attested trading contacts existed between Southeast Asia and the Chinese Shang dynasty (around 1600 BCE to around 1046 BCE), when cowry shells served as currency. Various natural products, such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shells, pearls and birds' feathers found their way to Luoyang the capital of the Zhou dynasty, that lasted from 1050 to 771 BCE. Although knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes and only a small percentage was shipped \"on coastal vessels crewed by Malay and Yue traders\".",
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"plaintext": "Military conquests during the Han dynasty brought a number of foreign peoples within the Chinese empire when the Imperial Chinese tributary system began to evolve under Han rule. This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview, that had developed under the Shang dynasty, in which China is deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the Middle kingdom (Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasingly barbarous peoples. Contact with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.",
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"plaintext": "Between the 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE, the Maritime Silk Road flourished, connecting China, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, Somalia and all the way to Egypt and finally Europe. Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast Asia, and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea.",
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"plaintext": "The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier Austronesian spice trade networks of Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India (established 1000 to 600 BCE), as well as the jade industry trade in lingling-o artifacts from the Philippines in the South China Sea (c. 500 BCE). For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the Strait of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay peninsula and the Mekong delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being \"Indian\" due to the Indianization of these regions. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. The route was influential in the early spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east.",
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"plaintext": "China later built its own fleets starting from the Song dynasty in the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of the Colonial Era and the collapse of the Qing dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "Local rulers have most benefited from the introduction of Hinduism during the early common era as it greatly enhanced the legitimacy of their reign. Historians increasingly argue, that the process of Hindu religious diffusion must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains. Buddhist teachings, that almost simultaneously arrived in Southeast Asia developed during the subsequent centuries an exalted distinction and eventually came to be more appealing to the demands of the general population, a belief system and philosophy that addresses concrete human affairs. Emperor Ashoka initiated the missionary efforts to send trained monks and missionaries abroad in order to propagate Buddhism, that includes a sizeable body of literature, oral traditions, iconography, art and offers guidance as it seeks to solve central existential questions with emphasis on individual effort and conduct.",
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"plaintext": "Between the 5th and the 13th century, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia. By the 8th century, the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom emerged as a major trading power in central Maritime Southeast Asia and around the same period the Shailendra dynasty of Java extensively promoted Buddhist art that found its strongest expression in the vast Borobudur monument. After the establishment of a new royal dynasty of provincial origin in the Khmer Empire, the first Buddhist kings emerged during the 11th century. Mahayana Buddhist ideas from India where the original Theravada Buddhism had already been replaced centuries ago took hold first in Southeast Asia. However, a pure form of Theravada Buddhist teachings had been preserved in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century. Pilgrims and wandering monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism in the Pagan Empire of Burma, the Siamese Sukhothai Kingdom in Laos, the Lower Mekong Basin during Cambodia's dark ages and further into Vietnam and Insular Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-16th century, the First Toungoo Empire was the largest and strongest empire as well as one of the richest empires in Southeast Asia. The empire was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia and succeeded in creating a gigantic empire that included Mon and Shan states and annexed territories in the Kingdom of Lanna, Kingdom of Laos, and the Ayutthaya kingdom. Early European accounts describe the lower part of the Toungoo Empire as having possessed 3-4 excellent ports that facilitated considerable trade in a variety of goods. The empire supplied the port of Malacca with rice and other foodstuffs, along with luxury goods such as rubies, sapphires, musk, lac, benzoin, and gold to trade. In return, the lower part of the empire imported Chinese manufactures and Indonesian spices. Additionally, merchants from West Asia and India exchanged large quantities of Indian textiles for Burmese luxury products and for eastern goods. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century further strengthened the empire's position both commercially and militarily.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, the Srivijaya kingdom on Sumatra island had developed into the dominant power of Maritime Southeast Asia by the 5th century CE. Its capital Palembang became a major seaport and functioned as an entrepot on the Spice Route between India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable center of Vajrayana Buddhist learning and influence. Around the 6th century CE Malay merchants began sailing to Srivijaya, where goods were transported directly on Sumatran ports. The winds of the Northeast Monsoon during October to December prevented sailing ships from proceeding directly from the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, as did the Southwest Monsoon during July to September, forcing the trade route to pass through Srivijaya. However, the kingdom's wealth and influence began to fade when advancements in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries and aided the Chola state in southern India in carrying out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya, effectively ending Palembang's entrepot position in the Indo-Chinese trade route. As the influence of the Srivijaya kingdom faded by about the 13th century, Sumatra came to be ruled by a kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms for the next two centuries, including the Malayu, Pannai, and Dharmasraya kingdoms.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription dating from 900 CE relates a granted debt from a Maginoo caste nobleman named Namwaran who lived in the historic Tondo which is now part of Manila area. This document mentions a leader of Mataram in Java.",
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"plaintext": "The Khmer Empire covered much of mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time a sophisticated architecture was developed, exemplified in the structures of the capital city Angkor. Situated in modern-day Vietnam, the kingdoms of Đại Việt and Champa were rivals to the Khmer Empire in the region. The kingdom of Dvaravati was another major regional presence, first appearing in records around the 6th century CE. By the 10th century, however, Dvaravati had come under the influence of the Khmer. Nearby, Thai tribes conquered the Chao Phraya River valley of modern-day central Thailand around the 12th century and established the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th century and the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Nagarakṛtāgama, an Old Javanese document from around the 13th century, vassal states of the Majapahit Empire spread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia. The empire declined in the 15th century after the rise of Islamic states in coastal Java, the Malay peninsula, and Sumatra.",
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"plaintext": "By the 8th century CE, less than 200 years after the establishment of Islam in Arabia, the first Islamic traders and merchants who adhered to Mohammad's prophecies began to appear in maritime Southeast Asia. However, Islam did not play a notable role anywhere in mainland Southeast Asia until the 13th century. As it happened, widespread and gradual replacement of Hinduism by Theravada Buddhism reflected a shift to a more personal, introverted spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort.",
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"plaintext": "In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, historians have elaborated various routes from Arabia to India and then from India to Southeast Asia. Of these, two seem to take prominence: either Arabian traders and scholars who did not live or settle in India spread Islam directly to maritime Southeast Asia, or Arab traders that had been settling in coastal India and Sri Lanka for generations did. Muslim traders from India (Gujarat) and converts of South Asian descent are variously considered to play a major role.",
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"plaintext": "A number of sources propose the South China Sea as another route of Islamic introduction to Southeast Asia. Arguments for this hypothesis include the following:",
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"plaintext": " Extensive trade between Arabia and China before the 10th century is well documented and has been corroborated by archaeological evidence (see: Belitung shipwreck).",
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"plaintext": " During the Mongol conquest and the subsequent rule of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), hundreds of thousands of Muslims entered China. In Yunnan, Islam was propagated and commonly embraced.",
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"plaintext": " The Kufic grave stones in Champa are indices of an early and permanent Islamic community in mainland Southeast Asia. The founder of the Demak Sultanate was of Sino-Javanese origin.",
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"plaintext": " Hui mariner Zheng He proposed ancient Chinese architecture as the stylistic basis for the oldest Javanese mosques during his 15th-century visit to Demak, Banten, and the Red Mosque of Panjunan in Cirebon.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2013, the European Union published the European Commission Forum, which maintains an inclusive attitude on the matter: \"Islam spread in Southeast Asia via Muslims of diverse ethnic and cultural origins, from Middle Easterners, Arabs and Persians, to Indians and even Chinese, all of whom followed the great commercial routes of the epoch.\"",
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"plaintext": "Research has several answers as to what caused the distinct syncretic (its modern expression is cultural Islam, as opposed to Middle Eastern and North African political Islam) Islam in Southeast Asia, that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices of Hinduism, Buddhism and ancient Pan-East Asian Animism. Most principalities had developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in the cultural interchange and by borrowing from the flow of ideas that criss-crossed the archipelago, coming from across the Indian Ocean in the west and the South China Sea in the east. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike some other \"Islamised\" regions like North Africa, Iberia, the Middle East and later northern India, Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake of victorious territorial conquests, but followed trade routes as with the Islamisation of Turkic Central Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, southern India and northwest China.",
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"plaintext": "The idea of equality (before God) for the Ummah (the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer in Islam could have been more appealing than a perceived fatalism in Hinduism at the time. However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which could have helped guarantee that the social structure of a converted people or political entity saw less fundamental changes.",
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"plaintext": "There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars, and mystics, particularly Sufis, who were active in peacefully proselytizing in Southeast Asia. Java, for example, received Islam by nine men, referred to as the \"Wali Sanga\" or \"Nine Saints,\" although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom in Sumatra, the Samudera Pasai Sultanate, took place during the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "Islam and its notion of exclusivity and finality is incompatible with all other religions and the Chinese concept of heavenly harmony and the Son of Heaven as the enforcer. The integration in the traditional East Asian tributary system with China at the centre Muslim Malays and Indonesians exacted a pragmatic approach of cultural Islam in diplomatic relations with China.",
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"plaintext": "The conversion of the remnants of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire that once controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia, in particular the Strait of Malacca, marked a strategic turning point by turning the strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya, the way was open for effective and widespread proselytization and the establishment of Muslim trading centers. Many modern Malays view the Sultanate of Malacca, which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century, as the first political entity of contemporary Malaysia.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 14th century, Ming China had conquered Yunnan in the South, yet it had lost control of the Silk Road after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. The ruling Yongle Emperor resolved to focus on the Indian Ocean sea routes, seeking to consolidate the ancient Imperial Tributary System, establish greater diplomatic and military presence, and widen the Chinese sphere of influence. He ordered the construction of a huge trade and representation fleet that, between 1405 and 1433, undertook several voyages into Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, and as far as East Africa. Under the leadership of Zheng He, hundreds of naval vessels of then unparalleled size, grandeur, and technological advancement and manned by sizeable military contingents, ambassadors, merchants, artists and scholars repeatedly visited major Southeast Asian principalities. The individual fleets engaged in a number of clashes with pirates and occasionally supported various royal contenders. However, pro-expansionist voices at the court in Beijing lost influence after the 1450s, and the voyages were discontinued. The protraction of the ritualistic ceremonies and scanty travels of emissaries in the Tributary System alone was not sufficient to develop firm and lasting Chinese commercial and political influence in the region, especially during the impending onset of highly competitive global trade. During the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty, Liu Daxia, who later became the Shangshu of the Ministry of War, hid or burned the archives of Ming treasure voyages.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest Europeans to have visited Southeast Asia were Marco Polo during the 13th century in the service of Kublai Khan and Niccolò de' Conti during the early 15th century. Regular and momentous voyages only began in the 16th century after the arrival of the Portuguese, who actively sought direct and competitive trade. They were usually accompanied by missionaries, who hoped to promote Christianity.",
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"plaintext": "Portugal was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative maritime Southeast Asia Maritime trade, with the conquest of the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511. The Netherlands and Spain followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the Philippines via the Mexico-governed Viceroyalty of New Spain, which the Philippines was territory of. In 1619, acting through the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city of Sunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (now Jakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of Java and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese. Economic opportunities attracted Overseas Chinese to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the Lanfang Republic, possibly the first republic in the region, was established in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of the Qing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.",
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"plaintext": "The British, in the guise of the East India Company led by Josiah Child, had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the Anglo-Siamese War. Britain later turned their attention to the Bay of Bengal following the Peace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident. Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the Government of India by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the northeastern tip of Penang Island by Captain Francis Light, under the administration of Sir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula.",
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"plaintext": "The British also temporarily possessed Dutch territories during the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish areas in the Seven Years' War. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826).",
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"plaintext": "Early United States entry into what was then called the East Indies (usually in reference to the Malay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent. In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra.",
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts, who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.",
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"plaintext": "From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear. This phenomenon, denoted New Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. ",
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"plaintext": "Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The Monthon reforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called Mueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself. Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.",
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"plaintext": "By 1913, the British had occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor. In the Philippines, the 1872 Cavite Mutiny was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution (1896–1898). When the Spanish–American War began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries declared Philippine independence and established the First Philippine Republic the following year. In the Treaty of Paris of 1898 that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the Philippine–American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the Republic of Zamboanga, the Republic of Negros and the Republic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.",
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"plaintext": "Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.",
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"plaintext": "Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from British India and China, which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern nation state like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling nationalist movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded self-determination.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1940, following the Fall of France and pursuant to the Pacific war goals of Imperial Japan, the Japanese Imperial Army invaded Vichy French Indochina, which ended in the abortive Japanese coup de main in French Indochina of 9 March 1945. On 5 January 1941, Thailand launched the Franco-Thai War, ended on 9 May 1941 by a Japanese-imposed treaty signed in Tokyo. On 7/8 December, Japan's entry into World War II began with the invasion of Thailand, the only invaded country to maintain nominal independence, due to her political and military alliance with the Japanese—on 10 May 1942, her northwestern Payap Army invaded Burma during the Burma Campaign. From 1941 until war's end, Japanese occupied Cambodia, Malaya and the Philippines, which ended in independence movements. Japanese occupation of the Philippines led to the forming of the Second Philippine Republic, formally dissolved in Tokyo on 17 August 1945. Also on 17 August, a proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at the conclusion of Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies since March 1942.",
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"plaintext": "With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia after World War II. Indonesia declared independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequently fought a bitter war against the returning Dutch; the Philippines was granted independence by the United States in 1946; Burma secured their independence from Britain in 1948, and the French were driven from Indochina in 1954 after a bitterly fought war (the Indochina War) against the Vietnamese nationalists. The United Nations provided a forum for nationalism, post-independent self-definition, nation-building and the acquisition of territorial integrity for many newly independent nations.",
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"plaintext": "Following the independence of the Indochina states with the battle of Dien Bien Phu, North Vietnamese attempts to conquer South Vietnam resulted in the Vietnam War. The conflict spread to Laos and Cambodia and heavy intervention from the United States. By the war's end in 1975, all these countries were controlled by communist parties. After the communist victory, two wars between communist states—the Cambodian–Vietnamese War of 1975–89 and the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979—were fought in the region. The victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia resulted in the Cambodian genocide.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, Portuguese rule ended in East Timor. However, independence was short-lived as Indonesia annexed the territory soon after. However, after more than 20 years of fighting Indonesia, East Timor won its independence and was recognised by the UN in 2002. Finally, Britain ended its protectorate of the Sultanate of Brunei in 1984, marking the end of European rule in Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Modern Southeast Asia has been characterised by high economic growth by most countries and closer regional integration. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand have traditionally experienced high growth and are commonly recognised as the more developed countries of the region. As of late, Vietnam too had been experiencing an economic boom. However, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and the newly independent East Timor are still lagging economically.",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " pg.123-125",
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"plaintext": " Sinha, P.C. , ed. Encyclopaedia of South East and Far East Asia (Anmol, 2006).",
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"plaintext": " Reid, Anthony. A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads (Blackwell History of the World, 2015)",
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"plaintext": " online version of 1955 edition, 810pp",
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"plaintext": " Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.'",
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"plaintext": " Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) ",
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{
"plaintext": "vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online",
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{
"plaintext": " Heidhues, Mary Somer. \"'Southeast Asia: A Concise History\" ",
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"plaintext": " Osborne, Milton. Southeast Asia. An introductory history. ",
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"plaintext": " Scott, James C., The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (Yale Agrarian Studies Series), 464 pages, Yale University Press (30 September 2009), , ",
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"plaintext": " Tarling, Nicholas (ed). The Cambridge history of Southeast Asia Vol I-IV. ",
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{
"plaintext": " R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " R. C. Majumdar, India and South-East Asia, I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, .",
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"plaintext": " Yule, Paul. The Bronze Age Metalwork of India''. Prähistorische Bronzefunde XX,8, Munich, 1985, .",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " A Short History of China and Southeast Asia.pdf",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ancient Southeast Asia Throbbing Blood Tube",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wikiversity – Department of Southeast Asian History",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 雲南・東南アジアに関する漢籍史料",
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"plaintext": " Citizenship and Democratization in Southeast Asia",
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| 2,227,514 | 5,796 | 65 | 571 | 0 | 0 | history of Southeast Asia | aspect of Asian history | []
|
37,706 | 1,082,400,038 | Covalent_radius | [
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"plaintext": "The bond lengths R(AB) are measured by X-ray diffraction (more rarely, neutron diffraction on molecular crystals). Rotational spectroscopy can also give extremely accurate values of bond lengths. For homonuclear A–A bonds, Linus Pauling took the covalent radius to be half the single-bond length in the element, e.g. R(HH, in H2)= 74.14pm so rcov(H)= 37.07pm: in practice, it is usual to obtain an average value from a variety of covalent compounds, although the difference is usually small. Sanderson has published a recent set of non-polar covalent radii for the main-group elements, but the availability of large collections of bond lengths, which are more transferable, from the Cambridge Crystallographic Database has rendered covalent radii obsolete in many situations.",
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| 485,360 | 2,447 | 25 | 25 | 0 | 0 | covalent radius | measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond | []
|
37,708 | 1,106,102,006 | Flare | [
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"plaintext": "US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. For example, in 2003, a federal district court in California found that the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) applied because perchlorate is ignitable and therefore a “characteristic” hazardous waste.",
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"plaintext": "In the civilian world, flares are commonly used as signals, and may be ignited on the ground, fired as an aerial signal from a pistol-like flare gun, or launched from a self-contained tube. Flares are commonly found in marine survival kits.",
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"plaintext": "Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are widely recognized as a maritime distress signal.",
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"plaintext": "The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) has standards for visual signals, including both handheld and aerial flares. Handheld flares must burn for at least one minute at an average luminosity of 15,000 candelas, while aerial flares must burn for at least 40 seconds with a 30,000-candela average luminosity. Both should burn in a bright red color. Nations that are members of SOLAS require vessels to carry visual signals on board.",
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"plaintext": "Another type of flare is the fusee, which burns for 5–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night; in this usage they are also called highway flares, road flares, or ground flares. They are commonly found in roadside emergency kits.",
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"plaintext": "Fusees are also known as railroad flares and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used only once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use (as opposed to the lanterns typically used during normal operating conditions). However, in the days before train radio communications, fusees were used to keep trains apart in dark territory. A railroad fusee was timed to burn for 10 minutes, and quantities were dropped behind a train to ensure a safe spacing. If a following train encountered a burning fusee, it was not to pass until the fusee burned out. Fusees made specifically for railroad use can be distinguished from highway fusees by a sharp steel spike at one end, used to embed the fusee upright in a wooden railroad tie.",
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"plaintext": "In forestry and firefighting, fusees are sometimes used in wildfire suppression and in the ignition of controlled burns. They ignite at and burn as hot as . They are especially effective in igniting burnouts or backburns in very dry conditions, but not so effective when fuel conditions are moist. Since controlled burns are often done during relatively high humidity levels (on the grounds that they could not be safely contained during periods of very low humidity), the driptorch is more effective and more often used. Fusees are also commonly carried by wildland firefighters for emergency use, to ignite an escape fire in surrounding fuels in case of being overrun by a fire if no other escape routes are available.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium phosphide is often used in naval flares, as in contact with water it liberates phosphine which self ignites in contact with air; it is often used together with calcium carbide which releases acetylene.",
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"plaintext": "Law enforcement also may use flares (either propped on a biped or laid flat) to signal traffic hazards or that a road is blocked, often as a more visible replacement for traffic cones. Law enforcement in the United States usually use magnesium-based flares that last from 15–30 minutes.",
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"plaintext": "In 1859, Martha Coston patented the Coston flare based on early work by her deceased husband Benjamin Franklin Coston. It was used extensively by the US Navy during the Civil War and by the United States Life-Saving Service (the precursor to the US Coast Guard) to signal to other ships and to shore.",
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"plaintext": "In 1922, a \"landing flare\" was an aerial candle attached to a parachute and used for landing an airplane in the dark. The flare burned for less than four minutes and the candlepower was about 40,000 lumens.",
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"plaintext": "A special variety of flares is used in military aircraft as a defensive countermeasure against heat-seeking missiles. These flares are usually discharged individually or in salvos by the pilot or automatically by tail-warning devices, and are accompanied by vigorous evasive maneuvering. Since they are intended to deceive infrared missiles, these flares burn at temperatures of thousands of degrees, incandescing in the visible spectrum as well.",
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"plaintext": "Flares connected to tripwires are used to guard an area against infiltration. The flare begins burning when the tripwire is triggered, providing both alarm and illumination.",
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"plaintext": "Under the UN hazard number system, pyrotechnic flares are designated class 1.4 explosives.",
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"plaintext": "Several U.S. states, including California and Massachusetts, have begun regulating levels of potassium perchlorate, which can be unsafe at certain levels in drinking water. Contaminated drinking water can lead to such symptoms as gastric irritation, nausea, vomiting, fever, skin rashes, and even fatal aplastic anemia (a reduction in all types of blood cells).",
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|
37,710 | 1,085,441,590 | Enthalpy_of_vaporization | [
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"plaintext": "The enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.",
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"plaintext": "The enthalpy of vaporization is often quoted for the normal boiling temperature of the substance. Although tabulated values are usually corrected to 298K, that correction is often smaller than the uncertainty in the measured value.",
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"plaintext": "The heat of vaporization is temperature-dependent, though a constant heat of vaporization can be assumed for small temperature ranges and for reduced temperature. The heat of vaporization diminishes with increasing temperature and it vanishes completely at a certain point called the critical temperature (). Above the critical temperature, the liquid and vapor phases are indistinguishable, and the substance is called a supercritical fluid.",
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"plaintext": "Values are usually quoted in J/mol, or kJ/mol (molar enthalpy of vaporization), although kJ/kg, or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and older units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are sometimes still used among others.",
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"plaintext": "The enthalpy of condensation (or heat of condensation) is by definition equal to the enthalpy of vaporization with the opposite sign: enthalpy changes of vaporization are always positive (heat is absorbed by the substance), whereas enthalpy changes of condensation are always negative (heat is released by the substance).",
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"plaintext": "The enthalpy of vaporization can be written as ",
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"plaintext": "It is equal to the increased internal energy of the vapor phase compared with the liquid phase, plus the work done against ambient pressure. The increase in the internal energy can be viewed as the energy required to overcome the intermolecular interactions in the liquid (or solid, in the case of sublimation). Hence helium has a particularly low enthalpy of vaporization, 0.0845kJ/mol, as the van der Waals forces between helium atoms are particularly weak. On the other hand, the molecules in liquid water are held together by relatively strong hydrogen bonds, and its enthalpy of vaporization, 40.65kJ/mol, is more than five times the energy required to heat the same quantity of water from 0°C to 100°C (cp= 75.3J/K·mol). Care must be taken, however, when using enthalpies of vaporization to measure the strength of intermolecular forces, as these forces may persist to an extent in the gas phase (as is the case with hydrogen fluoride), and so the calculated value of the bond strength will be too low. This is particularly true of metals, which often form covalently bonded molecules in the gas phase: in these cases, the enthalpy of atomization must be used to obtain a true value of the bond energy.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative description is to view the enthalpy of condensation as the heat which must be released to the surroundings to compensate for the drop in entropy when a gas condenses to a liquid. As the liquid and gas are in equilibrium at the boiling point (Tb), ΔvG=0, which leads to:",
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"plaintext": "As neither entropy nor enthalpy vary greatly with temperature, it is normal to use the tabulated standard values without any correction for the difference in temperature from 298K. A correction must be made if the pressure is different from 100kPa, as the entropy of a gas is proportional to its pressure (or, more precisely, to its fugacity): the entropies of liquids vary little with pressure, as the compressibility of a liquid is small.",
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"plaintext": "These two definitions are equivalent: the boiling point is the temperature at which the increased entropy of the gas phase overcomes the intermolecular forces. As a given quantity of matter always has a higher entropy in the gas phase than in a condensed phase ( is always positive), and from",
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"plaintext": ",",
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"plaintext": "the Gibbs free energy change falls with increasing temperature: gases are favored at higher temperatures, as is observed in practice.",
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"plaintext": "Estimation of the enthalpy of vaporization of electrolyte solutions can be simply carried out using equations based on the chemical thermodynamic models, such as Pitzer model or TCPC model.",
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"plaintext": "The vaporization of metals is a key step in metal vapor synthesis, which exploits the increased reactivity of metal atoms or small particles relative to the bulk elements.",
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"plaintext": "Enthalpies of vaporization of common substances, measured at their respective standard boiling points:",
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"plaintext": "Clausius–Clapeyron relation",
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"plaintext": "Shimansky equation, describes the temperature dependence of the heat of vaporization",
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"plaintext": "Enthalpy of fusion, specific heat of melting",
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"plaintext": "Joback method, estimation of the heat of vaporization at the normal boiling point from molecular structures",
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"plaintext": "Latent heat",
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"plaintext": "CODATA Key Values for Thermodynamics",
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"plaintext": "NIST Chemistry WebBook",
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| 483,538 | 8,880 | 187 | 44 | 0 | 0 | enthalpy of vaporization | energy to convert a liquid substance to a gas; a function of pressure | [
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|
37,712 | 1,095,358,882 | Chemical_patent | [
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"plaintext": "A chemical patent, pharmaceutical patent or drug patent is a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry. Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical field. A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a special legal type of patent.",
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"plaintext": "In the pharmaceutical industry, the patent protection of drugs and medicines is accorded a particular importance, because drugs and medicines can easily be copied or imitated (by analyzing a pharmaceutical substance) and because of the significant research and development spending and the high risks associated with the development of a new drug.",
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"plaintext": "Chemical patents are different from other sources of technical information because of the generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor Eugene Markush who won a claim in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be used in patent claims. These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as broad as possible.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, patents on pharmaceuticals were considered unethical by the medical profession during most of the nineteenth-century. Drug patent terms in the US were extended from 17 to 20 years in 1994.",
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"plaintext": " Compulsory licensing (patents)",
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"plaintext": " Criticism of pharmaceutical patents",
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"plaintext": " European Commission, Pharmaceuticals, Sector Inquiry, 2008 (Public Consultation, Preliminary Report).",
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"plaintext": " \"Patents and Pharmaceuticals\", a paper given on 29 November 2008 at the Presentation of the Directorate-General of Competition's Preliminary Report of the Pharma-sector inquiry, by the Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Jacob",
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"plaintext": " India wins landmark patent battle, BBC News, March 9, 2005",
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"plaintext": " \"HIV/AIDS, Patents and the TRIPS Agreement: Issues and Options\", United States Congressional Research Service, July 27, 2001",
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"plaintext": " \"Pharmaceutical Patent Term Extensions: A Brief Explanation\", United States Congressional Research Service, January 31, 2002",
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"plaintext": "Patent Opposition Database, an online resource launched by Doctors without Borders as \"a tool which can be used to explore how to challenge unfair patents and their negative impact on access to medicines.\" ",
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| 2,359,937 | 405 | 34 | 14 | 0 | 0 | chemical patent | patent granted for an invented drug or other chemical compound | [
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|
37,713 | 1,102,705,702 | The_Merchant_of_Venice | [
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"plaintext": "The Merchant of Venice is a 16th-century play written by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in Venice named Antonio defaults on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender, Shylock. It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599.",
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"plaintext": " Antonio – a prominent merchant of Venice in a melancholic mood.",
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"plaintext": " Bassanio – Antonio's close friend; suitor to Portia; later the husband of Portia",
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"plaintext": " Gratiano – friend of Antonio and Bassanio; in love with Nerissa; later the husband of Nerissa",
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"plaintext": " Lorenzo – friend of Antonio and Bassanio; in love with Jessica; later the husband of Jessica",
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"plaintext": " Portia – a rich heiress; later the wife of Bassanio",
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"plaintext": " Nerissa – Portia's waiting maid – in love with Gratiano; later the wife of Gratiano; disguises herself as Portia's clerk",
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"plaintext": " Balthazar – Portia's servant",
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{
"plaintext": " Stephano – Portia's servant",
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{
"plaintext": " Shylock – a miserly Jew; moneylender; father of Jessica",
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"plaintext": " Jessica – daughter of Shylock, later the wife of Lorenzo",
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"plaintext": " Tubal – a Jew; friend of Shylock",
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{
"plaintext": " Launcelot Gobbo – servant of Shylock; later a servant of Bassanio; son of Old Gobbo",
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"plaintext": " Old Gobbo – blind father of Launcelot",
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"plaintext": " Leonardo – servant to Bassanio",
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"plaintext": " Duke of Venice – authority who presides over the case of Shylock's bond",
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{
"plaintext": " Prince of Morocco – suitor to Portia",
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"plaintext": " Prince of Arragon – suitor to Portia",
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{
"plaintext": " Salarino and Salanio (also known as Solanio) – friends of Antonio and Bassanio",
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"plaintext": " Salerio – a messenger from Venice; friend of Antonio, Bassanio and others",
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"plaintext": " Magnificoes of Venice, officers of the Court of Justice, gaolers, servants to Portia, and other attendants and Doctor Bellario, cousin of Portia",
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"plaintext": "Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont. Having squandered his estate, he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor. Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio, a wealthy merchant of Venice, who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out. Antonio agrees, but since he is cash-poor – his ships and merchandise are busy at sea to Tripolis, the Indies, Mexico and England – he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan's guarantor.",
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"plaintext": "Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism and because Antonio's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates. Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan, citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio's hand. He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition: if Antonio were unable to repay it at the specified date, Shylock may take a pound of Antonio's flesh. Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender's generosity (no \"usance\" – interest – is asked for), and he signs the contract. With money in hand, Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano, who has asked to accompany him. Gratiano is a likeable young man, but he is often flippant, overly talkative, and tactless. Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self-control, and the two leave for Belmont.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, in Belmont, Portia is awash with suitors. Her father left a will stipulating that each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets, made of gold, silver and lead respectively. Whoever picks the right casket wins Portia's hand. The first suitor, the Prince of Morocco, chooses the gold casket, interpreting its slogan, \"Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire\", as referring to Portia. The second suitor, the conceited Prince of Aragon, chooses the silver casket, which proclaims, \"Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves\", as he believes he is full of merit. Both suitors leave empty-handed, having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan, \"Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath\". The last suitor is Bassanio, whom Portia wishes to succeed, having met him before. As Bassanio ponders his choice, members of Portia's household sing a song that says that \"fancy\" (not true love) is \"engend'red in the eyes, / With gazing fed\"; Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia's hand.",
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"plaintext": "At Venice, Antonio's ships are reported lost at sea, so the merchant cannot repay the bond. Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted. She took a substantial amount of Shylock's wealth with her, as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife, Leah. Shylock has Antonio brought before court.",
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"plaintext": "At Belmont, Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock. Portia and Bassanio marry, as do Gratiano and Portia's handmaid Nerissa. Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice, with money from Portia, to save Antonio's life by offering the money to Shylock. Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano, Portia sent her servant, Balthazar, to seek the counsel of Portia's cousin, Bellario, a lawyer, at Padua.",
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"plaintext": "The climax of the play is set in the court of the Duke of Venice. Shylock refuses Bassanio's offer of 6,000 ducats, twice the amount of the loan. He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio. The Duke, wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract, refers the case to a visitor. He identifies himself as Balthazar, a young male \"doctor of the law\", bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario. The doctor is Portia in disguise, and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa, also disguised as a man. As Balthazar, Portia in a famous speech repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy, advising him that mercy \"is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes\" (Act IV, Sc 1, Line 185). However, Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh.",
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"plaintext": "As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock's knife, Portia deftly appropriates Shylock's argument for \"specific performance\". She says that the contract allows Shylock to remove only the flesh, not the blood, of Antonio (see quibble). Thus, if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio's blood, his \"lands and goods\" would be forfeited under Venetian laws. She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less; she advises him that \"if the scale do turn, But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate.\"",
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"plaintext": "Defeated, Shylock consents to accept Bassanio's offer of money for the defaulted bond: first his offer to pay \"the bond thrice\", which Portia rebuffs, telling him to take his bond, and then merely the principal; but Portia also prevents him from doing this, on the ground that he has already refused it \"in the open court\". She cites a law under which Shylock, as a Jew and therefore an \"alien\", having attempted to take the life of a citizen, has forfeited his property, half to the government and half to Antonio, leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke. The Duke spares Shylock's life and says he may remit the forfeiture. Portia says the Duke may waive the state's share, but not Antonio's. Antonio says he is content that the state waive its claim to half Shylock's wealth if he can have his one-half share \"in use\" until Shylock's death, when the principal would be given to Lorenzo and Jessica. Antonio also asks that \"for this favor\" Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica. The Duke then threatens to recant his pardon of Shylock's life unless he accepts these conditions. Shylock, re-threatened with death, accepts with the words, \"I am content.\" (IV, i).",
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"plaintext": "Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife, but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer. First she declines, but after he insists, Portia requests his ring and Antonio's gloves. Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought, but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio, as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose, sell or give it. Nerissa, as the lawyer's clerk, succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano, who does not see through her disguise.",
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"plaintext": "At Belmont, Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise (V). After all the other characters make amends, Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all.",
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"plaintext": "The forfeit of a merchant's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century. In addition, the test of the suitors at Belmont, the merchant's rescue from the \"pound of flesh\" penalty by his friend's new wife disguised as a lawyer, and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th-century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino, which was published in Milan in 1558. Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane, published in translation in 1596. The story of the three caskets can be found in Gesta Romanorum, a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "The date of composition of The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598. The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598, so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date. The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed \"divers times\" by that date. Salerino's reference to his ship the Andrew (I, i, 27) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew, captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596. A date of 1596–97 is considered consistent with the play's style.",
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"plaintext": "The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company, the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play, by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title \"the Marchaunt of Venyce or otherwise called the Jewe of Venyce.\" On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year. It was printed again in 1619, as part of William Jaggard's so-called False Folio. (Later, Thomas Heyes' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play, on 8 July 1619.) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable. It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio, which adds a number of stage directions, mainly musical cues.",
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"plaintext": "The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences because of its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play's stance on the Jews and Judaism.",
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"plaintext": "English society in the Elizabethan and Jacobean era has been described as \"judeophobic\". English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. Poet John Donne, who was Dean of St Paul's Cathedral and a contemporary of Shakespeare, gave a sermon in 1624 perpetuating the Blood Libel – the entirely unsubstantiated antisemitic lie that Jews ritually murdered Christians to drink their blood and achieve salvation. In Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified, and had to live in a ghetto.",
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"plaintext": "Shakespeare's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe's early 1590s work The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the Old Testament vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock's forced conversion to Christianity to be a \"happy ending\" for the character, as, to a Christian audience, it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven.",
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"plaintext": "Regardless of what Shakespeare's authorial intent may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play's history. The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.",
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"plaintext": "In a series of articles called Observer, first published in 1785, British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams, who is quoted as saying, \"I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us, poor scattered sons of Abraham, than the Inquisition itself.\" Cumberland later wrote a successful play, The Jew (1794), in which his title character, Sheva, is portrayed sympathetically, as both a kindhearted and generous man. This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified.",
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"plaintext": "The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as \"a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard\".",
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"plaintext": "Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance, noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character. They cite as evidence that Shylock's \"trial\" at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so. The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win. In addition to this Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:",
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"plaintext": "It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readersor whether Shakespeare, a writer who created complex, multi-faceted characters, deliberately intended this reading.",
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"plaintext": "One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised. To some critics, Shylock's celebrated \"Hath not a Jew eyes?\" speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure; in the speech, Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters. Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge: \"if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?\" Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters: \"If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.\"",
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"plaintext": "Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way, the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare's characterisations. In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for \"justice\", contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy. The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies, although they themselves have failed in the past. Jewish critic Harold Bloom suggests that, although the play gives merit to both cases, the portraits are not even-handed: \"Shylock's shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy delights us, but ... Shakespeare's intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew...\"",
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"plaintext": "Antonio's unexplained depression – \"In sooth I know not why I am so sad\" – and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman. In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality, which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio's affections despite his obligation to marry:",
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"plaintext": "In his essay \"Brothers and Others\", published in The Dyer's Hand, W. H. Auden describes Antonio as \"a man whose emotional life, though his conduct may be chaste, is concentrated upon a member of his own sex.\" Antonio's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare's Sonnets: \"But since she pricked thee out for women's pleasure,/ Mine be thy love, and my love's use their treasure.\" Antonio, says Auden, embodies the words on Portia's leaden casket: \"Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath.\" Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs, not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage but also because Bassanio cannot requite what Antonio feels for him. Antonio's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry: the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one. There is one other such idolator in the play: Shylock himself. \"Shylock, however unintentionally, did, in fact, hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated, and Antonio, however unthinkingly he signed the bond, hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved.\" Both Antonio and Shylock, agreeing to put Antonio's life at a forfeit, stand outside the normal bounds of society. There was, states Auden, a traditional \"association of sodomy with usury\", reaching back at least as far as Dante, with which Shakespeare was likely familiar. (Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society.)",
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"plaintext": "Other interpreters of the play regard Auden's conception of Antonio's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable. Michael Radford, director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino, explained that, although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss, the friendship between the two is platonic, in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time. Jeremy Irons, in an interview, concurs with the director's view and states that he did not \"play Antonio as gay\". Joseph Fiennes, however, who plays Bassanio, encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and, in fact, surprised Irons with the kiss on set, which was filmed in one take. Fiennes defended his choice, saying \"I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text. If you look at the choice of language ... you'll read very sensuous language. That's the key for me in the relationship. The great thing about Shakespeare and why he's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity. He's not saying they're gay or they're straight, he's leaving it up to his actors. I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters ... there's great attraction. I don't think they have slept together but that's for the audience to decide.\"",
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"plaintext": "The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605, followed by a second performance a few days later, but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century. In 1701, George Granville staged a successful adaptation, titled The Jew of Venice, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. This version (which featured a masque) was popular, and was acted for the next forty years. Granville cut the clownish Characters in line with neoclassical decorum; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio, and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene. Thomas Doggett was Shylock, playing the role comically, perhaps even farcically. Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709; Doggett's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock.",
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"plaintext": "In 1741, Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane, paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later (see below).",
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"plaintext": "Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean, and that previously the role had been played \"by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil.\" Kean's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.",
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"plaintext": "From Kean's time forward, all of the actors who have famously played the role, with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played Shylock as a simple villain, have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called \"the summit of his career\". Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century: Adler played the role in Yiddish-language translation, first in Manhattan's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side, and later on Broadway, where, to great acclaim, he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English-language production.",
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"plaintext": "Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, \"rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats\" and that Antonio is \"far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him.\" Shylock's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but \"would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn?\"",
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"plaintext": "Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how \"must he be acted\" appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).",
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"plaintext": "The play has inspired many adaptions and several works of fiction.",
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"plaintext": " 1914 – The Merchant of Venice, a silent film directed by Lois Weber and Phillips Smalley.",
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"plaintext": " Weber played Portia and Smalley, her husband, played Shylock. With this film, Weber became the first woman to direct a full-length feature film in America.",
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"plaintext": " 1916 – The Merchant of Venice, an unsuccessful silent British film produced by Walter West for Broadwest.",
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"plaintext": " 1923 – The Merchant of Venice (Der Kaufmann von Venedig), also The Jew of Mestri, a silent German film directed by Peter Paul Felner.",
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"plaintext": " Though based in part on Shakespeare's play, it was also based on Christopher Marlowe's The Jew of Malta, as well as stories by Giovanni Fiorentino, Masuccio Salernitano and Pietro Aretino.",
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"plaintext": " 1941 – Shylock, an Indian Tamil language film directed by the duo Sama-Ramu.",
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"plaintext": " 1969 – The Merchant of Venice, an unreleased 40-minute television film directed by and starring Orson Welles; the film was completed, but the soundtrack for all but the first reel was stolen before it could be released.",
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"plaintext": " 1972 – The Merchant of Venice, BBC video-taped television version directed by Cedric Messina for the BBC's Play of the Month series.",
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"plaintext": " Cast includes Maggie Smith, Frank Finlay, Charles Gray and Christopher Gable.",
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"plaintext": " 1973 – The Merchant of Venice British Associated Television version directed by John Sichel. Broadcast in the United States over ABC-TV.",
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"plaintext": " Set in the late Victorian era, the cast included Laurence Olivier as Shylock, Anthony Nicholls as Antonio, Jeremy Brett as Bassanio, and Joan Plowright as Portia.",
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"plaintext": " 1980 – The Merchant of Venice, a version for the BBC Television Shakespeare directed by Jack Gold.",
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"plaintext": " The cast includes Gemma Jones as Portia, Warren Mitchell as Shylock and John Nettles as Bassanio.",
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"plaintext": " 1996 – The Merchant of Venice, a Channel 4 television film directed by Alan Horrox.",
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"plaintext": " The cast included Bob Peck as Shylock and Haydn Gwynne as Portia.",
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"plaintext": " 2001 – The Merchant of Venice, a Royal National Theatre production directed by Trevor Nunn.",
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"plaintext": " Set around 1930, Henry Goodman played Shylock.",
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"plaintext": " 2002 – The Māori Merchant of Venice, directed by Don Selwyn.",
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"plaintext": " In Māori, with English subtitles. This film was based on a 1945 translation of the play to Māori by Pei Te Hurinui Jones.",
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"plaintext": " 2003 – In Shakespeare's Merchant, a film directed by Paul Wagar, Antonio and Bassanio have a homosexual relationship.",
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"plaintext": " 2004 – The Merchant of Venice, directed by Michael Radford and produced by Barry Navidi.",
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"plaintext": " This was the first \"big-screen\" adaption of the play. The cast included Al Pacino as Shylock, Jeremy Irons as Antonio, Joseph Fiennes as Bassanio, Lynn Collins as Portia, and Zuleikha Robinson as Jessica.",
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"plaintext": " Broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 22 April 2018 and transposing the plot from Venice to the City of London and the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The cast included Andrew Scott as Shylock, Ray Fearon as Antonio, Colin Morgan as Bassanio, Hayley Atwell as Portia, and Lauren Cornelius as Jessica.",
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"plaintext": " Josef Bohuslav Foerster's three-act Czech opera Jessika was first performed at the Prague National Theatre in 1905.",
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"plaintext": " Adrian Welles Beecham, 15-year old son of Sir Thomas Beecham, composed an operatic version which premiered at the Grand Theatre in Brighton on 18 Sept 1922 followed by 32 performances at the Duke of York's Theatre in London from 20 November to 16 Dec 1922. Augustus Milner sang Shylock, later replaced during the run by producer F. R. Benson. Although described in the vocal score as \"a Shakespearean Opera\" the play was perhaps better defined as a \"play with music\", with 27 musical sections or arias. ",
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"plaintext": "Reynaldo Hahn's three-act French opera Le marchand de Venise was first performed at the Paris Opéra on 25 March 1935.",
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"plaintext": " The late André Tchaikowsky's (1935–1982) opera The Merchant of Venice premiered at the Bregenz Festival on 18 July 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Edmond Haraucourt, French playwright and poet, was commissioned in the 1880s by the actor and theatrical director Paul Porel to make a French-verse adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. His play Shylock, first performed at the Théâtre de l'Odéon in December 1889, had incidental music by the French composer Gabriel Fauré, later incorporated into an orchestral suite of the same name.",
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"plaintext": "Ralph Vaughan Williams' choral work Serenade to Music (1938) draws its text from the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, scene 1.",
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"plaintext": "In both versions of the comic film To Be or Not to Be (1942 and 1983) the character \"Greenberg\", specified as a Jew in the later version, gives a recitation of the \"Hath Not a Jew eyes?\" speech to Nazi soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "The rock musical Fire Angel was based on the story of the play, with the scene changed to the Little Italy district of New York. It was performed in Edinburgh in 1974 and in a revised form at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, in 1977. Braham Murray directed.",
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"plaintext": "Arnold Wesker's play The Merchant (1976) is a reimagining of Shakespeare's story. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are friends and share a disdain for the crass anti-Semitism of the Christian community's laws.",
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"plaintext": "David Henry Wilson's play Shylock's Revenge, was first produced at the University of Hamburg in 1989, and follows the events in The Merchant of Venice. In this play Shylock gets his wealth back and becomes a Jew again.",
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"plaintext": "The Star Trek franchise sometimes quote and paraphrase Shakespeare, including The Merchant of Venice. One example is the Shakespeare-aficionado Chang in The Undiscovered Country (1991), a Klingon, who quotes Shylock.",
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"plaintext": "Steven Spielberg's Schindler's List (1993) depicts SS Lieutenant Amon Göth quoting Shylock's \"Hath Not a Jew eyes?\" speech when deciding whether to rape his Jewish maid.",
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"plaintext": "In David Fincher's 1995 crime thriller Seven, a lawyer, Eli Gould, is coerced to remove a pound of his own flesh and place it on a scale, alluding to the play.",
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"plaintext": "The German Belmont Prize was established in 1997, referring to 'Belmont' as \"a place of destiny where Portia's intelligence is at home.\" The eligibility for the award is encapsulated by the inscription on the play's lead casket, \"Who chooses me must give and hazard all he hath.\"",
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"plaintext": "One of the four short stories comprising Alan Isler's The Bacon Fancier (1999) is also told from Shylock's point of view. In this story, Antonio was a converted Jew.",
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"plaintext": "The Pianist is a 2002 film based on a memoir by Władysław Szpilman. In this film, Henryk Szpilman reads Shylock's \"Hath Not a Jew eyes?\" speech to his brother Władysław in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Nazi occupation in World War II.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2009 spy comedy Lost in Rio, a speech by the nazi Von Zimmel parodies Shylock's tirade.",
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"plaintext": "Christopher Moore combines The Merchant of Venice and Othello in his 2014 comic novel The Serpent of Venice, in which he makes Portia (from The Merchant of Venice) and Desdemona (from Othello) sisters. All of the characters come from those two plays with the exception of Jeff (a monkey); the gigantic simpleton Drool; and Pocket, the Fool, who comes from Moore's earlier novel Fool, based on King Lear.",
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"plaintext": "Naomi Alderman's The Wolf in the Water is a radio-play first broadcast on BBC Radio 3 in 2016. The play continues the story of Shylock's daughter Jessica, who lives in an anti-semitic Venice and practices her Jewish faith in secret. Part of the BBC's Shakespeare Festival, the play also marked that 500 years had passed since the Venetian Ghetto was instituted.",
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"plaintext": "Yaffe, Martin D.: Shylock and the Jewish Question''. ",
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37,714 | 1,099,995,725 | Energia_(rocket) | [
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"plaintext": "Energia (; GRAU 11K25) was a 1980s super-heavy lift launch vehicle. It was designed by NPO Energia of the Soviet Union as part of the Buran programme for a variety of payloads including the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the Khartron NPO \"Electropribor\". The Energia used four strap-on boosters each powered by a four-chamber RD-170 engine burning kerosene/LOX, and a central core stage with four single-chamber RD-0120 (11D122) engines fueled by liquid hydrogen/LOX.",
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"plaintext": "The launch vehicle made just two flights to orbit before being discontinued. Since 2016, there have been attempts to revive the launch vehicle, reusing an updated version of its engine in the Soyuz-5 rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Work on the Energia/Buran system began in 1976 after the decision was made to cancel the unsuccessful N1 rocket. The facilities and infrastructure built for the N1 were reused for Energia (notably the huge horizontal assembly building), just as NASA reused infrastructure designed for the Saturn V in the Space Shuttle program. Energia also replaced the \"Vulkan\" concept, which was a design based on the Proton and using the same hypergolic propellants, but much larger and more powerful. The \"Vulkan\" designation was later given to a variation of the Energia which has eight boosters and multiple stages.",
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"plaintext": "The Energia was designed to launch the Soviet \"Buran\" reusable shuttle, and for that reason was designed to carry its payload mounted on the side of the stack, rather than on the top, as is done with other launch vehicles. Design of the Energia-Buran system assumed that the booster could be used without the Buran orbiter, as a heavy-lift cargo launch vehicle; this configuration was originally given the name \"Buran-T\". This configuration required the addition of an upper stage to perform the final orbital insertion. The first launch of the Energia was in the configuration of a heavy launch vehicle, with the large Polyus military satellite as a payload, however Polyus failed to correctly perform the orbital insertion.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the termination of the Buran programme the Energia program was concluded after only two launches, and further the payload on the first launch did not perform the final boost properly. The legacy of Energia/Buran project manifests itself most visibly in form of the RD-170 family of rocket engines, and the Zenit launcher, with the first stage roughly the same as one of the Energia first-stage boosters.",
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"plaintext": "The Energia was first test-launched on 15 May 1987, with the Polyus spacecraft as the payload. An FGB (\"functional cargo block\") engine section originally built as a cancelled Mir module was incorporated into the upper stage used to eject the payload into orbit, similarly to Buran and the US Space Shuttle performing the final orbital insertion, since the planned \"Buran-T\" upper stage had not yet progressed beyond the planning stage. The intended orbit had 280km (170mi) altitude and 64.6° inclination.",
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"plaintext": "The Soviets had originally announced that the launch was a successful sub-orbital test of the new Energia booster with a dummy payload, but some time later it was revealed that in fact the flight had been intended to bring the Polyus into orbit. The two stages of the Energia launcher functioned as designed, but due to a software error in its attitude control system, Polyus's orbital insertion motor failed to inject the payload into orbit. Instead, the Polyus reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "The second flight, and the first one where payload successfully reached orbit, was launched on 15 November 1988. This mission launched the uncrewed Soviet Shuttle vehicle Buran. At apogee, the Buran spacecraft made a 66.7m/s burn to reach a final orbit of 251km × 263km.",
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"plaintext": "Production of Energia rockets ended with the end of the Buran shuttle project in the late 1980s, and more certainly, with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Since that time, there have been persistent rumors of the renewal of production, but given the political realities, that is highly unlikely. While the Energia is no longer in production, the Zenit boosters were in use until 2017. The four strap-on liquid-fuel boosters, which burned kerosene and liquid oxygen, were the basis of the Zenit rocket which used the same engines. The engine is the four combustion chamber RD-170. Its derivative, the RD-171, was used on the Zenit rocket. A half-sized derivative of the engine, the two-chamber RD-180, powers Lockheed Martin's Atlas V rocket, while the single-chamber derivative, the RD-191, has been used to launch the Korean Naro-1 (as a reduced-thrust variant named the RD-151) and the Russian Angara rocket. The RD-181, based on the RD-191, is used on the Antares rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Tests of RD-171MV engine, an updated version of the engine used in Energia, were completed in September 2021 and may potentially be used in the successor Soyuz-5 rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Three major design variants were conceptualized after the original configuration, each with vastly different payloads.",
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"plaintext": "The Energia M was an early-1990s design configuration, and the smallest of the three. The number of Zenit boosters was reduced from four to two, and instead of four RD-0120 engines in the core, it was to have had only one. It was designed to replace the Proton rocket, but lost a 1993 competition to the Angara rocket.",
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"plaintext": "A non-functional prototype (\"structural test vehicle\") of the Energia M still exists in a seemingly abandoned hangar at Baikonur Cosmodrome. ",
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"plaintext": "Energia-2, named Uragan (, Hurricane), was a rocket design proposed in the late 1980s to be fully reusable with the capability to land on a conventional airfield. Unlike the Energia-Buran, which was planned to be semi-reusable (like the U.S. Space Shuttle), the Uragan concept was to have allowed the complete recovery of all Buran/Energia elements, like the original, totally reusable Orbiter/Booster concept of the U.S. Shuttle. The Energia II core as proposed would be capable of re-entering and gliding to a landing.",
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"plaintext": "The final never-built design concept was also the largest. With eight Zenit booster rockets and an Energia-M core as the upper stage, the \"Vulkan\" (which was the same name of another Soviet heavy lift rocket that was cancelled years earlier) configuration was initially projected to launch up to 200metric tonnes into 200km orbit with inclination 50.7°.",
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"plaintext": "The development of rocket-carrier \"Vulcan\" and the refurbishment of the \"Energia\" launch pad for its launches was in progress in 1990–1993. But later on the work on this project was cancelled due to lack of funds and the collapse of the Soviet Union.",
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"plaintext": "Detailed site about Energia",
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"plaintext": "K26 Energia page ",
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"plaintext": "A page about Energia rocket on a site about Buran spacecraft - English translation",
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"plaintext": " Energia - last Moon project. (rus) english translation",
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| 731,859 | 13,195 | 104 | 60 | 0 | 0 | Energia | Soviet rocket | []
|
37,715 | 1,100,817,579 | Allegro | [
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"plaintext": "Allegro may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " Allegro (music), a tempo marking indicate to play fast, quickly and bright",
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"plaintext": " \"Allegro\", any of several musical works in Nannerl Notenbuch by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart",
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"plaintext": " Allegro (typeface), a typeface designed in 1936",
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"plaintext": " John Marco Allegro, Dead Sea Scrolls scholar",
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"plaintext": " Allegra (disambiguation)",
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|
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"plaintext": " Rinspeed Presto, a Swiss concept car",
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"plaintext": " Presto card, a smart card payment system used in Ontario",
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"plaintext": " Earl \"Presto\" Johnson, American magician",
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|
37,717 | 1,011,238,726 | Crescendo_(disambiguation) | [
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"plaintext": " Crescendo Networks, a company which develops and sells application acceleration devices for data centers",
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|
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"plaintext": " Diminuendo (horse), 1988 winner of the Epsom Oaks",
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| 54,370,331 | 43 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Diminuendo | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,720 | 1,092,629,895 | Staccato | [
{
"plaintext": "Staccato (; Italian for \"detached\") is a form of musical articulation. In modern notation, it signifies a note of shortened duration, separated from the note that may follow by silence. It has been described by theorists and has appeared in music since at least 1676.",
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"plaintext": "In 20th-century music, a dot placed above or below a note indicates that it should be played staccato, and a wedge is used for the more emphatic staccatissimo. However, before 1850, dots, dashes, and wedges were all likely to have the same meaning, even though some theorists from as early as the 1750s distinguished different degrees of staccato through the use of dots and dashes, with the dash indicating a shorter, sharper note, and the dot a longer, lighter one. ",
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"plaintext": "The example below illustrates the scope of the staccato dot:",
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"plaintext": "In the first measure, the pairs of notes are in the same musical part (or voice) since they are on a common stem. The staccato applies to both notes of the pairs. In the second measure, the pairs of notes are stemmed separately indicating two different parts, so the staccato applies only to the upper note.",
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"plaintext": "The opposite musical articulation of staccato is legato, signifying long and continuous notes. There is an intermediate articulation called either mezzo staccato or non legato. ",
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"plaintext": "By default, in the music notation program Sibelius, \"staccatos shorten a note by 50%.\"",
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"plaintext": "In musical notation, staccatissimo (plural: staccatissimi or the anglicised form staccatissimos) indicates that the notes are to be played extremely separated and distinct, a superlative staccato. This can be notated with little pikes over or under the notes, depending on stem direction, as in this example from Bruckner's Symphony No. 0 in D minor:",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, it can be notated by writing the word \"staccatissimo\" or the abbreviation \"staccatiss.\" over the staff. A few composers, such as Mozart, have used staccato dots accompanied by a written instruction staccatissimo when they mean the passage to be played staccatissimo.",
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"plaintext": " Glissando",
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"plaintext": " Legato",
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"plaintext": " Marcato",
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"plaintext": " Portato",
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{
"plaintext": " Slur (music)",
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{
"plaintext": " Basic Music Theory Neil V. Hawes, organist and choirmaster of St. Mary's Church, Osterley",
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{
"plaintext": " Staccato—video example of staccato playing",
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| [
"Articulations_(music)",
"Italian_words_and_phrases",
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| 466,944 | 6,541 | 466 | 19 | 0 | 0 | staccato | form of musical articulation | []
|
37,721 | 1,081,846,851 | Legato | [
{
"plaintext": "In music performance and notation, legato (; Italian for \"tied together\"; French lié; German gebunden) indicates that musical notes are played or sung smoothly and connected. That is, the player makes a transition from note to note with no intervening silence. Legato technique is required for slurred performance, but unlike slurring (as that term is interpreted for some instruments), legato does not forbid re-articulation.",
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"plaintext": "Standard notation indicates legato either with the word legato, or by a slur (a curved line) under notes that form one legato group. Legato, like staccato, is a kind of articulation.",
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"plaintext": "In music for Classical string instruments, legato is an articulation that often refers to notes played with a full bow, and played with the shortest silence, often barely perceptible, between notes. The player achieves this through controlled wrist movements of the bowing hand, often masked or enhanced with vibrato. Such a legato style of playing can also be associated with portamento.",
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"plaintext": "In guitar playing (apart from classical guitar) legato is used interchangeably as a label for both musical articulation and a particular application of technique—playing musical phrases using the left hand to play the notes—using techniques such as glissando, string bending, hammer-ons and pull-offs instead of picking to sound the notes. The fact that the same finger is both setting the string vibrating and setting the pitch leads to smoother transitions between notes than when one hand is used to mark pitch while the other strikes the string. Legato technique to provide legato articulation on electric guitar generally requires playing notes that are close and on the same string, following the first note with others that are played by hammer-ons and pull-offs. ",
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"plaintext": "Some guitar virtuosos (notably Allan Holdsworth, Shawn Lane and Brett Garsed) developed their legato technique to the extent that they could perform extremely complex passages involving any permutation of notes on a string at extreme tempos, and particularly in the case of Holdsworth, tend to eschew pull-offs entirely for what some feel is a detrimental effect on guitar tone as the string is pulled slightly sideways. The term \"hammer-ons from nowhere\" is commonly employed when crossing strings and relying solely on fretting hand strength to produce a note but on a plucked string. Many guitar virtuosos are well-versed in the legato technique, as it allows for rapid and \"clean\" runs. Multiple hammer-ons and pull-offs together are sometimes also referred to colloquially as \"rolls,\" a reference to the fluid sound of the technique. A rapid series of hammer-ons and pull-offs between a single pair of notes is called a trill. ",
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"plaintext": "Legato on guitar is commonly associated with playing more notes within a beat than the stated timing, i.e., playing 5 (a quintuplet) or 7 (a septuplet) notes against a quarter-note instead of the usual even number or triplet. This gives the passage an unusual timing and when played slowly an unusual sound. However, this is less noticeable by ear when played fast, as legato usually is. There is a fine line between legato and two-hand finger tapping, in some cases making the two techniques harder to distinguish by ear. Generally, legato adds a more fluid, smooth sound to a passage.",
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"plaintext": "In synthesizers legato is a type of monophonic operation. In contrast to the typical monophonic mode where every new note articulates the sound by restarting the envelope generators, in legato mode the envelopes are not re-triggered if the new note is played \"legato\" (with the previous note still depressed). This causes the initial transient from the attack and decay phases to sound only once for an entire legato sequence of notes. Envelopes reaching the sustain stage remain there until the final note is released.",
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37,724 | 1,076,503,105 | Largo | [
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"plaintext": " Largo the Black Lion, the main villain in Tales of the Abyss",
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"plaintext": " 9×23mm Largo, a centerfire pistol cartridge",
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"plaintext": " HMS Largo Bay (K423), Bay-class anti-aircraft frigate of the British navy",
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37,726 | 1,093,806,072 | Octave | [
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"plaintext": "Most musical scales are written so that they begin and end on notes that are an octave apart. For example, the C major scale is typically written (shown below), the initial and final C's being an octave apart.",
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"plaintext": "The notation 8a or 8va is sometimes seen in sheet music, meaning \"play this an octave higher than written\" (all' ottava: \"at the octave\" or all' 8va). 8a or 8va stands for ottava, the Italian word for octave (or \"eighth\"); the octave above may be specified as ottava alta or ottava sopra). Sometimes 8va is used to tell the musician to play a passage an octave lower (when placed under rather than over the staff), though the similar notation 8vb (ottava bassa or ottava sotto) is also used. Similarly, 15ma (quindicesima) means \"play two octaves higher than written\" and 15mb (quindicesima bassa) means \"play two octaves lower than written.\"",
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"plaintext": "After the unison, the octave is the simplest interval in music. The human ear tends to hear both notes as being essentially \"the same\", due to closely related harmonics. Notes separated by an octave \"ring\" together, adding a pleasing sound to music. The interval is so natural to humans that when men and women are asked to sing in unison, they typically sing in octave.",
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"plaintext": "Octave equivalence is a part of most advanced musical cultures, but is far from universal in \"primitive\" and early music. The languages in which the oldest extant written documents on tuning are written, Sumerian and Akkadian, have no known word for \"octave\". However, it is believed that a set of cuneiform tablets that collectively describe the tuning of a nine-stringed instrument, believed to be a Babylonian lyre, describe tunings for seven of the strings, with indications to tune the remaining two strings an octave from two of the seven tuned strings. Leon Crickmore recently proposed that \"The octave may not have been thought of as a unit in its own right, but rather by analogy like the first day of a new seven-day week\".",
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"plaintext": "The writers of the series often use elements of fantasy and horror as metaphors for real-life conflicts. The series' use of magic, as noted by religion professor Gregory Stevenson, neither promotes nor denigrates Wiccan ideals and Willow rejects Wiccan colleagues for not practicing the magic she favors. Throughout the series, magic is employed to represent different ideas -— relationships, sexuality, ostracism, power, and particularly for Willow, addiction -— that change between episodes and seasons. The ethical judgment of magic, therefore, lies in the results: performing magic to meet selfish needs or neglecting to appreciate its power often ends disastrously. Using it wisely for altruistic reasons is considered a positive act on the series.",
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"plaintext": "Through witchcraft, Willow becomes the only member of the group to cause damage to Glory. She reveals that the spells she casts are physically demanding, giving her headaches and nosebleeds. When Glory assaults Tara, making her insane, Willow, in a magical rage that causes her eyes to turn black, finds Glory and battles her. She does not come from the battle unscathed (after all, Glory is a goddess and Willow \"just\" a very powerful witch) and must be assisted by Buffy, but her power is evident and surprising to her friends. The final episode of the fifth season sees Willow restoring Tara's sanity and crucially weakening Glory in the process. It also features Buffy's death, sacrificing herself to save the world.",
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"plaintext": "Willow and Tara move into the Summers house and raise Buffy's younger sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg). Fearing that Buffy is in hell, Willow suggests at the beginning of the sixth season that she be raised from the dead. In a dark ceremony in which she expels a snake from her mouth, Willow performs the magic necessary to bring Buffy back. She is successful, but Buffy keeps it secret that she believes she was in heaven.",
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"plaintext": "Willow's powers grow stronger; she uses telepathy which her friends find intrusive, and she begins to cast spells to manipulate Tara. After Willow fails Tara's challenge to go for one week without performing magic, Tara leaves her, and for two episodes Willow descends into addiction that almost gets Dawn killed. Willow goes for months without any magic, helping Buffy track three geeks called The Trio who grandiosely aspire to be supervillains.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately following Willow's reconciliation with Tara, Warren (Adam Busch), one of the Trio, shoots Buffy; a stray shot kills Tara right in front of Willow. In an explosion of rage and grief, Willow soaks up all the dark magic she can, which turns her hair and eyes black. In the final episodes of the season Willow becomes exceedingly strong, surviving unharmed when Warren hits her in the back with an axe. “Axe not gonna cut it,” she quips. She hunts Warren, tortures him by slowly pushing a bullet into his body, then kills him by magically flaying him. Unsatisfied, she attempts to kill the other two members of the Trio but is unsuccessful due to her weakening power. She solves this problem by killing her 'dealer' from earlier in the season and draining him of his magic. When she is confronted by Buffy they begin to fight, only to be stopped by Giles who has borrowed magic from a coven of wiccans. Willow successfully drains him of this borrowed magic, fulfilling his plan and causing her to feel all the pain of everyone in the world. She tries to ease the pain by destroying the world, finally stopped by Xander’s passionate confession of platonic familial love for her.",
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"plaintext": "The seventh season starts with Willow in England, unnerved by her power, studying with a coven near Giles' home to harness it. She fears returning to Sunnydale and what she is capable of doing if she loses control again, a fear that dogs her the whole season.",
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"plaintext": "Buffy and the Scoobies face the First Evil, bent on ending the Slayer line and destroying the world. Potential Slayers from around the globe congregate at Buffy's home and she trains them to battle the First Evil. Willow continues to face her grief over Tara's death and, reluctantly, becomes involved with one of the Potentials, Kennedy (Iyari Limon).",
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"plaintext": "In the final episode of the series, \"Chosen\", Buffy calls upon Willow to perform the most powerful spell she has ever attempted. With Kennedy nearby, cautioned to kill her if she becomes out of control, Willow infuses every Potential Slayer in the world with the same powers Buffy and Faith have. The spell momentarily turns her hair white and makes her glow—Kennedy calls her \"a goddess\"—and it ensures that Buffy and the Potentials defeat the First Evil. Willow is able to escape with Buffy, Xander, Giles, and Kennedy as Sunnydale is destroyed.",
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"plaintext": "Through the gamut of changes Willow endures in the series, Buffy studies scholar Ian Shuttleworth states that Alyson Hannigan's performances are the reason for Willow's popularity: \"Hannigan can play on audience heartstrings like a concert harpist... As an actress she is a perfect interpreter in particular of the bare emotional directness which is the specialty of [series writer Marti] Noxon on form.\"",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent to Buffys television finale, Dark Horse Comics collaborated with Joss Whedon to produce a canonical comic book continuation of the series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (2007–11), written by Whedon and many other writers from the television series. Unfettered by the practical limitations of casting or a television special effects budget, Season Eight explores more fantastic storylines, characters, and abilities for Willow. Willow's cover art is done by Jo Chen, and Georges Jeanty and Karl Moline produce character artwork and provide alternative covers. It was followed by two closely interlinked sequels, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine and Angel & Faith (both 2012–14). Willow features at different times in both series, as well as in her own spin-off miniseries. Jeanty continues to provide Willow's likeness in Season Nine, while Rebekah Isaacs and Brian Ching are the primary pencillers of Angel & Faith and Willow: Wonderland respectively. While Season Nine and Angel & Faith are substantially less fantastical in tone than Season Eight, Willow's spin-off is high fantasy and focuses on her journey through magical alternate worlds.",
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"plaintext": "Willow appears to Buffy and Xander, who are in charge of thousands of Slayers, a year after the destruction of Sunnydale. Willow reveals a host of new abilities including being able to fly and absorbing others' magic to deconstruct it. The Big Bad of Season Eight is a being named Twilight who is bent on destroying magic in the world. A one-shot comic dedicated to Willow's story was released in 2009 titled Willow: Goddesses and Monsters. It explores the time she took away to discover more about her magical powers, under the tutelage of a half-woman half-snake demon named Aluwyn. Willow is still involved with Kennedy through Season Eight, but becomes intimate with Aluwyn while they are together. She also continues to deal with grief from Tara's death, and struggles with the dark forces of magic that put her in opposition to Buffy. At the conclusion of the season, Buffy destroys an object, a seed, that is the source of the magic in the world, leaving Willow powerless. Whedon divulged that recovering her magical abilities will become Willow's \"personal obsession\" in a miniseries where she will be the central character.",
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"plaintext": "From the inception of Willow's character in the first season, she is presented with contradictions. Bookish, rational, naive, and sometimes absent-minded, she is also shown being open to magic, aggressively boyish, and intensely focused. Willow is malleable, in continuous transition more so than any other Buffy character. She is, however, consistently labeled as dependable and reliable by the other characters and thus to the audience, making her appear to be stable. She is unsure of who she is; despite all the tasks she takes on and excels at, for much of the series she has no identity. This is specifically exhibited in the fourth season finale \"Restless\", an enigmatic pastiche of characters' dream sequences. In Willow's dream, she moves from an intimate moment painting a love poem by Sappho on Tara's bare back, to attending the first day of drama class to learn that she is to be in a play performed immediately for which she does not know the lines or understand. The dream presents poignant anxieties about how she appears to others, not belonging, and the consequences of people finding out her true self. As Willow gives a book report in front of her high school class, she discovers herself wearing the same mousy outfit she wore in the first episode of the show (\"Welcome to the Hellmouth\") as her friends and classmates shout derisively at her, and Oz and Tara whisper intimately to each other in the audience. She is attacked and strangled by the First Slayer as the class ignores her cries for help.",
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"plaintext": "Long a level-headed character who sacrifices her own desires for those of her friends, she gradually abandons these priorities to be more independent and please herself. She is often shown making choices that allow her to acquire power or knowledge and avoid emotional conflict. The story arc of Willow's growing dependence on magic was noted by Marti Noxon as the representation of \"adult crossroads\" and Willow's inability and unwillingness to be accountable for her own life. Willow enjoys power she is unable to control. She steals to accomplish her vocational goals and rationalizes her amoral behavior. This also manifests itself in a competitive streak and she accuses others who share their concerns that she uses magic for selfish purposes of being jealous. No longer the conscience of the Scooby Gang, Willow cedes this role to Tara then revels in breaking more rules. After Tara leaves Willow, Willow divulges to Buffy that she does not know who she is and doubts her worth and appeal—specifically to Tara—without magic. Contradicting the characterization of Willow's issues with magic as addiction, Buffy essayist Jacqueline Lichtenberg writes \"Willow is not addicted to magic. Willow is addicted to the surging hope that this deed or the next or the next will finally assuage her inner pain.\"",
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"plaintext": "Vamp Willow appears in the third season episodes \"The Wish\" and \"Doppelgangland\". She is capricious and aggressive, the opposite of Willow's usual nature; her bad behavior so exaggerated that it does not instill fear into the viewer like other female vampires in the series, but indicates more about Willow's personality. Shocked upon seeing her alter ego in \"Doppelgangland\", Willow states \"That's me as a vampire? I'm so evil and skanky. And I think I'm kinda gay!\" Angel is stopped by Buffy in telling the Scoobies that the vampire self carries many of the same attributes as the human self, at which Willow says that is nothing like her. Many Buffy fans saw this as a funny Easter egg when Willow revealed herself to actually be lesbian in later seasons. As surprised as Willow is with Vamp Willow, she feels bound to her, and does not have the heart to allow Buffy to kill her. Both Willows make the observation that \"this world's no fun\", before they send Vamp Willow back into the alternate dimension from which she came, whereupon she is staked and dies immediately.",
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"plaintext": "A shadow of Dark Willow appears to fight Glory in the fifth season episode \"Tough Love\", but she does not come into full force until the sixth season in \"Villains\", \"Two to Go\", and \"Grave\". The transition from Willow into Dark Willow, precipitated by Tara's immediate death when she is shot through the heart, was ambiguously received by audiences, many of whom never foresaw Willow's psychic break. It was simultaneously lauded for being an overwhelming depiction of a powerful woman, and derided as representative of a worn cliché that lesbians are amoral and murderous. Dark Willow proved to be exceptionally more powerful than Buffy. She changes visually when she walks into the Magic Box, a store owned by Giles, telekinetically retrieves dozens of dark magic books from the shelves, and leeches the words from the pages with her fingertips. As the words crawl up her arms and soak into her skin, her eyes and hair become black and her posture \"aggressively aware and confident\".",
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"plaintext": "Susan Driver writes that it is \"crucial to recognize that never before in a teen series has raw fury been so vividly explored through a young queer girl responding to the sudden death of her lover\". Dark Willow is preternaturally focused on revenge, relentless and unstoppable. Lights explode when she walks past. She forcefully takes advantage of any opportunity to further her goals. She saves Buffy by removing the bullet from her chest, but later commandeers a tractor trailer, making it slam into Xander's car while he and Buffy are inside protecting Jonathan and Andrew, the other two members of the Trio. She floats, flies and dismantles the local jail where Jonathan and Andrew are held.",
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"plaintext": "She is cruelly honest to Dawn and Buffy, and overpowers everyone with whom she comes in contact. When she takes Giles' magic from him, she gains the ability to feel the world's pain, becoming determined to put the world out of its misery. She does not acknowledge her grief, and only Xander can force her to face it when he tells her that he loves her no matter what or who she is, and if she is determined to end the world she must start by killing him. Only then does Willow return, sobbing.",
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"plaintext": "At Salon.com, Stephanie Zacharek writes that Dark Willow is \"far from being a cut-out angry lesbian, is more fleshed out, and more terrifyingly alive, than she has ever been before. More than any other character, she has driven the momentum of the past few episodes; she very nearly drove it off a cliff.\" Several writers state that Willow's transition into Dark Willow is inevitable, grounded in Willow's self-hatred that had been festering from the first season. Both Dark Willow and even Willow herself state that Willow's sacrifices for her friends and lack of assertiveness are her undoing. In \"Doppelgangland\", Willow (posing as Vampire Willow) says \"It's pathetic. She lets everyone walk all over her and gets cranky at her friends for no reason.\" In \"Two to Go\", Dark Willow remarks \"Let me tell you something about Willow. She's a loser. And she always has been. People picked on Willow... and now Willow's a junkie.\" Vamp Willow served as an indicator of what Willow is capable of; immediately before she flays Warren in one violent magical flash, she uses the same line Vamp Willow used in the third season: \"Bored now.\"",
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"plaintext": "Following the sixth season, Willow struggles to allow herself to perform magic without the darkness within her taking her over. She is no longer able to abstain from magic as it is such an integral part of her that doing so will kill her. In the instances when she is highly emotional the darkness comes out. Willow must control that part of her and is occasionally unable to do so, giving her a trait similar to Angel, a cursed vampire who fears losing his soul will turn him evil. In a redemptive turn, when Willow turns all the Potentials into Slayers, she glows and her hair turns white, astonishing Kennedy and prompting her to call Willow a goddess.",
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"plaintext": "Willow's earliest and most consistent relationships are with Buffy and Xander, both of whom she refers to as her best friends although they have their conflicts, and Giles as a father figure. Willow takes on the leadership role when Buffy is unavailable, and her growing powers sometimes make her resent being positioned as Buffy's sidekick. Some scholars see Willow as Buffy's sister-figure or the anti-Buffy, similar to Faith, another Slayer whose morals are less strict. In early seasons, Willow's unrequited crush on Xander creates some storylines involving the relationships between Xander, Cordelia, and Oz. Willow is part of a powerful quartet: she represents the spirit, Giles intelligence, Xander heart, and Buffy strength of the Scoobies. Although they often drift apart, they are forced to come together and work in these roles to defeat forces they are unable to fight individually.",
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"plaintext": "Willow meets stoic Oz in the second season. Their courtship is slow and patient. Oz is bitten by a werewolf, and just as Willow begins to confront him about why he does not spend time with her, he transforms and attacks her. She must shoot him with a tranquilizer gun several times while he is wild, but her assertiveness in doing so makes her more confident in their relationship. Oz's trials in dealing with a power he cannot control is, according to authors J. Michael Richardson and J. Douglas Rabb, a model for Willow to reference when she encounters her own attraction to evil. When Willow and Oz decide to commit to each other, Willow is enthusiastic that she has a boyfriend, and, as a guitarist in a band, one so cool. Her relationship with Oz endures the high school storylines of exploring her attraction to Xander, which briefly separates them. She worries that she is not as close to Oz as she could be. They stay together through graduation into college, but Oz is drawn to Veruca, another werewolf. He admits an animal attraction to Veruca, which he does not share with Willow. He sleeps with Veruca and leaves shortly after to explore the werewolf part of himself. Willow becomes very depressed and doubts herself. She drinks, her magical abilities are compromised, her spells come out wrong, and she lashes out at her friends when they suggest she get over it (\"Something Blue\").",
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"plaintext": "Joss Whedon did not intend to write Oz out of the series. Seth Green came to Whedon early in the fourth season to announce that he wished to work on his film career. Whedon admitted he was upset by Green's announcement and that if he had wanted to continue, Oz would have been a part of the story. However, to resolve the relationship between Oz and Willow Whedon says, \"we had to scramble. And out of the heavens came Amber Benson.\"",
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"plaintext": "Buffy earned international attention for its unflinching focus on the relationship between Willow and Tara Maclay. Whedon and the writing staff had been considering developing a story arc in which a character explores his or her sexuality as the Scoobies left high school, but no particular effort was made to assign this arc to Willow. In 1999, at the end of the third season, the Boston Herald called Buffy \"the most gay show on network TV this year\" despite having no overtly gay characters among the core cast. It simply presented storylines that resembled coming out stories. In the fourth season episode \"Hush\", Willow meets Tara, and to avoid being killed by a group of ghouls, they join hands to move a large vending machine telekinetically to barricade a door. The scene was, upon completion, noticeably sensual to Whedon, the producers, and network executives, who encouraged Whedon to develop a romantic storyline between Willow and Tara, but at the same time placed barriers on how far it could go and what could be shown. Two episodes later, Hannigan and Amber Benson were informed that their characters would become romantically involved. The actors were not told the end result of the Willow–Oz–Tara storyline, not sure what the eventual trajectory of the relationship would be, until Hannigan said, \"Then finally it was, 'Great! It's official. We're in luurrvvve.'\"",
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"plaintext": "Whedon made a conscious effort to focus on Willow and Tara's relationship instead of either's identity as a lesbian or the coming out process. When Willow discloses to Buffy what she feels for Tara, she indicates that she has fallen in love with Tara, not that she is a lesbian, and avoids categorizing herself. Some critics regard this as a failure on Willow's part to be strong; Em McAvan interprets this to mean that Willow may be bisexual. Scholar Farah Mendlesohn asserts that Willow's realization that she is in love with Tara allows viewers to re-interpret Willow's relationship with Buffy; in the first three seasons, Willow is often disappointed that she is not a higher priority to Buffy, and even after Willow enters a relationship with Tara, still desires to feel integral to Buffy's cause and the Scooby Gang.",
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"plaintext": "Willow's progression has been noted to be unique in television. Her relationship with Tara coincides with the development of her magical abilities becoming much more profound. By the seventh season, she is the most powerful person in Buffy's circle. Jessica Ford at PopMatters asserts that Willow's sexuality and her magical abilities are connected and represented by her relationships. In her unrequited attraction to Xander, she has no power. With Oz, she has some that gives her the confidence she sorely lacks, but his departure leaves her unsure of herself. Only when she meets Tara do her magical abilities flourish; to Ford, sexuality and magic are both empowering agents in Willow's story arc. David Bianculli in the New York Daily News writes that Willow's progression is \"unlike anything else I can recall on regular prime-time television: a character evolving naturally over four seasons of stories and arriving at a place of sexual rediscovery\".",
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"plaintext": "Not all viewers considered Willow and Tara's relationship a positive development. Some fans loyal to Willow reacted angrily as she chose to be with Tara when Oz made himself available, and they lashed out at Tara and Amber Benson on the fansite message boards. Whedon replied sardonically, \"we're going to shift away from this whole lifestyle choice that Willow has made. Just wipe the slate. From now on, Willow will no longer be a Jew. And I think we can all breathe easier.\" However, he seriously explained his motivation, writing \"My show is about emotion. Love is the most powerful, messy, delightful and dangerous emotion... Willow's in love. I think it's cool.\" Hannigan was also positive about the way the character and her relationship with Tara was written: \"It is not about being controversial or making a statement. I think the show is handling it really nicely. It's about two people who care about each other.\"",
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"plaintext": "Contrasting with some of the more sexual relationships of the other characters, Willow and Tara demonstrate a sentimental, soft, and consistent affection for each other. Some of this was pragmatic: the show was restricted in what it could present to viewers. Willow and Tara did not kiss until the fifth season in an episode that diverted the focus away from the display of affection when Buffy's mother dies in \"The Body\". Before this, much of their sexuality is represented by allusions to witchcraft; spells doubled for physical affection such as an erotic ritual in \"Who Are You?\" where Willow and Tara chant and perspire in a circle of light until Willow falls back on a pillow gasping and moaning. Within the Buffy universe, magic is portrayed in a mostly female realm. As opposed to it being evil, it is an earth-bound force that is most proficiently harvested by women. The treatment of the lesbian relationship as integral to magic, representative of each other (love is magic, magic is love), earned the series some critical commentary from conservative Christians. To avoid large-scale criticism, scenes had to be shot several different ways because censors would not allow some types of action on screen. In the fourth and fifth seasons, the characters could be shown on a bed, but not under the covers. Hannigan noted the inconsistent standards with the other relationships on the show: \"you've got Spike and Harmony just going at it like rabbits, so it's very hypocritical\". As a couple, Willow and Tara are treated by the rest of the Scoobies with acceptance and little fanfare. Susan Driver writes that younger viewers especially appreciate that Willow and Tara are able to be affectionate without becoming overly sexual, thus making them objects of fantasy for male enjoyment. Willow and Tara's influence on specifically younger female viewers is, according to Driver, \"remarkable\".",
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"plaintext": "Academics, however, comment that Willow is a less sexual character than the others in the show. She is displayed as \"cuddly\" in earlier seasons, often dressing in pink fuzzy sweaters resulting in an innocent tomboyishness. She becomes more feminine in her relationship with Tara, who is already feminine; no issues with gender are present in their union. Their relationship is sanitized and unthreatening to male viewers. When the series moved broadcast networks from The WB to UPN in 2001, some of the restrictions were relaxed. Willow and Tara are shown in some scenes to be \"intensely sexual\", such as in the sixth season episode \"Once More, with Feeling\" where it is visually implied that Willow performs cunnilingus on Tara. When Willow and Tara reconcile, they spend part of the episode in \"Seeing Red\" unclothed in bed, covered by red sheets.",
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"plaintext": "Willow is more demonstrative in the beginning of her relationship with Tara. Where in her relationship with Oz she described herself as belonging to him, Tara states that she belongs to Willow. Willow finds in Tara a place where she can be the focus of Tara's attention, not having to appease or sacrifice as she has in the past. Tara, however, eclipses Willow's role as the moral center of the Scoobies, and as Willow becomes more powerful and less ethical, Tara becomes a maternal figure for the group. Willow acts as a sort of middle child between Xander's immaturity and Buffy's weighty responsibilities. She becomes completely devoted to and enamored of Tara, and then manipulates her to avoid conflict when Tara does not conform to what she wants. Displeased with how Willow abuses her power, especially toward herself, Tara leaves Willow while continuing to counsel Dawn and Buffy. Long after Tara's death, Willow faces the choices she made: in the Season Eight issue \"Anywhere But Here\", Willow tells Buffy that she is responsible for Tara's death. Her ambition to bring back Buffy from the dead inevitably led to Tara getting shot and killed. In the one-shot comic, Willow is offered Tara as a guide for her mystical path to understanding her own powers, but rejects her as being an illusion, too much of a comfort, and not a guide who will force her to grow. She begins a relationship with Kennedy.",
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"plaintext": "Following protests angry about the death of Tara, Whedon and the writing team made a decision to keep Willow gay. In 2002, he told The Advocate about the possibility of Willow having a relationship with a man, \"We do that now, and we will be burned alive. And possibly justifiably. We can't have Willow say, 'Oh, cured now, I can go back to cock!' Willow is not going to be straddling that particular fence. She will just be gay.\" Kennedy is markedly different from Tara. She is younger, outspoken, and aggressively pursues Willow, who hesitates to become involved again. When they first kiss in the episode \"The Killer in Me\", Willow's realization that she let Tara go reacts with a curse put upon her by another witch named Amy Madison (Elizabeth Anne Allen), turning Willow into Warren, Tara's murderer. The spell is broken when Willow acknowledges her guilt and Kennedy kisses her again. Kennedy expresses that she does not understand the value of magic and assumes it involves tricks, not the all-consuming energy that Willow is capable of. When Willow eventually exhibits what power she has, it briefly frightens Kennedy. Willow worries about becoming sexually intimate with Kennedy, unsure of what may transpire if she loses control of herself.",
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"plaintext": "In season 7 episode 20, \"Touched\", in which practically all the main cast has sex (two by two) Willow and Kennedy take part in the first lesbian sex scene on primetime television.",
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"plaintext": "In Season Eight, Kennedy and Willow are still romantically involved, but separated during Willow's self-exploration. Unlike her relationship with Tara, Willow is able to hold a separate identity while with Kennedy. When she realizes her powers have gone at the end of Season Eight, however, Willow ends her relationship with Kennedy, saying that there is someone else Willow is in love with, who she will never see again.",
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"plaintext": "Kennedy's role split many Buffy fans into two groups. Many viewers hated Kennedy, because they saw her as a way of saying; \"Tara's dead, let's move on.\" and they weren't ready to. After the emotional death of Tara and Willow's reaction (nearly ending all life on Earth) many fans thought that it was ridiculous for Willow to recover and move on so quickly. Kennedy overall, has received much hate, but there is the other side who say that she was exactly what Willow needed to recover and continue a happy life.",
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"plaintext": "Willow's religion and sexuality have made her a role model for audiences. Whedon, however, has compared her Jewish identity to her sexuality, stating that they are rarely made a significant focus of the show. Willow at times reminds the other characters of her religion, wondering what her father might think of the crucifixes she must apply to her bedroom wall to keep out vampires, and commenting that Santa Claus misses her house every Christmas because of the \"big honkin' menorah\". Buffy essayist Matthew Pateman criticizes the show for presenting Willow's Jewish identity only when it opposes Christian declarations of holidays and other traditions. The New York Times, however, named her as a positive example of a depiction of a Jewish woman, who stood out among portrayals of Jews as harsh, unfeminine, and shallow. Producer Gail Berman states that as a Jew, Willow \"handles herself just fine, thank you\".",
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"plaintext": "In Queer Girls and Popular Culture, Susan Driver states that television ascribes to viewers what lesbians look and act like, and that realistic portrayals of girls outside the norm of white, upper or middle class, and heterosexual are extremely rare. Realistic depictions of lesbians are so rare that they become strong role models and enable \"hope and imagination\" for girls limited by the conditions of their immediate surroundings, who may know of no other gay people. The time and space given to Willow to go from being a shy scared girl into a confident woman who falls in love with another woman is, as of 2007, unique in television; it does not occur in one flash or single moment. It is a progression that defies strict definition. Manda Scott in The Herald states that Willow's lack of panic or self-doubt when she realizes she is in love with Tara makes her \"the best role model a teen could ask for\".",
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"plaintext": "When viewers realized that Willow was falling in love with Tara, Whedon remembered that some threatened to boycott the show, complaining \"You made Willow a fag\", to which he responded, \"Bye. We'll miss you a whole lot.\" However, he also said, \"For every (negative) post, there's somebody saying, 'You made my life a lot easier because I now have someone I can relate to on screen'.\" Gay characters had been portrayed before on television, and at the time the popular sitcom Will & Grace was on the air. Lesbian-themed HBO special If These Walls Could Talk 2 won an Emmy. Twenty-three television shows depicted a gay character of some kind in 2000. However, these other characters were mostly desexualized, none were partnered or shown consistently affectionate towards the same person. Willow and Tara's relationship became the first long-term lesbian relationship on U.S. television. Jane magazine hailed Willow and Tara as a bold representation of gay relationship, remarking that \"they hold hands, slow-dance and lay in bed at night. You won't find that kind of normalcy on Will and Grace.\" Despite Whedon's intentions of not making Buffy about overcoming issues, he said Willow's exploration of her sexuality \"turned out to be one of the most important things we've done on the show\".",
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"plaintext": "Although the show's writers and producers received a minimal negative reaction from Willow choosing Tara over Oz, the response from viewers and critics alike was overwhelming towards Whedon for killing Tara, accusing him of homophobia. Particularly because Tara's death came at a point where Willow and Tara had reconciled and were shown following an apparent sexual encounter, the writers were criticized for representing the consequences of lesbian sex as punishable by death. Series writer and producer Marti Noxon—whose mother fell in love with another woman when Noxon was 13 years old—was unable to read some of the mail the writing team received because it was so upsetting. To her, the pain expressed in viewers' letters was a logical reaction to the lack of realistic lesbian role models on television.",
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"plaintext": "Willow's cultural impact has been noted in several other ways. Patrick Krug, a biologist at California State University, Los Angeles named a sea slug with traits of sexual flexibility Alderia willowi partly for his grandmother and partly after Willow's character. Willow was included in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters, ranking at No. 7. She was also ranked No. 12 in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. UGO.com named her one of the best TV nerds. AOL also listed her as the #1 TV witch of all time, and one of the 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters.",
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"plaintext": " Wicked Willow trilogy",
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"plaintext": " Unnatural Selection (Buffy novel)",
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"plaintext": " Apocalypse Memories",
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"plaintext": " LGBT themes in speculative fiction",
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"plaintext": " Driver Susan (2007). Queer Girls and Popular Culture: Reading, Resisting, and Creating Media, Peter Lang. ",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Golden, Christopher; Holder, Nancy (1998). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 1, Pocket Books. ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Jowett, Lorna (2005). Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan, Wesleyan University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Kaveney, Roz (ed.) (2004). Reading the Vampire Slayer: The New, Updated, Unofficial Guide to Buffy and Angel, Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ",
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"plaintext": " Richardson, J. Michael ; Rabb, J. Douglas (2007). The Existential Joss Whedon: Evil and Human Freedom in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, Firefly and Serenity, McFarland. ",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " Ruditis, Paul (2004). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 3, Simon & Schuster. ",
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"plaintext": " South, James (ed.) (2003). Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy: Fear and Trembling in Sunnydale, Open Court Books. ",
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"plaintext": " Stafford, Nikki (2007). Bite Me! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, ECW Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Stevenson, Gregory (2003). Televised Morality: The Case of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Hamilton Books. ",
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"plaintext": " Waggoner, Erin (2010). Sexual Rhetoric in the Works of Joss Whedon: New Essays, McFarland. ",
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"plaintext": " Wilcox, Rhonda (2005). Why Buffy Matters: The Art of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, I. B. Tauris. ",
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"plaintext": " Wilcox, Rhonda and Lavery, David (eds.) (2002). Fighting the Forces: What's at Stake in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. ",
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"plaintext": " Yeffeth, Glenn (ed.) (2003). Seven Seasons of Buffy: Science Fiction and Fantasy Authors Discuss Their Favorite Television Show, Benbella Books. ",
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| 1,042,244 | 7,432 | 259 | 118 | 0 | 0 | Willow Rosenberg | character in Buffy the Vampire Slayer | [
"Willow Danielle Rosenberg",
"Dark Willow",
"Vampire Willow"
]
|
37,729 | 1,107,515,389 | Snowdonia | [
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"plaintext": "Snowdonia (; ) is a mountainous region in northwestern Wales and a national park of in area. It was the first to be designated of the three national parks in Wales, in 1951.",
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"plaintext": "The English name for the area derives from Snowdon, which is the highest mountain in Wales at . In Welsh, the area is named . A commonly held belief is that the name is derived from (\"eagle\"), and thus means \"the abode/land of eagles\", but recent evidence is that it means highlands, and is related to the Latin (to rise) as leading Welsh scholar Sir proved.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia () was used by ; his grandfather used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.",
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"plaintext": "Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, \"Snowdonia\" was generally used to refer to a smaller area, namely the upland area of northern centred on the Snowdon massif, whereas the national park covers an area more than twice that size extending far to the south into . This is apparent in books published prior to 1951, such as the classic travelogue Wild Wales by George Borrow (1862) and The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925). F. J. North, as editor of the book Snowdonia (1949), states \"When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper.\" The traditional Snowdonia thus includes the ranges of Snowdon and its satellites, the , the , the and the Moel Hebog group. It does not include the hills to the south of . As (see above), this area has a unique place in Welsh history, tradition and culture.",
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"plaintext": "There is a movement to make the Welsh name Eryri the region's only name. This would proscribe the terms Snowdonia and Snowdonia National Park from official use, but they could still be used colloquially. The name used is ultimately decided by the National Park Authority and not the Senedd. A motion put forward by Gwynedd Councillor John Pughe Roberts to rename Snowdonia and Snowdon was rejected in April 2021. The movement is propelled by instances of locals renaming their houses from Welsh to English names, but the motion to ditch the name Snowdonia has faced criticism.",
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"plaintext": "Snowdonia National Park () was established in 1951 as the third national park in Britain, following the Peak District and the Lake District. It covers , and has of coastline. The Snowdonia National Park covers parts of the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy.",
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"plaintext": "The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which is made up of local government and Welsh Government representatives, and its main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth. Unlike national parks in other countries, Snowdonia (and other such parks in Britain) is made up of both public and private lands under central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership at Snowdonia is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Since the local government re-organisation of 1998, the park lies partly in the county of Gwynedd, and partly in the county borough of Conwy. It is governed by the 18-member Snowdonia National Park Authority; nine members are appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and the remaining six by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest.",
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"plaintext": "Unusually, Snowdonia National Park has a hole in the middle, around the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, a slate quarrying centre. This was deliberately excluded from the park when it was set up to allow the development of new light industry to replace the reduced slate industry. (There is a similar situation in the Peak District National Park where the boundaries were drawn to exclude large built-up areas and industrial sites from the park with the town of Buxton and the adjacent quarries outside but surrounded on three sides by the park.)",
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"plaintext": "The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.",
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"plaintext": "Snowdon's summit at 1085metres (3560') is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970') Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia and Cader Idris at 893 metres (2930'), next in line.",
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"plaintext": "Rivers (Welsh: afon, plural afonydd) draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dovey. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake or Llyn Tegid, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.",
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"plaintext": "There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Llyn Tegid, a few lakes (Welsh: llyn, plural llynnoedd) occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas and Llyn Gwynant and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cader Idris.",
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"plaintext": "There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes.",
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"plaintext": "A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales.",
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"plaintext": "The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations sport two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries are characterised by large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife (- see natural history section). The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "There are only three towns within the park boundary though several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park, indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.",
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"plaintext": "There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park, prominent amongst which are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdovey on the Dovey estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake/Llyn Tegid, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.",
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"plaintext": "Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.",
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"plaintext": "The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth.",
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"plaintext": "The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the GradeII* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.",
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"plaintext": "Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.",
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"plaintext": "Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)",
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"plaintext": "The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000 - 3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.",
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"plaintext": "The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.",
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"plaintext": "There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too.",
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"plaintext": "The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.",
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"plaintext": "The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.",
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"plaintext": "The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.",
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"plaintext": "Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.",
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"plaintext": "One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.",
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"plaintext": "Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.",
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"plaintext": "Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.",
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"plaintext": "There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Eryri, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.",
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"plaintext": "The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park:",
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"plaintext": "Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Yr Wyddfa.",
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"plaintext": "The twelve SACs are as follows: Eryri / Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Bala Lake / Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), ",
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"plaintext": "Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.",
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"plaintext": "The three SPAs are Dyfi Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.",
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"plaintext": "The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).",
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"plaintext": "The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.",
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"plaintext": "The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.",
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"plaintext": "Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.",
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"plaintext": "The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.",
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"plaintext": "Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.",
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"plaintext": "Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.",
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"plaintext": "The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits—as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet—are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.",
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"plaintext": "The park has of public footpaths, of public bridleways, and of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.",
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"plaintext": "The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy which passes through the national park, though it is not depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.",
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"plaintext": "Almost all external shots of Disney's fantasy film Dragonslayer were shot in Snowdonia National Park.",
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"plaintext": "The Dutch symphonic metal band Delain had filmed the official music video for their song \"Burning Bridges\" in Snowdonia. It was released through Napalm Records on 27 September 2019.",
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"plaintext": " Snowdonia National Park Authority",
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"plaintext": " Snowdonia Tourism",
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"plaintext": "Jeff Minter (born 22 April 1962) is an independent English video game designer and programmer who often goes by the name Yak. He is the founder of software house Llamasoft and has created dozens of games during his career, which began in 1981 with games for the Sinclair ZX80. Minter's games are often arcade style shoot 'em ups which contain titular or in-game references demonstrating his fondness of ruminants (llamas, sheep, camels, etc.). Many of his programs also feature something of a psychedelic element, as in some of the earliest \"light synthesizer\" programs including Trip-a-Tron.",
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"plaintext": "Minter's works include the music visualisation program Neon (2004) which is built into the Xbox 360 console, and the video games Gridrunner, Attack of the Mutant Camels, Tempest 2000, and Polybius.",
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"plaintext": "Minter had expressed an interest in programming computers from a young age. He wrote the game Deflex for the Commodore PET in 1979. However it would not be until a long illness during the school year that Minter's talents would develop in any meaningful way. Following a three-month stint in which Minter was restricted to lying on his back and was confined to his bed between November 1981 and January 1982, boredom led him to take up computer programming in earnest to pass the time.",
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"plaintext": "Upon recovery, Minter teamed up with Richard Jones, a fellow pupil, and together they started writing their own games on their school's Commodore PET. They soon parted ways. Jones went on to commercial projects, some of them in the software market (e.g., Interceptor Micros).",
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"plaintext": "In 1981 Minter started independently writing and selling video games for the Sinclair ZX80, the first machine he owned. Some were made for software company dk'tronics. These titles were sold as a package but this was not available for very long, as Minter left the company following a royalties dispute. He formed a partnership with his mother, Hazel Minter. Together they developed and commercially produced 20 games for the Sinclair ZX81, Commodore VIC-20, Atari 8-bit computers, ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64. Having been studying physics at the University of East Anglia, success in the programming industry prompted him to drop his studies and take up video game development full-time.",
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"plaintext": "The following year, he founded the software house Llamasoft. His first Llamasoft game was a Defender clone for the Commodore VIC-20 called Andes Attack (US version: Aggressor). In Andes Attack, little llamas advanced upon and attacked the player instead of the spaceships from Defender. As a fan of Defender, Minter would remake it again as Defender 2000. Through the Brighton-based software house, Salamander Software, Minter had his games written for the Spectrum and other home microcomputers. It was Mr S.A. Tenquist who was responsible for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum 16K version of Gridrunner. The conversion was released and published for Christmas 1983 by Quicksilva Ltd., UK. Jeff Minter's original Commodore version was written in a week and marked his first commercial success both in the UK and in the US.",
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"plaintext": "Minter worked for Atari and VM Labs. For Atari he produced Tempest 2000 (1994) on the Jaguar. It was a remake of Dave Theurer's 1981 Tempest. He followed it with Defender 2000 (1995) on the Jaguar, a remake of the 1981 arcade game. Listing Minter in their \"75 Most Important People in the Games Industry of 1995\", Next Generation called him the Jaguar's \"leading developer\". Minter also produced the Virtual Light Machine (VLM-1) for the Jaguar CD add-on. For VM Labs he created the VLM-2 and Tempest 3000.",
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"plaintext": "Minter then wrote games for the Pocket PC platform, some of which also have Windows conversions: Deflex, Grand Theft Flymo (a reinterpretation of his own 1984 game, Hover Bovver), and Gridrunner++.",
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"plaintext": "Minter then announced his intention to abandon mobile development due to lack of discoverability, low turnover, and the dominance of free-to-play and video game clones; he ultimately declared that, after accounting for his time, the Minotaur Project made a net loss. Minter stated on Twitter than \"Returning to iOS would be like returning to the scene of a mugging\" and \"I would advise any dev valuing integrity and sanity to just get the hell out\". As a result, the Minotaur Project games were not updated for 64-bit versions of iOS and were removed from the App Store while existing copies became unplayable on updated devices.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2013 it was announced that Llamasoft had signed a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment to create a tube shooter for the PlayStation Vita called TxK. The game would be Llamasoft's fourth tube shooter in two decades and was described as the spiritual successor of 1994's Tempest 2000 for the Atari Jaguar. As Minter explained in his development blog the project goals were to create a more traditional, straightforward and accessible tube shooter than Space Giraffe, to improve on the flaws from Tempest 2000 and Tempest 3000, and to evoke the neo-retro aesthetic without being cheesy. TxK was released on 11 February 2014, by digital download through PSN.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2018, Minter announced that the framework for the Minotaur Project had also been ported to the PlayStation 4 and stated an intention to release enhanced versions of the Minotaur Project games as console games in bundles under the name Minotaur Arcade. In December 2018, Llamasoft released Minotaur Arcade Volume 1 on Steam. This contained much enhanced versions of GoatUp and Gridrunner with support for playing on the Oculus Rift but also playable in 2D. A Playstation 4 version of Minotaur Arcade Volume 1 was released in October 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Minter revisited the enhanced Minotaur Arcade framework to produce an original game, Moose Life, released on Steam in August 2020 and on Playstation 4 in February 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Minter appeared in the interactive film Bandersnatch, released in December 2018. The film is based around the 1980s video game industry in the United Kingdom; Minter played Jerome F. Davies, the author of the titular Bandersnatch novel, who murdered his wife.",
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"plaintext": "Minter also contributed to the documentary film From Bedrooms to Billions.",
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"plaintext": "Minter appears extremely briefly as a background character in Ashens and the Polybius Heist.",
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"plaintext": "In online forums and informal game credits pages Minter usually signs as \"Yak\", which is, in his own words\"a pseudonym chosen a long time ago, back in the days when high score tables on coin-op machines only held three letters, and I settled on Yak because the yak is a scruffy hairy beast – a lot like me ;-).\"",
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"plaintext": "He lives in Wales with his partner Ivan \"Giles\" Zorzin, four sheep, two goats, two llamas and a dog. Although Minter is synonymous with Llamasoft, Zorzin is jointly responsible for the recent titles.",
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"plaintext": "Minter likes Indian food, particularly chicken vindaloo. Sheep are his favourite animal; he has kept them as pets for many years.",
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"plaintext": " Andes Attack (VIC-20, 1982) a.k.a. Defenda",
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"plaintext": " Bomb Buenos Aires (VIC-20, 1982; Atari ST, 1988) a.k.a. Aggressor, Bomber, Blitzkrieg",
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"plaintext": " Hover Bovver (C64, 1983; Atari 8-bit, 1984; Galaxians/Scramble hardware, 2022)",
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"plaintext": " Metagalactic Llamas Battle at the Edge of Time (VIC-20, 1983; C64, 1984) a.k.a. Meta-Llamas",
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"plaintext": " Colourspace (Atari 8-bit, 1985), light synthesizer.",
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},
{
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"plaintext": " Photon Storm (Amiga/Atari ST, 1990)",
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{
"plaintext": " Hardcore (Atari ST, 1992)",
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"plaintext": " Minotaur Arcade Vol. 1 (combines voxel-based remakes of Gridrunner iOS and GoatUp) (PC, PS4)",
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"plaintext": " Moose Life (PC, PS4)",
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"plaintext": " Llamasoft official website",
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"plaintext": " The Inquirer article on his early games",
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"English_computer_programmers",
"Living_people",
"People_from_Reading,_Berkshire",
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| 541,962 | 2,109 | 139 | 180 | 0 | 0 | Jeff Minter | British video game designer | []
|
37,732 | 1,098,340,717 | True_lover's_knot | [
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"plaintext": "In practical terms, these knots are generally shown as two interlocked overhand knots made in two parallel ropes or cords. The variations are in the ways in which the overhand knots interweave and in the final arrangement of the knot or knots.",
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"plaintext": "The true lovers' knot is a motif in several British folk songs, including \"Barbara Allen\", \"Lord Thomas and Fair Annet\", \"Lord Lovel\", and \"Fair Margaret and Sweet William\". The knot, made of a rose growing from one lover's grave and a brier from the other's, is described at the end of the ballad. It symbolises their fidelity in love even after death.",
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"plaintext": "Modern Western knotting literature has the name for these related knots deriving from stories or legends in which the knots symbolize the connection between a couple in love. Many examples feature sailors separated from their beloveds. Ashley notes that it was once a common style in sailors' wedding rings, where gold wire was wrought to incorporate the \"true lovers\" knot, creating a ring containing two tori, inseparable, yet flexible and able to move about each other.",
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"plaintext": "\"A Love Knot\"; a short story about Bengali Hindus featuring a goldsmithed love knot.",
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"plaintext": " In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (line 612), Gawain's neck-support is embroidered with \"trueloves\"",
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"plaintext": " In The Highwayman, a poem by Alfred Noyes, Bess is “plaiting a dark red love-knot into her long black hair.”",
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"plaintext": "List of bend knots",
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| 7,847,570 | 1,291 | 11 | 22 | 0 | 0 | true lover's knot | type of knot | []
|
37,733 | 1,097,134,325 | Blancmange | [
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"plaintext": "Blancmange (, from ) is a sweet dessert popular throughout Europe commonly made with milk or cream and sugar thickened with rice flour, gelatin, corn starch, or Irish moss (a source of carrageenan), and often flavoured with almonds.",
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"plaintext": "The historical blancmange originated at some time during the Middle Ages and usually consisted of capon or chicken, milk or almond milk, rice, and sugar and was considered to be ideal for the sick. is a sweet contemporary Turkish pudding made with shredded chicken, similar to the medieval European dish.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of the blancmange has long been believed to be a result of the introduction of rice and almonds in early medieval Europe by Arab traders. Recently, it has been shown that there have been similar Arab dishes from that period. Variants of the dish appear in numerous European cultures with closely related names including in Italy and in Spain. Additionally, related or similar dishes have existed in other areas of Europe under different names, such as the 13th-century Danish (\"white mush\"), and the Anglo-Norman (\"white Syrian dish\"); Dutch (from Latin , \"to strain\") was known in English as and in French as , and was based on cooked and then strained poultry. The oldest recipe found so far for blancmange is from a copy of the oldest extant Danish cookbook, written by , who died in 1244, which dates it to the early 13th century at the latest. The Danish work may be a translation of a German cookbook, which is believed to have been based on a Latin or Romance vernacular manuscript from the 12th century or even earlier.",
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"plaintext": "The \"whitedish\" (from the original Old French term ) was an upper-class dish common to most of Europe during the Middle Ages and early modern period. It occurs in countless variations from recipe collections from all over Europe and was one of the few truly international dishes of medieval and early modern Europe. It is mentioned in the prologue to Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and in an early 15th-century cookbook written by the chefs of Richard II. The basic ingredients were milk or almond milk, sugar, and shredded chicken (usually capon) or fish, often combined with rosewater and rice flour, and mixed into a bland stew. Almond milk and fish were used as substitutes for the other animal products on fast days and Lent. It was also often flavoured with spices like saffron or cinnamon and the chicken could be exchanged for various types of fowl, like quail or partridge. Spices were often used in recipes of the later Middle Ages since they were considered highly prestigious.",
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"plaintext": "On festive occasions and among the upper classes, whitedishes were often rendered more festive by various colouring agents: the reddish-golden yellow of saffron; green with various herbs; or sandalwood for russet. In 14th-century France, parti-colouring (the use of two bright contrasting colours on the same plate) was especially popular and was described by (also known as ), one of the primary authors of the later editions of . The brightly coloured whitedishes were one of the most common of the early entremets: edibles that were intended to entertain and delight through a gaudy appearance as much as through flavour.",
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"plaintext": "The word blancmange derives from Old French . The name \"whitedish\" is a modern term used by some historians, though the name historically was either a direct translation from or a calque of the Old French term. Many different local or regional terms were used for the dish in the Middle Ages:",
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"plaintext": " Catalan: , , ",
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{
"plaintext": " Portuguese: ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Italian: , , , ",
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"plaintext": " Spanish: ",
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"plaintext": " Dutch/Flemish: ",
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},
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"plaintext": " German: ",
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"plaintext": " Latin: ",
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},
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"plaintext": "Though it is fairly certain that the etymology is indeed \"white dish\", medieval sources are not always consistent as to the actual colour of the dish. Food scholar Terence Scully has proposed the alternative etymology of , \"bland dish\", reflecting its often mild and \"dainty\" (in this context meaning refined and aristocratic) taste and popularity as a sick dish.",
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"plaintext": "Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays (1995) edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ",
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"plaintext": "Ossa, Germán Patiño (2007). Fogón de negros: cocina y cultura en una región latinoamericana.",
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"plaintext": "Scully, Terence (1995), The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages. ",
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"plaintext": " Blanc-Manger: A Journey Through Time",
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},
{
"plaintext": " More Intelligent Life article",
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}
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| [
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"British_desserts",
"French_cuisine",
"Puddings",
"Spanish_cuisine"
]
| 551,514 | 9,669 | 65 | 52 | 0 | 0 | Blancmange | sweet dessert commonly made with milk or cream and sugar, thickened and often flavoured with almonds | []
|
37,735 | 1,096,407,672 | Melody | [
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"plaintext": "A melody (from Greek μελῳδία, melōidía, \"singing, chanting\"), also tune, voice or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include other musical elements such as tonal color. It is the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody.",
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"plaintext": "Given the many and varied elements and styles of melody \"many extant explanations [of melody] confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive.\" Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.",
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"plaintext": "The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music throughout the 20th century, featured \"fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns\", recurring \"events, often periodic, at all structural levels\" and \"recurrence of durations and patterns of durations\".",
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"plaintext": "Melodies in the 20th century \"utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha[d] been the custom in any other historical period of Western music.\" While the diatonic scale was still used, the chromatic scale became \"widely employed.\" Composers also allotted a structural role to \"the qualitative dimensions\" that previously had been \"almost exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm\". Kliewer states, \"The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality (timbre), texture, and loudness. Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with a wide variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an \"element of linear ordering.\"",
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"plaintext": "Jazz musicians use the term \"lead\" or \"head\" to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation.",
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"plaintext": " Rock music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick one or two melodies (verse and chorus, sometimes with a third, contrasting melody known as a bridge or middle eight) and stick with them; much variety may occur in the phrasing and lyrics.",
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"plaintext": "While in both most popular music and classical music of the common practice period pitch and duration are of primary importance in melodies, the contemporary music of the 20th and 21st centuries pitch and duration have lessened in importance and quality has gained importance, often primary. Examples include musique concrète, klangfarbenmelodie, Elliott Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy (which contains a movement with only one note), the third movement of Ruth Crawford-Seeger's String Quartet 1931 (later re-orchestrated as Andante for string orchestra), which creates the melody from an unchanging set of pitches through \"dissonant dynamics\" alone, and György Ligeti's Aventures, in which recurring phonetics create the linear form.",
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"plaintext": " Parsons code, a simple notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up and down.",
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"plaintext": " Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., pp.517–19.",
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"plaintext": "Cole, Simon (2020). just BE here – the guide to musicking mindfulness",
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"plaintext": "Edwards, Arthur C. The Art of Melody, pp. xix–xxx.",
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"plaintext": " Holst, Imogen(1962/2008). Tune, Faber and Faber, London. .",
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1157626
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"plaintext": " (1955). A Textbook of Melody: A course in functional melodic analysis, American Institute of Musicology.",
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68625267
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"plaintext": " Szabolcsi, Bence (1965). A History of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London.",
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{
"plaintext": "Trippett, David (2019). \"Melody\" in The Oxford Handbook to Critical Concepts in Music Theory. Oxford University Press.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Carry A Tune Week, list of tunes",
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"plaintext": " Creating and orchestrating a coherent and balanced melody ",
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37,736 | 1,106,081,665 | Roger_Zelazny | [
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"plaintext": "Roger Joseph Zelazny (May 13, 1937– June 14, 1995) was an American poet and writer of fantasy and science fiction short stories and novels, best known for The Chronicles of Amber. He won the Nebula Award three times (out of 14 nominations) and the Hugo Award six times (also out of 14 nominations), including two Hugos for novels: the serialized novel ...And Call Me Conrad (1965), subsequently published under the title This Immortal (1966) and then the novel Lord of Light (1967).",
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"plaintext": "Zelazny was born in Euclid, Ohio, the only child of Polish immigrant Joseph Frank Żelazny and Irish-American Josephine Flora Sweet. In high school, he became the editor of the school newspaper and joined the Creative Writing Club. In the fall of 1955, he began attending Western Reserve University and graduated with a B.A. in English in 1959. He was accepted to Columbia University in New York and specialized in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, graduating with an M.A. in 1962. His M.A. thesis was entitled Two traditions and Cyril Tourneur: an examination of morality and humor comedy conventions in The Revenger's Tragedy.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1962 and 1969 he worked for the U.S. Social Security Administration in Cleveland, Ohio, and then in Baltimore, Maryland, spending his evenings writing science fiction. He deliberately progressed from short-shorts to novelettes to novellas and finally to novel-length works by 1965. On May 1, 1969, he quit to become a full-time writer, and thereafter concentrated on writing novels in order to maintain his income. During this period, he was an active and vocal member of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society, whose members included writers Jack Chalker and Joe and Jack Haldeman among others.",
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"plaintext": "His first fanzine appearance was part one of the story \"Conditional Benefit\" (Thurban 1 #3, 1953) and his first professional publication and sale was the fantasy short story \"Mr. Fuller's Revolt\" (Literary Calvalcade, 1954). As a professional writer, his debut works were the simultaneous publication of \"Passion Play\" (Amazing, August 1962) and \"Horseman!\" (Fantastic, August 1962). \"Passion Play\" was written and sold first. His first story to attract major attention was \"A Rose for Ecclesiastes\", published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, with cover art by Hannes Bok.",
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"plaintext": "Roger Zelazny was also a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies.",
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"plaintext": "Zelazny was married twice, first to Sharon Steberl in 1964 (divorced, no children), and then to Judith Alene Callahan in 1966. Prior to this he was engaged to folk singer Hedy West for six months from 1961 to 1962. Roger and Judith had two sons, Devin and Trent (an author of crime fiction) and a daughter, Shannon. At the time of his death, Roger and Judith were separated and he was living with author Jane Lindskold.",
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"plaintext": "Raised as a Catholic by his parents, Zelazny later declared himself a lapsed Catholic and remained that way for the rest of his life. \"I did have a strong Catholic background, but I am not a Catholic. Somewhere in the past, I believe I answered in the affirmative once for strange and complicated reasons. But I am not a member of any organized religion.\"",
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"plaintext": "In his stories, Zelazny frequently portrayed characters from myth, depicted in the modern or a future world. Zelazny included many anachronisms, such as cigarette-smoking and references to modern drama, in his work. His crisp, minimalistic dialogue also seems to be somewhat influenced by the style of wisecracking hardboiled crime authors, such as Raymond Chandler or Dashiell Hammett. The tension between the ancient and the modern, surreal and familiar was what drove most of his work.",
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"plaintext": "A very frequent motif in Zelazny's work is immortality or people who (have) become gods (as well as gods who have turned into people). The mythological traditions his fiction borrowed from include:",
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"plaintext": " Psychoanalysis, Arthurian mythos, Norse mythology and Kabbalah, in The Dream Master",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, elements from Norse, Japanese and Irish mythology, Arthurian legend, and real history appear in The Chronicles of Amber. A Night in the Lonesome October involves the Cthulhu Mythos in a similar vein.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from working with mythological themes, the most common recurring motif of Zelazny's is the \"absent father\" (or father-figure). Again, this occurs most notably in the Amber novels: in the first Amber series, the protagonist Corwin searches for his lost, god-like father Oberon; while in the second series, which focuses on Corwin's son Merlin (not to be confused with the Arthurian Merlin), it is Corwin himself who is strangely missing. This somewhat Freudian theme runs through almost every Zelazny novel to a smaller or larger degree. Roadmarks, Doorways in the Sand, Changeling, Madwand, A Dark Traveling; the short stories \"Dismal Light\", \"Godson\", \"The Keys to December\"; and the Alien Speedway series all feature main characters who are either searching for or have lost their fathers. Zelazny's father, Joseph, died unexpectedly in 1962 and never knew his son's successes as a writer; this event may have triggered Zelazny's unconscious and frequent use of the absent father motif.",
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"plaintext": "Two other personal characteristics that influenced his fiction were his expertise in martial arts and his addiction to tobacco. Zelazny became expert with the épée in college, and thus began a lifelong study of several different martial arts, including judo, aikido (which he later taught as well, having gained a black belt), t'ai chi, and pa kua. In turn, many of his characters ably and knowledgeably use similar skills whilst dispatching their opponents. Zelazny was also a passionate cigarette and pipe smoker (until he quit in the early '80s), so much so, that he made many of his protagonists heavy smokers as well. However, he quit in order to improve his cardiovascular fitness for the martial arts; once he had quit, characters in his later novels and short stories stopped smoking too.",
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"plaintext": "Another characteristic of Zelazny's writing is that many of his protagonists had sufficient familiarity with other languages to be able to quote French, German, Italian or Latin aphorisms when the occasion seemed appropriate (or even inappropriate), although Zelazny himself did not speak any of those languages.",
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"plaintext": "In Roadmarks, a novel about a road system that links all possible times, places and histories, the chapters that feature the protagonist are all titled \"One\". Other chapters, titled \"Two\", feature secondary characters, including original characters, pulp heroes, and real historical characters. The \"One\" storyline is fairly linear, whereas the \"Two\" storyline jumps around in time and sequence. After finishing the manuscript, Zelazny shuffled the \"Two\" chapters randomly among the \"One\" chapters in order to emphasize their non-linear nature relative to the storyline.",
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"plaintext": "Creatures of Light and Darkness, featuring characters in the personae of Egyptian gods, uses a narrative voice entirely in the present tense; the final chapter is structured as a play, and several chapters take the form of long poems.",
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"plaintext": "Zelazny also tended to write a short fragment, not intended for publication, as a kind of backstory for a major character, as a way of giving that character a life independent of the particular novel being worked on. At least one \"fragment\" was published, the short story Dismal Light, originally a backstory for Isle of the Deads Francis Sandow. Sandow himself figures little in Dismal Light, the main character being his son, who is delaying his escape from an unstable star system in order to force his distant father to come in and ask him personally. While Isle of the Dead has Sandow living a life of irresponsible luxury as an escape from his personal demons, \"Dismal Light\" anchors his character as one who will face up to his responsibilities, however reluctantly.",
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"plaintext": "Another common stylistic approach in his novels is the use of mixed genres, whereby elements of each are combined freely and interchangeably. Jack of Shadows and Changeling, for example, revolve around the tensions between the two worlds of magic and technology. Lord of Light, perhaps one of his most famous works, is written in the classic style of a mythic fantasy, while it is established early in the book that the story itself takes place on a colonized planet.",
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"plaintext": "Many of Zelazny's works explore variations upon the idea that if there exists an infinite number of worlds, then every world that can be imagined must exist, somewhere. Powerful beings in many of his stories have the ability to travel to worlds that possess precisely the characteristics which that being wishes to experience. (Zelazny characters with this ability include Thoth in Creatures of Light and Darkness, who teleports to these worlds; those with the royal blood of either Amber or Chaos in The Chronicles of Amber, who \"move through shadows\" to reach these worlds; the guardian families of A Dark Traveling, who move between realities using high-tech devices; and Red Dorakeen in Roadmarks, who reaches these worlds by driving along a magical highway.) Many of these same characters wonder whether they are creating these special places anew, or are merely finding places which already exist (very much like \"the problem of universals\" in classical metaphysics). Usually each character who ponders this ultimately decides that the question is purely academic and therefore unanswerable.",
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"plaintext": "Zelazny's stories inspired other authors in his generation including Samuel R. Delany, whose novel Nova and many of his short stories were written \"partly in response to Zelazny’s eruption into the field.\" In 1967 Algis Budrys listed Zelazny, Delany, J. G. Ballard, and Brian W. Aldiss as \"an earthshaking new kind of\" writers, and leaders of the New Wave. Neil Gaiman said Zelazny was the author who influenced him the most, with this influence particularly seen in Gaiman's literary style and the topics he writes about. Andrzej Sapkowski considered Zelazny his spiritual teacher, whose work inspired him to write his first novel.",
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"plaintext": "The anthology Lord of the Fantastic: Stories in Honor of Roger Zelazny, edited by Martin H. Greenberg, was released in 1998 and featured essays and stories in honor of Zelazny by Walter Jon Williams, Jack Williamson, John Varley, Gaiman, Gregory Benford and many other authors.",
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"plaintext": "The anthology Shadows & Reflections: A Roger Zelazny Tribute Anthology, edited by Trent Zelazny and Warren Lapine, was released in 2017 and featured two essays and fifteen stories set in universes Zelazny created. Contributors included Zelazny, George R.R. Martin, Shannon Zelazny, Warren Lapine, Steven Brust, Kelly McCullough, Jane Lindskold, Steve Perry, Gerald Hausman, Lawrence Watt-Evans, Michael H. Hanson, Mark Rich, Gio Clairval, Edward J. McFadden III, Theodore Krulik, Shariann Lewitt, and Jay O'Connell.",
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"plaintext": " Zelazny obituary at The Washington Post",
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"plaintext": " The Annotated Amber—explanations of some allusions",
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"plaintext": " Finding aid to the Roger Zelazny papers at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County library",
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| 295,406 | 11,620 | 601 | 163 | 0 | 0 | Roger Zelazny | U.S. science fiction and fantasy writer and poet (1937–1995) | [
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37,737 | 1,105,362,173 | The_Invisible_Man | [
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"plaintext": "Kemp has already denounced Griffin to the local authorities, led by Port Burdock's chief of police, Colonel Adye, and is waiting for help to arrive as he listens to this wild proposal. When Adye and his men arrive at Kemp's house, Griffin fights his way out and the next day leaves a note announcing that Kemp himself will be the first man to be killed in the \"Reign of Terror\". Kemp, a cool-headed character, tries to organise a plan to use himself as bait to trap the Invisible Man, but a note that he sends is stolen from his servant by Griffin. During the chase the invisible Griffin arms himself with an iron bar and kills a pursuer.",
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"plaintext": "Griffin shoots Adye, then breaks into Kemp's house. Adye's constables fend him off and Kemp bolts for the town, where the local citizenry come to his aid. Still obsessed with killing Kemp, Griffin nearly strangles the doctor but he is cornered, seized, and savagely beaten by the enraged mob, his last words a desperate cry for mercy. Despite Griffin's murderous actions, Kemp urges the mob to stand away and tries to save the life of his assailant, though unsuccessfully. The Invisible Man's battered body gradually becomes visible as he dies, pitiable in the stillness of death. A local policeman shouts to have someone cover Griffin's face with a sheet.",
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"plaintext": " as a means of water storage, supply and purification",
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"plaintext": " as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere",
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"plaintext": " as a habitat for organisms",
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"plaintext": "All of these functions, in their turn, modify the soil and its properties.",
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"plaintext": "Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and pedology. Edaphology studies the influence of soils on living things. Pedology focuses on the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and other celestial objects.",
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"plaintext": "Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from ozone depletion and global warming to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle, soil acts as an important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change. As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures, a positive feedback (amplification). This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.",
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"plaintext": "Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored. Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 prokaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter. Since plant roots need oxygen, aeration is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.",
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"plaintext": "Soils can effectively remove impurities, kill disease agents, and degrade contaminants, this latter property being called natural attenuation. Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of oxygen and methane and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins. Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms.",
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"plaintext": "A typical soil is about 50% solids (45% mineral and 5% organic matter), and 50% voids (or pores) of which half is occupied by water and half by gas. The percent soil mineral and organic content can be treated as a constant (in the short term), while the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the other. The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which are critical for life existing in soil. Compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this space, preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms.",
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"plaintext": "Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil profile which consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil horizons. These differ in one or more properties such as in their texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and reactivity. The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack sharp boundaries; their development is dependent on the type of parent material, the processes that modify those parent materials, and the soil-forming factors that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil properties are strongest near the surface, though the geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth. Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons: A, B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon. It has been suggested that the pedon, a column of soil extending vertically from the surface to the underlying parent material and large enough to show the characteristics of all its horizons, could be subdivided in the humipedon (the living part, where most soil organisms are dwelling, corresponding to the humus form), the copedon (in intermediary position, where most weathering of minerals takes place) and the lithopedon (in contact with the subsoil).",
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"plaintext": "The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or peds. Where these aggregates can be identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and can be described further in terms of color, porosity, consistency, reaction (acidity), etc.",
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"plaintext": "Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its involvement in the dissolution, precipitation, erosion, transport, and deposition of the materials of which a soil is composed. The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that occupy the soil pore space is called the soil solution. Since soil water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved organic and mineral substances, it may be more accurately called the soil solution. Water is central to the dissolution, precipitation and leaching of minerals from the soil profile. Finally, water affects the type of vegetation that grows in a soil, which in turn affects the development of the soil, a complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions.",
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"plaintext": "Soils supply plants with nutrients, most of which are held in place by particles of clay and organic matter (colloids) The nutrients may be adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces, bound within clay minerals (absorbed), or bound within organic compounds as part of the living organisms or dead soil organic matter. These bound nutrients interact with soil water to buffer the soil solution composition (attenuate changes in the soil solution) as soils wet up or dry out, as plants take up nutrients, as salts are leached, or as acids or alkalis are added.",
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"plaintext": "Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Soil pH is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally lower (more acid) where weathering is more advanced.",
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"plaintext": "Most plant nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from the minerals that make up the soil parent material. Some nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric acid and ammonia, but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. Once in the soil-plant system, most nutrients are recycled through living organisms, plant and microbial residues (soil organic matter), mineral-bound forms, and the soil solution. Both living soil organisms (microbes, animals and plant roots) and soil organic matter are of critical importance to this recycling, and thereby to soil formation and soil fertility. Microbial soil enzymes may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells, or cause their loss from the soil by volatilisation (loss to the atmosphere as gases) or leaching.",
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"plaintext": "Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons. However, more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any organic matter, such as those regoliths that formed on Mars and analogous conditions in planet Earth deserts.",
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"plaintext": "An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock, which would produce the purely mineral-based parent material from which the soil texture forms. Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate, under heavy and frequent rainfall. Under such conditions, plants (in a first stage nitrogen-fixing lichens and cyanobacteria then epilithic higher plants) become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. Basaltic minerals commonly weather relatively quickly, according to the Goldich dissolution series. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient-bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the rocks. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mineral-weathering mycorrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time. Such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes, inselbergs, and glacial moraines.",
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"plaintext": "How soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil: parent material, climate, topography (relief), organisms, and time. When reordered to climate, relief, organisms, parent material, and time, they form the acronym CROPT.",
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"plaintext": "The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as crop production, are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. At the next larger scale, soil structures called peds or more commonly soil aggregates are created from the soil separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil. These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through soil horizons. Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil.",
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"plaintext": "Soil water content can be measured as volume or weight. Soil moisture levels, in order of decreasing water content, are saturation, field capacity, wilting point, air dry, and oven dry. Field capacity describes a drained wet soil at the point water content reaches equilibrium with gravity. Irrigating soil above field capacity risks percolation losses. Wilting point describes the dry limit for growing plants. ",
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"plaintext": "Available water capacity is the amount of water held in a soil profile available to plants. As water content drops, plants have to work against increasing forces of adherence and sorptivity to withdraw water. Irrigation scheduling avoids moisture stress by replenishing depleted water before stress is induced.",
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"plaintext": "Capillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet regions of the soil to dry areas. Subirrigation designs (e.g., wicking beds, sub-irrigated planters) rely on capillarity to supply water to plant roots. Capillary action can result in an evaporative concentration of salts, causing land degradation through salination.",
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"plaintext": "Soil moisture measurement–measuring the water content of the soil, as can be expressed in terms of volume or weight–can be based on in situ probes (e.g., capacitance probes, neutron probes), or remote sensing methods.",
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"plaintext": "The atmosphere of soil, or soil gas, is very different from the atmosphere above. The consumption of oxygen by microbes and plant roots, and their release of carbon dioxide, decreases oxygen and increases carbon dioxide concentration. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is 0.04%, but in the soil pore space it may range from 10 to 100 times that level, thus potentially contributing to the inhibition of root respiration. Calcareous soils regulate CO2 concentration by carbonate buffering, contrary to acid soils in which all CO2 respired accumulates in the soil pore system. At extreme levels, CO2 is toxic. This suggests a possible negative feedback control of soil CO2 concentration through its inhibitory effects on root and microbial respiration (also called 'soil respiration'). In addition, the soil voids are saturated with water vapour, at least until the point of maximal hygroscopicity, beyond which a vapour-pressure deficit occurs in the soil pore space. Adequate porosity is necessary, not just to allow the penetration of water, but also to allow gases to diffuse in and out. Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to lower, the diffusion coefficient decreasing with soil compaction. Oxygen from above atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including greenhouse gases) as well as water. Soil texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion. It is the total pore space (porosity) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore sealing), together with water content, air turbulence and temperature, that determine the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil. Platy soil structure and soil compaction (low porosity) impede gas flow, and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce (strip oxygen) from nitrate NO3 to the gases N2, N2O, and NO, which are then lost to the atmosphere, thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen, a detrimental process called denitrification. Aerated soil is also a net sink of methane (CH4) but a net producer of methane (a strong heat-absorbing greenhouse gas) when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "Soil atmosphere is also the seat of emissions of volatiles other than carbon and nitrogen oxides from various soil organisms, e.g. roots, bacteria, fungi, animals. These volatiles are used as chemical cues, making soil atmosphere the seat of interaction networks playing a decisive role in the stability, dynamics and evolution of soil ecosystems. Biogenic soil volatile organic compounds are exchanged with the aboveground atmosphere, in which they are just 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than those from aboveground vegetation.",
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"plaintext": "Humans can get some idea of the soil atmosphere through the well-known 'after-the-rain' scent, when infiltering rainwater flushes out the whole soil atmosphere after a drought period, or when soil is excavated, a bulk property attributed in a reductionist manner to particular biochemical compounds such as petrichor or geosmin.",
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"plaintext": "Soil particles can be classified by their chemical composition (mineralogy) as well as their size. The particle size distribution of a soil, its texture, determines many of the properties of that soil, in particular hydraulic conductivity and water potential, but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties. The mineralogy of the finest soil particles, clay, is especially important.",
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"plaintext": "The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its living population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil's chemical properties. A colloid is a small, insoluble particle ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer, thus small enough to remain suspended by Brownian motion in a fluid medium without settling. Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of clays. The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net electrical charges give soil its ability to hold and release ions. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as cation exchange. Cation-exchange capacity is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively charged ions per 100grams of soil (or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil; cmolc/kg). Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil, giving the soil anion exchange capacity.",
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"plaintext": "The cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, buffers (moderates) soil pH, alters soil structure, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful and harmful.",
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"plaintext": "The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions, respectively, to their surfaces. The charges result from four sources.",
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"plaintext": " Isomorphous substitution occurs in clay during its formation, when lower-valence cations substitute for higher-valence cations in the crystal structure. Substitutions in the outermost layers are more effective than for the innermost layers, as the electric charge strength drops off as the square of the distance. The net result is oxygen atoms with net negative charge and the ability to attract cations.",
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"plaintext": " Edge-of-clay oxygen atoms are not in balance ionically as the tetrahedral and octahedral structures are incomplete.",
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"plaintext": " Hydroxyls may substitute for oxygens of the silica layers, a process called hydroxylation. When the hydrogens of the clay hydroxyls are ionised into solution, they leave the oxygen with a negative charge (anionic clays).",
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"plaintext": " Hydrogens of humus hydroxyl groups may also be ionised into solution, leaving, similarly to clay, an oxygen with a negative charge.",
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"plaintext": "Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and are out of reach of plant roots, thereby preserving the fertility of soils in areas of moderate rainfall and low temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "There is a hierarchy in the process of cation exchange on colloids, as cations differ in the strength of adsorption by the colloid and hence their ability to replace one another (ion exchange). If present in equal amounts in the soil water solution:",
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"plaintext": "Al3+ replaces H+ replaces Ca2+ replaces Mg2+ replaces K+ same as replaces Na+",
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"plaintext": "If one cation is added in large amounts, it may replace the others by the sheer force of its numbers. This is called law of mass action. This is largely what occurs with the addition of cationic fertilisers (potash, lime).",
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"plaintext": "As the soil solution becomes more acidic (low pH, meaning an abundance of H+), the other cations more weakly bound to colloids are pushed into solution as hydrogen ions occupy exchange sites (protonation). A low pH may cause the hydrogen of hydroxyl groups to be pulled into solution, leaving charged sites on the colloid available to be occupied by other cations. This ionisation of hydroxy groups on the surface of soil colloids creates what is described as pH-dependent surface charges. Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution, pH-dependent charges are variable and increase with increasing pH. Freed cations can be made available to plants but are also prone to be leached from the soil, possibly making the soil less fertile. Plants are able to excrete H+ into the soil through the synthesis of organic acids and by that means, change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids, thus making those available to the plant.",
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"plaintext": "Cation exchange capacity is the soil's ability to remove cations from the soil water solution and sequester those to be exchanged later as the plant roots release hydrogen ions to the solution. CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation (H+) that will combine with 100grams dry weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100grams of soil (1meq/100g). Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one-thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100grams dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100grams of dry soil or 20meq/100g. The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg) of oven-dry soil.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the soil's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids, and the lack of those in hot, humid, wet climates (e.g. tropical rainforests), due to leaching and decomposition, respectively, explains the apparent sterility of tropical soils. Live plant roots also have some CEC, linked to their specific surface area.",
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"plaintext": "Anion exchange capacity is the soil's ability to remove anions (e.g. nitrate, phosphate) from the soil water solution and sequester those for later exchange as the plant roots release carbonate anions to the soil water solution. Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC. Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC, followed by the iron oxides. Levels of AEC are much lower than for CEC, because of the generally higher rate of positively (versus negatively) charged surfaces on soil colloids, to the exception of variable-charge soils. Phosphates tend to be held at anion exchange sites.",
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"plaintext": "Iron and aluminum hydroxide clays are able to exchange their hydroxide anions (OH−) for other anions. The order reflecting the strength of anion adhesion is as follows:",
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"plaintext": " replaces replaces replaces Cl−",
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"plaintext": "The amount of exchangeable anions is of a magnitude of tenths to a few milliequivalents per 100g dry soil. As pH rises, there are relatively more hydroxyls, which will displace anions from the colloids and force them into solution and out of storage; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH (alkalinity).",
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"plaintext": "Soil reactivity is expressed in terms of pH and is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. More precisely, it is a measure of hydronium concentration in an aqueous solution and ranges in values from 0 to 14 (acidic to basic) but practically speaking for soils, pH ranges from 3.5 to 9.5, as pH values beyond those extremes are toxic to life forms.",
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"plaintext": "At 25°C an aqueous solution that has a pH of 3.5 has 10−3.5 moles H3O+ (hydronium ions) per litre of solution (and also 10−10.5 moles per litre OH−). A pH of 7, defined as neutral, has 10−7 moles of hydronium ions per litre of solution and also 10−7 moles of OH− per litre; since the two concentrations are equal, they are said to neutralise each other. A pH of 9.5 has 10−9.5 moles hydronium ions per litre of solution (and also 10−2.5 moles per litre OH−). A pH of 3.5 has one million times more hydronium ions per litre than a solution with pH of 9.5 ( or 106) and is more acidic.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of pH on a soil is to remove from the soil or to make available certain ions. Soils with high acidity tend to have toxic amounts of aluminium and manganese. As a result of a trade-off between toxicity and requirement most nutrients are better available to plants at moderate pH, although most minerals are more soluble in acid soils. Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity, and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH6.5 and organic soils of pH5.5. Given that at low pH toxic metals (e.g. cadmium, zinc, lead) are positively charged as cations and organic pollutants are in non-ionic form, thus both made more available to organisms, it has been suggested that plants, animals and microbes commonly living in acid soils are pre-adapted to every kind of pollution, whether of natural or human origin.",
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"plaintext": "In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidify as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the mass action of hydronium ions from usual or unusual rain acidity against those attached to the colloids. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil inhabited only by those organisms which are particularly efficient to uptake nutrients in very acid conditions, like in tropical rainforests. Once the colloids are saturated with H3O+, the addition of any more hydronium ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity. In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures, the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil. In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH10. Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced. High pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but water-soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the deficit. Sodium can be reduced by the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) as calcium adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water.",
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"plaintext": "There are acid-forming cations (e.g. hydronium, aluminium, iron) and there are base-forming cations (e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium). The fraction of the negatively-charged soil colloid exchange sites (CEC) that are occupied by base-forming cations is called base saturation. If a soil has a CEC of 20meq and 5meq are aluminium and hydronium cations (acid-forming), the remainder of positions on the colloids () are assumed occupied by base-forming cations, so that the base saturation is (the compliment 25% is assumed acid-forming cations). Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (it increases with increasing pH). It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil (lime requirement). The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids (exchangeable acidity), not just those in the soil water solution (free acidity). The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime.",
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"plaintext": "The resistance of soil to change in pH, as a result of the addition of acid or basic material, is a measure of the buffering capacity of a soil and (for a particular soil type) increases as the CEC increases. Hence, pure sand has almost no buffering ability, though soils high in colloids (whether mineral or organic) have high buffering capacity. Buffering occurs by cation exchange and neutralisation. However, colloids are not the only regulators of soil pH. The role of carbonates should be underlined, too. More generally, according to pH levels, several buffer systems take precedence over each other, from calcium carbonate buffer range to iron buffer range.",
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"plaintext": "The addition of a small amount of highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the ammonium to displace hydronium ions from the colloids, and the end product is water and colloidally fixed ammonium, but little permanent change overall in soil pH.",
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"plaintext": "The addition of a small amount of lime, Ca(OH)2, will displace hydronium ions from the soil colloids, causing the fixation of calcium to colloids and the evolution of CO2 and water, with little permanent change in soil pH.",
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"plaintext": "The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH. The general principal is that an increase in a particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids (buffered) and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved into solution (buffered). The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil; the greater the CEC, the greater the buffering capacity of the soil.",
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"plaintext": "Soil chemical reactions involve some combination of proton and electron transfer. Oxidation occurs if there is a loss of electrons in the transfer process while reduction occurs if there is a gain of electrons. Reduction potential is measured in volts or millivolts. Soil microbial communities develop along electron transport chains, forming electrically conductive biofilms, and developing networks of bacterial nanowires.",
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"plaintext": "Redox factors in soil development, where formation of redoximorphic color features provides critical information for soil interpretation. Understanding the redox gradient is important to managing carbon sequestration, bioremediation, wetland delineation, and soil-based microbial fuel cells.",
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"plaintext": "Seventeen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and chlorine (Cl). Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered non-essential. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, and nitrogen, provided through nitrogen fixation, the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil. The Law of the Minimum expresses that when the available form of a nutrient is not in enough proportion in the soil solution, then other nutrients cannot be taken up at an optimum rate by a plant. A particular nutrient ratio of the soil solution is thus mandatory for optimizing plant growth, a value which might differ from nutrient ratios calculated from plant composition.",
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"plaintext": "Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant-available form. In most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from (or together with) soil water. Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals, they weather too slowly to support rapid plant growth. For example, the application of finely ground minerals, feldspar and apatite, to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals.",
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"plaintext": "The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and soil organic matter provide a more accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg, P, Zn). As plants absorb the nutrients from the soil water, the soluble pool is replenished from the surface-bound pool. The decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the soluble pool of nutrients is replenished – this is important for the supply of plant-available N, S, P, and B from soil.",
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"plaintext": "Gram for gram, the capacity of humus to hold nutrients and water is far greater than that of clay minerals, most of the soil cation exchange capacity arising from charged carboxylic groups on organic matter. However, despite the great capacity of humus to retain water once water-soaked, its high hydrophobicity decreases its wettability. All in all, small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil's capacity to promote plant growth.",
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"plaintext": "The organic material in soil is made up of organic compounds and includes plant, animal and microbial material, both living and dead. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70% microorganisms, 22% macrofauna, and 8% roots. The living component of an acre of soil may include 900lb of earthworms, 2400lb of fungi, 1500lb of bacteria, 133lb of protozoa and 890lb of arthropods and algae.",
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"plaintext": "A few percent of the soil organic matter, with small residence time, consists of the microbial biomass and metabolites of bacteria, molds, and actinomycetes that work to break down the dead organic matter. Were it not for the action of these micro-organisms, the entire carbon dioxide part of the atmosphere would be sequestered as organic matter in the soil. However, in the same time soil microbes contribute to carbon sequestration in the topsoil through the formation of stable humus. In the aim to sequester more carbon in the soil for alleviating the greenhouse effect it would be more efficient in the long-term to stimulate humification than to decrease litter decomposition.",
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"plaintext": "The main part of soil organic matter is a complex assemblage of small organic molecules, collectively called humus or humic substances. The use of these terms, which do not rely on a clear chemical classification, has been considered as obsolete. Other studies showed that the classical notion of molecule is not convenient for humus, which escaped most attempts done over two centuries to resolve it in unit components, but still is chemically distinct from polysaccharides, lignins and proteins.",
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"plaintext": "Most living things in soils, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi, are dependent on organic matter for nutrients and/or energy. Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of decomposition which rate is dependent on temperature, soil moisture, and aeration. Bacteria and fungi feed on the raw organic matter, which are fed upon by protozoa, which in turn are fed upon by nematodes, annelids and arthropods, themselves able to consume and transform raw or humified organic matter. This has been called the soil food web, through which all organic matter is processed as in a digestive system. Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert and rocky-gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat (histosols), are infertile. In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus.",
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"plaintext": "In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, grass root systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic matter in the forest. Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from roots. Also, the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter than in comparable soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon.",
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"plaintext": "Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil microflora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth. Humus also feeds arthropods, termites and earthworms which further improve the soil. The end product, humus, is suspended in colloidal form in the soil solution and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals by chelating their iron and aluminum atoms. Humus has a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay, against changes in pH and soil moisture.",
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"plaintext": "Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants, animals, and microbes, microbes begin to feed on the residues through their production of extra-cellular soil enzymes, resulting finally in the formation of humus. As the residues break down, only molecules made of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, assembled and stabilized by oxygen and hydrogen bonds, remain in the form of complex molecular assemblages collectively called humus. Humus is never pure in the soil, because it reacts with metals and clays to form complexes which further contribute to its stability and to soil structure. Although the structure of humus has in itself few nutrients (with the exception of constitutive metals such as calcium, iron and aluminum) it is able to attract and link, by weak bonds, cation and anion nutrients that can further be released into the soil solution in response to selective root uptake and changes in soil pH, a process of paramount importance for the maintenance of fertility in tropical soils.",
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"plaintext": "Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with proteins, which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. Fats and waxes from plant matter have still more resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for thousand years, hence their use as tracers of past vegetation in buried soil layers. Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, to the exception of scleroproteins, but when bound to clay particles they become more resistant to decomposition. As for other proteins clay particles absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes, decreasing enzyme activity while protecting extracellular enzymes from degradation. The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years. A study showed increased soil fertility following the addition of mature compost to a clay soil. High soil tannin content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered as resistant tannin-protein complexes.",
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"plaintext": "Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility. Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states to a higher extent than clay, increasing soil porosity. Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminishes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus in its most stable forms may persist over centuries if not millennia. Charcoal is a source of highly stable humus, called black carbon, which had been used traditionally to improve the fertility of nutrient-poor tropical soils. This very ancient practice, as ascertained in the genesis of Amazonian dark earths, has been renewed and became popular under the name of biochar. It has been suggested that biochar could be used to sequester more carbon in the fight against the greenhouse effect.",
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"plaintext": "The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. For example, when a thawing event occurs, the flux of soil gases with atmospheric gases is significantly influenced. Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions. Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients. Forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter by the living plant and microbial biomass to maintain their productivity, a process which is disturbed by human activities. Excessive slope, in particular in the presence of cultivation for the sake of agriculture, may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.",
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"plaintext": "Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18days in a temperate climate. Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind. Starch, which is an energy storage system for plants, undergoes fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi. Lignin consists of polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched, amorphous structure, linked to cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin in plant cell walls. Lignin undergoes very slow decomposition, mainly by white rot fungi and actinomycetes; its half-life under temperate conditions is about six months.",
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"plaintext": "A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is referred to as a soil horizon. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions. No soil profile has all the major horizons. Some, called entisols, may have only one horizon or are currently considered as having no horizon, in particular incipient soils from unreclaimed mining waste deposits, moraines, volcanic cones sand dunes or alluvial terraces. Upper soil horizons may be lacking in truncated soils following wind or water ablation, with concomitant downslope burying of soil horizons, a natural process aggravated by agricultural practices such as tillage. The growth of trees is another source of disturbance, creating a micro-scale heterogeneity which is still visible in soil horizons once trees have died. By passing from a horizon to another, from the top to the bottom of the soil profile, one goes back in time, with past events registered in soil horizons like in sediment layers. Sampling pollen, testate amoebae and plant remains in soil horizons may help to reveal environmental changes (e.g. climate change, land use change) which occurred in the course of soil formation. Soil horizons can be dated by several methods such as radiocarbon, using pieces of charcoal provided they are of enough size to escape pedoturbation by earthworm activity and other mechanical disturbances. Fossil soil horizons from paleosols can be found within sedimentary rock sequences, allowing the study of past environments.",
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"plaintext": "The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth, as is the case in eroded soils. The growth of vegetation results in the production of organic residues which fall on the ground as litter for plant aerial parts (leaf litter) or are directly produced belowground for subterranean plant organs (root litter), and then release dissolved organic matter. The remaining surficial organic layer, called the O horizon, produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic-mineral surface layer called the A horizon, in which organic matter is mixed with mineral matter through the activity of burrowing animals, a process called pedoturbation. This natural process does not go to completion in the presence of conditions detrimental to soil life such as strong acidity, cold climate or pollution, stemming in the accumulation of undecomposed organic matter within a single organic horizon overlying the mineral soil and in the juxtaposition of humified organic matter and mineral particles, without intimate mixing, in the underlying mineral horizons.",
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"plaintext": "One of the first soil classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers and was developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a different classification system began to emerge which focused on soil morphology instead of parental materials and soil-forming factors. Since then, it has undergone further modifications. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources aims to establish an international reference base for soil classification.",
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"plaintext": "Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants. The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated. Agricultural soil science was the primeval domain of soil knowledge, long time before the advent of pedology in the 19th century. However, as demonstrated by aeroponics, aquaponics and hydroponics, soil material is not an absolute essential for agriculture, and soilless cropping systems have been claimed as the future of agriculture for an endless growing mankind.",
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"plaintext": "Soil material is also a critical component in mining, construction and landscape development industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road building and dam construction. Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building walls. Many building materials are soil based. Loss of soil through urbanization is growing at a high rate in many areas and can be critical for the maintenance of subsistence agriculture.",
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"plaintext": "Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production, producing 98.8% of food consumed by humans. Soil provides minerals and water to plants according to several processes involved in plant nutrition. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought, flood regulation being one of the major ecosystem services provided by soil. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for many organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil, in the form of earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids, nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most organisms living above ground have part of them (plants) or spend part of their life cycle (insects) below-ground. Above-ground and below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected, making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.",
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"plaintext": "The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57% of the biotic content is carbon. Even in deserts, cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses form biological soil crusts which capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to the atmosphere. Restoring the world's soils could offset the effect of increases in greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming, while improving crop yields and reducing water needs.",
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"plaintext": "Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat septic tank effluent using aerobic soil processes. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat BOD. Alternatively, Landfills use soil for daily cover, isolating waste deposits from the atmosphere and preventing unpleasant smells. Composting is now widely used to treat aerobically solid domestic waste and dried effluents of settling basins. Although compost is not soil, biological processes taking place during composting are similar to those occurring during decomposition and humification of soil organic matter.",
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"plaintext": "Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel and horticultural resource. Peat soils are also commonly used for the sake of agriculture in Nordic countries, because peatland sites, when drained, provide fertile soils for food production. However, wide areas of peat production, such as rain-fed sphagnum bogs, also called blanket bogs or raised bogs, are now protected because of their patrimonial interest. As an example, Flow Country, covering 4,000 square kilometres of rolling expanse of blanket bogs in Scotland, is now candidate for being included in the World Heritage List. Under present-day global warming peat soils are thought to be involved in a self-reinforcing (positive feedback) process of increased emission of greenhouse gases (methane and carbon dioxide) and increased temperature, a contention which is still under debate when replaced at field scale and including stimulated plant growth.",
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"plaintext": "Geophagy is the practice of eating soil-like substances. Both animals and humans occasionally consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes. It has been shown that some monkeys consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in order to alleviate tannin toxicity.",
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"plaintext": "Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming groundwater. Pests (viruses) and pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls), oils (hydrocarbons), heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium), and excess nutrients (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil. Soil organisms metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass, thereby incorporating them into stable humus. The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes.",
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"plaintext": "Land degradation is a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to function. Soil degradation involves acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or salination.",
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"plaintext": "Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity, soil biological activity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are initially acid and remain such when their parent materials are low in basic cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium). On parent materials richer in weatherable minerals acidification occurs when basic cations are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or exported by the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid-forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid precipitation. Deforestation is another cause of soil acidification, mediated by increased leaching of soil nutrients in the absence of tree canopies.",
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"plaintext": "Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it, mainly through microbial enzymatic activity. Soil organic matter and soil minerals can adsorb the waste material and decrease its toxicity, although when in colloidal form they may transport the adsorbed contaminants to subsurface environments. Many waste treatment processes rely on this natural bioremediation capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, soil conditioners, phytoremediation, bioremediation and Monitored Natural Attenuation. An example of diffuse pollution with contaminants is copper accumulation in vineyards and orchards to which fungicides are repeatedly applied, even in organic farming.",
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"plaintext": "Microfibres from synthetic textiles are another type of plastic soil contamination, 100% of agricultural soil samples from southwestern China contained plastic particles, 92% of which were microfibres. Sources of microfibres likely included string or twine, as well as irrigation water in which clothes had been washed.",
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"plaintext": "The application of biosolids from sewage sludge and compost can introduce microplastics to soils. This adds to the burden of microplastics from other sources (e.g. the atmosphere). Approximately half the sewage sludge in Europe and North America is applied to agricultural land. In Europe it has been estimated that for every million inhabitants 113 to 770 tonnes of microplastics are added to agricultural soils each year.",
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"plaintext": "Desertification, an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, is often caused by badly adapted human activities such as overgrazing or excess harvesting of firewood. It is a common misconception that drought causes desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification. It is now questioned whether present-day climate warming will favour or disfavour desertification, with contradictory reports about predicted rainfall trends associated with increased temperature, and strong discrepancies among regions, even in the same country.",
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"plaintext": "A serious and long-running water erosion problem occurs in China, on the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From the Yellow River, over 1.6billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The sediment originates primarily from water erosion (gully erosion) in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China.",
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"plaintext": "Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface. It causes levee and dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up-gradient. The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.",
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"plaintext": "Soils which contain high levels of particular clays with high swelling properties, such as smectites, are often very fertile. For example, the smectite-rich paddy soils of Thailand's Central Plains are among the most productive in the world. However, the overuse of mineral nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides in irrigated intensive rice production has endangered these soils, forcing farmers to implement integrated practices based on Cost Reduction Operating Principles.",
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"plaintext": "Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter and clay in the soils they work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined and soil erosion has increased in the low-clay soils of northern Thailand, following the abandonment of shifting cultivation for a more permanent land use. Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter and clay from termite mound material, but this was unsustainable in the long-term because of rarefaction of termite mounds. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite, one of the smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200kg bentonite per rai (6.26rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. Other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand, half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields. The average improvement for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique.",
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"plaintext": "If the soil is too high in clay or salts (e.g. saline sodic soil), adding gypsum, washed river sand and organic matter (e.g.municipal solid waste) will balance the composition.",
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"plaintext": "Adding organic matter, like ramial chipped wood or compost, to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality and improve production.",
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"plaintext": "Special mention must be made of the use of charcoal, and more generally biochar to improve nutrient-poor tropical soils, a process based on the higher fertility of anthropogenic pre-Columbian Amazonian Dark Earths, also called Terra Preta de Índio, due to interesting physical and chemical properties of soil black carbon as a source of stable humus. However, the uncontrolled application of charred waste products of all kinds may endanger soil life and human health.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans' urgent need to provide food for themselves and forage for their animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek historian Xenophon (450–355BCE) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green-manuring crops: 'But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich the soil as much as dung.'",
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"plaintext": "Columella's Of husbandry, circa 60CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green manure) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Middle Ages, Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam's handbook, with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence. Olivier de Serres, considered the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations. He also highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His famous book contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil amendment for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during the Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.",
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"plaintext": "Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century. In about 1635, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight. John Woodward (1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.",
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"plaintext": "As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must combust oxygen internally to live. He was able to deduce that most of the weight of van Helmont's willow tree derived from air. It was the French agriculturalist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil. Justus von Liebig in his book Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology (published 1840), asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced. Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802, by Alexander von Humboldt. This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.",
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"plaintext": "The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started experimentation based on it. In England John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert worked in the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded by the former, and that plants took nitrogen from the soil, and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants. Their investigations also produced the superphosphate, consisting in the acid treatment of phosphate rock. This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) as fertilizers. Ammonia generated by the production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser. Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms was still not understood.",
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"plaintext": "In 1856, J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into nitrates, and twenty years later Robert Warington proved that this transformation was done by living organisms. In 1890 Sergei Winogradsky announced he had found the bacteria responsible for this transformation.",
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"plaintext": "It was known that certain legumes could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an understanding of the role played in nitrogen fixation by bacteria. The symbiosis of bacteria and leguminous roots, and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria, were simultaneously discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.",
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"plaintext": "Crop rotation, mechanisation, chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in western Europe between 1800 and 1900.",
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"plaintext": "The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials, under the action of biotic and abiotic processes. After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced, other researchers began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications.",
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"plaintext": "In 1860, while in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard (1833–1916) studied the relationship between rock material, climate, vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the soils were dynamic, and considered the classification of soil types. Unfortunately, his work was not continued. At about the same time, Friedrich Albert Fallou was describing soil profiles and relating soil characteristics to their formation as part of his professional work evaluating forest and farm land for the principality of Saxony. His 1857 book, (First principles of soil science) established modern soil science. Contemporary with Fallou's work, and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, Vasily Dokuchaev led a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin Glinka, a member of the Russian team.",
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"plaintext": "Curtis F. Marbut, influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka's publication into English, and, as he was placed in charge of the U.S. National Cooperative Soil Survey, applied it to a national soil classification system.",
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"plaintext": " Soil-Net.com A free schools-age educational site teaching about soil and its importance.",
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"plaintext": " Adams, J.A. 1986. Dirt. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press ",
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"plaintext": " Certini, G., Scalenghe, R. 2006. Soils: Basic concepts and future challenges. Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": " David R. Montgomery, Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations, ",
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"plaintext": " Faulkner, Edward H. 1943. Plowman's Folly. New York, Grosset & Dunlap. ",
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"plaintext": " LandIS Free Soilscapes Viewer Free interactive viewer for the Soils of England and Wales",
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"plaintext": " Jenny, Hans. 1941. Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology",
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"plaintext": " Logan, W.B. 1995. Dirt: The ecstatic skin of the earth. ",
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"plaintext": " Mann, Charles C. September 2008. \" Our good earth\" National Geographic Magazine",
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"plaintext": " Photographs of sand boils.",
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"plaintext": " Soil Survey Division Staff. 1999. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.",
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"plaintext": " Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.",
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"plaintext": " Soils (Matching suitable forage species to soil type), Oregon State University",
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"plaintext": " Janick, Jules. 2002. Soil notes, Purdue University",
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"plaintext": " LandIS Soils Data for England and Wales a pay source for GIS data on the soils of England and Wales and soils data source; they charge a handling fee to researchers.",
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37,739 | 1,107,552,383 | The_Illustrated_Man | [
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"plaintext": "The Illustrated Man is a 1951 collection of 18 science fiction short stories by American writer Ray Bradbury. A recurring theme throughout the stories is the conflict of the cold mechanics of technology and the psychology of people. It was nominated for the International Fantasy Award in 1952.",
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"plaintext": "The unrelated stories are tied together by the frame story of \"The Illustrated Man\", a vagrant former member of a carnival freak show with an extensively tattooed body whom the unnamed narrator meets. The man's tattoos, allegedly created by a time-traveling woman, are individually animated, and each tells a different tale. ",
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"plaintext": "All but one of the stories had been published previously elsewhere, although Bradbury revised some of the texts for the book's publication.",
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"plaintext": "The book was made into the 1969 film, The Illustrated Man, starring Rod Steiger and Claire Bloom. It presents adaptations of the stories \"The Veldt\", \"The Long Rain\" and \"The Last Night of the World\".",
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"plaintext": "Numerous works of literature are banned and burned on Earth. The deceased authors of these books live in a kind of afterlife on Mars. Though dead, they are still vulnerable in the sense that when all of an author's works are destroyed, the author vanishes permanently. The authors learn that people are coming from Earth, and they stage their retribution. Their efforts are foiled when the astronauts burn the last remaining books, annihilating the entire colony.",
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"plaintext": "Mars is used as isolation for people with deadly illnesses. One day, the planet is visited by a young man of 18 who has the ability to perform telepathy. The exiles on the planet are thrilled with his ability and a violent fight breaks out over who will get to spend the most time with their visitor and enjoy the illusionary paradises he can transmit. In the struggle, the young man is killed and the escape he provided is lost forever.",
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"plaintext": "An unhappily married man, Braling, buys a realistic robot who looks exactly like him, Braling Two, from Marionettes, Inc. Braling Two acts as a surrogate so that Braling does not have to deal with his wife, who trapped him into marriage by getting pregnant and threatening to turn him in for rape if he leaves her. While Braling's friend considers getting his own robot doppelgänger, he discovers that his wife already has replaced herself with one. Braling Two falls in love with Braling's wife. Arguing that he is better at providing for her than Braling, Braling Two locks the real man in the crate in which the robot was delivered.",
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"plaintext": "A rocket expedition from Earth lands on an uncharted planet and finds a seemingly empty city. As the humans begin to explore, they realize that the city is not as empty as it seems. The city was waiting for the arrival of humans, designed by a long dead civilization to take revenge upon humanity; the civilization was destroyed by human biological weapons before recorded history. Once the city captures and kills the human astronauts, the humans' corpses are used as automatons to take a final act of revenge— a biological attack on the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "In the near future, young children are persuaded to help an imaginary friend named Drill to play a game called Invasion.",
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"plaintext": "Fiorello Bodoni, a poor junkyard owner, has saved $3,000 to fulfill his dream to send one member of his family into outer space. The family cannot choose who will go, fearing those left behind will resent the one chosen. Bodoni instead uses the money to build a replica rocket containing a virtual reality theater that simulates a voyage through space.",
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"plaintext": "The British edition, first published in 1952 by Hart-Davis omits \"The Rocket Man\", \"The Fire Balloons\", \"The Exiles\" and \"The Concrete Mixer\", and adds \"Usher II\" from The Martian Chronicles and \"The Playground\".",
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"plaintext": "Editions published by Avon Books in 1997 and William Morrow in 2001 omit \"The Fire Balloons\" and add \"The Illustrated Man\" to the end of the book.",
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"plaintext": "\"Usher II\" Literary expert William Stendahl has retreated to Mars to escape the book-burning dictates of the Moral Climate Monitors. On Mars he has built his image of the perfect haunted mansion, replicating the building from Edgar Allan Poe's short story \"The Fall of the House of Usher\", complete with mechanical creatures, creepy soundtracks and the extermination of all life in the surrounding area. When the Moral Climate Monitors come to visit, each of them is killed in a manner reminiscent of a different Poe story, culminating in the immurement of the lead inspector. When all of Stendahl's persecutors are dead, the house sinks into the lake.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Playground\" When Charles Underhill was a boy, he was tormented by neighborhood bullies. When his son begins playing in a local playground, he becomes deeply disturbed when he sees a bully from his youth.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Illustrated Man\" An overweight carnival worker is given a second chance as a Tattooed Man, and visits a strange woman who applies skin illustrations over his entire body. She covers two special areas, claiming they will show the future. The first is an illustration of the man strangling his wife. Shortly after this comes to pass, the carnival workers run the man down, beat him, and look at the second area. It shows an illustration of the beating in which they are engaged.",
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"plaintext": "Boucher and McComas gave The Illustrated Man a mixed review, faulting the framing story as \"markedly ineffective\" and the story selection for seeming being \"less than wisely chosen\". However, they found the better stories \"provide a feast [from] the finest traditions in imaginative fiction\" and later named it among the year's top books. Villiers Gerson, reviewing the volume for Astounding Science Fiction, praised it as \"a book which demonstrates that its author is one of the most literate and spellbinding writers in science fiction today\". In The New York Times, Gerson also praised the book for its \"three-dimensional people with whom it is easy to sympathize, to hate, and to admire\".",
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"plaintext": "A film adaptation of The Illustrated Man was released in 1969. It was directed by Jack Smight and starred Rod Steiger, Claire Bloom, and others, including Don Dubbins. The script was by producer Howard B. Kreitsek. The film contains adaptations of \"The Veldt,\" \"The Long Rain,\" and \"The Last Night of the World\" and expands the prologue and epilogue with intermittent scenes and flashbacks of how the illustrations came to be. A short documentary, Tattooed Steiger, details the process the filmmakers used to cover Steiger's body in mock tattoos and shows actors and filmmakers preparing for the movie.",
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"plaintext": "A theater adaptation of \"Kaleidoscope\", with influence from music by Pink Floyd was used to produce To the Dark Side of the Moon, in reference to the Pink Floyd album by the same name. This adaptation was produced by Stern-Theater, a Swiss-based theater company. The script was written by Daniel Rohr and was first shown at the Theater Rigiblick in Zürich, Switzerland on February 6, 2010. The music includes creative use of a string quartet and a piano.",
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"plaintext": "A radio adaptation was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 14 June 2014 as part of the Dangerous Visions series adapted by Brian Sibley, directed by Gemma Jenkins and starring Iain Glen as \"The Illustrated Man\" and Jamie Parker as \"The Youth\". The stories adapted for this production were \"Marionettes, Inc.\", \"Zero Hour\" and \"Kaleidoscope\".",
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"plaintext": "Director Zack Snyder is attached to direct, at least in part, a film adaptation of three stories from The Illustrated Man: \"The Illustrated Man\", \"Veldt\", and \"Concrete Mixer\". Screenwriter Alex Tse is writing the screenplay.",
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"plaintext": "A new rock opera titled The Bradbury Tattoos was scheduled to premiere in Cincinnati, Ohio, on July 13 and July 22, 2018, in collaboration with concert:nova, a contemporary classical ensemble composed of musicians from the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. Written by composer Zac Greenberg and librettist Michael Burnham, the opera is adapted from four stories in The Illustrated Man -- \"Kaleidoscope,\" \"Zero Hour,\" \"The Highway\" and \"The Last Night of the World.\" The production is funded by the National Endowment for the Arts.",
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"plaintext": " Elton John's hit song, \"Rocket Man\", was inspired by the Bradbury story.",
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"plaintext": " The band Pearls Before Swine released a song named after and inspired by \"The Rocket Man\".",
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"plaintext": " In the 2007 film Blades of Glory, Will Ferrell's character claims to be referred to as \"The Illustrated Man\".",
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"plaintext": " Numerous references to The Illustrated Man are made throughout an episode of Criminal Minds (episode 20, season 5, entitled \"A Thousand Words\") that deals with a serial killer whose body is covered in tattoos.",
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"plaintext": " In 2012, shortly before author Ray Bradbury's death, Canadian musician deadmau5 produced a song titled \"The Veldt\", including lyrics by Chris James based upon the short story. The music video, released after Bradbury's death, is dedicated to him.",
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"plaintext": " Post-rock band Deadhorse refer their 2010 album release We Can Create Our Own World to be directly influenced by the book and Ray Bradbury's vision in evoke imagination in his readers.",
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"plaintext": " Noah Taylor's character can be seen reading the book in Cameron Crowe's film Almost Famous while on a tour bus.",
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"plaintext": " The Illustrated Man himself appears in The Simpsons \"Treehouse of Horror XXIV\" episode in the couch gag with his author, Ray Bradbury.",
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"plaintext": " In an episode of The Sopranos (Season 2, Episode 11), Dick Barone while discussing Richie Aprile selling drugs along garbage routes with Tony Soprano, refers to a man covered in tattoos, as \"The Illustrated Man.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"Kaleidoscope\" seems to have inspired the ending of Dark Star with the ships crew drifting apart to their various fates including joining a meteor shower and hitting the planet they'd bombed.",
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"plaintext": "American melodic death metal band Light This City released two songs on their 2008 album Stormchaser inspired by Ray Bradbury stories. The song \"Firehaven\" was inspired by \"The Long Rain\" and the song \"Wake Me at Sunset\" was inspired by \"The Rocket Man.\"",
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"plaintext": " The Illustrated Man by Ray Bradbury, reviewed by Ted Gioia (Conceptual Fiction)",
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| 1,756,055 | 9,580 | 63 | 84 | 0 | 0 | The Illustrated Man | 1951 book of eighteen science fiction short stories by Ray Bradbury | []
|
37,742 | 1,104,975,778 | List_of_political_theorists | [
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"plaintext": "A political theorist is someone who engages in constructing or evaluating political theory, including political philosophy. Theorists may be academics or independent scholars. Here the most notable political theorists are categorized by their -ism or school of thought, with a remaining category (\"Other\") for those theorists who do not fit into any of the major traditions.",
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"plaintext": " Pierre-Joseph Proudhon",
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40949287
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1,
23
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},
{
"plaintext": " James C. Scott",
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1514626
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Zerzan",
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102262
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Howard Zinn",
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88493
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond Aron",
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316129
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Frédéric Bastiat",
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11282
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Isaiah Berlin",
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157279
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Benjamin Franklin",
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3986
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Fukuyama",
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11194
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugo Grotius",
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66612
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Friedrich Hayek",
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11646
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Immanuel Kant",
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14631
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Locke",
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16143
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Madison",
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15950
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Milton",
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16215
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Montesquieu",
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54956
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karl Popper",
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16623
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel von Pufendorf",
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183563
],
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[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph Schumpeter",
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15827
],
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adam Smith",
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1814
],
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edmund Burke",
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10030
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Burnham",
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292083
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel",
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"target_page_ids": [
12598
],
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[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Hobbes",
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29823
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russell Kirk",
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"target_page_ids": [
1165221
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gustave Le Bon",
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"target_page_ids": [
164045
],
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph de Maistre",
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213143
],
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harvey Mansfield",
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"target_page_ids": [
2857916
],
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Maurras",
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219709
],
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adam Müller",
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"target_page_ids": [
1267277
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Oakeshott",
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389912
],
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert D. Putnam",
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"target_page_ids": [
615394
],
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wilhelm Röpke",
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"target_page_ids": [
761161
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Carl Schmitt",
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"target_page_ids": [
407082
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Roger Scruton",
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1010808
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leo Strauss",
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"section_name": "Conservative",
"target_page_ids": [
210244
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexis de Tocqueville",
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"target_page_ids": [
164153
],
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[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eric Voegelin",
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"section_name": "Conservative",
"target_page_ids": [
191431
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wendy Brown",
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"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
7739276
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raya Dunayevskaya",
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"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
955000
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nancy Fraser",
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"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
2356142
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Betty Friedan",
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"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
253063
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chantal Mouffe",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
623244
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Martha Nussbaum",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
341297
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mary Wollstonecraft",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Feminist",
"target_page_ids": [
19834
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " David D. Friedman",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
7935
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hans-Hermann Hoppe",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
229870
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rose Wilder Lane",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
195726
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Nozick",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
26275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ayn Rand",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
339
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Murray Rothbard",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
20217
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lysander Spooner",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
79355
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Max Stirner",
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"section_name": "Libertarian",
"target_page_ids": [
112282
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodor Adorno",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
30391
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tariq Ali",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
38860895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louis Althusser",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
76907
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cornelius Castoriadis",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
40300362
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Friedrich Engels",
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"target_page_ids": [
47096
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Frantz Fanon",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
95185
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Antonio Gramsci",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
56244
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Che Guevara",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
13623554
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ho Chi Minh",
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"target_page_ids": [
67377
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " C.L.R. James",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
42034669
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kim Il-sung",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
19718837
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ernesto Laclau",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
622304
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vladimir Lenin",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
11015252
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " György Lukács",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
43069535
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rosa Luxemburg",
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"section_name": "Marxist",
"target_page_ids": [
173758
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Herbert Marcuse",
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42035006
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Karl Marx",
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16743
],
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Antonio Negri",
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257241
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leon Trotsky",
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17888
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad Asad",
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4435095
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muammar Gaddafi",
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53029
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " René Guénon",
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685895
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad Iqbal",
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34348533
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alasdair MacIntyre",
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595344
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar ",
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851595
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[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Taylor",
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294996
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simone Weil",
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179955
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kenneth Arrow",
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49894
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jeremy Bentham",
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46038
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Dahl",
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723243
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amy Gutmann",
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1910482
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Will Kymlicka",
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856045
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Stuart Mill",
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15626
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Rawls",
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123612
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Walzer",
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718019
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eqbal Ahmad",
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481974
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gabriel Almond",
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11008305
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hannah Arendt",
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95184
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aristotle",
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308
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chanakya",
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481604
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cicero",
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6046
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Confucius",
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5823
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dobrica Ćosić",
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3799511
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ronald Dworkin",
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296728
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " David Easton",
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7909093
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Julius Evola",
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290392
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Erich Fromm",
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45343
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jürgen Habermas",
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16288
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
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| 6,634,306 | 1,043 | 126 | 123 | 0 | 0 | list of political theorists | Wikimedia list of persons by occupation (P166) | []
|
37,743 | 1,107,767,741 | Mead | [
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"plaintext": "Mead () is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting honey mixed with water, and sometimes with added ingredients such as fruits, spices, grains, or hops. The alcoholic content ranges from about 3.5% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the beverage's fermentable sugar is derived from honey. It may be still, carbonated, or naturally sparkling; dry, semi-sweet, or sweet.",
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"plaintext": "The term honey wine is sometimes used as a synonym for mead, although wine is typically defined to be the product of fermented grapes or certain other fruits, and some cultures have honey wines that are distinct from mead. The honey wine of Hungary, for example, is the fermentation of honey-sweetened pomace of grapes or other fruits.",
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"plaintext": "Mead was produced in ancient times throughout Europe, Africa and Asia, and has played an important role in the mythology of some peoples. In Norse mythology, for example, the Mead of Poetry, crafted from the blood of Kvasir (a wise being born from the mingled spittle of the Aesir and Vanir deities) would turn anyone who drank it into a poet or scholar.",
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"plaintext": "Mead is a drink widely considered to have been discovered prior to the advent of both agriculture and ceramic pottery in the pre-Neolithic, due to the prevalence of naturally occurring fermentation in nature and the widespread distribution of eusocial honey-producing insects worldwide;as a result, it is hard to pinpoint the exact historical origin of mead given the possibility of multiple discovery and/or potential knowledge transfer between early humans prior to recorded history. For example, mead can be produced by flooding a bee nest, and it has been speculated that late Paleolithic African hunter-gatherers possibly discovered how to make \"short\" or quick meads via this method, ready to drink within a few days or weeks, as a means of making water safer to drink and pleasant to consume. With the eventual rise of ceramic pottery and increasing use of fermentation in food processing to preserve surplus agricultural crops, evidence of mead begins to show up in the archaeological record more clearly, with pottery vessels from northern China dating from at least 7000 BCE discovered containing chemical signatures consistent with the presence of honey, rice, and organic compounds associated with fermentation. In Europe, mead is first described from residual samples found in ceramics of the Bell Beaker Culture (c. 2800–1800 BCE).",
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"plaintext": "The earliest surviving written record of mead is possibly the soma mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda, one of the sacred books of the historical Vedic religion and (later) Hinduism dated around 1700–1100 BCE.",
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"plaintext": "The Abri, a northern subgroup of the Taulantii, were known to the ancient Greek writers for their technique of preparing mead from honey.",
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"plaintext": "Taulantii could prepare mead, wine from honey like the Abri.",
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"plaintext": "During the Golden Age of ancient Greece, mead was said to be the preferred drink. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) discussed mead made in Illiria in his Meteorologica and elsewhere, while Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) called mead militites in his Naturalis Historia and differentiated wine sweetened with honey or \"honey-wine\" from mead. The Hispanic-Roman naturalist Columella gave a recipe for mead in De re rustica, about 60 CE.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek writer Pytheas described a grain and honey drink similar to mead that he encountered while travelling in Thule. According to James Henry Ramsay this was an earlier version of Welsh metheglin. When 12 year old Prince Charles II visited Wales in 1642 Welsh metheglin was served at the feast as a symbol of Welsh presence in the emerging British identity in the years between the Union of the Crowns in 1603 and the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.",
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"plaintext": "There is a poem attributed to the Welsh bard Taliesin, who lived around 550 CE, called the or \"Song of Mead\". The legendary drinking, feasting, and boasting of warriors in the mead hall is echoed in the mead hall Din Eidyn (modern-day Edinburgh) as depicted in the poem Y Gododdin, attributed to the poet Aneirin who would have been a contemporary of Taliesin. In the Old English epic poem Beowulf, the Danish warriors drank mead. In both Insular Celtic and Germanic poetry, mead was the primary heroic or divine drink, see Mead of poetry.",
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"plaintext": "Mead (Old Irish mid) was a popular drink in medieval Ireland. Beekeeping was brought around the 5th century, traditionally attributed to Modomnoc, and mead came with it. A banquet hall on the Hill of Tara was known as Tech Mid Chuarda (\"house of the circling of mead\"). Mead was often infused with hazelnuts. Many other legends of saints mention mead, as does that of the Children of Lir.",
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"plaintext": "Later, taxation and regulations governing the ingredients of alcoholic beverages led to commercial mead becoming a more obscure beverage until recently. Some monasteries kept up the traditions of mead-making as a by-product of beekeeping, especially in areas where grapes could not be grown.",
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"plaintext": "The English mead \"fermented honey drink\" derives from the Old English meodu or medu, and Proto-Indo-European language, *médʰu. Its cognates include Old Norse mjǫðr, Proto-Slavic medъ, Middle Dutch mede, and Old High German metu, and the ancient Irish queen Medb, among others. The Chinese word for honey, mì (蜜) was borrowed from the extinct Indo-European Tocharian word mit also a cognate with the English word mead.",
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"plaintext": "Meads will often ferment well at the same temperatures in which wine is fermented, and the yeast used in mead making is often identical to that used in wine making (particularly those used in the preparation of white wines). Many home mead makers choose to use wine yeasts to make their meads.",
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"plaintext": "By measuring the specific gravity of the mead once before fermentation and throughout the fermentation process using a hydrometer or refractometer, mead makers can determine the proportion of alcohol by volume that will appear in the final product. This also serves to troubleshoot a \"stuck\" batch, one where the fermentation process has been halted prematurely by dormant or dried yeast.",
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"plaintext": "With many different styles of mead possible, there are many different processes employed, although many producers will use techniques recognizable from wine-making. One such example is to rack the product into a second container, once fermentation slows down significantly. These are known as primary and secondary fermentation, respectively. Some larger commercial fermenters are designed to allow both primary and secondary fermentation to happen inside of the same vessel. Racking is done for two reasons: it lets the mead sit away from the remains of the yeast cells (lees) that have died during the fermentation process. Second, this lets the mead have time to clear. Cloudiness can be caused by either yeast or suspended protein molecules. There is also the possibility that the pectin from any fruit that is used could have set which gives the mead a cloudy look. The cloudiness can be cleared up by either \"cold breaking\", which is leaving the mead in a cold environment overnight, or using a fining material, such as sparkolloid, bentonite, egg white, or isinglass. If the mead-maker wishes to backsweeten the product (add supplementary sweetener) or prevent it from oxidizing, potassium metabisulfite and potassium sorbate are added. After the mead clears, it is bottled and distributed.",
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"plaintext": "Primary fermentation usually takes 28 to 56 days, after which the must is placed in a secondary fermentation vessel for 6 to 9 months of aging. Durations of primary and secondary fermentation producing satisfactory mead may vary considerably according to numerous factors, such as floral origin of the honey and its natural sugar and microorganism contents, must water percentage, pH, additives used, and strain of yeast, among others. Although supplementation of the must with non-nitrogen based salts, or vitamins has been tested to improve mead qualities, no evidence suggests that adding micronutrients reduced fermentation time or improved quality. Cell immobilization methods, however, proved effective for enhancing mead quality.",
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"plaintext": "Mead can have a wide range of flavors depending on the source of the honey, additives (also known as \"adjuncts\" or \"gruit\") including fruit and spices, the yeast employed during fermentation, and the aging procedure. Some producers have erroneously marketed white wine sweetened and flavored with honey after fermentation as mead, sometimes spelling it \"meade.\" This is closer in style to a hypocras. Blended varieties of mead may be known by the style represented; for instance, a mead made with cinnamon and apples may be referred to as either a cinnamon cyser or an apple metheglin.",
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"plaintext": "A mead that also contains spices (such as cloves, cinnamon or nutmeg), or herbs (such as meadowsweet, hops, or even lavender or chamomile), is called a metheglin .",
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"plaintext": "A mead that contains fruit (such as raspberry, blackberry or strawberry) is called a melomel, which was also used as a means of food preservation, keeping summer produce for the winter. A mead that is fermented with grape juice is called a pyment.",
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"plaintext": "Mulled mead is a popular drink at Christmas time, where mead is flavored with spices (and sometimes various fruits) and warmed, traditionally by having a hot poker plunged into it.",
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"plaintext": "Some meads retain some measure of the sweetness of the original honey, and some may even be considered as dessert wines. Drier meads are also available, and some producers offer sparkling meads.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, meads were fermented with wild yeasts and bacteria (as noted in the recipe quoted above) residing on the skins of the fruit or within the honey itself. Wild yeasts can produce inconsistent results. Yeast companies have isolated strains of yeast which produce consistently appealing products. Brewers, winemakers and mead makers commonly use them for fermentation, including yeast strains identified specifically for mead fermentation. These are strains that have been selected because of their characteristic of preserving delicate honey flavors and aromas.",
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"plaintext": "Mead can also be distilled to a brandy or liqueur strength, in which case it is sometimes referred to as a whiskey. A version called \"honey jack\" can be made by partly freezing a quantity of mead and straining the ice out of the liquid (a process known as freeze distillation), in the same way that applejack is made from cider.",
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"plaintext": "In Finland, a sweet mead called is connected with the Finnish Vappu festival (although in modern practice, brown sugar is often used in place of honey). During secondary fermentation, added-raisins augment the amount of sugar available to the yeast and indicate readiness for consumption, rising to the top of the bottle when sufficiently depleted. Sima is commonly served with both the pulp and rind of a lemon.",
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"plaintext": "Ethiopian mead is called tej (ጠጅ, ) and is usually home-made. It is flavored with the powdered leaves and bark of gesho, a hop-like bittering agent which is a species of buckthorn. A sweeter, less-alcoholic version called berz, aged for a shorter time, is also made. The traditional vessel for drinking tej is a rounded vase-shaped container called a berele.",
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"plaintext": "Mead known as iQhilika is traditionally prepared by the Xhosa of South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Mead in Poland has been part of culinary tradition for over a thousand years.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, mead is enjoying a resurgence, starting with small home meaderies and now with a number of small commercial meaderies. As mead becomes more widely available, it is seeing increased attention and exposure from the news media. This resurgence can also been seen around the world in the UK and Australia particularly with session (lower alcohol styles) some times call hydromel and Mead-Beer Hybrids also known as Braggots. ",
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"plaintext": " Acerglyn: A mead made with honey and maple syrup.",
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"plaintext": "Bais: A native mead from the Mandaya and Manobo people of eastern Mindanao in the Philippines. It is made from honey and water fermented for at least five days to a month or more.",
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"plaintext": " Balché: A native Mexican version of mead.",
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"plaintext": " Bilbemel: A mead made with blueberries, blueberry juice, or sometimes used for a varietal mead that uses blueberry blossom honey.",
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"plaintext": " Black mead: A name sometimes given to the blend of honey and blackcurrants.",
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"plaintext": " Blue mead: A type of mead where fungal spores are added during first fermentation, lending a blue tint to the final product.",
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"plaintext": " Bochet: A mead where the honey is caramelized or burned separately before adding the water. Yields toffee, caramel, chocolate and toasted marshmallow flavors.",
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"plaintext": " Bochetomel: A bochet-style mead that also contains fruit such as elderberries, black raspberries and blackberries.",
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"plaintext": " Braggot: Also called bracket or brackett. Originally brewed with honey and hops, later with honey and malt—with or without hops added. Welsh origin (bragawd).",
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"plaintext": " Byais: A native mead of the Mansaka people of the Philippines made by fermenting galanga roots with honey.",
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"plaintext": " Capsicumel: A mead flavored with chilli peppers; the peppers may be hot or mild.",
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"plaintext": " Chouchenn: A kind of mead made in Brittany.",
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"plaintext": " Cyser: A blend of honey and apple juice fermented together; see also cider.",
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"plaintext": " Czwórniak : A Polish mead, made using three units of water for each unit of honey.",
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"plaintext": " Dandaghare: A mead from Nepal, combines honey with Himalayan herbs and spices. It has been produced since 1972 in the city of Pokhara.",
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"plaintext": " Dwójniak : A Polish mead, made using equal amounts of water and honey.",
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"plaintext": " Gverc or medovina: Croatian mead prepared in Samobor and many other places. The word \"gverc\" or \"gvirc' is from the German \"\" and refers to various spices added to mead.",
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"plaintext": " Hydromel: Name derived from the Greek hydromeli, i.e. literally \"water-honey\" (see also melikraton and hydromelon). It is also the French name for mead. (See also and compare with the Italian idromele and Spanish hidromiel and aguamiel, the Catalan hidromel and aiguamel, Galician augamel, and Portuguese hidromel). It is also used as a name for a light or low-alcohol mead.",
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"plaintext": " Kabarawan: An extinct alcoholic drink from the Visayas Islands of the Philippines made with honey and the pounded bark of the Neolitsea villosa",
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"plaintext": " Medica/medovica: Slovenian, Croatian and Slovak variety of mead.",
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"plaintext": " Medovina: Czech, Croatian, Serbian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian, Bosnian and Slovak for mead. Commercially available in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and presumably other Central and Eastern-European countries.",
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"plaintext": " Medovukha: Eastern Slavic variant (honey-based fermented drink).",
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"plaintext": " Melomel: A type of mead that also contains fruit.",
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{
"plaintext": " Metheglin: Metheglin is traditional mead with herbs or spices added. Some of the most common metheglins are ginger, tea, orange peel, nutmeg, coriander, cinnamon, cloves or vanilla. Its name indicates that many metheglins were originally employed as folk medicines. The Welsh word for mead is , and the word \"metheglin\" derives from , a compound of , \"healing\" + , \"liquor\".",
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"plaintext": " Midus: Lithuanian for mead, made of natural bee honey and berry juice. Infused with carnation blossoms, acorns, poplar buds, juniper berries and other herbs. Generally between 8% and 17% alcohol, it is also distilled to produce mead nectar or mead balsam, with some of the varieties having as much as 75% of alcohol.",
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"plaintext": " Mõdu: An Estonian traditional fermented drink with a taste of honey and an alcohol content of 4.0%",
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"plaintext": " Morat: a blend of honey and mulberries.",
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"plaintext": " Mungitch: A party drink made in Western Australia, by Indigenous Noongar using flowers from the moodjar tree(Nuytsia floribunda) are traditionally used to make a sweet mead-like beverage during birak (the first summer in the Indigenous Noongar calendar) the moodjar tree is a very sacred tree to the Noongar peoples.",
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"plaintext": " Mulsum: Mulsum is not a true mead, but is unfermented honey blended with a high-alcohol wine.",
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"plaintext": " Myod: Traditional Russian mead, historically available in three major varieties:",
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{
"plaintext": " aged mead: a mixture of honey and water or berry juices, subject to a very slow (12–50 years) anaerobic fermentation in airtight vessels in a process similar to the traditional balsamic vinegar, creating a rich, complex and high-priced product.",
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{
"plaintext": " drinking mead: a kind of honey wine made from diluted honey by traditional fermentation.",
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{
"plaintext": " boiled mead: a drink closer to beer, brewed from boiled wort of diluted honey and herbs, very similar to modern medovukha.",
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"plaintext": " Omphacomel: A mead recipe that blends honey with verjuice; could therefore be considered a variety of pyment (q.v.). From the Greek omphakomeli, literally \"unripe-grape-honey\".",
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"plaintext": "Oxymel: Another historical mead recipe, blending honey with wine vinegar. From the Greek oxymeli, literally \"vinegar-honey\" (also oxymelikraton).",
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"plaintext": " Pitarrilla: Mayan drink made from a fermented mixture of wild honey, balché-tree bark and fresh water.",
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"plaintext": " Pyment: a melomel made from the fermentation of a blend of grapes and honey and can be considered either a grape mead or honeyed wine. Pyment made with white grapes is sometimes called \"white mead\". In previous centuries piment was synonymous with Hippocras, a grape wine with honey added post-fermentation.",
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"plaintext": " Półtorak : A Polish great mead, made using two units of honey for each unit of water.",
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"plaintext": "Quick mead: A type of mead recipe that is meant to age quickly, for immediate consumption. Because of the techniques used in its creation, short mead shares some qualities found in cider (or even light ale): primarily that it is effervescent, and often has a cidery taste. It can also be champagne-like.",
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"plaintext": " Red mead: A form of mead made with redcurrants.",
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"plaintext": " Rhodomel: made from honey, rose hips, rose petals or rose attar, and water. From the Greek rhodomeli, literally \"rose-honey\".",
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"plaintext": " Rubamel: A specific type of melomel made with raspberries.",
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"plaintext": " Sack mead: This refers to mead that is made with more honey than is typically used. The finished product contains a higher-than-average ethanol concentration (meads at or above 14% ABV are generally considered to be of sack strength) and often retains a high specific gravity and elevated levels of sweetness, although dry sack meads (which have no residual sweetness) can be produced. According to one theory, the name derives from the fortified dessert wine sherry (which is sometimes sweetened after fermentation) that, in England, once bore the nickname \"sack\". In Another theory is that the term is a phonetic reduction of \"sake\" the name of a Japanese beverage that was introduced to the West by Spanish and Portuguese traders. However, this mead is quite sweet and Shakespeare referenced \"sack\" in Henry the V, \"If sack and sugar be a fault, God help the wicked!\", as well as 18th century cook books that reference \"sack mead\" by authors unlikely to have known nor tasted \"sake\". ",
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"plaintext": " Short mead: A mead made with less honey than usual and intended for immediate consumption.",
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"plaintext": " Show mead: A term that has come to mean \"plain\" mead: that which has honey and water as a base, with no fruits, spices, or extra flavorings. Because honey alone often does not provide enough nourishment for the yeast to carry on its life cycle, a mead that is devoid of fruit, etc. sometimes requires a special yeast nutrient and other enzymes to produce an acceptable finished product. In most competitions, including all those that subscribe to the BJCP style guidelines, as well as the International Mead Fest, the term \"traditional mead\" refers to this variety (because mead is historically a variable product, these guidelines are a recent expedient, designed to provide a common language for competition judging; style guidelines per se do not apply to commercial or historical examples of this or any other type of mead).",
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"plaintext": " Sima: a quick-fermented low-alcoholic Finnish variety, seasoned with lemon and associated with the festival of vappu.",
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"plaintext": " Tapluchʼi: a Georgian name for mead, especially made of honey but it is also a collective name for any kind of drinkable inebriants.",
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"plaintext": " Tej/mes: an Ethiopian and Eritrean mead, fermented with wild yeasts and the addition of gesho.",
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"plaintext": " Traditional mead: synonymous with \"show mead,\" meaning it contains only honey, water, and yeast.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Trójniak : A Polish mead, made using two units of water for each unit of honey.",
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"plaintext": " Včelovina: Slovak alternative name for mead.",
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"plaintext": " White mead: A mead that is colored white with herbs, fruit or, sometimes, egg whites.",
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},
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"plaintext": " History of alcoholic beverages",
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},
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"plaintext": " Kilju",
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"plaintext": " Mead hall",
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},
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"plaintext": " Sahti",
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},
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"plaintext": " Sima",
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2337657
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},
{
"plaintext": " Minnick, Fred (2018). Mead: The Libations, Legends and Lore. Running Press, Philadelphia. .",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Zaerpoor, Chrissie Manion (2017). The Art of Mead Tasting and Food Pairing. Mead Maven Publishing, Yamhill, Oregon. .",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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]
| [
"Mead",
"Germanic_paganism",
"History_of_alcoholic_drinks",
"Cuisine_of_Northern_Ireland",
"Scottish_cuisine",
"Welsh_cuisine",
"Early_Germanic_cuisine",
"Entheogens",
"Norwegian_cuisine",
"Swedish_alcoholic_drinks",
"Danish_cuisine",
"Icelandic_cuisine",
"Finnish_cuisine",
"Honey-based_beverages"
]
| 184,442 | 43,242 | 353 | 236 | 0 | 0 | mead | alcoholic beverage made from honey | [
"medd"
]
|
37,744 | 1,106,723,940 | M1_Abrams | [
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"plaintext": "Through the 1960s the US Army and West German Army had collaborated on a single design that would replace both the M60 tank and the Leopard 1. The overall goal was to have a single new design with improved firepower to handle new Soviet tanks like the T-62, while providing improved protection against the T-62's new 115mm smoothbore gun and especially high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds.",
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"plaintext": "The resulting design, the MBT-70, incorporated new technologies across the board. A hydropneumatic suspension provided excellent cross-country ride quality and also allowed the entire tank to be raised or lowered by the driver, with the lowest position placing the top of the tank only off the ground. New 1,500hp-class engines powered the designs which could both reach , two new guns were introduced, a US 152mm design whose primary long-range weapon was the Shillelagh missile, while the Germans introduced a new 120 mm smoothbore design.",
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"plaintext": "While the design was highly capable, its weight continued to grow, as did its budget. By 1969, the unit cost stood at five times the original estimates, causing the Department of Defense to suspend the program. Development of the tank continued on an austere basis until January 1970, when the DoD ended its tank partnership with Germany.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the problems with the MBT-70, the U.S. Army introduced the XM803, using some technologies from the MBT-70 but removing some of the more troublesome features. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60. Congress canceled the XM803 in December 1971 but permitted the Army to reallocate $20 million remaining funds to develop a new main battle tank.",
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"plaintext": "The Tank-automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) began examining specific goals. After several rounds of input, the decision was made to provide armor to defeat the \"heavy threat\" posed by the T-62's 115mm gun using projected improvements of their APFSDS ammunition through the 1980s, and the new 125mm gun of the T-64 and T-72 firing high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds.",
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"plaintext": "To this end, a new design basis emerged in February 1973. It had to defeat any hit from a Soviet gun within 800 meters and 30 degrees to either side. The tank would be armed with the 105mm M68 gun, a licensed version of the Royal Ordnance L7, along with a 20mm version of the Bushmaster.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1973 Chrysler Defense and General Motors submitted proposals. Both were armed with the 105mm M68 gun, a licensed version of the Royal Ordnance L7, along with a 20mm version of the Bushmaster. Chrysler chose a 1500hp gas turbine Lycoming AGT1500. GM's model was powered by a 1500hp diesel similar to that used on the American MBT-70 and XM803.",
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"plaintext": "Examining the experiences of the Yom Kippur War that year, a number of design changes were made. The newly created \"Burlington\" armor from the British Army's labs was incorporated to improve protection, especially against HEAT, and to incorporate the new armor package, the original goal of keeping weight under was abandoned. The Bushmaster was seen as superfluous and was deleted. As TACOM continued to improve the detailed design, initial samples of the armor system were sent to the Ballistic Research Laboratory for testing.",
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"plaintext": "At the time, the Pentagon's procurement system was beset with problems being caused by the desire to have the best possible design. This often resulted in programs being canceled due to cost overruns, leaving the forces with outdated systems, as was the case with the MBT-70. There was a strong movement within the Army to get a new design within budget to prevent the MBT-70 experience from repeating itself. For the new design, the Army stated the unit cost was to be no more than $507,000 in 1972 dollars ().",
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"plaintext": "The Pentagon's approach to control of research and development was modified with the XM1. Previous acquisition strategy called for a significant amount of the design work be done by the government. Under the new framework, contractors would competitively bid their own designs rather than compete solely for the right to manufacture the end product.",
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"plaintext": "Through the period while the initial prototypes were being built, a debate broke out between Germany and US about the use of the 105mm gun. The Army was planning on introducing several new types of ammunition for the 105 that would greatly improve its performance, notably, the XM-774 using depleted uranium. These rounds would give it the performance needed to defeat any Soviet tank with ease. There was some concern that depleted uranium would not be allowed in Germany, perhaps just in peacetime, so improvements to the tungsten cored M735 were also considered.",
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"plaintext": "Through this same period, there was an ongoing effort to improve NATO logistics by standardizing ammunition to the maximum possible degree. The Germans were moving ahead with their 120mm gun on the Leopard 2K, and noted that the British had also introduced a 120mm gun of their own in keeping with their long-range combat doctrine.",
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"plaintext": "By 1977 the decision had been made to eventually move the new tank to a 120mm gun. After head-to-head testing between the Royal Ordnance L11A5 and the Rheinmetall Rh-120, the latter was chosen. The turret designs of the two prototypes were modified to allow either gun to be fitted. Although the L11/M256 120mm gun was chosen to be the main weapon of the M1 Abrams in 1979, the improved ammunition for the gun still was not fully developed, thus delaying its fielding until 1984.",
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"plaintext": "The early production versions of the M1 Abrams (M1 & IPM1) were armed with the M68A1 for two reasons. First was due to the large number of M60 tanks with the M68E1 gun still in widespread US service in the 1980s and a large on-hand stockpile of 105mm munitions. Fitting the M1 with the M68A1 gun was viewed as an economical and practical solution that allowed for commonality in ammunition among the two types of tanks. Secondly was that the M68A1 could employ the newly developed M900 APFSDS depleted uranium round that had improved penetration performance in comparison to the M774.",
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"plaintext": "Prototypes were delivered in 1976 by Chrysler and GM armed with the license-built M68E1 version of the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7. They entered head-to-head testing at Aberdeen Proving Ground, along with a Leopard 2 AV prototype for comparison. The Leopard 2 was found to meet U.S. requirements but was thought to be more expensive. The testing showed that the GM design was generally superior to Chrysler's, offering better armor protection, and better fire control and turret stabilization systems. These early preproduction prototypes were provisionally armed with the M68E1 105mm main gun while a preferred 120mm gun and its ammunition were in their design and component development phase. These prototypes used a combination mount that allowed for the evaluation of both 105mm and 120mm guns.",
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"plaintext": "During testing, the power packs of both designs proved to have issues. The Chrysler gas turbine engine had extensive heat recovery systems in an attempt to improve its fuel economy to something similar to a traditional internal combustion engine. This proved not to be the case; the engine consumed much more fuel than expected, burning 3.8 gallons per mile. The GM design used a new variable-compression diesel design.",
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"plaintext": "By spring 1976, the decision to choose the GM design was largely complete. In addition to offering better overall performance, there were concerns about Chrysler's engine both from a reliability and fuel consumption standpoint. The GM program was also slightly cheaper overall at $208 million compared to $221 million for Chrysler. In July 1976, Lt. Colonel George Mohrmann prepared a stack of letters informing Congress of the decision to move ahead with the GM design. All that was required was the final sign-off by the Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld.",
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"plaintext": "On 20 July 1976, United States Secretary of the Army Martin Hoffman and a group of generals visited Deputy Defense Secretary Bill Clements and Director of Defense Research and Engineering Malcolm Currie on their decision. They were surprised when Clements and Currie criticized their decision and demanded the turbine be selected. Donald Rumsfeld heard arguments from both in the afternoon and asked for twenty-four hours to review the issues. The Army team spent the night writing briefs and presented them to Rumsfeld the next morning, who then announced a four-month delay.",
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"plaintext": "Within days, GM was asked to present a new design with a turbine engine. According to Assistant Secretary for Research and Development Ed Miller, \"It became increasingly clear that the only solution which would be acceptable to Clements and Currie was the turbine... It was a political decision that was reached, and for all intents and purposes that decision gave the award to Chrysler since they were the only contractor with a gas turbine.\" However, the Chrysler design had the advantage that the entire power pack had room to be replaced by any number of engine designs, including a Diesel if needed.",
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"plaintext": "The turbine engine does not appear to be the only reason for this decision. Chrysler was the only company that appeared to be seriously interested in tank development; the M60 had been lucrative for the company and relied on that program for much of its profit. In contrast, GM made only about 1% of its income from military sales, compared to 5% for Chrysler, and only submitted their bid after a \"special plea\" from the Pentagon.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 November 1976, the Defense Department awarded a $20 billion development contract to Chrysler.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1978, a program was initiated to develop an enhanced version of the 105mm gun, the M68A1 as a possible alternate weapon for the M1 Abrams. The new XM24/L55 gun barrel was 18 inches (45.72cm) longer in comparison to the XM24/L52 barrel used on the M60 tanks. It has a higher chamber pressure, reinforced breech and a higher muzzle velocity.",
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"plaintext": "Low rate initial production (LRIP) of the vehicle was approved on 7 May 1979. In February 1982, General Dynamics Land Systems Division (GDLS) purchased Chrysler Defense, after Chrysler built over 1,000 M1s. The M1 Abrams was the first vehicle to adopt Chobham armor.",
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"plaintext": "A total of 3,273 M1 Abrams tanks were produced during 1979–1985 and first entered U.S. Army service in 1980. Production at the government-owned, GDLS-operated Lima Army Tank Plant in Lima, Ohio, was joined by vehicles built at the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant in Warren, Michigan from 1982 to 1996. The U.S. Army Laboratory Command (LABCOM), under the supervision of the United States Army Research Laboratory (ARL), was also heavily involved with designing the tank with M1A1 armor resistant shells, M829A2 armor-penetrating rounds, and improved weapon range.",
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"plaintext": "The M1 was armed with the license-built M68A1 version of the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. The tank featured the first of its kind Chobham armor. The M1 Abrams was the first to use this advanced armor. It consisted of an arrangement of metal plates, ceramic blocks and open space. An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984 and contained upgrades to armour and other small improvements. The M1IP models were used in the Canadian Army Trophy NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987.",
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"plaintext": "About 5,000 M1A1 Abrams tanks were produced from 1986 to 1992 and featured the M256 smoothbore cannon developed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany for the Leopard 2, improved armor, consisting of depleted uranium and other classified materials, and a CBRN protection system. Production of M1 and M1A1 tanks totaled some 9,000 tanks at a cost of approximately $4.3 million per unit.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, Project On Government Oversight in a report criticized the M1's high costs and low fuel efficiency in comparison with other tanks of similar power and effectiveness such as the Leopard 2. The report was based on data from U.S. Army sources and the Congressional record. By 1999, costs for the tank were upwards of a vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "As the Abrams entered service, they operated alongside M60A3 within the U.S. military, and with other NATO tanks in various Cold War exercises which usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany. The exercises were aimed at countering Soviet forces.",
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"plaintext": "Adaptations before the Persian Gulf War (Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm) gave the vehicle better firepower and NBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) protection.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Persian Gulf War in 1991, during Operation Desert Storm. A total of 1,848 M1A1s were deployed to Saudi Arabia to participate in the liberation of Kuwait. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq's Soviet-era T-54/T-55 and T-62 tanks, as well as T-72 versions imported from the Soviet Union and Poland. Polish officials stated that these no license-produced T-72 (nicknamed Lion of Babylon) tanks were finished prior to destruction of the Iraqi Taji tank plant in 1991.",
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"plaintext": "The T-72s, like most Soviet export designs, lacked night-vision systems and then-modern rangefinders, though they did have some night-fighting tanks with older active infrared systems or floodlights. Very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire and none were destroyed as a direct result of enemy fire, none of which resulted in any fatalities. Three Abrams were left behind the enemy lines after a swift attack on Talil airfield, south of Nasiriyah, on February 27. One of them was hit by enemy fire, the two other embedded in mud. The tanks were destroyed by U.S. forces in order to prevent any trophy-claim by the Iraqi Army. A total of 23 M1A1s were damaged or destroyed during the war. Of the nine Abrams tanks destroyed, seven were destroyed by friendly fire and two intentionally destroyed to prevent capture by the Iraqi Army. Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness.",
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"plaintext": "The M1A1 could kill other tanks at ranges in excess of . This range was crucial in combat against previous generation tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than . This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in range—a decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In friendly fire incidents, the front armor and fore side turret armor survived direct armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot (APFSDS) hits from other M1A1s. This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated on at least two occasions by unintentional strikes by depleted uranium ammunition during the Battle of Norfolk.",
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"plaintext": "During operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm some M1IP and M1A1s were modified locally in theater (in the war zone) by modification work orders (MWO) with additional rolled homogeneous armor plating welded on the turret front. The M1 can be equipped with mine plow and mine roller attachments.",
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"plaintext": "Lessons from the war improved the tank's weapons sights and fire control unit.",
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"plaintext": "The M1A2 was a further improvement of the M1A1, with a commander's independent thermal viewer, weapon station, position navigation equipment, and a full set of controls and displays linked by a digital data bus. These upgrades also provided the M1A2 with an improved fire control system. The M1A2 System Enhancement Package (SEP) added digital maps, Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) Linux communications system capabilities for commanders, and an improved cooling system to compensate for heat generated by the additional computer systems.",
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"plaintext": "The M1A2 SEP also serves as the basis for the M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge. The M1A2 SEPv2 (version 2) added Common Remotely Operated Weapon Station (CROWS or CROWS II) support, color displays, better interfaces, a new operating system, better front and side armor, and an upgraded transmission for better durability.",
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"plaintext": "Further upgrades included depleted uranium armor for all variants, a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), and a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC). Improvements to survivability, lethality, and protection have been sought since 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Further combat was seen during 2003 when U.S. forces invaded Iraq and deposed Ba'athist Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein in the Iraq War's Operation Iraqi Freedom. During the invasion, at least nine Abrams tanks were put out of action by fire from rocket-propelled grenades.",
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"plaintext": "One achievement of the M1A1s was the destruction of seven T-72s in a point-blank skirmish (less than ) near Mahmoudiyah, about south of Baghdad, with no U.S. losses. This was in the face of inadequately trained Iraqi tank crews, most of whom had not fired live ammunition in the previous year due to the sanctions then in operation and made no hits at point-blank range. In addition to the Abrams's heavy armament, some crews were also issued M136 AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun could not be brought to bear.",
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"plaintext": "Following lessons learned in Desert Storm, the Abrams and many other U.S. combat vehicles used in the conflict were fitted with Combat Identification Panels to reduce friendly fire incidents. These were fitted on the sides and rear of the turret, with flat panels equipped with a four-cornered \"box\" image on either side of the turret front. Some Abrams tanks were also fitted with a secondary storage bin on the back of the existing bustle rack on the rear of the turret (referred to as a bustle rack extension) to enable the crew to carry more supplies and personal belongings.",
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"plaintext": "Several Abrams tanks that were irrecoverable due to loss of mobility or other circumstances were destroyed by friendly forces, usually by other Abrams tanks, to prevent their capture. Some Abrams tanks were disabled by Iraqi infantrymen in ambushes during the invasion. Some troops employed short-range anti-tank rockets and fired at the tracks, rear and top. Other tanks were put out of action by engine fires when flammable fuel stored externally in turret racks was hit by small arms fire and spilled into the engine compartment. By March 2005, approximately 80 Abrams tanks were forced out of action by enemy attacks; 63 were restored, while 17 were damaged beyond repair with 3 of them at the beginning of 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Vulnerabilities exposed during urban combat in the Iraq War were addressed with the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) modifications, including armor upgrades and a gun shield, issued to some M1 Abrams tanks. It added protection in the rear and side of the tank and improved fighting ability and survival ability in urban environments. By December 2006 more than 530 Abrams tanks had been shipped back to the U.S. for repairs and upgrades.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2008, it was reported that a U.S. M1 tank had also been damaged in Iraq by insurgent fire of a Soviet-made RPG-29 \"Vampir\", which uses a tandem-charge high-explosive anti-tank warhead to penetrate explosive reactive armor (ERA) as well as composite armor behind it. The U.S. considered the RPG-29 a high threat to armor and refused to allow the newly formed Iraqi Army to buy it, fearing that it would fall into the insurgents' hands.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2010 and 2012 the U.S. supplied 140 refurbished M1A1 Abrams tanks to Iraq. In mid-2014, they saw action when the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant launched the June 2014 Northern Iraq offensive. During three months, about one-third of the Iraqi Army's M1 tanks had been damaged or destroyed by ISIL and some were captured by opposing forces. By December 2014, the Iraqi Army only had about 40 operational Abrams left. That month, the U.S. Department of State approved the sale of another 175 Abrams to Iraq.",
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"plaintext": "Iranian-backed Iraqi Shiite Kata'ib Hezbollah (Hezbollah Brigades) were reported to operate M1 Abrams, and released publicity showing the tanks being transported by trucks to take part in the Battle of Mosul. It is not known whether the tanks were captured from ISIS, seized from Iraq's military, or handed over.",
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"plaintext": "One Iraqi-operated Abrams has been nicknamed \"The Beast\" after it became the lone working tank when taking back the town of Hit in April 2016, destroying enemy fighting positions and IED emplacements.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2017, Abrams were used by the Iraqi security forces and the Popular Mobilization Forces (also called Al-Hashd al-Shaabi) in assaults against the Kurdistan Regional Government Peshmerga in the town of Altun Kupri (also called Prde). It was claimed by Kurdish commanders that at least one Abrams was destroyed by the Peshmerga.",
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"plaintext": "Tanks may have limited utility in Afghanistan due to the mountainous terrain, although Canada and Denmark deployed Leopard 1 and 2 MBTs that were specially modified to operate in the relatively flat and arid conditions of southwestern Afghanistan. In late 2010, at the request of Regional Command Southwest, the U.S. Marine Corps deployed a small detachment of 14 M1A1 Abrams tanks from Delta Company, 1st Tank Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Forward), to southern Afghanistan in support of operations in Helmand and Kandahar provinces.",
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"plaintext": "After the start of the Saudi Arabian intervention in Yemen during the 2015 Yemeni Civil War, Saudi Arabian M1A2 MBTs were deployed near the Saudi Arabian/Yemeni border. In August 2016, the U.S. approved a deal to sell up to 153 more Abrams tanks to Saudi Arabia, including 20 \"battle damage replacements\", suggesting that some Saudi Arabian Abrams had been destroyed or severely damaged in combat in Yemen.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army planned to end production at the Lima Army Tank Plant from 2013 to 2016 in an effort to save over $1 billion; it would be restarted in 2017 to upgrade existing tanks. General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS), which operates the factory, opposed the move, arguing that suspension of operations would increase long-term costs and reduce flexibility. Specifically, GDLS estimated that closing the plant would cost $380 million and restarting production would cost $1.3 billion.",
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"plaintext": "By August 2013, Congress had allocated $181 million for buying parts and upgrading Abrams systems to mitigate industrial base risks and sustain development and production capability. Congress and General Dynamics were criticized for redirecting money to keep production lines open and accused of \"forcing the Army to buy tanks it didn't need.\" General Dynamics asserted that a four-year shutdown would cost $1.1–1.6 billion to reopen the line, depending on the length of the shutdown, whether machinery would be kept operating, and whether the plant's components would be completely removed.",
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"plaintext": "They contended that the move was to upgrade Army National Guard units to expand a \"pure fleet\" and maintain production of identified \"irreplaceable\" subcomponents. A prolonged shutdown could cause their makers to lose their ability to produce them and foreign tank sales were not guaranteed to keep production lines open. There is still risk of production gaps even with production extended through 2015. With funds awarded before recapitalization is needed, budgetary pressures may push planned new upgrades for the Abrams from 2017 to 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, Congress again allocated $120 million, against the wishes of the Army, for Abrams upgrades including improving gas mileage by integrating an auxiliary power unit (APU) to decrease idle time fuel consumption and upgrading the tank's sights and sensors.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2016, tank production/refurbishment had fallen to a rate of one per month with less than 100 workers on site. In 2017, the Trump administration made rebuilding the military a priority. It was reported in 2018 that the Army had ordered 135 tanks re-built to new standards with employment at over 500 workers and expected to rise to 1,000.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s and 1990s, the Block III main battle tank from the Armored Systems Modernization (ASM) program was expected to succeed the M1 Abrams family in the 1990s. The design had an unmanned turret with a 140mm main gun, as well as improved protection. The end of Cold War hostilities caused the end of the program. The tracked M8 Armored Gun System was conceived as a possible supplement for the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict in the early 1990s. Prototypes were made but the program was canceled. The eight-wheeled M1128 Mobile Gun System was designed to supplement the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflicts. It has been introduced into service and serves with Stryker brigades.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army's Future Combat Systems XM1202 Mounted Combat System was to replace the Abrams in U.S. service and was in development when funding for the program was cut from the DoD's budget.",
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"plaintext": "Engineering Change Proposal 1 is a two-part upgrade process. ECP1A adds space, weight, and power improvements and active protection against improvised explosive devices. Nine ECP1A prototypes have been produced as of October 2014. ECP1B, which will begin development in 2015, may include sensor upgrades and the convergence of several tank round capabilities into a multi-purpose round.",
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"plaintext": "The Army anticipates that the remaining M1A1 fleet will remain in U.S. service until at least 2021, and the M1A2 to beyond 2050. The United States Army National Guard will continue using M1A1s for a lengthier, undetermined period; it took until 1997 for the M60A3 to be retired by the last National Guard units, as opposed to the active-duty U.S. Army, which had fully transitioned to the M1 by the end of 1990.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2020, the Marine Corps has been pursuing a force restructuring plan named Force 2030. Under this directive all US Marine tank battalions were deactivated and its M1A1 tanks transferred to the Army by the end of 2021. In the future, any need the Marine Corps encounters for heavy armor will be met by the U.S. Army.",
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"plaintext": "Earlier U.S. military vehicles, used from World War I through the Vietnam War, used a scheme of \"olive drab\", often with large white stars. Prototypes, early production M1 (105mm gun) and M1-IP models switched to a flat forest green paint scheme. The large white insignia stars have also transitioned to much smaller black markings. Some units painted their M1s with the older Mobility Equipment Research and Design Command (MERDC) 4-color paint scheme but the turn-in requirements for these tanks required repainting them to overall forest green. Therefore, even though a large number of the base model M1s were camouflaged in the field, few or none exist today.",
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"plaintext": "M1A1s came from the factory with the NATO three color camouflage Black/Med-Green/Dark-Brown Chemical Agent Resistant Coating (CARC) paint jobs. Today, M1A1s are given the NATO three color paint job during rebuilds. M1s and M1A1s deployed to Operation Desert Storm were hastily painted desert tan. Some, but not all, of these tanks were re-painted to their \"authorized\" paint scheme. M1A2s built for Middle Eastern countries were painted in desert tan. Replacement parts (roadwheels, armor skirt panels, drive sprockets, etc.) are painted olive green, which can sometimes lead to vehicles with a patchwork of green and desert tan parts.",
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"plaintext": "Australian M1A1s were desert tan when delivered but have undergone a transition to the Australian Army vehicle standard 'Disruptive Pattern Camouflage'; a scheme that consists of black, olive drab, and brown.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army can equip its Abrams tanks with the Saab Barracuda camouflage system, which provides concealment against visual, infrared, thermal infrared, and broad-band radar detection.",
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"plaintext": "The turret is fitted with two six-barreled M250 smoke grenade launchers (USMC M1A1s used an eight-barreled version), with one on each side. When deployed, the grenades airburst, creating a thick smoke that blocks both visual and thermal imaging. The engine is also equipped with a smoke generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, fuel is sprayed into the hot turbine exhaust, creating the thick smoke. Due to a risk of fires however, this system is sometimes disabled.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1973, representatives from Chrysler and General Motors traveled to the United Kingdom, and were escorted by personnel from the Ballistic Research Laboratory and XM1 Project Manager Major General Robert J. Baer to witness the progress of British developed Chobham armor. They observed the manufacturing processes required for the production of Chobham armor, which was an arrangement of metal plates, ceramic blocks and open space; and saw a proposed design for a new British vehicle utilizing it.",
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"plaintext": "HEAT and sabot rounds enter the beginning layers of armor but are unable to penetrate the crew compartment. Ceramics have the ability to absorb a great deal of heat, and can blunt physical blows by cracking and deflecting the force. The remaining hot gasses and metal shrapnel spread out or settle in empty air pockets. Both contractors reevaluated their proposed armor configurations based upon the newly obtained data.",
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"plaintext": "This led to major changes in the General Motors XM1, the most prominent of which is the turret front changing from vertical to sloped armor. The Chrysler XM1 on the other hand retained its basic shape although a number of changes were made. The Ballistic Research Laboratory had to develop new armor combinations in order to accommodate the changes made by the contractors.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to most other main battle tanks, the M1 Abrams feature composite armor only on the frontal aspect of the hull. However, the Abrams' turret features composite armoring across both the front and the sides. In addition, the side skirts of the frontal half of the hull are also made of composite, providing superior ballistic protection against chemical energy munitions such as HEAT rounds. The composition of the Abrams' composite armor consists of sandwiched plates of non-explosive reactive armor (NERA) between conventional steel plates. The NERA plates feature elasticity, allowing them to flex and distort upon perforation, disrupting the penetrating jets of shaped charges and providing more material and space for a kinetic round to pass through, thus providing increased protection compared to conventional steel armor of similar weight.",
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"plaintext": "For the base model M1 Abrams, Steven J. Zaloga gives a frontal armor estimate of 350mm vs armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot (APFSDS) and 700mm vs high-explosive anti-tank warhead (HEAT) in M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992 (1993). In M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural (2009), he uses Soviet estimates of 470mm vs APFSDS and 650mm vs HEAT for the base model Abrams. He also gives the Soviet estimates for the M1A1, 600mm vs APFSDS, and 700mm vs HEAT.",
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"plaintext": "Armor protection was improved by implementing a new special armor incorporating depleted uranium and other undisclosed materials and layouts. This was introduced into the M1A1 production starting October 1988. This new armor increased effective armor particularly against kinetic energy rounds but at the expense of adding considerable weight to the tank, as depleted uranium is 1.7times denser than lead.",
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"plaintext": "The first M1A1 tanks to receive this upgrade were tanks stationed in Germany. US-based tank battalions participating in Operation Desert Storm received an emergency program to upgrade their tanks with depleted uranium armor immediately before the onset of the campaign. M1A2 tanks uniformly incorporate depleted uranium armor, and all M1A1 tanks in active service have been upgraded to this standard as well. This variant was designated as the M1A1HA (HA for Heavy Armor).",
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"plaintext": "The M1A1 AIM, M1A2 SEP and all subsequent Abrams models feature depleted uranium in both the hull and turret armor. Each Abrams variant after the M1A1 have been equipped with depleted uranium armor of different generations. The M1A1HA uses 1st generation armor, while the M1A2 and M1A1HC use 2nd generation depleted uranium. The M1A2 SEP variants have been equipped with third generation depleted uranium armor combined with a graphite coating. The M1A2C also features increased physical line-of-sight turret armor.",
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"plaintext": "For the M1A1HA, Zaloga gives a frontal armor estimate of 600mm vs APFSDS and 1300mm vs HEAT in M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992, nearly double the original protection of the Abrams. In M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural, he uses different estimates of 600mm vs APFSDS and 700mm vs HEAT for the front hull and 800mm vs APFSDS and 1300mm vs HEAT for the front of the turret. The protection of M1A2 SEP is a frontal turret armor estimate of 940–960mm vs APFSDS and 1,320–1,620 vs HEAT, glacis estimate of 560–590mm vs APFSDS and 510–1,050 vs HEAT, and lower front hull estimate of 580–650mm vs APFSDS and 800–970 vs HEAT. The M1A2 SEPV3 increased the LOS thickness of the turret and hull front armor; total armor protection from this increase is not known.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, a program was begun to incorporate improved turret side armor into the M1A2. This was intended to offer better protection against rocket-propelled grenades more modern than the baseline RPG-7. These kits were installed on about 325 older M1A2 tanks in 2001-2009 and it was also included in upgraded tanks.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams may also be fitted with explosive reactive armor over the track skirts if needed (such as the Tank Urban Survival Kit) and slat armor over the rear of the tank and rear fuel cells to protect against ATGMs. Protection against spalling is provided by a kevlar liner.",
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"plaintext": "The tank has a halon firefighting system to automatically extinguish fires in the crew compartment. The engine compartment has a firefighting system that is engaged by pulling a T-handle located on the left side of the hull. The Halon gas can be dangerous to the crew. However, the toxicity of Halon 1301 gas at 7% concentration is much lower than the combustion products produced by fire in the crew compartment, and CO2 dump would be lethal to the crew.",
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"plaintext": "The crew compartment also contains small hand-held fire extinguishers. Fuel and ammunition are stored in armored compartments with blowout panels intended to protect the crew from the risk of the tank's own ammunition cooking off (exploding) if the tank is damaged. The main gun's ammunition is stored in the rear section of the turret, with blast doors that open under power by sliding sideways only to remove a round for firing, then automatically close. Doctrine mandates that the ammunition door must be closed before arming the main gun.",
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"plaintext": "The Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) is a series of improvements to the M1 Abrams intended to improve fighting ability in urban environments. Historically, urban and other close battlefields have been poor places for tanks to fight. A tank's front armor is much stronger than that on the sides, top, or rear. In an urban environment, attacks can come from any direction, and attackers can get close enough to reliably hit weak points in the tank's armor or gain sufficient elevation to hit the top armor.",
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"plaintext": "Armor upgrades include reactive armor on the sides of the tank and slat armor (similar to that on the Stryker) on the rear to protect against rocket-propelled grenades and other shaped charge warheads. A Transparent Armor Gun Shield and a thermal sight system are added to the loader's top-mounted M240B 7.62mm machine gun, and a Kongsberg Gruppen Remote Weapon Turret carrying a 12.7mm (.50 in) caliber machine gun (again similar to that used on the Stryker) is in place of the tank commander's original 12.7mm (.50 in) caliber machine gun mount, wherein the commander had to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. An exterior telephone allows supporting infantry to communicate with the tank commander.",
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"plaintext": "The TUSK system is a field-installable kit that allows tanks to be upgraded without needing to be recalled to a maintenance depot. While the reactive armor may not be needed in most situations, like those present in maneuver warfare, items like the rear slat armor, loader's gun shield, infantry phone (which saw use on Marine Corps M1A1s as early as 2003), and Kongsberg Remote Weapons Station for the 12.7mm (.50in) caliber machine gun will be added to the entire M1A2 fleet over time.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2006, General Dynamics Land Systems received a U.S. Army order for 505 Tank Urban Survivability Kits (TUSK) for Abrams main battle tanks supporting operations in Iraq, under a US$45million contract. Deliveries were expected to be completed by April 2009. Under a separate order, the U.S. Army awarded General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products (GDATP) US$30 million to produce reactive armor kits to equip M1A2s. The reactive tiles for the M1 will be locally produced at GDATP's Burlington Technology Center.",
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"plaintext": "Tiles will be produced at the company's reactive armor facility in Stone County Operations, McHenry, Mississippi. In December 2006, the U.S. Army added Counter Improvised Explosive Device enhancements to the M1A1 and M1A2 TUSK, awarding GDLS $11.3million contract, part of the $59million package mentioned above. In December, GDLS also received an order, amounting to around 40% of a US$48million order, for loader's thermal weapon sights being part of the TUSK system improvements for the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams Tanks.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the armor, some USMC Abrams tanks are equipped with a Softkill Active protection system, the AN/VLQ-6 Missile Countermeasure Device (MCD) that can impede the function of guidance systems of some semi-active control line-of-sight (SACLOS) wire- and radio guided anti-tank missiles (such as the Russian 9K114 Shturm) and infrared homing missiles. The MCD works by emitting a massive, condensed infrared signal to confuse the infrared homing seeker of an anti-tank guided missile (ATGM).",
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"plaintext": "However, the drawback to the system is that the ATGM is not destroyed, it is merely directed away from its intended target, leaving the missile to detonate elsewhere. This device is mounted on the turret roof in front of the loader's hatch, and can lead some people to mistake Abrams tanks fitted with these devices for the M1A2 version, since the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer on the latter is mounted in the same place, though the MCD is box-shaped and fixed in place as opposed to cylindrical and rotating like the CITV.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, the U.S. Army and Marine Corps began testing out the Israeli Trophy active protection system to protect their Abrams tanks from modern RPG and ATGM threats by either jamming (with ATGMs) or firing small rounds to deflect incoming projectiles. The Army planned to field a brigade of over 80 tanks equipped with Trophy to Europe in 2020. It is planned for up to 261 Abrams to be upgraded with the system, enough for four brigades. In June 2018, the Army awarded Leonardo DRS, U.S. partner to Trophy's designer Rafael, a $193 million contract to deliver the system in support of M1 Abrams \"immediate operational requirements\". U.S. Army M1A2 SEP V2 Abrams tanks deployed to Germany in July 2020 fitted with Trophy systems. Deliveries to equip four tank brigades were completed in January 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The main armament of the original model M1 and M1IP was the M68A1 105mm rifled tank gun firing a variety of armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot, high-explosive anti-tank, high explosive, white phosphorus rounds and an anti-personnel (multiple flechette) round. This gun used a license-made tube of the British Royal Ordnance L7 gun together with the vertical sliding breech block and other parts of the U.S. T254E2 prototype gun. However, it proved to be inadequate; a cannon with lethality beyond the range was needed to combat newer armor technologies. To attain that lethality, the projectile diameter needed to be increased. The tank was able to carry 55 105mm rounds, with 44 stored in the turret blow-out compartment and the rest in hull stowage.",
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"plaintext": "The main armament of the M1A1 and M1A2 is the M256A1 120mm smoothbore gun, designed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany, manufactured under license in the U.S. by Watervliet Arsenal, New York. The M256A1 is a variant of the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 gun carried on the German Leopard 2 on all variants up to the Leopard 2A5. Leopard 2A6 replaced the L/44 barrel with a longer L/55. Due to the increased caliber, only 40 or 42 rounds are able to be stored depending on if the tank is an A1 or A2 model.",
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"plaintext": " Elevation: −9 to +20 degree",
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"plaintext": "The M256A1 fires a variety of rounds. The primary APFSDS round of the Abrams is the depleted uranium M829 round, of which four variants have been designed. M829A1, known as the \"Silver Bullet\", saw widespread service in the Gulf War, where it proved itself against Iraqi armor such as the T-72. The M829A2 APFSDS round was developed specifically as an immediate solution to address the improved protection of a Russian T-72, T-80U or T-90 main battle tank equipped with Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armor (ERA) as previous rounds were found to be incapable of defeating such armor.",
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"plaintext": "Later, the M829A3 round was introduced to improve its effectiveness against next generation ERA equipped tanks, through usage of a multi-material penetrator and increased penetrator diameter that can resist the shear effect of K-5 type ERA. As a counter to that, the Russian army introduced Relikt, the most modern Russian ERA, which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5. Development of the M829 series is continuing with the M829A4 currently entering production, featuring advanced technology such as data-link capability.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams also fires high-explosive anti-tank warhead shaped charge rounds such as the M830, the latest version of which (M830A1) incorporates a sophisticated multi-mode electronic sensing fuse and more fragmentation that allows it to be used effectively against armored vehicles, personnel, and low-flying aircraft. The Abrams uses a manual loader, who also provides additional support for maintenance, observation post/listening post (OP/LP) operations, and other tasks.",
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"plaintext": "The new M1028 120mm anti-personnel canister cartridge was brought into service early for use in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It contains 1,098 tungsten balls that spread from the muzzle to produce a shotgun effect lethal out to . The tungsten balls can be used to clear enemy dismounts, break up hasty ambush sites in urban areas, clear defiles, stop infantry attacks and counter-attacks and support friendly infantry assaults by providing covering fire. The canister round is also a highly effective breaching round and can level cinder block walls and knock man-sized holes in reinforced concrete walls for infantry raids at distances up to .",
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"plaintext": "Also in use is the M908 obstacle-reduction round. It is designed to destroy obstacles and barriers. The round is a modified M830A1 with the front fuse replaced by a steel nose to penetrate into the obstacle before detonation.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) conducted a thermal analysis of the M256 from 2002 to 2003 to evaluate the potential of using a hybrid barrel system that would allow for multiple weapon systems such as the XM1111 Mid-Range munition, airburst rounds, or XM 1147. The test concluded that mesh density (number of elements per unit area) impacts accuracy of the M256 and specific densities would be needed for each weapon system.",
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"plaintext": "The Army is developing a new round to replace the M830/M830A1, M1028, and M908. Called the Advanced Multi-Purpose (AMP) round, it will have point detonation, delay, and airburst modes through an ammunition data-link and a multi-mode, programmable fuse in a single munition. Having one round that does the job of four would simplify logistics and be able to be used on a variety of targets. The AMP is to be effective against bunkers, infantry, light armor, and obstacles out to 500 meters, and will be able to breach reinforced concrete walls and defeat ATGM teams from 500 to 2,000 meters. Orbital ATK was awarded a contract to begin the first phase of development for the AMP XM1147 High-Explosive Multi-Purpose with Tracer cartridge in October 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these, the XM1111 (Mid-Range-Munition Chemical Energy) was also in development. The XM1111 was a guided munition using a dual-mode seeker that combined imaging-infrared and semi-active laser guidance. The MRM-CE was selected over the competing MRM-KE, which used a rocket-assisted kinetic energy penetrator. The CE variant was chosen due to its better effects against secondary targets, providing a more versatile weapon. The Army hoped to achieve IOC with the XM1111 by 2013. However, the Mid-Range Munition was cancelled in 2009 along with Future Combat Systems.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams tank has three machine guns, with an optional fourth:",
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"plaintext": " A .50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2HB machine gun in front of the commander's hatch. On the M1 and M1A1, this gun is mounted on the Commander's Weapons Station. This allows the weapon to be aimed and fired from within the tank. Normal combat loadout for the M1A1 is a single 100-round box of ammo at the weapon, and another 900 rounds carried. The later M1A2 variant had a \"flex\" mount that required the tank commander to expose his or her upper torso in order to fire the weapon. In urban environments in Iraq, this was found to be unsafe. With the Common Remote Operated Weapons System (CROWS) add-on kit, an M2A1 .50 Caliber Machine gun, M240, or M249 SAW can be mounted on a CROWS remote weapons platform (similar to the Protector M151 remote weapon station used on the Stryker family of vehicles). Current variants of the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) on the M1A2 have forgone this, instead adding transparent gun shields to the commander's weapon station. The upgrade variant called the M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) equips the .50 caliber gun with a thermal sight for accurate night and other low-visibility shooting.",
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"plaintext": " A 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in front of the loader's hatch on a skate mount (seen at right). Some of these were fitted with gun shields during the Iraq War, as well as night-vision scopes for low-visibility engagements and firing. This gun can be moved to the TC's position if the M2 .50 cal is damaged.",
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"plaintext": " A second 7.62mm M240 machine gun in a coaxial mount (i.e., it points at the same targets as the main gun) to the right of the main gun. The coaxial MG is aimed and fired with the same computerized firing control system used for the main gun. On earlier M1 and M1A1s, 3000 rounds are carried, all linked together and ready to fire. In later models, this was reduced slightly to make room for new system electronics. A typical 7.62mm combat loadout is between 10,000 and 14,000 rounds carried on each tank.",
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"plaintext": " (Optional) A second coaxial .50 cal. (12.7mm) M2HB machine gun can be mounted directly above the main gun in a remote weapons platform as part of the CSAMM (Counter Sniper Anti Material Mount) package.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams is equipped with a ballistic fire-control computer that uses user and system-supplied data from a variety of sources to compute, display, and incorporate the three components of a ballistic solution—lead angle, ammunition type, and range to the target—to accurately fire the main gun. These three components are determined using a laser rangefinder, crosswind sensor, a pendulum static cant sensor, data concerning performance and flight characteristics of each specific type of round, tank-specific boresight alignment data, ammunition temperature, air temperature, barometric pressure, a muzzle reference system (MRS) that determines and compensates for barrel drop at the muzzle due to gravitational pull and barrel heating due to firing or sunlight, and target speed determined by tracking rate tachometers in the Gunner's or Commander's Controls Handles.",
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"plaintext": "All of these factors are computed into a ballistic solution and updated 30 times per second. The updated solution is displayed in the Gunner's or Tank Commander's field of view in the form of a reticle in both day and Thermal modes. The ballistic computer manipulates the turret and a complex arrangement of mirrors so that all one has to do is keep the reticle on the target and fire to achieve a hit. Proper lead and gun tube elevation are applied to the turret by the computer, greatly simplifying the job of the gunner.",
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"plaintext": "The fire-control system uses this data to compute a firing solution for the gunner. The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95percent at nominal ranges. Either the commander or gunner can fire the main gun. Additionally, the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV) on the M1A2 can be used to locate targets and pass them on for the gunner to engage while the commander scans for new targets.",
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"plaintext": "If the primary sight system malfunctions or is damaged, the main and coaxial weapons can be manually aimed using a telescopic scope boresighted to the main gun known as the Gunner's Auxiliary Sight (GAS). The GAS has two interchangeable reticles; one for High-explosive anti-tank warhead and MPAT (MultiPurpose AntiTank) rounds and one for APFSDS (Armor Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot) and STAFF (Smart Target-Activated Fire and Forget) ammunition. Turret traverse and main gun elevation can be accomplished with manual handles and cranks in the event of a Fire Control System or Hydraulic System failure.",
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"plaintext": "The commander's M2HB .50caliber machine gun on the M1 and M1A1 is aimed by a 3× magnification sight incorporated into the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), while the M1A2 uses the machine gun's own iron sights, or a remote aiming system such as the CROWS system when used as part of the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK). The loader's M240 machine gun is aimed either with the built-in iron sights or with a thermal scope mounted on the machine gun.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2017, the 400 USMC M1A1 Abrams were to be upgraded with better and longer-range sights on the Abrams Integrated Display and Targeting System (AIDATS) replacing the black-and-white camera view with a color sight and day/night thermal sight, simplified handling with a single set of controls, and a slew to cue button that repositions the turret with a single command. Preliminary testing showed the upgrades reduced target engagement time from six seconds to three by allowing the commander and gunner to work more closely and collaborate better on target acquisition.",
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"plaintext": "The M1 Abrams's powertrain consists of a Honeywell AGT1500 (originally made by Lycoming) multifuel gas turbine capable of at 30,000 rpm and at 10,000 rpm, and a six-speed (four forward, two reverse) Allison X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic automatic transmission, giving it a governed top speed of on paved roads, and cross-country. With the engine governor removed, speeds of around are possible on an improved surface. However, damage to the drivetrain (especially to the tracks) and an increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above .",
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"plaintext": "The tank was built around this engine and it is multifuel–capable, including diesel, kerosene, any grade of motor gasoline, and jet fuel (such as JP-4 or JP-8). For logistical reasons, JP-8 is the U.S. military's universal fuel powering both aircraft and vehicle fleets. The Australian M1A1 AIM SA burns diesel fuel, since the use of JP-8 is less common in the Australian Army.",
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"plaintext": "The gas turbine propulsion system has proven quite reliable in practice and combat, but its high fuel consumption is a serious logistic issue (starting up the turbine alone consumes nearly of fuel). The engine burns more than per mile ( per hour) when traveling cross-country and per hour when idle.",
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"plaintext": "The high speed, high temperature jet blast emitted from the rear of M1 Abrams tanks makes it hazardous for infantry to take cover or follow behind the tank in urban combat. The turbine is very quiet when compared to diesel engines of similar power output and produces a significantly different sound from a contemporary diesel tank engine, reducing the audible distance of the sound, thus earning the Abrams the nickname \"whispering death\" during its first Reforger exercise.",
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"plaintext": "The Army received proposals, including two diesel options, to provide the common engine for the XM2001 Crusader and Abrams. In 2000, the Army selected the gas turbine engine LV100-5 from Honeywell and subcontractor General Electric. The new LV100-5 engine was lighter and smaller (43% fewer parts) with rapid acceleration, quieter running, and no visible exhaust. It also featured a 33% reduction in fuel consumption (50% less when idle) and near drop-in replacement. The Common Engine Program was shelved when the Crusader program was canceled, however Phase 2 of Army's PROSE (Partnership for Reduced O&S Costs, Engine) program called for further development of the LV100-5 and replacement of the current AGT1500 engine.",
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"plaintext": "An Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) was designed by the Army's TARDEC, replacing an existing battery pack that weighs about . It uses a high power density Wankel rotary engine modified to use diesel and military grade jet fuel. The new APU will also be more fuel efficient than the tank's main engine. Testing of the first APUs began in 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Although the M1 tank is not designed to carry riders easily, provisions exist for the Abrams to transport troops in tank desant with the turret stabilization device switched off. A battle equipped infantry squad may ride on the rear of the tank, behind the turret. The soldiers can use ropes and equipment straps to provide handholds and snap links to secure themselves. If and when enemy contact is made, the tank conceals itself allowing the infantry to dismount.",
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"plaintext": "Strategic mobility is the ability of the tanks of an armed force to arrive in a timely, cost effective, and synchronized fashion. The Abrams can be carried by a C-5 Galaxy or a C-17 Globemaster III. The limited capacity (two combat-ready tanks in a C-5, one combat-ready tank in a C-17) caused serious logistical problems when deploying the tanks for the first Persian Gulf War, though there was enough time for 1,848 tanks to be transported by ship.",
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"plaintext": "Marines transport their Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF)-attached Abrams tanks by combat ship. A Wasp-class Landing Helicopter Dock (LHD) typically carries a platoon of 4 to 5 tanks attached to the deployed Marine Expeditionary Unit, which are then amphibiously transported to shore by Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) at 1 combat-ready tank per landing craft.",
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"plaintext": "The Abrams is also transportable by truck, namely the Oshkosh M1070 and M1000 Heavy Equipment Transporter System (HETS) for the US Military. The HETS can operate on highways, secondary roads, and cross-country. It accommodates the four tank crew members. The Australian Army uses customised MAN trucks to transport its Abrams.",
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"plaintext": "The first instance of the Abrams being airlifted directly into a battlefield occurred in October 1993. Following the Battle of Mogadishu, 18 M1 tanks were airlifted by C-5 aircraft to Somalia from Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia.",
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"plaintext": " XM1-FSED: Preproduction test model. Eleven Full-Scale Engineering Development test bed vehicles were produced in 1977–78. These vehicles were also called Pilot Vehicles and numbered PV-1 through PV-11.",
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"plaintext": " M1: First production variant. Production began (at Chrysler) in 1979 and continued to 1985 (at General Dynamics) (3,273 built for the US). The first 110 tanks were Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) models, still called XM1s, because they were built prior to the tank being type-classified as the M1.",
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"plaintext": " M1IP (Improved Performance): Produced briefly in 1984 before the M1A1, contained upgrades and reconfigurations like new turret with thicker frontal armor, new turret is referred as \"long\" turret instead of older \"short\" turret, armor upgraded from ~650mm line of sight thickness to ~880mm (894 built for US).",
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"plaintext": " : Production started in 1985 and continued to 1992, pressurized NBC system, rear bustle rack for improved stowage of supplies and crew belongings, redesigned blow-off panels and M256 120mm smoothbore cannon (4,976 built for the U.S. Army, 221 for USMC, 59 M1A1 AIM SA sold to Australia).",
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"plaintext": "M1A1HA (Heavy Armor): Added 1st generation depleted uranium armor components. Some tanks were later upgraded with 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, and are unofficially designated M1A1HA+.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1HC (Heavy Common): Added new 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, digital engine control and other small upgrades common between Army and Marine Corps tanks.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1D (Digital): A digital upgrade for the M1A1HC, to keep up with M1A2 SEP, manufactured in quantity for only 2 battalions.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1 AIM v.1 (Abrams Integrated Management): A program whereby older units are reconditioned to zero hour conditions; and the tank is improved by adding Forward-Looking Infra-Red (FLIR) and Far Target Locate sensors, a tank-infantry phone, communications gear, including FBCB2 and Blue Force Tracking to aid in crew situational awareness, and a thermal sight for the .50caliber machine gun.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1 AIM v.2/M1A1 SA (Situational Awareness): Upgrades similar to AIM v.1 tanks + new 3rd generation depleted uranium armor components. Configuration for the Royal Moroccan Army, which is almost identical to the Australian variant, except exportable turret armor is installed by General Dynamics Land System to replace the DU armor.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1 FEP (Firepower Enhancement Package): Similar upgrade to AIM v.2 for USMC tanks.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1KVT (Krasnovian Variant Tank): M1A1s that have been visually modified to resemble Soviet-made tanks for use at the National Training Center, fitted with MILES gear and a Hoffman device.",
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"plaintext": " M1A1M: An export variant ordered by the Iraqi Army.",
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"plaintext": "M1A1 (AIDATS upgrade): Upgrade-only variant to all USMC General Dynamics M1A1 Abrams tanks to improve the tank commander's situational awareness with an upgraded thermal sight, color day camera, and a stationary color display.",
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"plaintext": " (Baseline): Production began in 1986 and entered service in 1992 (77 built for the U.S. and more than 600 M1s upgraded to M1A2, 315 for Saudi Arabia, 1,005 for Egypt, 218 for Kuwait). The M1A2 offers the tank commander an independent thermal sight and ability to, in rapid sequence, shoot at two targets without the need to acquire each one sequentially, also 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components.",
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"plaintext": "M1A2 SEP (System Enhancement Package): Is fitted with new, second-generation gunner's thermal sight. Has upgraded third-generation depleted uranium armor components with graphite coating (240 new built, 300 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2 SEP for the US, also unknown numbers of upgraded basic M1s and M1IPs, also 400 oldest M1A1s upgraded to M1A2 SEP).",
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"plaintext": " M1A2S (Saudi Package): Saudi Arabian variant upgrade of the M1A2 based on M1A2 SEP, with some features, such as depleted uranium armor, believed to be missing and replaced by special armor. (442 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2S).",
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"plaintext": " M1A2 SEPv2: Added Common Remotely Operated Weapon Station as standard, color displays, improved interfaces, a new operating system, improved front and side armor with ERA (TUSK kit), tank-infantry phone as standard, and an upgraded transmission for better durability.",
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"plaintext": " M1A2 SEPv3 (formerly M1A2C): Has increased power generation and distribution, better communications and networking, new Vehicle Health Management System (VHMS) and Line Replaceable Modules (LRMs) for improved maintenance, an Ammunition DataLink (ADL) to use airburst rounds, improved counter-IED armor package, improved FLIR using long- and mid-wave infrared, a low-profile CROWS RWS, Next Generation Armor Package (NGAP), and an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) under armor to run electronics while stationary instead of the engine, visually distinguishing the version by a small exhaust at the left rear. More passive ballistic protection added to the turret faces, along with new Explosive Reactive Armor mountings (Abrams Reactive Armor Tile (ARAT)) and Trophy Active Protection systems added to the turret sides. Prototypes began testing in 2015, and the first were delivered in October 2017. The first unit received them in July 2020.",
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"plaintext": " M1A2T: Special configuration variant of the M1A2C reportedly being offered for sale to Taiwan as of March 2019 and approved by US State Department as of July 2019. Per DSCA statement, it is roughly equivalent to M1A2C, except depleted uranium armor is replaced by FMS export armor. There is no mention of the Trophy APS system. The new-built tanks will be produced at Anniston Army Depot, Anniston, Alabama, and the Joint Systems Manufacturing Center, Lima, Ohio.",
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"plaintext": " M1A2 SEPv4 (formerly M1A2D): Under development . The Commander's Primary Sight, also known as the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer, and Gunner's Primary Sight will be upgraded with 3rd Gen FLIR, an improved laser rangefinder and color cameras. Additional improvements will include advanced meteorological sensors, laser warning/detection receivers, directional smoke grenade launchers and integration of the new (AMP) 120mm tank round. The AN/VVR-4 laser warning receiver and ROSY rapid obscurant system have been trialed by the US Army for adoption on the Abrams tank and Bradley fighting vehicle.",
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"plaintext": " M1A2-K: Under development, unique variant for the Kuwaiti Army, slated to replace Kuwait's current M1A2 fleet.",
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"plaintext": " Tank Test Bed (TTB) Prototype TACOM project begun in 1983 with unmanned turret, three crew members in armored capsule in front of the heavy armored hull, main armament was 120mm smoothbore gun M256, mechanical loading system under turret.",
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"plaintext": " Component Advanced Technology Test Bed (CATTB) was an experimental model with a XM291 140mm smoothbore cannon, heavy armored turret and upgraded hull based on the Abrams chassis. It had a mechanical loading system in turret bustle, a new engine and probably other upgrades, never fielded. The tank went into trials in 1987–88.",
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"plaintext": "Air Ground Defense System (AGDS): Proposed air defense variant of the Abrams equipped with dual 35mm Bushmaster III autocannons, 12 ADATS missiles and advanced electro-optical and radar targeting systems derived from the ADATS. It was supposed to be capable of both air defence and anti-tank purposes with the ADATS MIM-146 missiles which was a dual purpose ATGM/SAM. The proposal never saw consideration and was never developed further.",
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"plaintext": " RV90 Armored Recovery Vehicle: A prototype designed by General Dynamics was produced in 1988 and evaluated against the M88A1E1 later that year. The Army selected the M88A1E1, which went into production as the M88A2 Hercules.",
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"plaintext": " M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV).",
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},
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"plaintext": " M1 Panther II: A remote controlled mine clearing vehicle with turret removed, mine rollers on front, and the Standardized Teleoperation System.",
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"plaintext": " M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault Bridge",
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"plaintext": " M1074 Joint Assault Bridge (JAB): Bridgelayer combining a heavy \"scissor\" bridge with the M1 Abrams chassis. Expected to reach low-rate initial production in 2019 to replace the M60 AVLB and M104 Wolverine.",
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"plaintext": " M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicle (ABV): Assault variant for the USMC. Based upon the M1A1 Abrams chassis, the Assault Breacher Vehicle has a variety of systems installed, such as a full-width mine plow, two linear demolition charges, and a lane-marking system. Reactive armor has been fitted to the vehicle providing additional protection against High-explosive anti-tank warhead-based weapons. The turret has been replaced by a new smaller one with two MICLIC launchers at its rear. A M2HB .50 machine gun in a remote weapons station is mounted on the commander's cupola and a bank of grenade launchers are fitted to each side of the superstructure to cover the frontal arc for self-protection.",
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"plaintext": "Additional equipment",
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"plaintext": "M1A1 Mine Clearing Blade System (MCBS): (LIN B13228) It is electrically operated and is capable of clearing surface or buried mines up to 6 feet in front of the tank's path. The plough produces a windrow of soil that is filled with mines. This windrow must be reduced using a mine rake or by laying a MICLIC alongside the windrow and detonating it. The plough is also capable of pushing up berms, clearing trench-lines, and proofing lanes and staging areas. It can be adapted for use on the M60A1 MBT.",
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"plaintext": "Self Protection Combat Roller (SPCR): (LIN M53112) The Self Protection Combat Roller (SPCR) exerts high pressure onto the ground ahead of the tracks of the host vehicle to target pressure activated explosive devices in order to actively prove routes. It is designed to operate on concrete, asphalt, gravel and hard dirt roads. The system comprises two 4-wheel roller gangs to protect the vehicle tracks which stow neatly to minimize its impact on vehicle operation ability and mobility when not in use. The rollers are able to steer left and right to provide a level of coverage during cornering. An optional Magnetic System Duplicator (MSD) can be fitted to help protect the equipment from the effect of magnetic influence fused mines.",
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"plaintext": "Surface Clearance Device (SCD): (LIN B17484) The SCD is employed to clear surface laid mines and IEDs from roads, trails and rough terrain. There are two versions of the SCD; a V-blade optimised for clearing routes and a straight angle-blade which is optimised for clearing staging and assembly areas.",
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"plaintext": "Vehicle Magnetic Signature Duplicator (VEMSID): (LIN V53112) The VEMSID increases the effectiveness and survivability of countermine equipment by causing the stand-off detonation of magnetic influence mines at a safe distance ahead of the tank. It generates a multi-axial magnetic signature optimized for passively fused magnetic influence fused mines. The system comprises four emitter coils, two associated power boxes and an MSD Control Unit (MSDCU).",
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"plaintext": " – Australian Army: 59 M1A1 (AIM) configuration tanks (hybrids with a mix of equipment used by U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps but without depleted uranium layers in armor). These tanks were bought from the U.S. in 2006 and replaced the Leopard AS1 in 2007. As of 2017, the Australian Government was considering expanding the Army's fleet of Abrams to 90 tanks. In April 2021, the U.S. granted an FMS for 160 M1A1 tank hulls to produce 75 M1A2 SEPv3 Abrams Main Battle Tanks, 29 M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicles and 18 M1074 Joint Assault Bridges including the development of a unique armor package for the Australian Army. In January 2022, Australia committed to purchase 120 tanks and armored vehicles including 75 M1A2s at a total cost of $3.5 billion and to be delivered in 2024; the M1A2s are to replace their 59 M1A1s which were bought in 2007.",
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"plaintext": " – Egyptian Army: 1,360 M1A1 tanks assembled in Egypt for the Egyptian army in cooperation with the U.S.",
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"plaintext": " – Iraqi Army: 321 M1A1Ms Iraq was leasing 22 U.S. Army M1A1s for training in 2008. The first 11 tanks were delivered to the Iraqi Army in August 2010 with all deliveries completed by August 2011. In October 2012, it was reported that six more tanks were being delivered. Zaloga wrote that four battalions of the 9th Armoured Division were equipped with M1s by 2014: 1st and 2nd of the 34th Brigade, and 4th and 5th of the 35th Brigade.",
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"plaintext": " – Kuwaiti Army: 218 M1A2s",
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"plaintext": " – Polish Land Forces: Poland has bought 250 new American M1 Abrams tanks in the newest M1A2 SEP v3 version. Production is set to finish by 2024, and delivery to early 2025. After donation of over 200 T-72 tanks, an agreement has been signed to buy 116 ex-U.S. M1 Abrams tanks in unknown versions (probably M1A1 SA or M1A1 FEP). Delivery is expected to start in 2022. 7 loaned training tanks have already been delivered to Poland as of July 2022. The total purchase cost with support vehicles, crew training, and large supply of ammunition will cost PLN 23.3 billion (approximately $6 billion). The Abrams tanks are to supplement 247 Leopard 2PL main battle tanks as well as older T-72 and PT-91 tanks. 28 tanks in variant SEPv2 were leased in July 2022 to tank crews until proper deliveries begin",
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"plaintext": " – Saudi Arabian Army: 373 Abrams tanks, To be upgraded to M1A2S configuration in Saudi Arabia. 69 more M1A2S tanks ordered on 8 January 2013, to be delivered by 31 July 2014.",
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"plaintext": " – Royal Moroccan Army: 222 M1A1 SA (situational awareness) tanks ordered in 2015. Deliveries under the contract started in July 2016 with an estimated completion date of February 2018. The contract include 150 refurbished and upgraded tanks to the special armor configuration. Morocco took delivery of the first batch of M1A1SAs on 28 July 2016. A Foreign Military Sale for 162 M1A2Ms was approved by the U.S. Department of State in November 2018 and sent to Congress for final approval.",
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"plaintext": " – Republic of China Army: Taiwan was considering the purchase of upwards 200 Abrams tanks, which was later reduced with the intention of acquiring 120 M1A1 tanks. The Ministry of National Defence stated in 2016 that it was in discussion with the U.S. about sales of M1A1s. This plan, however, was apparently canceled by October 2017, instead Taiwanese government plans to upgrade its M60A3s in service with a 120mm main gun, new ballistics computer, etc. In July 2018, Taiwan's Ministry of National Defense budgeted money to purchase 108 M1A2 tanks from the U.S. government, to replace its aging CM-11 Brave Tiger and M60A3 TTS battle tanks. The U.S. Department of State approved the $2.2 billion sale in July 2019. A sale of 108 M1A2T tanks was later finalized.",
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"plaintext": " – United States Army and United States Marine Corps received over 8,100 M1, M1A1 and M1A2 tanks combined.",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Army – 2,509 total, 750 M1A1SA, 1,605 M1A2 SEPv2, 154 M1A2C (some 3,700 more M1A1 and M1A2 in storage).",
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"plaintext": " – Following Brazil's official designation as major non-NATO ally of the United States in July 2019, the U.S. government offered the Brazilian Armed Forces several models of military equipment; the country is interested in potentially acquiring between 110 and 130 M1A1 Abrams tanks, which would be upgraded on U.S. soil and operated as Brazil's main battle tanks for the next 20 years.",
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"plaintext": " – Hellenic Army: 400 ex-U.S. Army M1A1 tanks have been offered to Greece.",
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"plaintext": " – Peruvian Army: In May 2013, the M1A1 Abrams was reported to be part of comparative tests to be conducted by Peru to find a replacement for their aging T-55s. Between 120 and 170 tanks may be acquired. The Abrams competed against the T-90S, Leopard 2A4 and A6, T-64, and T-84. By September 2013, only the M1A1 Abrams, Russian T-90S and T-80, and Ukrainian T-84 were still competing.",
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"plaintext": " – United States Marine Corps: In 2020 the Marine Corps announced the disbandment of its tank units, citing a pivot towards amphibious warfare. All 450 of the Marine Corps M1 Abrams MBTs were transferred to the U.S. Army with withdrawal from Marine Corps service being completed in May 2021.",
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{
"plaintext": " List of the United States military vehicles by model number",
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"plaintext": " Practical Applications of Vehicle Control within the Distributed Processing Architecture, Proceedings of the 1992 American Control Conference, Ruggirello, Joseph A., Bielawski, Dennis A., and Diaz, R. Gary, General Dynamics, IEEE, Published Jun. 1992",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Abrams Tank Fact File - U.S. Army.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "M1A2 Main Battle Tank - General Dynamics Land Systems.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank - Military.com",
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},
{
"plaintext": "M1A1/2 Abrams Main Battle Tank - Global Defense Technology.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank - GlobalSecurity.org",
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"plaintext": "M1 Abrams page - a detailed overview of how the tank works on howstuffworks.com",
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"plaintext": "M1 Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK), M1A1 AIM Upgrade, and M1A2 SEP Upgrade - Defense-Update.com",
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"plaintext": "M1 Abrams modernization 2011, M1 Abrams modernization 2012 - Federation of American Scientists.",
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"Cold_War_tanks_of_the_United_States",
"Gas_turbine_vehicles",
"General_Dynamics_land_vehicles",
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"Main_battle_tanks_of_the_United_States",
"Military_vehicles_introduced_in_the_1980s"
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37,745 | 1,107,594,598 | Bell_AH-1_Cobra | [
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"plaintext": "The Bell AH-1 Cobra is a single-engined attack helicopter developed and manufactured by the American rotorcraft manufacturer Bell Helicopter. A member of the prolific Huey family, the AH-1 is also referred to as the HueyCobra or Snake.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-1 was developed using the engine, transmission and rotor system of the Bell UH-1 Iroquois, which had proven itself to be a capable platform during the Vietnam War. It was produced in response to fulfil a need for a dedicated armed escort for transport helicopters to give the latter greater survivability in contested environments. Accordingly, the AH-1 was a dedicated attack helicopter, featuring a tandem cockpit, stub wings for weapons, and a chin-mounted gun turret. The first examples of the type entered service with the United States Army during 1967; other branches of the US military also opted to acquire the type, particularly the United States Marine Corps, while export sales were made to numerous overseas countries, including Israel, Japan, and Turkey.",
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"plaintext": "For several decades, the AH-1 formed the core of the US Army's attack helicopter fleet, seeing combat in Vietnam, Grenada, Panama, and the Gulf War. In US Army service, the Cobra was progressively replaced by the newer and more capable Boeing AH-64 Apache during the 1990s, with the final examples being withdrawn during 2001. The Israeli Air Force (IAF) operated the Cobra most prolifically along its land border with Lebanon, using its fleet intensively during the 1982 Lebanon War. Turkish AH-1s have seen regular combat with Kurdish insurgents near Turkey's southern borders. Upgraded versions of the Cobra have been developed, such as the twin engined AH-1 SeaCobra/SuperCobra and the experimental Bell 309 KingCobra. Furthermore, surplus AH-1 helicopters have been reused for other purposes, including civilian ones; numerous examples have been converted to perform aerial firefighting operations.",
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"plaintext": "Closely related to the development of the Bell AH-1 is the story of the Bell UH-1 Iroquois transport helicopter—an icon of the Vietnam War and one of the most numerous helicopter types built. The UH-1 made the theory of air cavalry practical, as the new tactics called for US forces to be highly mobile across a wide area. Unlike before, they would not stand and fight long battles, and they would not stay and hold positions. Instead, the plan was that the troops carried by fleets of UH-1 \"Hueys\" would range across the country, to fight the enemy at times and places of their own choice.",
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"plaintext": "The massive expansion of American military presence in Vietnam opened a new era of war from the air. The linchpin of US Army tactics was the helicopters, and the protection of those helicopters became a vital role. It became clear that unarmed troop helicopters were vulnerable against ground fire from Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops, particularly as they approached landing zones to disembark or embark troops. Without friendly support from artillery or ground forces, the only way to pacify a landing zone was from the air, preferably with an aircraft that could closely escort the transport helicopters, and loiter over the landing zone as the battle progressed. By 1962, a small number of armed UH-1As were used as escorts, armed with multiple machine guns and rocket mounts. However, these makeshift gunships came with considerable tradeoffs, particularly being barely able to keep up with the troop transports they were intended to protect.",
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"plaintext": "While some officials within the Pentagon, particularly those within the US Army, had recognised the potential value of purpose-built armed rotary aircraft as early as 1962 and were keen to see such a vehicle developed promptly, the issue was complicated in part due to inter-service politics. The United States Air Force (USAF) largely held the opinion that most forms of US military aircraft should be operated only by their service, and that the US Army would be intruding into their domain by developing a complex armed aerial combatant, and ought to be largely restricted to transport aircraft. Meanwhile, some Army officials were concerned that the USAF did not take the close air support (CAS) mission as seriously as it ought to be, and that response times of 30 minutes or more for fixed-wing aircraft would be unacceptable.",
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"plaintext": "Bell had been investigating helicopter gunships since the late 1950s, paying particular attention to the Algerian War, in which French forces mounted weapons onto helicopters to fight the growing insurgency. The company created a mockup of its D-255 helicopter gunship concept, named \"Iroquois Warrior\". The Iroquois Warrior was planned to be a purpose-built attack aircraft based on UH-1B components with a new, slender airframe and a two-seat, tandem cockpit. It featured a grenade launcher in a ball turret on the nose, a 20mm belly-mounted gun pod, and stub wings for mounting rockets or SS.10 anti-tank missiles.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1962, Bell displayed the mockup to US Army officials, hoping to solicit funding for further development; rival manufacturers issued protests to this approach, alleging that it was an attempt by Bell to circumvent the competitive process. Nevertheless, the Army was interested and awarded Bell a proof-of-concept contract in December 1962. Bell modified a Model 47 into the Model 207 Sioux Scout which first flew in July 1963. The Sioux Scout had all the key features of a modern attack helicopter: a tandem cockpit, stub wings for weapons, and a chin-mounted gun turret. After evaluating the Sioux Scout in early 1964, the Army was impressed but also felt that it was undersized, underpowered, and that the Sioux Scout was generally not suited for practical operations.",
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"plaintext": "The Army's solution to the shortcomings of the Sioux Scout was to launch the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS) competition. This called for a heavily armed helicopter capable of at least 200 MPH. A total of seven companies, including Bell, opted to respond to the requirement. It was out of the AAFSS program that the Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne emerged, a heavy attack helicopter with high speed capability. During testing, it proved to be too sophisticated and costly, and was ultimately canceled in 1972 after ten years of development. In its place, the Advanced Attack Helicopter program was launched. Under this initiative, the Army sought a conventional attack helicopter with a greater level of survivability.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the Army's preference for the AAFSS program —for which Bell Helicopter was not selected to compete— the company persisted with their own idea of a smaller and lighter gunship, noting that Lockheed had little experience in developing rotorcraft and correctly predicted that it would encounter considerable difficulties. Bell employee Mike Folse played a key role in developing this new gunship, which he intentionally based around the existing UH-1 on the rationale that, while the Army could not purchase a completely original helicopter without a formal design competition, the service was able to procure a modification of an aircraft that was already in its inventory without invoking such hurdles. This initiative quickly caught the approval of Bell's senior management team.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1965, Bell elected to invest $1 million to proceed with the concept's detailed design. Mating the proven transmission, the \"540\" rotor system of the UH-1C augmented by a Stability Control Augmentation System (SCAS), and the T53 turboshaft engine of the UH-1 with the design philosophy of the Sioux Scout, Bell produced the Model 209. It largely resembled the \"Iroquois Warrior\" mockup, particularly in its cockpit and tail book; in broad visual terms, there was relatively little shared between the proposed design and the UH-1. Despite appearance, much of the Model 209's major elements, such as the tail rotor and much of the dynamic systems, were identical. Roughly 80 percent of its components already had existing Huey part numbers.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 September 1965, Bell rolled out its Model 209 prototype, and four days later it made its maiden flight, only eight months after the project's go-ahead and slightly under budget. This first flight was witnessed by around 20 US Army officials, the service having had no awareness of the project's existence prior to this, and rapidly drew the government's attention. One early test flight was met with a reportedly enthusiastic visit by US secretary of defense Robert McNamara. Bell claimed at this phase of the project that production units could be ready for service within one year",
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"plaintext": "As the Vietnam War proceeded, pressure accumulated in favor of the Model 209. Attacks on US forces were increasing and, by the end of June 1965, there were already 50,000 US ground troops in Vietnam. 1965 was also the deadline for AAFSS selection, but the program would become stuck in technical difficulties and political bickering. The US Army needed an interim gunship for Vietnam and it approached five separate companies with its request to provide a quick solution. Submissions came in for armed variants of the Boeing-Vertol ACH-47A, Kaman HH-2C Tomahawk, Piasecki 16H Pathfinder, Sikorsky S-61, and the Bell 209.",
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"plaintext": "During April 1966, Bell's submission emerged victorious in an evaluation against the other rival helicopters. The US Army promptly signed the first production contract, ordering an initial batch of 110 aircraft. By the end of the year, rapid follow-on orders had increased this to 500 Cobras. Bell added \"Cobra\" to the UH-1's Huey nickname to produce its HueyCobra name for the 209. The Army applied the Cobra name to its AH-1G designation for the helicopter. The Bell 209 demonstrator was used for the next six years to test weapons and fit of equipment. An additional use for the demonstrator was participating in marketing initiatives. It was also modified to match the AH-1 production standard by the early 1970s. The demonstrator was retired to the Patton Museum at Fort Knox, Kentucky and converted to approximately its original appearance.",
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"plaintext": "The Bell 209 design was modified in several respects for production. The retractable skids were replaced by simpler fixed skids; this was not due to any recorded design flaw or serviceably, but it was feared that the landing gear bay could become inundated with mud. Furthermore, a new wide-chord rotor blade was adopted. It was also decided that a plexiglass canopy should replace the Model 209's armored glass canopy, which was heavy enough to negatively impact performance. The umbrella-shaped dive brake was deleted, having reportedly self-destructed during its first test flight.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous changes of the design were incorporated after the Cobra had entered service. The principal amongst these changes was the repositioning of the tail rotor from the helicopter's left side to the right, which facilitated an increase in the effectiveness of the tail rotor. The AH-1 was the first U.S. Army helicopter not named for a Native American people since the practice began with the H-13 Sioux and continued with the UH-1 Iroquois, AH-56 Cheyenne, OH-58 Kiowa, and later helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "Within its first decade of service, the US Army had put the original Cobra model through various exercises and operations, which highlighted both the attack helicopter's promise and areas in which it could be improved. By 1972, the US Army openly sought an improved anti-armor capability. Under the Improved Cobra Armament Program (ICAP), trials of eight AH-1s fitted with TOW missiles were conducted in October 1973. After passing qualification tests the following year, Bell was contracted with upgrading 101 AH-1Gs to the TOW-capable AH-1Q configuration. While early-production examples were not compatible with night vision goggles, the cockpit instrumentation of later Cobras was altered to facilitate their use.",
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"plaintext": "Further variants of the Cobra were promptly developed, with both new-build models and early production examples being modified to incorporate the improvements. During March 1978, the US Army opted to procure a batch of 100 new-build Cobras that featured a new T-shaped instrument panel, improved composite rotor blades, revised transmission and gearboxes, the M128 helmet-mounted sight, and the M28A3 armament system. A major feature was the adoption of the more powerful T53 engine. Designated AH-1S, the Cobra was upgraded in three stages, culminating with the AH-1F. The AH-1F integrated numerous countermeasures, including an infrared jammer, a radar jammer, and a hot plume exhaust suppressor.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) quickly became interested in the Cobra, opting to order an improved twin-engine version in 1968 under the designation AH-1J. During the early 1970s, the USMC proceeded to order an upgraded model, the AH-1T, which featured dynamic elements derived from the abortive Bell 309 KingCobra; as such, it featured a longer fuselage and tailboom. These dynamic changes were combined with the adoption of heavier armaments, which provided the USMC with an effective anti-armour capacity, unlike the preceding model. The USMC's interest in the Cobra would lead to the production of more twin-engine variants of the helicopter.",
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"plaintext": "The Bell AH-1 Cobra is a dedicated attack helicopter, built to provide close air support and to escort friendly troop transports. The visual design of the Cobra was intentionally made to be sleek and be akin to that of a jet fighter. Aviation author Stanley McGowen observed that its appearance differed radically from any prior rotorcraft designed by Bell, possessing a relatively narrow fuselage and a then-unusual cockpit arrangement. This cockpit was covered by a large fighter-like canopy and its occupants protected by armor, such included tempered-steel seats and personal body armor. It was operated by both a pilot and gunner, who were seated in a stepped tandem arrangement in which the commander was placed in the rear seat while the gunner occupied the forward position. This forward position provided a higher level of visibility to that of the rear seat. Both positions were provided with flying controls while both crew would typically be certified pilots, enabling control of the Cobra to be exchanged quickly through the course of the mission.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the Cobra's armaments could be installed upon the multiple hardpoints that were attached to the stub wings set on either side of the fuselage. In comparison to armed UH-1s, the Cobra would typically carried twice as much ammunition and arrive on station in half the time, it also had three times the loiter time, which enabled the type to arrive in a designated landing zone ahead of transport helicopters to clear it, provide support fire while they are present, and to continue fighting as they withdraw. The slim profile of the helicopter allegedly provided defensive benefits by making it harder for opponents to accurately hit it with small arms fire, although man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS) did prove to be effective against the Cobra. Particularly vulnerable areas included the tail rotor drive shaft and to the main transmission.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, the Cobra would avoid hovering at any point in an active engagement; instead, emphasis was placed on maintaining speed and mobility. The gunner often fired the chin-mounted cannon with the intention of suppressing hostile targets in between barrages of 2.75-inch rockets, held in pods upon the stub wings, which were fired by the back-seater. It was unusual for Cobras to operate alone; instead, two or more would be dispatched and teamwork encouraged, leading to hunter-killer tactics being used to flush out and eliminate ground targets. Pairings with other helicopters, such as the Bell OH-58 Kiowa scout helicopter, were also common occurrences. Radio communications were handled by the gunner. Regardless of mission profile, low altitude flying was commonplace.",
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"plaintext": "By June 1967, the first AH-1G HueyCobras had been delivered. Originally designated as UH-1H, the \"A\" for attack designation was soon adopted and when the improved UH-1D became the UH-1H, the HueyCobra became the AH-1G. The AH-1 was initially considered a variant of the H-1 line, resulting in the G series letter.",
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"plaintext": "The first six AH-1s arrived at Bien Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam on 30 August 1967 for combat testing by the U.S. Army Cobra New Equipment Training Team. On 4 September, the type scored its first combat kill by sinking a sampan boat, killing four Viet Cong. The first AH-1 unit, the 334th Assault Helicopter Company, was declared operational on 6 October 1967. The Army operated the Cobra continuously up to the U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam in 1973. Typically, the AH-1 provided fire support for ground forces and escorted transport helicopters, in addition to other roles, including aerial rocket artillery (ARA) battalions in the two Airmobile divisions. They also formed \"hunter killer\" teams by pairing with OH-6A scout helicopters; a team normally comprised a single OH-6 flying slow and low to find enemy forces. If the OH-6 drew fire, the Cobra could strike at the then revealed enemy. ",
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"plaintext": "On 12 September 1968, Capt. Ronald Fogleman was flying an F-100 Super Sabre when the aircraft was shot down and he ejected north of Bien Hoa. Fogleman became the only pilot to be rescued by holding on to an Army AH-1G's deployed gun-panel door. Bell built 1,116 AH-1Gs for the U.S. Army between 1967 and 1973, and the Cobras chalked up over a million operational hours in Vietnam; the number of Cobras in service peaked at 1,081. Out of nearly 1,110 AH-1s that were delivered between 1967 and 1973, approximately 300 were lost to a combination of combat and accidents during the conflict. During Operation Lam Son 719 in Southeastern Laos, 26 U.S Army AH-1Gs were destroyed while a further 158 sustained some level of damage.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Marine Corps also operated the AH-1G Cobra in Vietnam for a short time before acquiring the twin-engine AH-1J Cobras. The AH-1Gs had been adopted by the Marines as an interim measure, a total of 38 helicopters having been transferred from the U.S. Army to the Marines in 1969. ",
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"plaintext": "During Operation Urgent Fury, the invasion of Grenada in 1983, several AH-1T Cobras were deployed to fly close air support and helicopter escort missions. On the first day of the invasion, two of the four Cobras involved were lost to anti-aircraft fire in the attack on Fort Frederick.",
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"plaintext": "During 1989, Army Cobras participated in Operation Just Cause, the U.S. invasion of Panama. It operated alongside its eventual successor in US Army service, the Boeing AH-64 Apache, for the first time during the combat in Panama. ",
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"plaintext": "During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in the Gulf War (1990–91), both the Cobras and SuperCobras deployed in a support role. The USMC deployed 91 AH-1W SuperCobras while the US Army operated 140 AH-1 Cobras of various models in the theatre; these were typically operated from dispersed forward operating bases in close proximity to Saudi Arabia's border with Iraq. Three AH-1s were lost in accidents during fighting and afterward. Cobras successfully destroyed large numbers of Iraqi armored vehicles and various other targets during the intense fighting of the conflict.",
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"plaintext": "US Cobras were deployed in further operations across the 1990s. Army Cobras provided support for the US humanitarian intervention during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia in 1993. They were also employed during the US invasion of Haiti in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1990s, the US Army gradually phased out its Cobra fleet, completely retiring the type from active service in March 1999. The service, which had long sought a more capable successor to the Cobra, had procured a large fleet of AH-64 Apaches since receiving the first example of the type during early 1984. The withdrawn AH-1s were typically offered to other potential operators, usually NATO allies. The Army retired the AH-1 from its reserves in September 2001. The retired AH-1s were then disposed of, often through sales to overseas customers; the final portion of the fleet was liquidated in 2010. Some were also given to the USDA's Forest Service. The US Marine Corps retired the AH-1W SuperCobra in 2020, and continues to operate the AH-1Z Viper.",
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"plaintext": "Israel was an early export customer for the Cobra, purchasing six AH-1Gs from the US Army. The government was keen to procure a capable attack helicopter as recent combat in the Yom-Kippur War had shown a need for a capable platform for countering enemy armour. The type was operated by the Israeli Air Force (IAF), with the First Attack Helicopter Squadron being formally commencing on 1 December 1977. The service named the type as the \"Tzefa\" (, for Viper).",
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"plaintext": "On 9 May 1979, the IAF's Cobras performed their first attack, firing four Orev missiles at a house near Tyre, Lebanon, that was occupied by militants. Israel's fleet of Cobras was particularly active on the Lebanon front, having participated in the fighting there for in excess of 20 years. They were intensively used during the 1982 Lebanon War to destroy Syrian armor and fortifications alike, being reportedly responsible for the destruction of dozens of Syrian ground vehicles. In one operation alone, a pair of IAF Cobras destroyed three enemy tanks and one truck. Based upon its performance in the conflict, it was decided to remove the rocket pods and increase the amount of ammunition carried for the cannon instead. Other operational changes included a greater emphasis on cooperation with ground units to avoid friendly fire incidents.",
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"plaintext": "Largely due to a US embargo that prevented the purchase of further Cobras, Israel procured alternative platforms instead, including around 20 McDonnell Douglas MD 500 Defenders in late 1979. Between 1983 and 1985, by which time the embargo had been lifted, 24 new Cobras were purchased; the expanded fleet enabled the creation of a second squadron, known as the Fighting Family Squadron, on 1 June 1985. During 1990, the IAF received its first Boeing AH-64 Apache attack helicopters, having acquired a fleet of 42 by 2000. At the time of the Apache's procurement, there was considerable political controversy over the IAF's decision to overlook upgrades to its existing Cobra fleet in favour of acquiring an entirely separate model of attack helicopter.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the Cobras continued to play a role in major operations against groups such as Hezbollah, including Operations \"Accountability\" and \"Grapes of Wrath\", in southern Lebanon. During August 1996, the IAF's Cobra fleet was expanded yet again via 14 surplus US Army AH-1F Cobras being acquired, some of which were used by the front line squadrons while others were operated exclusively for flight training purposes. During the 2000s, the Cobra's precision strike capability was bolstered by the adoption of the Spike missile.",
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"plaintext": "During late 2013, Israel opted to retire the last of its 33 AH-1 Cobras from front line service, largely due to budget cuts. Its role was taken up entirely by the IAI's squadrons of AH-64 attack helicopters, while an extensive fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) took over the role of patrolling combat zones. The Cobra fleet was considerably older than the Apaches, which contributed to several fatal crashes of the type. The Cobras were also more expensive to maintain than UAVs and their use exposed pilots to attacks from man-portable air-defense systems operated by guerrilla groups. Around the same time frame, the IAF also pursued upgrades to its AH-64 fleet. In late 2014, Israel transferred 16 of the recently-withdrawn Cobras to the Royal Jordanian Air Force to bolster the numbers of their existing fleet.",
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"plaintext": "Japan manufactured 89 AH-1S Cobras under license by Fuji Heavy Industries from 1984 to 2000. The type is used by the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, and are Step 3 models, which are roughly the equivalent to the U.S. Army's AH-1Fs. The engine is the T53-K-703 turboshaft, which Kawasaki Heavy Industries produced under license. During the 2010s, Japan was examining options for procuring a fleet of new rotorcraft to replace its aging Cobras; it has been specified that the replacement helicopter would need to be marinized and able to operate from expeditionary airstrips or sea bases, and that between 30 and 50 such craft would be purchased.",
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"plaintext": "Jordan obtained an initial batch of 24 AH-1Fs during the late 1980s. In 2001, nine additional ex-US Army Cobras were acquired to supplement the fleet. During 2010, Jordan transferred 16 AH-1F helicopters to Pakistan under a US-sponsored support program that provided Islamabad with 40 AH-1 refurbished helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2014, Israel and Jordan came to an agreement under which the former transferred 16 ex-IAF Cobras to the Royal Jordanian Air Force. The deal was publicly stated to be for the purpose of increasing border security, which was viewed as a pressing concern of both nations due to the threats posed by Islamic State (IS) militants, as well as by other insurgent groups, at that time.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Jordanian Air Force has at least one squadron of Cobras in service, and is supposed to have used them in combat in Iraq and Syria.",
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"plaintext": "Turkey bought ten AH-1Ws in the early 1990s, and supplemented them with 32 ex-US Army Cobras. These additional units included several TAH-1P trainers while the majority were brought up to the AH-1F standard. During the 2010s, Turkish Cobras have repeatedly seen combat in operations against Kurdish insurgents around Turkey's borders with both Syria and Iraq. Several Cobras have reportedly been lost to enemy fire during these operations. Amid the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, Turkish Cobras were alleged to have fired upon several police vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1984 and 1986, Pakistan was supplied with an initial batch of 20 AH-1S gunships by the US; these were later upgraded with the C-NITE thermal imaging package. Operated by Pakistan Army Aviation, the service first used Cobra overseas in Somalia during the United Nations Operation in Somalia II, where a single squadron was deployed in 1994. Pakistani Cobras subsequently saw action in Sierra Leone.",
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"plaintext": "By 2013, Pakistan reportedly operated a fleet of 35 AH-1F helicopters. Maintaining these aircraft has been difficult, but possible through commercial channels. Additionally, the US government provided $750,000 through 2013 to update the existing AH-1F/S Cobra fleet. However, controversy over how much of this funding has actually been spent on Pakistan's Cobras has also been present throughout the 2010s. Turkey has also become a key supplier of spare parts for the Cobra, often free of cost, to Pakistan. During the 2010s, Pakistan lost a total of three aircraft in separate incidents.",
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"plaintext": "Pakistan repeatedly sought the Bell AH-1 SuperCobra from the US to supplement and replace its current AH-1 Cobras. Attempts to acquire the AH-1Z Viper or AH-64 Apache from the US were rejected, so Pakistan turned to buying other foreign attack helicopters. Possible candidates have included the Turkish T129, the Chinese CAIC Z-10, and the Russian Mi-35 Hind. In November 2014, Russia approved the sale of Mi-35M helicopters to Pakistan. In April 2015, China delivered three Z-10s to Pakistan. During the same month, the US Department of State approved the sale of 15 AH-1Zs and associated equipment to Pakistan. During October 2017, the T129 was also reported to be a contender for further orders.",
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"plaintext": "The Jordanian government offered to provide up to four surplus AH-1F Cobras to the Philippines for counter terrorism operations. The offer was later reduced to two units, which the Philippine government accepted. On 26 November 2019, an Antonov An-124 airlifter carried the two Bell AH-1F Cobras from Jordan to Clark International Airport/Clark Air Base. The helicopters are reportedly painted in a light grey livery similar to the paint scheme of the PAF's AgustaWestland AW109E armed helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the US Forest Service acquired 25 retired AH-1Fs from the US Army. These have been designated Bell 209 and are being converted into Firewatch Cobras with infrared and low light sensors and systems for real time fire monitoring. The last two Firewatch Cobras were retired in October 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The Florida Division of Forestry also acquired three AH-1Ps from the US Army. These are called Bell 209 \"Firesnakes\" and are equipped to carry a water/fire retardant system.",
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"plaintext": "Bell 209 Original AH-1G prototype with retractable skid landing gear. This model number is also used by the FAA for the civilian registration of former U.S. Army AH-1s used in firefighting service.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1G HueyCobra Initial 1966 production model gunship for the US Army, with one Avco Lycoming T53-13 turboshaft.",
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"plaintext": "JAH-1G HueyCobra One helicopter for armament testing including Hellfire missiles and multi-barrel cannon.",
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"plaintext": "TH-1G HueyCobra Two-seat dual-control trainer.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Z.14 HueyCobra The Spanish Navy purchased eight new-build AH-1Gs, designating the type the \"Z-14\". These were equipped with the M35 20mm cannon system, and were used to support coastal patrol boats. Four of these were lost in accidents. The remaining helicopters were retired in 1985 with three sent back to the US, and one kept in storage in Spain.",
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"plaintext": "YAH-1Q Eight AH-1Gs with XM26 Telescopic Sight Unit (TSU) and two M56 TOW 4-pack launchers.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1Q HueyCobra Equipped with the M65 TOW/Cobra missile subsystem, M65 Telescopic Sight Unit (TSU), and M73 Reflex sight. All future versions will be equipped with the TSU and be equipped to fire the TOW missile subsystem.",
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"plaintext": "YAH-1R AH-1G powered by a T53-L-703 engine without TOW system.",
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"plaintext": "YAH-1S AH-1Q upgrade and TOW system.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1S The baseline AH-1S is an AH-1Q upgraded with a T53-L-703 turboshaft engine. The AH-1S is also referred to as the \"Improved AH-1S\", \"AH-1S Modified\", or \"AH-1S(MOD)\" prior to 1988. (Prior to 1988, all upgraded aircraft were referred to as variants of the AH-1S.)",
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"plaintext": "QAH-1S A target drone conversion of the AH-1S by Bell-Bristol Aerospace under a joint US and Canada development program started in 1994. Honeywell further modified the QAH-1S into the Hokum-X by installing systems and hardware to allow it to simulate the Russian Kamov Ka-50 attack helicopter. Three Hokum-Xs were completed from 1998 to 2001.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1P 100 production aircraft with composite rotors, flat plate glass cockpit, and improved cockpit layout for nap-of-earth (NOE) flight. The AH-1P is also referred to as the \"Production AH-1S\", or \"AH-1S(PROD)\" prior to 1988. These improvements are considered Step 1 of the AH-1S upgrade program.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1E 98 production aircraft with the Enhanced Cobra Armament System (ECAS) featuring the M97A1 armament subsystem with a three-barreled M197 20mm cannon. The AH-1E is also referred to as the \"Upgunned AH-1S\", or \"AH-1S(ECAS)\" prior to 1988. These improvements are considered Step 2 of the AH-1S upgrade program. AH-1E aircraft included the M147 Rocket Management Subsystem (RMS) to fire rockets.",
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"plaintext": "AH-1F 143 production aircraft and 387 converted AH-1G Cobras. The AH-1F incorporates all Step 1 and 2 upgrades to the AH-1S. It also featured Step 3 upgrades: a head-up display, a laser rangefinder, an infrared jammer mounted above the engine exhaust, and an infrared suppressing engine exhaust system, and the M143 Air Data Subsystem (ADS). The AH-1F is also referred to as the \"Modernized AH-1S\", \"AH-1S Modernized Cobra\", or \"AH-1S(MC)\" prior to 1988.",
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"plaintext": "Model 249 Experimental demonstrator version fitted with the four-blade rotor system from Bell 412, an uprated engine, and experimental equipment, including Hellfire missiles.",
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"plaintext": "Bell 309 KingCobra Experimental all-weather version based on the AH-1G single-engine and AH-1J twin-engine designs. Two Bell 309s were produced; the first was powered by a PW&C T400-CP-400 Twin-Pac engine set and the second was powered by a Lycoming T-55-L-7C engine.",
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"plaintext": "A small number of former military helicopters are operated by civil organizations for display and demonstration, for example by Red Bull.",
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"plaintext": " Bahrain Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Royal Jordanian Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Kenya Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Pakistan Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Pakistan Army",
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"plaintext": " Republic of Korea Army",
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"plaintext": " Florida Department of Forestry",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Forest Service",
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"plaintext": "Former Operators",
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"plaintext": " Israeli Air Force",
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"plaintext": " Spanish Navy",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Army",
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"plaintext": " Washington State Department of Natural Resources",
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"plaintext": " Bernstein, Jonathan. US Army AH-1 Cobra Units in Vietnam (Osprey Combat Aircraft #41). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003. .",
"section_idx": 10,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bishop, Chris. Apache AH-64 Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) 1976–2005. Osprey Publishing, 2005. .",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. New Vanguard. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2006. .",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald, David. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald, David. \"AH-64A/D Apache and AH-64D Longbow Apache\". Modern Battlefield Warplanes. AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald, David and March, Daniel (eds). Modern Battlefield Warplanes. AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gunston, B. and Michael Spick. Modern Fighting Helicopters, pp.104–105. New York: Crescent Books, 1986. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " International Air Power Review, Volume 12. AIRtime Publishing, 2004. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nolan, Keith W. Into Laos: Dewey Canyon II/Lam Son 719, Vietnam 1971. Presidio Press, 1986. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richardson, Doug and Lindsay Peacock. Combat Aircraft: AH-64 Apache. London: Salamander Books, 1992. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wheeler, Howard A. Attack Helicopters, A History of Rotary-Wing Combat Aircraft. The Nautical and Aviation Publishing Company, 1987. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " AH-1 Cobra page on GlobalSecurity.org",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " AH-1 HueyCobra page on Rotorhead.org",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " AH-1 Cobra Photo Galleries on MidwaySailor.com",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cobras over the Frontier, by Usman Ansari.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " End of an era for Fort Drum's Cobras.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aircraft Training Manual, Attack Helicopter, AH-1 (TC 1-213), 1992",
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| [
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"1960s_United_States_attack_aircraft",
"1960s_United_States_helicopters",
"United_States_military_helicopters",
"Gunships",
"Single-turbine_helicopters",
"Aircraft_first_flown_in_1965",
"Attack_helicopters",
"Military_equipment_of_the_Vietnam_War"
]
| 219,629 | 30,624 | 392 | 135 | 0 | 0 | Bell AH-1 Cobra | 1965 attack helicopter family by Bell | [
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"Bell 209",
"AH1",
"Cobra",
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"Huey Cobra",
"Bell AH-1 HueyCobra",
"AH-1 Cobra"
]
|
37,746 | 1,107,677,917 | Boeing_AH-64_Apache | [
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"plaintext": "The Boeing AH-64 Apache () is an American twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear arrangement and a tandem cockpit for a crew of two. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night vision systems. It is armed with a M230 chain gun carried between the main landing gear, under the aircraft's forward fuselage, and four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons for carrying armament and stores, typically a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles and Hydra 70 rocket pods. The AH-64 has significant systems redundancy to improve combat survivability.",
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"plaintext": "The Apache began as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Army's Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra. The prototype YAH-64 was first flown on 30 September 1975. The U.S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later approved full production in 1982. After purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986. The advanced AH-64D Apache Longbow was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, with over 2,400 AH-64s being produced by 2020.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army is the primary operator of the AH-64. It has also become the primary attack helicopter of multiple nations, including Greece, Japan, Israel, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates. It has been built under license in the United Kingdom as the AgustaWestland Apache. American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used the Apache in its military conflicts in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip. British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.",
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"plaintext": "Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in 1972, in favor of projects like the U.S. Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Marine Corps AV-8A Harrier, the United States Army sought an aircraft to fill an anti-armor attack role that would still be under Army command. The 1948 Key West Agreement forbade the Army from owning combat fixed-wing aircraft. The Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth (NoE) flying. To this end, the U.S. Army issued a Request For Proposals (RFP) for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) program on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of this project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the \"Big Five\", with the AAH included.",
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"plaintext": "Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, and Sikorsky. In July 1973, the U.S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircraft's Toolco Aircraft Division (later Hughes Helicopters). This began the phase 1 of the competition. Each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes' Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bell's Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975. After evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes' YAH-64A over Bell's YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor and the instability of the YAH-63's tricycle landing gear arrangement.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64A then entered phase 2 of the AAH program under which three pre-production AH-64s would be built, additionally, the two YAH-64A flight prototypes and the ground test unit were upgraded to the same standard. Weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. Development of the Hellfire missile had begun in 1974, originally known by the name of Helicopter Launched, Fire and Forget Missile ('Hellfire' being a shortened acronym), for the purpose of arming helicopter platforms with an effective anti-tank missile.",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U.S. Army for Operational Test II. The Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at . The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, following the tradition of naming Army helicopters after Native American tribes. It was approved for full-scale production in 1982. In 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopter's facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984 (). The helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997. In 1986, the incremental or flyaway cost for the AH-64A was $7M and the average unit cost was approximately $13.9M based on total costs.",
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"plaintext": "A 1985 Department of Defense engineering analysis by the inspector general's office reported that significant design deficiencies still needed to be addressed by the contractor. The Army project manager Col. William H. Forster published a list of 101 action items. In 1986, the four 22-foot-long main rotor blades, each made from steel and composite material glued together to maximize strength and minimize weight by the Composite Structures Division of Alcoa Composites, were added to the list. The Army specification of 1500 flight hours was not being met and replacement was required after only 146 hours. After six changes to the design, the rotor blade life had been extended to 1400 hours by early 1991.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas studied an AH-64B, featuring an updated cockpit, new fire control system and other upgrades. In 1988, funding was approved for a multi-stage upgrade program to improve sensor and weapon systems. Technological advance led to the program's cancellation in favor of more ambitious changes. In August 1990, development of the AH-64D Apache Longbow was approved by the Defense Acquisition Board. The first AH-64D prototype flew on 15 April 1992. Prototype testing ended in April 1995. During testing, six AH-64D helicopters were pitted against a bigger group of AH-64As. The results demonstrated the AH-64D to have a sevenfold increase in survivability and fourfold increase in lethality compared to the AH-64A. On 13 October 1995, full-scale production was approved; a $1.9-billion five-year contract was signed in August 1996 to upgrade 232 AH-64As into AH-64Ds. On 17 March 1997, the first production AH-64D flew. It was delivered on 31 March.",
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"plaintext": "Portions of the Apache are produced by other aerospace firms. AgustaWestland has produced number of components for the Apache, both for the international market and for the British Army's AgustaWestland Apache. Since 2004, Korea Aerospace Industries has been the sole manufacturer of the Apache's fuselage. Fuselage production had previously been performed by Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical. The transfer of fuselage production led to a prolonged legal dispute between Teledyne Ryan and Boeing.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64D program cost a total of $11 billion through 2007. In April 2006, Boeing was awarded a $67.6 million fixed-price contract for the remanufacture of several existing U.S. AH-64As to the AH-64D configuration. Between May 2009 and July 2011, a further five contracts were issued to remanufacture batches of AH-64As to the upgraded D variant. Since 2008, nations operating the older AH-64A have been urged to undertake modernization programs to become AH-64Ds, as Boeing and the U.S. Army plan to terminate support for the A-model.",
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"plaintext": "By May 2019, Boeing tested in a wind tunnel a compound Apache scale model with a pusher propeller and small wing to increase range and speed, retaining the counter-torque tail rotor like the cancelled Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne of the 1960s. It would compete for the U.S. Army's FLRAA unveiled in April, developed from the Future Vertical Lift Capability Set 3 (medium rotorcraft) without the attack requirement, while the U.S. Army's FARA should replace the retired Bell OH-58 Kiowa scout and up to half of the AH-64 fleet.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64 Apache has a four-blade main rotor and a four-blade tail rotor. The crew sits in tandem, with the pilot sitting behind and above the co-pilot/gunner. Both crew members are capable of flying the aircraft and performing methods of weapon engagements independently. The AH-64 is powered by two General Electric T700 turboshaft engines with high-mounted exhausts on either side of the fuselage. Various models of engines have been used on the Apache; those in British service use engines from Rolls-Royce. In 2004, General Electric Aviation began producing more powerful T700-GE-701D engines, rated at for AH-64Ds.",
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"plaintext": "The crew compartment has shielding between the cockpits, such that at least one crew member can survive hits. The compartment and the rotor blades are designed to sustain a hit from rounds. The airframe includes some of protection and has a self-sealing fuel system to protect against ballistic projectiles. The aircraft was designed to meet the crashworthiness requirements of MIL-STD-1290, which specifies minimum requirement for crash impact energy attenuation to minimize crew injuries and fatalities. This was achieved through incorporation of increased structural strength, crashworthy landing gear, seats and fuel system.",
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"plaintext": "On a standard day, when temperatures are 59°F (15°C), the AH-64 has a vertical rate of climb of 1,775 feet per minute (541 m/min), and a service ceiling of 21,000 feet (6,400 m). However, on a hot day, when temperatures are 70°F (21°C), its vertical rate of climb is reduced to 1,595 fpm (486 m/min), and service ceiling is reduced to 19,400 feet (5,900 m) due to less dense air.",
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"plaintext": "One of the revolutionary features of the Apache was its helmet mounted display, the Integrated Helmet and Display Sighting System (IHADSS); among its capabilities, either the pilot or gunner can slave the helicopter's 30mm automatic M230 Chain Gun to their helmet, making the gun track head movements to point where they look. The M230E1 can be alternatively fixed to a locked forward firing position, or controlled via the Target Acquisition and Designation System (TADS). On more modern AH-64s, the TADS/PNVS has been replaced by Lockheed Martin's Arrowhead (MTADS) targeting system.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Army engagement training is performed under the Aerial Weapons Scoring System Integration with Longbow Apache Tactical Engagement Simulation System (AWSS-LBA TESS), using live 30mm and rocket ammunition as well as simulated Hellfire missiles. The Smart Onboard Data Interface Module (SMODIM) transmits Apache data to an AWSS ground station for gunnery evaluation. The AH-64's standard of performance for aerial gunnery is to achieve at least 1 hit for every 30 shots fired at a wheeled vehicle at a range of .",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64 was designed to perform in front-line environments, and to operate at night or day and during adverse weather conditions. Various sensors and onboard avionics allows the Apache to perform in these conditions; such systems include the Target Acquisition and Designation System, Pilot Night Vision System (TADS/PNVS), passive infrared countermeasures, GPS, and the IHADSS. Longbow-equipped Apaches can locate up to 256 targets simultaneously within . In August 2012, 24 U.S. Army AH-64Ds were equipped with the Ground Fire Acquisition System (GFAS), which detects and targets ground-based weapons fire sources in all-light conditions and with a 120° visual field. The GFAS consists of two sensor pods working with the AH-64's other sensors, and a thermographic camera that precisely locates muzzle flashes.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, it was announced that new targeting and surveillance sensors were under development to provide high-resolution color imagery to crews, replacing older low definition black-and-white imaging systems. Lockheed received the first contract in January 2016, upgrading the Arrowhead turret to provide higher-resolution color imaging with longer ranges and a wider field of view. In 2014, the U.S. Army was adapting its Apaches for increased maritime performance as part of the Pentagon's rebalance to the Pacific. Additional avionics and sensor improvements includes an extended-range radar capable of detecting small ships in littoral environments, software adaptions to handle maritime targets, and adding Link 16 data-links for better communications with friendly assets.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64 is adaptable to numerous different roles within its context as Close Combat Attack (CCA). In addition to the 30mm M230E1 Chain Gun, the Apache carries a range of external stores and weapons on its stub-wing pylons, typically a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire anti-tank missiles, and Hydra 70 general-purpose unguided rockets. An18-aircraft Apache battalion can carry 288 Hellfire missiles, each capable of destroying a tank. Since 2005, the Hellfire missile is sometimes outfitted with a thermobaric warhead; designated AGM-114N, it is intended for use against ground forces and urban warfare operations. The use of thermobaric \"enhanced blast\" weapons, such as the AGM-114N, has been a point of controversy. In October 2015, the U.S. Army ordered its first batch of Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) guided 70mm rockets for the Apache.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the 1980s, the Stinger and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles and the AGM-122 Sidearm anti-radiation missile were evaluated for use upon the AH-64. The Stinger was initially selected; the U.S. Army was also considering the Starstreak air-to-air missile. External fuel tanks can also be carried on the stub wings to increase range and mission time. The stub-wing pylons have mounting points for maintenance access; these mountings can also be used to secure personnel externally for emergency transport. Stinger missiles are often used on non-U.S. Apaches, as foreign forces do not have as many air superiority aircraft to control the skies. The AH-64E initially lacked the ability to use the Stinger to make room for self-defense equipment, but the capability was added back following a South Korean demand.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64E is able to control unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), used by the U.S. Army to perform aerial scouting missions previously performed by the OH-58 Kiowa. Apaches can request to take control of an RQ-7 Shadow or MQ-1C Grey Eagle from ground control stations to safely scout via datalink communications. There are four levels of UAV interoperability (LOI): LOI 1 indirectly receives payload data; LOI 2 receives payload data through direct communication; LOI 3 deploys the UAV's armaments; and LOI 4 takes over flight control. UAVs can search for enemies and, if equipped with a laser designator, target them for the Apache or other friendly aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "Boeing has suggested that the AH-64 could be fitted with a directed energy weapon. The company has developed a small laser weapon, initially designed to engage small UAVs, that uses a high-resolution telescope to direct a 2–10kW beam with the diameter of a penny out to a range of . On the Apache, the laser could be used to destroy enemy communications or radio equipment. On 26 June 2017, the Army and Raytheon announced they had successfully completed the first-ever helicopter-based flight demonstration of a high energy laser system from an AH-64.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 July 2016, it was reported that the AH-64 had successfully completed testing of the MBDA Brimstone anti-armor missile. In January 2020, the U.S. Army announced it was fielding the Spike NLOS missile on AH-64E Apaches as an interim solution to acquire new munitions that provide greater stand-off capabilities.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1984, the U.S. Army formally accepted its first production AH-64A and training of the first pilots began later that year. The first operational Apache unit, 7th Battalion, 17th Cavalry Brigade, began training on the AH-64A in April 1986 at Fort Hood, Texas. Two operational units with 68 AH-64s first deployed to Europe in September 1987 and took part in large military exercises there.",
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"plaintext": "Upon fielding the Apache, capabilities such as the FLIR's use in extensive night operations made it clear that it was capable of operating beyond the forward line of own troops (FLOT) to which previous attack helicopters were normally restricted. It was discovered that the Apache was coincidentally fitted with the Have Quick UHF radio system used by the U.S. Air Force, allowing inter-service coordination and joint operations such as the joint air attack teams (JAAT). The Apache has operated extensively with close air support (CAS) aircraft, such as the USAF's Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the USMC's McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II, often acting as a target designator to conserve the Apache's own munitions. The Apache was first used in combat in 1989, during Operation Just Cause, the invasion of Panama. It participated in over 240 combat hours, attacking various targets, mostly at night. General Carl Stiner, the commander of the operation, stated: \"You could fire that Hellfire missile through a window from four miles away at night.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nearly half of all U.S. Apaches were deployed to Saudi Arabia following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. During Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991, eight AH-64As guided by four MH-53 Pave Low IIIs destroyed part of Iraq's radar network in the operation's first attack, allowing the attack aircraft to evade detection. Each Apache carried an asymmetric load of Hydra 70 rockets, Hellfires, and one auxiliary fuel tank. During the 100-hour ground war, a total of 277 AH-64s took part, destroying 278 tanks, numerous armored personnel carriers and other Iraqi vehicles. One AH-64 was lost in the war, crashing after a close range rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) hit, the crew survived. While effective in combat, the AH-64 presented serious logistical difficulties. Findings reported in 1990 stated \"maintenance units could not keep up with the Apache's unexpectedly high work load...\" To provide spare parts for combat operations, the U.S. Army unofficially grounded all other AH-64s worldwide; Apaches in the theater flew only one-fifth of planned flight-hours. Such problems were evident before the Gulf War.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64 played roles in the Balkans during separate conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s. During Task Force Hawk, 24 Apaches were deployed to a land base in Albania in 1999 for combat in Kosovo. These required 26,000tons of equipment to be transported over 550 C-17 flights, at a cost of . During these deployments, the AH-64 encountered problems, such as deficiencies in training, night vision equipment, fuel tanks, and survivability.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Major General Dick Cody, 101st Airborne's commanding officer, wrote a strongly worded memo to the Chief of Staff about training and equipment failures. Almost no pilots were qualified to fly with night vision goggles, preventing nighttime operations. The Washington Post printed a front-page article on the failures, commenting: \"The vaunted helicopters came to symbolise everything wrong with the Army as it enters the 21st century: Its inability to move quickly, its resistance to change, its obsession with casualties, its post-Cold War identity crisis\". Although no Apache combat missions took place, two were lost in training exercises. An effective network of Yugoslav air defenses stopped Apaches from being deployed on combat missions in Kosovo.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Apaches served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001. It was the only Army platform capable of providing accurate CAS duties for Operation Anaconda, often taking fire and quickly repaired during the intense early fighting. Apaches often flew in small teams with little autonomy to react to threats and opportunities, requiring lengthy dialogue with centrally micromanaged command structures. U.S. AH-64Ds typically flew in Afghanistan and Iraq without the Longbow Radar in the absence of armored threats. On 21 December 2009, a pair of U.S. Apaches attacked a British-held base in a friendly fire incident, killing one British soldier.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the AH-64 participated in the invasion of Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. On 24 March 2003, 31 Apaches were damaged; one was shot down in an unsuccessful attack on an Iraqi Republican Guard armored brigade near Karbala. Iraqi tank crews had set up a \"flak trap\" among terrain and effectively employed their guns. Iraqi officials claimed a farmer with a Brno rifle shot down the Apache, but the farmer denied involvement. The AH-64 came down intact and the crew were captured; it was destroyed via air strike the following day.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of U.S. military operations in Iraq in December 2011, several Apaches had been shot down by enemy fire and lost in accidents. In 2006, an Apache was downed by a Soviet-made Strela 2 (SA-7) in Iraq, despite it being typically able to avoid such missiles. In 2007, four Apaches were destroyed on the ground by insurgent mortar fire using web-published geotagged photographs taken by soldiers. Several AH-64s were lost to accidents in Afghanistan. Most Apaches that took heavy damage were able to continue their missions and return safely. By 2011, the U.S. Army Apache fleet had accumulated more than 3 million flight hours since the first prototype flew in 1975. A DOD audit released in May 2011 found that Boeing had frequently overcharged the U.S. Army for routine spare parts in helicopters like the Apache, ranging from 33.3 percent to 177,475 percent.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 February 2013, the 1st Battalion (Attack), 229th Aviation Regiment at Joint Base Lewis–McChord became the first U.S. Army unit to field the AH-64E Apache Guardian; a total of 24 AH-64E were received by mid-2013. On 27 November 2013, the AH-64E achieved initial operating capability (IOC). In March 2014, the 1st–229th Attack Reconnaissance Battalion deployed 24 AH-64Es to Afghanistan in the type's first combat deployment. From April through September 2014, AH-64Es in combat maintained an 88 percent readiness rate. The unit's deployment ended in November 2014, with the AH-64E accumulating 11,000 flight hours, each helicopter averaging 66 hours per month. The AH-64E flies faster than the AH-64D, cutting response time by 57 percent, and has better fuel efficiency, increasing time on station from 2.5–3 hours to 3–3.5 hours; Taliban forces were reportedly surprised by the AH-64E attacking sooner and for longer periods. AH-64Es also worked with medium and large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to find targets and maintain positive ID, conducting 60 percent of the unit's direct-fire engagements in conjunction with UAVs; Guardian pilots often controlled UAVs and accessed their video feeds to use their greater altitudes and endurance to see the battlespace from standoff ranges.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the Army began implementing a plan to move all Apaches from the Army Reserve and National Guard to the active Army to serve as scout helicopters to replace the OH-58 Kiowa. Using the AH-64 to scout would be less expensive than Kiowa upgrades or purchasing a new scout helicopter. AH-64Es can control UAVs like the MQ-1C Grey Eagle to perform aerial scouting missions; a 2010 study found the teaming of Apaches and UAVs was the most cost-effective alternative to a new helicopter and would meet 80 percent of reconnaissance requirements, compared to 20 percent with existing OH-58s and 50 percent with upgraded OH-58s. National Guard units, who would lose their attack helicopters, criticized the proposal. In March 2015, the first heavy attack reconnaissance unit was formed with 24 Apaches and 12 Shadow UAVs.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2014, the Pentagon announced that Apaches had been dispatched to Baghdad to protect embassy personnel from Islamic State militant attacks. On 4 October 2014, Apaches began performing missions in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State ground forces. In October 2014, U.S. Army AH-64s and Air Force fighters participated in four air strikes on Islamic State units northeast of Fallujah. In June 2016, Apaches were used in support of the Iraqi Army's Mosul offensive and provided support during the Battle of Mosul, sometimes flying night missions supporting Iraqi operations. In December 2019, two Apaches provided overwatch for U.S. Marines to secure the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, Iraq after armed militants, supported by Iran, attempted to storm the facility.",
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"plaintext": "The Israeli Air Force (IAF) first received AH-64As in 1990, for a fleet of 42 by 2000. The IAF's choice to buy Apaches over upgrading its AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters was controversial. In 2000, Israel was interested in acquiring up to 48 AH-64Ds, but U.S. reluctance to share the source code complicated the prospect. In April 2005, Boeing delivered the IAF's first AH-64D. In 2001, the U.S. government was allegedly investigating misuse of the Apache and other U.S.-supplied military equipment against Palestinians. In 2009, the sale of six AH-64Ds was reportedly blocked by the Obama Administration, pending interagency review, over concerns they may pose a threat to civilian Palestinians in Gaza. In IAF service, the AH-64A was named Peten (, for Cobra), while the AH-64D was named Saraph (, for venomous/fiery winged serpent).",
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"plaintext": "During the 1990s, Israeli AH-64As frequently attacked Hezbollah outposts in Lebanon. On 13 April 1996, during Operation Grapes of Wrath, an Apache fired two Hellfire missiles at an ambulance in Lebanon, killing six civilians. During the al-Aqsa Intifada in the 2000s, AH-64s were used to kill senior Hamas figures, such as Ahmed Yassin, Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, and Adnan al-Ghoul. Human Rights Watch documented instances of IAF Apaches attacking civilian homes during the 2002 Jenin operation, killing one civilian. Consequently, HRW urged the US government to seek written assurances from Israel that Apaches would not be used to violate humanitarian law in the future.",
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"plaintext": "IAF Apaches played a prominent role in the 2006 Lebanon War, launching strikes into Lebanon targeting Hezbollah forces. IAF Apaches also attacked civilian targets, killing many, including women and children. During this war, two AH-64As collided, killing one pilot and critically wounding three. In another incident in the conflict, an IAF AH-64D crashed due to a main rotor malfunction, killing the two crew. In late 2007, the IAF put further purchases and deliveries of AH-64Ds on hold while its performance envelope was investigated. Israeli officials praised the Apache for its role in Operation Cast Lead in 2008, against Hamas in Gaza. IAF Apaches have often patrolled the skies over Gaza; strikes against insurgents by these helicopters has become a frequent occurrence.",
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"plaintext": "As orders of new AH-64Ds have been blocked, the IAF pursued upgrades to its AH-64A fleet. In June 2010, Israel decided not to upgrade all AH-64As to the D model due to funding constraints and lack of U.S. cooperation. In December 2010, the IAF was examining the adoption of a new missile system as a cheaper and lightweight complement to the Hellfire missile, either the American Hydra 70 or the Canadian CRV7. By 2013, IAF AH-64As were receiving a comprehensive upgrade of their avionics and electrical systems. The AH-64As are being upgraded to the AH-64Ai configuration, which is near the AH-64D standard.",
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"plaintext": "IAF Apaches can carry Spike anti-tank missiles instead of the Hellfire. The latest AH-64D-I integrates Israeli systems such as Elta communications suite, Elbit mission management system, Rafael Combat Net system and Elisra self-protection suite.",
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"plaintext": "IAF AH-64s occasionally saw use in the air-to-air role. The first operational air-to-air kill took place on 24 May 2001, after a civilian Cessna 152 aircraft entered Israeli airspace from Lebanon and repeatedly refused to answer or comply with air traffic control (ATC) warnings; an IAF AH-64A fired on the Cessna, resulting in its disintegration. The second air-to-air kill occurred on 10 February 2018, after an Iranian UAV entered Israeli airspace from Syria, an AH-64 destroyed it with a missile.",
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"plaintext": "The UK currently operates a modified version of the AH-64D Block I Apache Longbow; initially called the Westland WAH-64 Apache, it is designated the Apache AH1 by the British Army. Westland built 67 WAH-64 Apaches under license from Boeing, following a competition between the Eurocopter Tiger and the Apache for the British Army's new Attack Helicopter in 1995. Important deviations made by AgustaWestland from the U.S. Apache variants include changing to more powerful Rolls-Royce engines, and the addition of a folding blade assembly for use on naval ships.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 July 2016, the Ministry of Defence confirmed a U.S. Foreign Military Sale worth $2.3 billion for 50 AH-64Es to be built in Mesa, Arizona. Leonardo Helicopters in the UK is to maintain the current fleet of Apaches until 2023–2024, with a long-term plan for Leonardo and other UK companies to \"do most of the work\" on the new fleet. The deal includes an initial support contract for maintenance of the new helicopters, along with spare parts and training simulators for UK pilots. The first UK helicopters are due off the U.S. production line in early 2020 and will begin entering service with the British Army in 2022. Components from the current Apache helicopters \"will be reused and incorporated into the new helicopters where possible.\" Approval for the re-manufacture of fifty of the UK's WAH-64 Mk 1 fleet to AH-64E Apache Guardian standard had been given by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency in August 2015. The aircraft will utilize the General Electric T700 engine rather than the Turbomeca RTM322 from the current fleet; the first off-the-shelf purchase of a GE engine by the Ministry of Defence. The first two AH-64Es were delivered to the British Army on 26 November 2020.",
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"plaintext": "The Dutch government initially showed an interest in acquiring Apache helicopters in the late 1980s, when it stated that it may purchase as many as 52. A competition held in 1994 against the Eurocopter Tiger and the Bell AH-1 SuperCobra led to the Royal Netherlands Air Force ordering 30 AH-64D Apaches in 1995. Deliveries began in 1998 and ended in 2002. The RNLAF Apaches are equipped with the Apache Modular Aircraft Survivability Equipment (AMASE) self-protection system to counter infrared (IR) missile threats.",
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"plaintext": "The RNLAF Apaches' first deployment was in 2001 to Djibouti, Africa. They were also deployed alongside U.S. AH-64s in support of NATO peacekeeping forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2004, six Dutch AH-64s were deployed as part of the Netherlands contribution to Multinational force in Iraq to support the Dutch ground forces. The Apaches performed close combat support and display of force missions, along with providing reconnaissance information to ground forces. In February 2006, the Netherlands contribution to NATO forces in Afghanistan was increased from 600 to 1,400 troops and 6 AH-64s were sent in support.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after Apaches were deployed to Hamid Karzai International Airport, as part of the Dutch contribution to ISAF, on 10 April 2004, a pair of Dutch Apaches came under light gunfire close to Kabul. On 17 December 2007, an RNLAF Apache flew into power lines during a night flying exercise in the Netherlands, forcing an emergency landing and causing a lengthy blackout in the region. On 17 March 2015, a RNLAF Apache crashed during a training mission in Mali. Both pilots died. The Ministry of Defence opened an investigation into the cause of the crash.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2018, the Netherlands decided to upgrade all their AH-64Ds to the latest AH-64E configuration through a Foreign Military Sales contract with the US, along with 17 APG-78 fire control radar units. In November 2021, the process to upgrade AH-64Ds began and RNLAF is to receive the upgraded AH-64Es between 2023 and 2025.",
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"plaintext": "Following the 1991 Gulf War, during which many U.S. Apaches operated from bases within Saudi territory, Saudi Arabia purchased twelve AH-64As for the Royal Saudi Land Force. It has been speculated that the Saudi purchase motivated Israel to also procure Apaches. In August 2006, Saudi Arabia began negotiations for Apache upgrades worth up to $400M, possibly remanufacturing their AH-64As to the AH-64D configuration. In September 2008, the U.S. Government approved a Saudi Arabian request to buy 12 AH-64Ds. In October 2010, Saudi Arabia requested a further 70 AH-64Ds as part of a possible massive arms deal.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2009, the Royal Saudi Land Force, as part of a military effort against insurgent border intrusions, launched Operation Scorched Earth; this involved Apaches launching air strikes against Houthi rebels operating inside neighboring Yemen. In January 2010 the rebels claimed to have shot down an Apache; this was denied by the Saudi military. In late January 2010, the leader of the Shiite rebels announced their withdrawal from Saudi territory, this announcement followed a key battle on 12 January when Saudi forces reportedly took control of the border village of Al Jabiri.",
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"plaintext": "As an escalation of the Yemeni Civil War, starting on 26 March 2015, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and several other regional allies started a military operation in Yemen. Both the Saudi Army Aviation and the United Arab Emirates Air Force used their AH-64s in combat against an alliance between elements of the Yemeni Army loyal to the former president Saleh and the Houthis. The Apaches were mostly involved in border patrol and strikes in North Western Yemen. Over the years, several Saudi and an Emirati Apaches were lost to incidents and enemy fire, although exact numbers have not been independently confirmed. On 17 March 2017, an Apache reportedly attacked a Somali refugee boat, killing 42 refugees. Saudi Arabia denied involvement, though it and the United Arab Emirates are the only militaries using Apaches during the conflict.",
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"plaintext": "The United Arab Emirates purchased 30 AH-64As between 1991 and 1994, and began upgrading to AH-64D specification in 2008. In December 2016, the U.S. State Department approved a proposed sale of another 37 AH-64Es and Congress was notified; this consisted of 28 re-manufactured and nine new-build helicopters.",
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"plaintext": "A UAE AH-64 was reportedly lost on 17 October 2017; a replacement was approved by the US in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, the Egyptian Air Force placed an order for 36 AH-64As. These Apaches were delivered with the same avionics as the U.S. fleet at that time, except for indigenous radio equipment. In 2000, Boeing announced an order to remanufacture Egypt's Apache fleet to the AH-64D configuration, except for Longbow radar, which had been excluded by the U.S. government. In 2009, Egypt requested a further 12 AH-64D Block IIs with Longbow radars through a Foreign Military Sale.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2012, the Egyptian Armed Forces undertook a large-scale military operation to regain control of the Sinai Peninsula from armed militants. Air cover throughout the operation was provided by the Egyptian Air Force's Apaches, which reportedly destroyed three vehicles and killed at least 20 militants. Up to five Egyptian Apaches were temporarily stationed in the Sinai following an agreement between Egypt and Israel. In September 2015, an Egyptian Apache attacked a group of foreign tourists in the Western Desert, killing 12 people and injuring 10. The Egyptian Interior Ministry stated that the group, whom were mistaken for militants, were in a restricted area.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2018, the U.S. Department of State approved the sale of ten AH-64Es and associated equipment to Egypt, valued at US$1 billion, pending the sale clearing Congress.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, the Indian Air Force (IAF) released a tender for 22 attack helicopters; there were six contending submissions: Sikorsky's UH-60 Black Hawk, the AH-64D, Bell's AH-1 Super Cobra, Eurocopter's Tiger, Mil's Mi-28 and AgustaWestland's A129 Mangusta. In October 2008, Boeing and Bell withdrew. In 2009, the competition was restarted. In December 2010, India requested the sale of 22 Apaches and associated equipment. On 5 October 2012, IAF Chief NAK Browne confirmed the Apache's selection. The IAF sought control of the 22 Apaches for air combat missions, while the Army Aviation Corps argued that they would be better used in army operations. In April 2013, the Indian Ministry of Defence (MoD) decided that the 22 AH-64s would go to the IAF. India ordered the 22 AH-64Es in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 May 2019, India received its first AH-64E in a ceremony at Boeing's Mesa, Arizona facility. On 3 September 2019, 8 AH-64Es were inducted into the IAF's 125 Helicopter Squadron at Pathankot Air Base, Punjab. On 12 June 2018, the U.S. Department of State approved a possible Foreign Military Sale to India for six more AH-64Es and associated equipment in an estimated $930 million deal. The U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress for approval. In February 2020, another six for the Indian Army were ordered, including weapons, equipment, and training; deliveries are planned to begin in 2023.",
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"plaintext": "Greece received 20 AH-64As by 1995; another 12 AH-64Ds were ordered in September 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Singapore purchased 20 AH-64Ds in two batches between 1999 and 2001. In October 2010, training was suspended following the forced crash-landing of an Apache.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Kuwait purchased 16 AH-64Ds.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 August 2013, Indonesia and the U.S. finalized a contract for eight AH-64E Apaches worth $500 million. The first was displayed on 5 October 2017 as part of a military exercise in Indonesia, to mark the 72nd anniversary of its armed forces. The first batch of AH-64s for the Indonesian Army arrived in Indonesia on 18 December 2017.",
"section_idx": 3,
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{
"plaintext": "Japan ordered 50 AH-64Ds, which were built under license by Fuji Heavy Industries, designated \"AH-64DJP\". The first helicopter was delivered to the JGSDF in early 2006. The order was halted after 13 aircraft were delivered due to cost. In 2017, it was announced that the targeting systems of the 13 aircraft would be upgraded. One was destroyed in a crash in February 2018 with the deaths of both crew.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2011, Taiwan (Republic of China) reached an agreement to purchase 30 AH-64Es with weapons and associated equipment. On 5 November 2013, Taiwan received the first 6 AH-64s. On 25 April 2014, a Taiwanese AH-64E crashed into a three-story building during a training flight in bad weather conditions, the first AH-64E airframe loss. An investigation ruled out mechanical failure and concluded that the pilots had rapidly descended through clouds at low altitude without checking flight instruments to maintain adequate height; the Army expanded simulator training in response. In October 2014, the fifth and final batch of AH-64Es was delivered to Taiwan.",
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{
"plaintext": "In 2009, South Korea showed interest in the Apache, potentially related to plans to withdraw many U.S. Apaches from the country. On 21 September 2012, the U.S. Congress was notified of the possible purchase of 36 AH-64E, along with associated equipment and armament. It competed against the Bell AH-1Z Viper and the TAI/AgustaWestland T-129; in April 2013, South Korea announced plans to buy 36 AH-64Es. The first four AH-64Es were delivered in May 2016, and all 36 were deployed by January 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Iraq requested the sale of 24 AH-64s in April 2013; In January 2014, a sale, including the helicopters, associated parts, maintenance, and training, was cleared by the U.S. Congress. However, the proposal was not accepted by the Iraqi government and expired in August 2014.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2012, Qatar requested the sale of 24 AH-64Es with associated equipment and support. The sale was approved on 27 March 2014. In March 2019, Qatar received the first of 24 AH-64Es ordered.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2016, the UK placed an order for 50 AH-64Es through the U.S. Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program instead of upgrading their Westland-built WAH-64s.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2019, Australia issued a request for information for Project Land 4503 to replace the Army's Eurocopter Tiger ARH helicopters. In August 2019, Boeing offered the AH-64E. On 15 January 2021, the Australian Minister for Defence Linda Reynolds announced that the AH-64E had been selected to replace the Tiger ARH. A fleet of up to 29 AH-64Es will be acquired with a planned initial operational capability of 12 helicopters in 2026 and full operational capability in 2028.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2019, Bangladesh proposed to purchase US military equipment. The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) was offered two types of attack helicopters and selected the AH-64, pending government approval. In January 2020, Boeing confirmed that its AH-64E was down-selected by Bangladesh. But due to the high costs of Apache, the BAF instead choose the competing Russian Mi-28NE Night Hunter.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2019, the U.S. State Department approved a Foreign Military Sale to Morocco of 24 AH-64Es (with an option for a further 12), this allows Morocco to negotiate an order.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 April 2020, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency announced it had received U.S. State Department approval and notified Congress of a possible sale to the Philippines of either six AH-1Z attack helicopters and related equipment for an estimated cost of $450 million or six AH-64Es and related equipment for an estimated cost of $1.5 billion.",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64A is the original production attack helicopter. The crew sit in tandem in an armored compartment. It is powered by two GE T700 turboshaft engines. The A-model was equipped with the −701 engine version until 1990 when the engines were switched to the more powerful −701C version.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Army AH-64As are being converted to AH-64Ds. The service's last AH-64A was taken out of service in July 2012 before conversion at Boeing's facility in Mesa, Arizona. On 25 September 2012, Boeing received a $136.8M contract to remanufacture the last 16 AH-64As into the AH-64D Block II version and this was planned to be completed by December 2013.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, after Operation Desert Storm, the AH-64B was a proposed upgrade to 254 AH-64As. The upgrade would have included new rotor blades, a Global Positioning System (GPS), improved navigation systems and new radios. U.S. Congress approved $82M to begin the Apache B upgrade. The B program was canceled in 1992. The radio, navigation, and GPS modifications were later installed on most A-model Apaches through other upgrades.",
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"plaintext": "Additional funding from Congress in late 1991 resulted in a program to upgrade AH-64As to an AH-64B+ version. More funding changed the plan to upgrade to AH-64C. The C upgrade would include all changes to be included in the Longbow except for mast-mounted radar and newer −700C engine versions. However, the C designation was dropped after 1993. With AH-64As receiving the newer engine from 1990, the only difference between the C model and the radar-equipped D model was the radar, which could be moved from one aircraft to another; thus the decision was made to simply designate both versions \"AH-64D\".",
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"plaintext": "The AH-64D Apache Longbow is equipped with a glass cockpit and advanced sensors, the most noticeable of which being the AN/APG-78 Longbow millimeter-wave fire-control radar (FCR) target acquisition system and the Radar Frequency Interferometer (RFI), housed in a dome located above the main rotor. The radome's raised position enables target detection while the helicopter is behind obstacles (e.g. terrain, trees or buildings). The AN/APG-78 is capable of simultaneously tracking up to 128 targets and engaging up to 16 at once; an attack can be initiated within 30 seconds. A radio modem integrated with the sensor suite allows data to be shared with ground units and other Apaches, allowing them to fire on targets detected by a single helicopter.",
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"plaintext": "The aircraft is powered by a pair of uprated T700-GE-701C engines. The forward fuselage was expanded to accommodate new systems to improve survivability, navigation, and 'tactical internet' communications capabilities. In February 2003, the first Block II Apache was delivered to the U.S. Army, featuring digital communications upgrades. The Japanese Apache AH-64DJP variant is based on the AH-64D; it can be equipped with the AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles for self-defense.",
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"plaintext": "Formerly known as AH-64D Block III, in 2012, it was redesignated as AH-64E Guardian. It has improved digital connectivity, the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System, more powerful T700-GE-701D engines with upgraded face gear transmission to handle more power, capability to control unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), full IFR capability, and improved landing gear. New composite rotor blades, which completed testing in 2004, increase cruise speed, climb rate, and payload capacity. Deliveries began in November 2011. Full-rate production was approved on 24 October 2012, 634 AH-64Ds will be upgraded into AH-64Es.",
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"plaintext": "Changes in production lots 4 through 6 include a cognitive decision aiding system and new self-diagnostic abilities. The updated Longbow radar has an oversea capacity, potentially enabling naval strikes; an AESA radar is under consideration. It will have a L-3 Communications MUMT-X datalink in place of two older counterparts, communicating on C, D, L, and Ku frequency bands to transmit and receive data and video with all Army UAVs. Lots 5 and 6 will have Link 16 data-links. The AH-64E is to be fit for maritime use. The Army expressed interest in extended-range fuel tanks for greater endurance. As of April 2020, 500 AH-64Es have been delivered.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Boeing conceptualized an Apache upgrade prior to the introduction of the U.S. Army's anticipated attack version of the Future Vertical Lift (FVL) aircraft, forecast to replace the Apache by 2040. The conceptual AH-64F would have greater speed via a new 3,000 shp turboshaft engine from the Improved Turbine Engine Program, retractable landing gear, stub wings to offload lift from the main rotor during cruise, and a tail rotor that can articulate 90 degrees to provide forward thrust. In October 2016, the Army revealed they would not pursue another Apache upgrade to focus on funding FVL; the Army will continue buying the Apache through the 2020s until Boeing's production line ends in 2026, then FVL is slated to come online in 2030.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, Boeing began testing the AH-64E Block 2 Compound, a compound helicopter design which added a larger fixed wing and a pusher propeller to the Apache airframe to provide additional lift and thrust, respectively. In addition, the engine exhaust was redirected downwards. Collectively, the modifications were anticipated to improve speed to , range to , payload to , and fuel economy. A 30% scale model completed wind tunnel testing in January 2019. The Compound Apache has been pitched as an interim replacement for the Apache before its replacement under the Future Vertical Lift program.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s naval versions of the AH-64A for the United States Marine Corps and Navy were examined. Multiple concepts were studied with altered landing gear arrangements, improved avionics and weapons. The USMC conducted a two-week evaluation of the Apache in September 1981, including shipboard operation tests. Funding for a naval version was not provided; the USMC continued to use the AH-1.",
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"plaintext": "The Canadian Forces Maritime Command also examined naval Apaches. In 2004, British Army AgustaWestland Apaches were deployed upon the Royal Navy's , a Landing Platform Helicopter, for suitability testing; there was U.S. interest in the trials. During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the British Army extensively used Apaches from HMS Ocean. In 2013, US AH-64Ds were tested on several U.S. Navy ships.",
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"plaintext": "Several models have been derived from both AH-64A and AH-64D and AH-64E for export. The British-built AgustaWestland Apache (assembled from kits purchased from Boeing) is based on the AH-64D Block I with several different systems, including more powerful engines, folding rotor blades, and other modifications for operation from Royal Navy vessels.",
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"plaintext": "While a major change in design or role will cause the type designator suffix to change, for example from AH-64D to AH-64E, the helicopters are also subject to block modification. Block modification is the combining of equipment changes into blocks of modification work orders, the modifications in the block (sometimes called a block package) are all done to the helicopter at the same time.",
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{
"plaintext": "Egyptian Air Force – 46 AH-64D",
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"plaintext": "Hellenic Army – 28 AH-64A/Ds",
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"plaintext": "Indian Air Force – 22 AH-64E in inventory as of July 2020",
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"plaintext": "Indian Army – 6 AH-64Es on order",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian Army 8 AH-64Es",
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"plaintext": "Israeli Air Force – 48 AH-64A/Ds",
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"plaintext": "Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (AH-64D)",
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{
"plaintext": "Kuwait Air Force – 24 AH-64Ds",
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"plaintext": "Royal Moroccan Air Force – 24 AH-64Es on order",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "Royal Netherlands Air Force – 28 AH-64Ds",
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"plaintext": "Qatar Emiri Air Force – 48 AH-64Es",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Royal Saudi Land Forces – 36 AH-64A/D/Es",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Saudi Arabia National Guard – 12 AH-64Es",
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},
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"plaintext": "Republic of Singapore Air Force – 19 AH-64Ds",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Republic of Korea Army – 36 AH-64Es",
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},
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"plaintext": "Republic of China Army – 29 AH-64Es",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "United Arab Emirates Air Force – 28 AH-64D/Es",
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},
{
"plaintext": "See also AgustaWestland Apache – 67",
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"plaintext": "United States Army – 800 AH-64D/Es",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bernstein, Jonathan. AH-64 Apache units of operations: Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2005. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bishop, Chris. Apache AH-64 Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) 1976–2005. Osprey Publishing, 2005. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald, David. \"AH-64A/D Apache and AH-64D Longbow Apache\". Modern Battlefield Warplanes. AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Feldman, Shai. The Middle East Strategic Balance, 2003–2004. Sussex Academic Press, 2004. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. Fourth Estate, 2005. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Government Accounting Office. Staff Study: Advanced Attack Helicopter. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Accounting Office, 1974.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Luttwak, Edward. Strategy: the Logic of War and Peace. Harvard University Press, 2001. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Office of the Assistant Vice Chief of Staff of the Army (OAVCSA). An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter Program. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. 1973.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Powers, Adam. United States Israeli Relations. Nova Publishers, 2002. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richardson, Doug and Lindsay Peacock. Combat Aircraft: AH-64 Apache. London: Salamander Books, 1992. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas, Adams K. The Army After Next: The First Postindustrial Army. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TM 1-1520-251-10 Technical Manual for Helicopter, Attack, AH-64D Longbow Apache, U.S. Army.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Williams, James W. A History of Army Aviation: From Its Beginnings to the War on Terror. iUniverse, 2005. .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "AH-64 Apache U.S. Army fact file (archived from the original on 2011-05-01)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Apache overview with supporting images on HowStuffWorks.com",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Top 10: Helicopters – AH-64D Apache. Discovery Channel, 8 May 2007.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "AH-64E U.S. Army video describing Apache Block III technologies",
"section_idx": 10,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Apache Helicopter Acoustic Analysis",
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},
{
"plaintext": "\"Boeing eyes X-49A technology for Apache attack helicopter\".",
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|
37,747 | 1,104,754,307 | Maurice_Duverger | [
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"plaintext": "Maurice Duverger (5 June 1917 – 16 December 2014) was a French jurist, sociologist, political scientist and politician born in Angoulême, Charente.",
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"plaintext": "Starting his career as a jurist at the University of Bordeaux, Duverger became more and more involved in political science and in 1948 founded one of the first faculties for political science in Bordeaux, France. An emeritus professor of the Sorbonne and member of the FNSP, he has published many books and articles in newspapers, such as Corriere della Sera, la Repubblica, El País, and especially Le Monde.",
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"plaintext": "Duverger studied the evolution of political systems and the institutions that operate in diverse countries, showing a preference for empirical methods of investigation rather than philosophical reasoning.",
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"plaintext": "He devised a theory which became known as Duverger's law, which identifies a correlation between a first-past-the-post election system and the formation of a two-party system.",
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"plaintext": "A member of Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français from age 20, Maurice Duverger completed his studies in from the Bordeaux Department of Law in 1942, before lecturing in law at Poitiers in 1942, and Bordeaux in 1943 (where he would, in 1948, found the Institut d'études politiques de Bordeaux as its first director). He also taught at Vichy France's Institut d'études corporatives et sociales.",
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"plaintext": "In his first publication, \"The Constitutions of France\" (1944), he explained that the French constitution of 1940 created a \"de facto government\". However, towards the end of the war, Duverger grew close to the Resistance, and in Libération analyzed the legitimacy of the new government of France and devoted himself to social-scientific theory.",
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"plaintext": "After the War, he taught in the faculty of law and economic sciences in Paris, 1955 to 1985, and contributed to Libération and Le Monde. From 1989 to 1994, he sat in the European Parliament as an MEP for the Italian Communist Party.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946 he expanded his theses, with a special interest in the relation between electoral systems and party systems. This interest is at the heart of his most important publication: \"The Political Parties\" (1951). The work is one of the classics of party research, translated into several languages. That thesis led to Duverger's law, and later he coined the term \"semi-presidentialism\" and \"semi-parliamentarism\".",
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"plaintext": "Having as a point of reference their structure, Duverger in his book Les Partis Politiques (1951) distinguished parties between elite-based parties and mass-based parties.",
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"plaintext": "Elite-based parties rather prefer the quality of their members over their quantity, their affiliates being people of great influence on local or national scale. They have flexible and disorganized structures, in general are weakly disciplined and lack developed pragmatic content, allowing each of their members to benefit from an enormous freedom of action. Their funding is generally provided by a sponsor, and as their strength comes from their elected representatives, they are typical parties of parliamentarian creation, which depend on the reputation and support of their benefactors.",
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"plaintext": "Mass-based parties possess a secure organization and a strong structure arranged as a pyramid, with superposed hierarchically-arranged levels. Their members identify themselves more with the party's ideology than with its leader, so they have an abstract adhesion. Their decisions are based on the participation of each one of its members, and its founding is granted by their members' payments, a situation that leads them to gain as many adherents as possible.",
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"plaintext": "These parties tend to develop on a par with suffrage and democracy. For instance, elite-based parties execute an often sporadic political labor, focused on elections. However, the disadvantage this implies in relation to their contestant parties (which denote permanent labor and a disciplined and organic structure), impels them to modify their organization to become mass-based parties.",
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"plaintext": "With discovery attributed to Duverger, he observed the effect and recorded it in several papers published in the 1950s and 1960s. In the course of further research, other political scientists began calling the effect a \"law\" or principle. Duverger's law suggests a nexus or synthesis between a party system and an electoral system: a proportional representation (PR) system creates the electoral conditions necessary to foster party development while a plurality system marginalizes many smaller political parties, resulting in what is known as a two-party system.",
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"plaintext": "In political science, Duverger's law is a principle which asserts that plurality rule elections structured within single-member districts tends to favor a two-party system. This is one of two hypotheses proposed by Duverger, the second stating that \"the double ballot majority system and proportional representation tend to multipartism.\"",
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"plaintext": " Les partis politiques (1951)",
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"plaintext": " Les finances publiques (1956)",
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"plaintext": " Méthodes de la science politique (1959)",
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"plaintext": " De la dictature (1961)",
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"plaintext": " Introduction à la politique (1964)",
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"plaintext": " Sociologie politique (1966)",
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"plaintext": " La démocratie sans les peuples (1967)",
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"plaintext": " Sociologie de la politique (1973)",
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"plaintext": " Les orangers du lac Balaton (1980)",
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"plaintext": " Factors in a Two-Party and Multiparty System, in Party Politics and Pressure Groups (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1972), pp.23–32.",
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"plaintext": " Modern Democracies: Economic Power Versus Political Power ",
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"plaintext": " La Cohabitation des Français ",
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"plaintext": " Europe des Hommes: Une Métamorphose Inachevée (1994) ",
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"plaintext": " The Idea of Politics: the Uses of Power in Society(1966)",
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"plaintext": "Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet (; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher and mathematician. His ideas, including support for a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, of which he has been called the \"last witness,\" and Enlightenment rationalism. He died in prison after a period of hiding from the French Revolutionary authorities.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet was born in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne), descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from the town of Condorcet in Dauphiné, of which they were long-time residents. Fatherless at a young age, he was taken care of by his devoutly religious mother who raised him as a girl till age nine. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he quickly showed his intellectual ability and gained his first public distinctions in mathematics. When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert.",
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"plaintext": "From 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics, entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral, which was well received, launching his career as a mathematician. He went on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences.",
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"plaintext": "In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus. Soon after, he met Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot became an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772 and Controller-General of Finance under Louis XVI in 1774.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin. He soon became an honorary member of many foreign academies and philosophic societies, including the American Philosophical Society (1775), the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1785), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1792)",
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"plaintext": "His political ideas, many in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably by John Adams who wrote two of his principal works of political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature and radical democracy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, and he continued serving in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot (1786), a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgot's economic theories. Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences, holding the post until the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the Académie française.",
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"plaintext": "In 1781, Condorcet wrote a pamphlet, Reflections on Negro Slavery, in which he denounced slavery. In 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus, giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire (1789), which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to the Church. In 1791, Condorcet, along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain, its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of constitutional monarchy. The journal's theme was that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading and that liberty is freedom from domination.",
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"plaintext": "In 1795, Condorcet's book Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind was published after his death by his wife Sophie de Grouchy. It dealt with theoretical thought on perfecting the human mind and analyzing intellectual history based on social arithmetic. Thomas Malthus wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) partly in response to Condorcet's views on the \"perfectibility of society.\"",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet took a leading role when the French Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for a rationalist reconstruction of society, and championed many liberal causes. As a result, in 1791 he was elected as a Paris representative in the Legislative Assembly, and then became the secretary of the Assembly.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet was not affiliated with any political party but counted many friends among the Girondins. He distanced himself from them during the National Convention, however, due to his distaste for their factionalism.",
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"plaintext": "He advocated women's suffrage for the new government, writing an article for Journal de la Société de 1789, and by publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité (\"For the Admission to the Rights of Citizenship For Women\") in 1790.",
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"plaintext": "The warrant forced Condorcet into hiding. He hid for five (or eight) months in the house of Mme. Vernet, on Rue Servandoni, in Paris. It was there that he wrote Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit), which was published posthumously in 1795 and is considered one of the major texts of the Enlightenment and of historical thought. It narrates the history of civilization as one of progress in the sciences, shows the intimate connection between scientific progress and the development of human rights and justice, and outlines the features of a future rational society entirely shaped by scientific knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 March 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left his hideout and attempted to flee Paris. He went to seek refuge at the house of Jean-Baptiste Suard, a friend of his with whom he had resided in 1772, but he was refused on the basis that he would be betrayed by one of their residents. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and imprisoned in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as it was known during the Revolution, Bourg-l'Égalité, \"Equality Borough\" rather than \"Queen's Borough\") where, after another two days, he was found dead in his cell. The most widely accepted theory is that his friend, Pierre Jean George Cabanis, gave him a poison which he eventually used. However, some historians believe that he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was too loved and respected to be executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in his work L'élite, la mort et la révolution) claims that Condorcet was killed with a mixture of Datura stramonium and opium.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet was symbolically interred in the Panthéon in 1989, in honour of the bicentennial of the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central figure in the Enlightenment. His coffin, however, was empty as his remains, originally interred in the common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine, were lost during the nineteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy, who was more than twenty years his junior. Sophie, reckoned one of the most beautiful women of the day, became an accomplished salon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished translator of Thomas Paine and Adam Smith. She was intelligent and well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The marriage was a strong one, and Sophie visited her husband regularly while he remained in hiding. Although she began proceedings for divorce in January 1794, it was at the insistence of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property from expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their young daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet was survived by his widow and four-year-old Eliza. Sophie died in 1822, never having remarried, and having published all her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, wife of former United Irishman Arthur O'Connor. The Condorcet-O'Connors published a revised edition between 1847 and 1849.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet's work was mainly focused on a quest for a more egalitarian society. This path led him to think and write about gender equality in the Revolutionary context. In 1790, he published \"Sur l'admission des femmes au droit de cité\" (\"On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship\") in which he strongly advocated for women's suffrage in the new Republic as well as the enlargement of basic political and social rights to include women. One of the most famous Enlightenment thinkers at the time, he was one of the first to make such a radical proposal.",
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"plaintext": "'The rights of men stem exclusively from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable of acquiring moral ideas and of reasoning upon them. Since women have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the same rights. Either no member of the human race has any true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes against the rights of another, whatever his religion, colour or sex, automatically forfeits his own.'",
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"plaintext": "A visionary, he identified gender as a social construction based on perceived differences in sex and rejected biological determinism as being able to explain gender relations in society. He denounced patriarchal norms of oppression, present at every institutional level, and continuously subjugating and marginalising women. Like fellow Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his book Emile ou De l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified education as crucial to the emancipation of individuals. He stated: \"I believe that all other differences between men and women are simply the result of education\". He saw it as the only solution for women to deconstruct gender roles and promote another kind of masculinity, not based on violence, virility and the subjugation of women but rather on shared attributes such as reason and intelligence. In her book Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism, Hooks calls this new concept \"feminine masculinity\", \"new models of self–assertion that do not require the construction of an enemy 'other,' be it a woman or the symbolic feminine, for them to define themselves against\".",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet's whole plea for gender equality is founded on the recognition that the attribution of rights and authority comes from the false assumption that men possess reason and women do not. This is, according to Nall, an obvious example of an individual practising and advocating this feminist masculinity. As such, women should enjoy the same fundamental \"natural right\".",
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"plaintext": "Scholars often disagree on the true impact that Condorcet's work had on pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors point out that, when he was eventually given some responsibilities in the constitutional drafting process, his convictions did not translate into concrete political action and he made limited efforts to push these issues on the agenda. Some scholars on the other hand, believe that this lack of action is not due to the weakness of his commitment but rather to the political atmosphere at the time and the absence of political appetite for gender equality on the part of decision-makers. Along with authors such as Mary Wollstonecraft, d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges, Condorcet made a lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate. ",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit (1795) was perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea of progress ever written. It made the Idea of Progress a central concern of Enlightenment thought. He argued that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion. He argued for three general propositions: that the past revealed an order that could be understood in terms of the progressive development of human capabilities, showing that humanity's \"present state, and those through which it has passed, are a necessary constitution of the moral composition of humankind\"; that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences \"no less certain, no less secure from political revolutions\"; that social evils are the result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature. He was innovative in suggesting that scientific medicine might in the future significantly extend the human life span, perhaps even indefinitely, such that future humans only die of accident, murder and suicide rather than simply old age or disease. Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an early transhumanist.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet's writings were a key contribution to the French Enlightenment, particularly his work on the Idea of Progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding. None of Condorcet's writings refer to a belief in a religion or a god who intervenes in human affairs. Condorcet instead frequently had written of his faith in humanity itself and its ability to progress with the help of philosophers such as Aristotle. Through this accumulation and sharing of knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to comprehend all the known facts of the natural world. The enlightenment of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment of the social and political world. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the perfect human existence and thus believed that the progression of the human race would inevitably continue throughout the course of our existence. He envisioned man as continually progressing toward a perfectly utopian society. He believed in the great potential towards growth that man possessed.",
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"plaintext": "However, Condorcet stressed that for this to be a possibility man must unify regardless of race, religion, culture or gender. To this end, he became a member of the French Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks). He wrote a set of rules for the Society of the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning and goals behind the organization along with describing the injustice of slavery and put in a statement calling for the abolition of the slave trade as the first step to true abolition.",
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"plaintext": "Condorcet was also a strong proponent of women's civil rights. He claimed that women were equal to men in nearly every aspect and asked why then should they be debarred from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the fact that women were limited by their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than average men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa.",
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"plaintext": "For Condorcet's republicanism the nation needed enlightened citizens and education needed democracy to become truly public. Democracy implied free citizens, and ignorance was the source of servitude. Citizens had to be provided with the necessary knowledge to exercise their freedom and understand the rights and laws that guaranteed their enjoyment. Although education could not eliminate disparities in talent, all citizens, including women, had the right to free education. In opposition to those who relied on revolutionary enthusiasm to form the new citizens, Condorcet maintained that revolution was not made to last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to prolong the revolutionary experience but to establish political rules and legal mechanisms that would insure future changes without revolution. In a democratic city there would be no Bastille to be seized. Public education would form free and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries.",
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"plaintext": "Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. However she suggests his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction indicate different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of the moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as the foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English-Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. There was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s and the liberal thought of the early 19th century.",
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"plaintext": " Cosimo Scarcella, Condorçet. Dottrine politiche e sociali, Lecce, Milella Editore 1980, p.312.",
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"plaintext": " Rothschild, Emma. Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet, and the Enlightenment (2001)",
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"plaintext": " The First Essay on the Political Rights of Women. A Translation of Condorcet's Essay \"Sur l'admission des femmes aux droits de Cité\" (On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship). By Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery (with preface and remarks) (Letchworth: Garden City Press, 1912). The Online Library Of Liberty.",
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"plaintext": "The British North America Act, 1867, also known as the BNA Act, comprises a major part of the Constitution of Canada. The Act entails the original creation of a federal dominion and sets the framework for much of the operation of the Government of Canada, including its federal structure, the House of Commons of Canada, the Senate, the justice system, and the taxation system. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867, with the patriation of the constitution (having originally been enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom). Amendments were also made at this time: section 92A was added, giving the Provinces greater control over non-renewable natural resources.",
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"plaintext": "This Act gave Canada the power to establish new provinces and territories and to change provincial boundaries with the affected province's consent. The act recognized the creation of the province of Manitoba, and also the incorporation of Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territories into Canada. This Act also allowed the Canadian parliament and the legislatures of Ontario and Quebec to redraw the boundaries of the province of Ontario and the province of Quebec in order to include parts of these land acquisitions, specifically around Hudson Bay and James Bay. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1871.",
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"plaintext": "This Act gave parliament the authority to allow the Territories of Canada to have representation in the Canadian Senate and Canadian House of Commons. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1886.",
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"plaintext": "This Act regulated transfer payments by the Federal government to the smaller provinces to support their legislatures and governments. The funds transferred were set at between $100,000 and $250,000 depending on the province's population with an extra $100,000 a year for ten years to British Columbia. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1907.",
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"plaintext": "This Act expanded the Senate of Canada by giving the Western Canadian provinces 24 senators, the same number that had been guaranteed to Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces. This Act also guaranteed Newfoundland six senators should that British domain ever join the Confederation– which it did in 1949. Finally, this act amended section 51 of the British North America Act of 1867 to guarantee that no province would have fewer members of the House of Commons than of the senate. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1915.",
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"plaintext": "This Act extended the duration of the 12th Canadian Parliament through October 1917, beyond the normal maximum of five years. The extension was carried out due to World War I. This Act was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act, 1927.",
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"plaintext": "This Act gave the newer provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan rights over certain natural resources found in federally controlled lands. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1930.",
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"plaintext": "This Act gave the Federal government jurisdiction over unemployment insurance, thus allowing such a program to be established on a national level. An earlier attempt to create an Employment and Social Insurance Act during the Great Depression had been ruled to be unconstitutional, since unemployment assistance was judged by the courts to be a provincial responsibility. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1940.",
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"plaintext": "This Act delayed redistribution of seats in the Canadian House of Commons until the end of World War II. This Act was repealed in 1982, as being completely outdated and obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "This Act adjusted the formula for distributing seats in the Canadian House of Commons among the provinces and territories. This Act was repealed in 1982, as having been superseded.",
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"plaintext": "This Act allowed for the entry of Newfoundland as Canada's tenth province. This Act was renamed the Newfoundland Act when the Canadian Constitution was patriated from the United Kingdom in 1982.",
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"plaintext": "This Act should not be confused with the British North America (No. 2) Act 1949 (see below).",
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"plaintext": "This Act granted Canada limited powers to amend its own constitution. The Parliament of Canada was thereafter allowed to amend the Canadian constitution in many areas of its own jurisdiction without first obtaining the consent of the British Parliament. However, the approval of the British Parliament was still needed for wider constitutional changes, such as those involving areas of provincial and federal responsibilities. Therefore, this Act can at best be considered a \"partial patriation\" of the Canadian Constitution.",
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"plaintext": "This Act was repealed in 1982 with the full patriation of the Canadian Constitution from the United Kingdom, and with the incorporation of a new, comprehensive procedure for amending the Constitution.",
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"plaintext": "This Act gave the Federal government the power to pass legislation concerning old age pensions, while also recognizing the rights of provincial legislatures to do so. While the Canadian Parliament had established an old age pension program in 1927, this was administered by the provinces and jointly funded by them. This Act of the British Parliament allowed the Federal government of Canada to administer and operate its own pension plan and allowed it to pass the Old Age Security Act. This Act was repealed in 1982, since it had been superseded.",
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"plaintext": "This was the first of the British North America Acts to be enacted by the Canadian Parliament (rather than by the British Parliament). That had been made possible under the provisions of the British North America (No. 2) Act, 1949.",
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"plaintext": "This Act changed the number of seats in the House of Commons and it also limited the number of seats that a province could lose due to redistribution based on the national census to 15% of its previous number of seats. This Act also gave the Yukon Territory its own Member of Parliament. This Act was repealed in 1982 as having become obsolete and superseded.",
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"plaintext": "This Act instituted a mandatory retirement age of 75 for all superior court judges. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1960.",
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"plaintext": "This Act extended the federal government's jurisdiction over pensions to include those of survivor's benefits and disability benefits while continuing to allow the provinces to have their own pension programs. This amendment to the BNA Act made the Canada Pension Plan possible. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1964.",
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"plaintext": "This Act established a mandatory retirement age of 75 for all members who were appointed to the Canadian Senate in future. Those who had been appointed before the passage of this Act were exempted. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1965.",
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"plaintext": "This Act changed the rules for the redistribution of seats in the House of Commons of Canada so that Quebec was allocated the fixed number of 75 seats, while the number of seats allocated to each of the other provinces would always be determined based upon the sizes of their populations in comparison with that of Quebec. However, the Provinces continued to be guaranteed to have at least as many members of the House of Commons as they had Senators. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1974.",
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"plaintext": "This Act increased the number of representatives from the Northwest Territories in the Canadian House of Commons, from one to two members. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act (No. 1), 1975.",
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"plaintext": "This Act increased the number of seats in the Canadian Senate from 102 to 104, and it allocated one seat to the Yukon Territory and one to the Northwest Territories. In 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act (No. 2), 1975.",
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| 919,906 | 1,187 | 152 | 66 | 0 | 0 | list of British North America Acts | Wikimedia list article | []
|
37,751 | 1,107,183,245 | Turtle | [
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"plaintext": "Turtles are an order of reptiles known as Testudines, characterized by a shell developed mainly from their ribs. Modern turtles are divided into two major groups, the side-necked turtles and hidden neck turtles, which differ in the way the head retracts. There are 360 living and recently extinct species of turtles, including land-dwelling tortoises and freshwater terrapins. They are found on most continents, some islands and, in the case of sea turtles, much of the ocean. Like other reptiles, birds, and mammals, they breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. Genetic evidence typically places them in close relation to crocodilians and birds.",
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"plaintext": "Turtle shells are made mostly of bone; the upper part is the domed carapace, while the underside is the flatter plastron or belly-plate. Its outer surface is covered in scales made of keratin, the material of hair, horns, and claws. The carapace bones develop from ribs that grow sideways and develop into broad flat plates that join up to cover the body. Turtles are ectotherms or \"cold-blooded\", meaning that their internal temperature varies with their direct environment. They are generally opportunistic omnivores and mainly feed on plants and animals with limited movements. Many turtles migrate short distances seasonally. Sea turtles are the only reptiles that migrate long distances to lay their eggs on a favored beach.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles have appeared in myths and folktales around the world. Some terrestrial and freshwater species are widely kept as pets. Turtles have been hunted for their meat, for use in traditional medicine, and for their shells. Sea turtles are often killed accidentally as bycatch in fishing nets. Turtle habitats around the world are being destroyed. As a result of these pressures, many species are threatened with extinction.",
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"plaintext": "The word turtle is derived from the French or ('turtle, tortoise'). It is a common name and may be used without knowledge of taxonomic distinctions. In North America, it may denote the order as a whole. In Britain, the name is used for sea turtles as opposed to freshwater terrapins and land-dwelling tortoises. In Australia, which lacks true tortoises (family Testudinidae), non-marine turtles were traditionally called tortoises, but more recently turtle has been used for the entire group.",
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"plaintext": "The name of the order, Testudines ( ), is based on the Latin word for tortoise, ; and was coined by German naturalist August Batsch in 1788. The order has also been historically known as Chelonii (Latreille 1800) and Chelonia (Ross and Macartney 1802), which are based on the Ancient Greek word for tortoise: (). Testudines is the official order name due to the principle of priority. The term chelonian is used as a formal name for members of the group.",
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"plaintext": "The largest living species of turtle (and fourth-largest reptile) is the leatherback turtle, which can reach over in length and weigh over . The largest known turtle was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle up to long, wide between the tips of the front flippers, and estimated to have weighed over . The smallest living turtle is Chersobius signatus of South Africa, measuring no more than in length and weighing .",
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"plaintext": "The shell of a turtle is unique among vertebrates and serves to protect the animal and provide shelter from the elements. It is primarily made of 50–60 bones and consists of two parts: the domed, dorsal (back) carapace and the flatter, ventral (belly) plastron. They are connected by lateral (side) extensions of the plastron.",
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"plaintext": "The carapace is fused with the vertebrae and ribs while the plastron is formed from bones of the shoulder girdle, sternum, and gastralia (abdominal ribs). During development, the ribs grow sideways into a carapacial ridge, unique to turtles, entering the dermis (inner skin) of the back to support the carapace. The development is signaled locally by proteins known as fibroblast growth factors that include FGF10. The shoulder girdle in turtles is made up of two bones, the scapula and the coracoid. Both the shoulder and pelvic girdles of turtles are located within the shell and hence are effectively within the rib cage. The trunk ribs grow over the shoulder girdle during development.",
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"plaintext": "The shell is covered in epidermal (outer skin) scales known as scutes that are made of keratin, the same substance that makes up hair and fingernails. Typically, a turtle has 38 scutes on the carapace and 16 on the plastron, giving them 54 in total. Carapace scutes are divided into \"marginals\" around the margin and \"vertebrals\" over the vertebral column, though the scute that overlays the neck is called the \"cervical\". \"Pleurals\" are present between the marginals and vertebrals. Plastron scutes include gulars (throat), humerals, pectorals, abdominals, and anals. Side-necked turtles additionally have \"intergular\" scutes between the gulars. Turtle scutes are usually structured like mosaic tiles, but some species, like the hawksbill sea turtle, have overlapping scutes on the carapace.",
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"plaintext": "The shapes of turtle shells vary with the adaptations of the individual species, and sometimes with sex. Land-dwelling turtles are more dome-shaped, which appears to make them more resistant to being crushed by large animals. Aquatic turtles have flatter, smoother shells that allow them to cut through the water. Sea turtles in particular have streamlined shells that reduce drag and increase stability in the open ocean. Some turtle species have pointy or spiked shells that provide extra protection from predators and camouflage against the leafy ground. The lumps of a tortoise shell can tilt its body when it gets flipped over, allowing it to flip back. In male tortoises, the tip of the plastron is thickened and used for butting and ramming during combat.",
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"plaintext": "Shells vary in flexibility. Some species, such as box turtles, lack the lateral extensions and instead have the carapace bones fully fused or ankylosed together. Several species have hinges on their shells, usually on the plastron, which allow them to expand and contract. Softshell turtles have rubbery edges, due to the loss of bones. The leatherback turtle has hardly any bones in its shell, but has thick connective tissue and an outer layer of leathery skin.",
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"plaintext": "The turtle's skull is unique among living amniotes (which includes reptiles, birds and mammals), it is solid and rigid with no openings for muscle attachment (temporal fenestrae). Muscles instead attach to recesses in the back of the skull. Turtle skulls vary in shape, from the long and narrow skulls of softshells to the broad and flattened skull of the mata mata. Some turtle species have developed large and thick heads, allowing for greater muscle mass and stronger bites.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles that are carnivorous or durophagous (eating hard-shelled animals) have the most powerful bites. For example, the durophagous Mesoclemmys nasuta has a bite force of . Species that are insectivorous, piscivorous (fish-eating), or omnivorous have lower bite forces. Living turtles lack teeth but have beaks made of keratin sheaths along the edges of the jaws. These sheaths may have sharp edges for cutting meat, serrations for clipping plants, or broad plates for breaking mollusks.",
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"plaintext": "The necks of turtles are highly flexible, possibly to compensate for their rigid shells. Some species, like sea turtles, have short necks while others, such as snake-necked turtles, have long ones. Despite this, all turtle species have eight neck vertebrae, a consistency not found in other reptiles but similar to mammals. Some snake-necked turtles have both long necks and large heads, limiting their ability to lift them when not in water. Some turtles have folded structures in the larynx or glottis that vibrate to produce sound. Other species have elastin-rich vocal cords.",
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"plaintext": "Due to their heavy shells, turtles are slow-moving on land. A desert tortoise moves at only . By contrast, sea turtles can swim at . The limbs of turtles are adapted for various means of locomotion and habits and most have five toes. Tortoises are specialized for terrestrial environments and have column-like legs with elephant-like feet and short toes. The gopher tortoise has flattened front limbs for digging in the substrate. Freshwater turtles have more flexible legs and longer toes with webbing, giving them thrust in the water. Some of these species, such as snapping turtles and mud turtles, mainly walk along the water bottom, as they would on land. Others, such as terrapins, swim by paddling with all four limbs, switching between the opposing front and hind limbs, which keeps their direction stable.",
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"plaintext": "Sea turtles and the pig-nosed turtle are the most specialized for swimming. Their front limbs have evolved into flippers while the shorter hind limbs are shaped more like rudders. The front limbs provide most of the thrust for swimming, while the hind limbs serve as stabilizers. Sea turtles such as the green sea turtle rotate the front limb flippers like a bird's wings to generate a propulsive force on both the upstroke and on the downstroke. This is in contrast to similar-sized freshwater turtles (measurements having been made on young animals in each case) such as the Caspian turtle, which uses the front limbs like the oars of a rowing boat, creating substantial negative thrust on the recovery stroke in each cycle. In addition, the streamlining of the marine turtles reduces drag. As a result, marine turtles produce a propulsive force twice as large, and swim six times as fast, as freshwater turtles. The swimming efficiency of young marine turtles is similar to that of fast-swimming fish of open water, like mackerel.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to other reptiles, turtles tend to have reduced tails, but these vary in both length and thickness among species and between sexes. Snapping turtles and the big-headed turtle have longer tails; the latter uses it for balance while climbing. The cloaca is found underneath and at the base, and the tail itself houses the reproductive organs. Hence, males have longer tails to contain the penis. In sea turtles, the tail is longer and more prehensile in males, who use it to grasp mates. Several turtle species have spines on their tails.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles make use of vision to find food and mates, avoid predators, and orient themselves. The retina's light-sensitive cells include both rods for vision in low light, and cones with three different photopigments for bright light, where they have full-color vision. There is possibly a fourth type of cone that detects ultraviolet, as hatchling sea turtles respond experimentally to ultraviolet light, but it is unknown if they can distinguish this from longer wavelengths. A freshwater turtle, the red-eared slider, has an exceptional seven types of cone cell.",
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"plaintext": "Sea turtles orient themselves on land by night, using visual features detected in dim light. They can use their eyes in clear surface water, muddy coasts, the darkness of the deep ocean, and also above water. Unlike in terrestrial turtles, the cornea, the curved surface that lets light into the eye, does not help to focus light on the retina, so focusing underwater is handled entirely by the lens, behind the cornea. The cone cells contain oil droplets placed to shift perception toward the red part of the spectrum, improving color discrimination. Visual acuity, studied in hatchlings, is highest in a horizontal band with retinal cells packed about twice as densely as elsewhere. This gives the best vision along the visual horizon. Sea turtles do not appear to use polarized light for orientation as many other animals do. The deep-diving leatherback turtle lacks specific adaptations to low light, such as large eyes, large lenses, or a reflective tapetum. It may rely on seeing the bioluminescence of prey when hunting in deep water.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles have no ear openings; the eardrum is covered with scales and encircled by a bony otic capsule, which is absent in other reptiles. Their hearing thresholds are high in comparison to other reptiles, reaching up to 500 Hz in air, but underwater they are more attuned to lower frequencies. The loggerhead sea turtle has been shown experimentally to respond to low sounds, with maximal sensitivity between 100 and 400Hz.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles have olfactory (smell) and vomeronasal receptors along the nasal cavity, the latter of which are used to detect chemical signals. Experiments on green sea turtles showed they could learn to respond to a selection of different odorant chemicals such as triethylamine and cinnamaldehyde, which were detected by olfaction in the nose. Such signals could be used in navigation.",
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"plaintext": "The rigid shell of turtles is not capable of expanding and making room for the lungs, as in other amniotes, so they have had to evolve special adaptations for respiration. The lungs of turtles are attached directly to the carapace above while below, connective tissue attaches them to the organs. They have multiple lateral (side) and medial (middle) chambers (the numbers of which vary between species) and one terminal (end) chamber.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs are ventilated using specific groups of abdominal muscles attached to the organs that pull and push on them. Specifically, it is the turtle's large liver that compresses the lungs. Underneath the lungs, in the coelomic cavity, the liver is connected to the right lung by the root, and the stomach is directly attached to the left lung, and to the liver by a mesentery. When the liver is pulled down, inhalation begins. Supporting the lungs is a wall or septum, which is thought to prevent them from collapsing. During exhalation, the contraction of the transversus abdominis muscle propels the organs into the lungs and expels air. Conversely, during inhalation, the relaxing and flattening of the oblique abdominis muscle pulls the transversus back down, allowing air back into the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles breathe air and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. Depending on the species, immersion periods vary between a minute and an hour. Some species can respire through the cloaca, which contains large sacs that are lined with many finger-like projections that take up dissolved oxygen from the water.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles share the linked circulatory and pulmonary (lung) systems of vertebrates, where the three-chambered heart pumps deoxygenated blood through the lungs and then pumps the returned oxygenated blood through the body's tissues. The cardiopulmonary system has both structural and physiological adaptations that distinguish it from other vertebrates. Turtles have a large lung volume and can move blood through non-pulmonary blood vessels, including some within the heart, to avoid the lungs while they are not breathing. They can hold their breath for much longer periods than other reptiles and they can tolerate the resulting low oxygen levels. They can moderate the increase in acidity during anaerobic (non-oxygen-based) respiration by chemical buffering and they can lie dormant for months, in aestivation or brumation.",
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"plaintext": "The heart has two atria but only one ventricle. The ventricle is subdivided into three chambers. A muscular ridge enables a complex pattern of blood flow so that the blood can be directed either to the lungs via the pulmonary artery, or to the body via the aorta. The ability to separate the two outflows varies between species. The leatherback has a powerful muscular ridge enabling almost complete separation of the outflows, supporting its actively swimming lifestyle. The ridge is less well developed in freshwater turtles like the sliders (Trachemys).",
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"plaintext": "Turtles are capable of enduring periods of anaerobic respiration longer than many other vertebrates. This process breaks down sugars incompletely to lactic acid, rather than all the way to carbon dioxide and water as in aerobic (oxygen-based) respiration. They make use of the shell as a source of additional buffering agents for combating increased acidity, and as a sink for lactic acid.",
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"plaintext": "In sea turtles, the bladder is one unit and in most freshwater turtles, it is double-lobed. Sea turtle bladders are connected to two small accessory bladders, located at the sides to the neck of the urinary bladder and above the pubis. Arid-living tortoises have bladders that serve as reserves of water, storing up to 20% of their body weight in fluids. The fluids are normally low in solutes, but higher during droughts when the reptile gains potassium salts from its plant diet. The bladder stores these salts until the tortoise finds fresh drinking water. To regulate the amount of salt in their bodies, sea turtles and diamondback terrapins secrete excess salt in a thick sticky substance from their tear glands. Because of this, sea turtles may appear to be \"crying\" when on land.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles, like other reptiles, have a limited ability to regulate their body temperature. This ability varies between species, and with body size. Small pond turtles regulate their temperature by crawling out of the water and basking in the sun, while small terrestrial turtles move between sunny and shady places to adjust their temperature. Large species, both terrestrial and marine, have sufficient mass to give them substantial thermal inertia, meaning that they heat up or cool down over many hours. The Aldabra giant tortoise weighs up to some and is able to allow its temperature to rise to some on a hot day, and to fall naturally to around by night. Some giant tortoises seek out shade to avoid overheating on sunny days. On Grand Terre Island, food is scarce inland, shade is scarce near the coast, and the tortoises compete for space under the few trees on hot days. Large males may push smaller females out of the shade, and some then overheat and die.",
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"plaintext": "Adult sea turtles, too, have large enough bodies that they can to some extent control their temperature. The largest turtle, the leatherback, can swim in the waters off Nova Scotia, which may be as cold as , while their body temperature has been measured at up to warmer than the surrounding water. To help keep their temperature up, they have a system of countercurrent heat exchange in the blood vessels between their body core and the skin of their flippers. The vessels supplying the head are insulated by fat around the neck.",
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"plaintext": "Most turtle species are opportunistic omnivores; land-dwelling species are more herbivorous and aquatic ones more carnivorous. Generally lacking speed and agility, most turtles feed either on plant material or on animals with limited movements like mollusks, worms, and insect larvae. Some species, such as the African helmeted turtle and snapping turtles, eat fish, amphibians, reptiles (including other turtles), birds, and mammals. They may take them by ambush but also scavenge. The alligator snapping turtle has a worm-like appendage on its tongue that it uses to lure fish into its mouth. Tortoises are the most herbivorous group, consuming grasses, leaves, and fruits. Many turtle species, including tortoises, supplement their diet with eggshells, animal bones, hair, and droppings for extra nutrients.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles generally eat their food in a straightforward way, though some species have special feeding techniques. The yellow-spotted river turtle and the painted turtle may filter feed by skimming the water surface with their mouth and throat open to collect particles of food. When the mouth closes, the throat constricts and water is pushed out through the nostrils and the gap in between the jaws. Some species employ a \"gape-and-suck method\" where the turtle opens its jaws and expands its throat widely, sucking the prey in.",
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"plaintext": "The diet of an individual within a species may change with age, sex, and season, and may also differ between populations. In many species, juveniles are generally carnivorous but become more herbivorous as adults. With Barbour's map turtle, the larger female mainly eats mollusks while the male usually eats arthropods. Blanding's turtle may feed mainly on snails or crayfish depending on the population. The European pond turtle has been recorded as being mostly carnivorous much of the year but switching to water lilies during the summer. Some species have developed specialized diets such as the hawksbill, which eats sponges, the leatherback, which feeds on jellyfish, and the Mekong snail-eating turtle.",
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"plaintext": "While popularly thought of as mute, turtles make various sounds to communicate. Tortoises may bellow when courting and mating. Various species of both freshwater and sea turtles emit short, low-frequency calls from the time they are in the egg to when they are adults. These vocalizations may serve to create group cohesion when migrating. The oblong turtle has a particularly large vocal range; producing sounds described as clacks, clicks, squawks, hoots, various kinds of chirps, wails, , grunts, growls, blow bursts, howls, and drum rolls.",
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"plaintext": "Play behavior has been documented in some turtle species. In the laboratory, Florida red-bellied cooters can learn novel tasks and have demonstrated a long-term memory of at least 7.5months. Similarly, giant tortoises can learn and remember tasks, and master lessons much faster when trained in groups. Tortoises appear to be able to retain operant conditioning nine years after their initial training.",
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"plaintext": "When sensing danger, a turtle may flee, freeze or withdraw into its shell. Freshwater turtles flee into the water, though the Sonora mud turtle may take refuge on land as the shallow temporary ponds they inhabit make them vulnerable. When startled, a softshell turtle may dive underwater and bury itself under the sea floor. If a predator persists, the turtle may bite or discharge from its cloaca. Several species produce foul-smelling chemicals from musk glands. Other tactics include threat displays and Bell's hinge-back tortoise can play dead. When attacked, big-headed turtle hatchlings squeal, possibly startling the predator.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles are the only reptiles that migrate long distances, more specifically the marine species that can travel up to thousands of kilometers. Some non-marine turtles, such as the species of Geochelone (terrestrial), Chelydra (freshwater), and Malaclemys (estuarine), migrate seasonally over much shorter distances, up to around , to lay eggs. Such short migrations are comparable to those of some lizards, snakes, and crocodilians. Sea turtles nest in a specific area, such as a beach, leaving the eggs to hatch unattended. The young turtles leave that area, migrating long distances in the years or decades in which they grow to maturity, and then return seemingly to the same area every few years to mate and lay eggs, though the precision varies between species and populations. This \"natal homing\" has appeared remarkable to biologists, though there is now plentiful evidence for it, including from genetics.",
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"plaintext": "How sea turtles navigate to their breeding beaches remains unknown. One possibility is imprinting as in salmon, where the young learn the chemical signature, effectively the scent, of their home waters before leaving, and remember that when the time comes for them to return as adults. Another possible cue is the orientation of the earth's magnetic field at the natal beach. There is experimental evidence that turtles have an effective magnetic sense, and that they use this in navigation. Proof that homing occurs is derived from genetic analysis of populations of loggerheads, hawksbills, leatherbacks, and olive ridleys by nesting place. For each of these species, the populations in different places have their own mitochondrial DNA genetic signatures that persist over the years. This shows that the populations are distinct and that homing must be occurring reliably.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles have a wide variety of mating behaviors but do not form pair-bonds or social groups. In green sea turtles, females generally outnumber males. In terrestrial species, males are often larger than females and fighting between males establishes a dominance hierarchy for access to mates. For most semi-aquatic and bottom-walking aquatic species, combat occurs less often. Males of these species instead may use their size advantage to mate forcibly. In fully aquatic species, males are often smaller than females and rely on courtship displays to gain mating access to females.",
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"plaintext": "Courtship varies between species, and with habitat. It is often complex in aquatic species, both marine and freshwater, but simpler in the semi-aquatic mud turtles and snapping turtles. A male tortoise bobs his head, then subdues the female by biting and butting her before mounting. The male scorpion mud turtle approaches the female from the rear, and often resorts to aggressive methods such as biting the female's tail or hind limbs, followed by a mounting.",
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"plaintext": "Female choice is important in some species, and female green sea turtles are not always receptive. As such, they have evolved behaviors to avoid the male's attempts at copulation, such as swimming away, confronting the male followed by biting or taking up a refusal position with her body vertical, her limbs widely outspread, and her plastron facing the male. If the water is too shallow for the refusal position, the females resort to beaching themselves, as the males do not follow them ashore.",
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"plaintext": "All turtles fertilize internally; mounting and copulation can be difficult. In many species, males have a concave plastron that interlocks with the female's carapace. In species like the Russian tortoise, the male has a lighter shell and longer legs. The high, rounded shape of box turtles are particular obstacles for mounting. The male eastern box turtle leans backward and hooks onto the back of the female's plastron. Aquatic turtles mount in water, and female sea turtles support the mounting male while swimming and diving. During copulation, the male turtle aligns his tail with the female's so he can insert his penis into her cloaca. Some female turtles can store sperm from multiple males and their egg clutches can have multiple sires.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles, including sea turtles, lay their eggs on land, although some lay eggs close near water that rises and falls in level, submerging the eggs. While most species build nests and lay eggs where they forage, some travel miles. The common snapping turtle walks on land, while sea turtles travel even further; the leatherback swims some to its nesting beaches. Most turtles create a nest for their eggs. Females usually dig a flask-like chamber in the substrate. Other species lay their eggs in vegetation or crevices. Females choose nesting locations based on environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, which are important for developing embryos. Depending on the species, the number of eggs laid varies from one to over 100. Larger females can lay eggs that are greater in number or bigger in size. Compared to freshwater turtles, tortoises deposit fewer but larger eggs. Females can lay multiple clutches throughout a season, particularly in species that experience unpredictable monsoons.",
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"plaintext": "Most mother turtles do no more in the way of parental care than covering their eggs and immediately leaving, though some species guard their nests for days or weeks. Eggs vary between rounded, oval, elongated, and between hard- and soft-shelled. Most species have their sex determined by temperature. In some species, higher temperatures produce females and lower ones produce males, while in others, milder temperatures produce males and both hot and cold extremes produce females. There is experimental evidence that the embryos of Mauremys reevesii can move around inside their eggs to select the best temperature for development, thus influencing their sexual destiny. In other species, sex is determined genetically. The length of incubation for turtle eggs varies from two to three months for temperate species, and four months to over a year for tropical species. Species that live in warm temperate climates can delay their development.",
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"plaintext": "Hatching young turtles break out of the shell using an egg tooth, a sharp projection that exists temporarily on their upper beak. Hatchlings dig themselves out of the nest and find safety in vegetation or water. Some species stay in the nest for longer, be it for overwintering or to wait for the rain to loosen the soil for them to dig out. Young turtles are highly vulnerable to predators, both in the egg and as hatchlings. Mortality is high during this period but significantly decreases when they reach adulthood. Most species grow quickly during their early years and slow down when they are mature.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles can live long lives. The oldest living turtle and land animal is said to be a Seychelles giant tortoise named Jonathan, who turned 187 in 2019. A Galápagos tortoise named Harriet was collected by Charles Darwin in 1835; it died in 2006, having lived for at least 176 years. Most wild turtles do not reach that age. Turtles keep growing new scutes under the previous scutes every year, allowing researchers to estimate how long they have lived. They also age slowly. The survival rate for adult turtles can reach 99% per year.",
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"plaintext": "Zoologists have sought to explain the evolutionary origin of the turtles, and in particular of their unique shells. In 1914, Jan Versluys proposed that bony plates in the dermis, called osteoderms, fused to the ribs beneath them, later called the \"Polka Dot Ancestor\" by Olivier Rieppel. The theory accounted for the evolution of fossil pareiasaurs from Bradysaurus to Anthodon, but not for how the ribs could have become attached to the bony dermal plates.",
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"plaintext": "More recent discoveries have painted a different scenario for the evolution of the turtle's shell. The stem-turtles Eunotosaurus of the Middle Permian, Pappochelys of the Middle Triassic, and Eorhynchochelys of the Late Triassic lacked carapaces and plastrons but had shortened torsos, expanded ribs, and lengthened dorsal vertebrae. Also in the Late Triassic, Odontochelys had a partial shell consisting of a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace. The development of a shell reached completion with the Late Triassic Proganochelys, with its fully developed carapace and plastron. Adaptations that lead to the evolution of the shell may have originally been for digging and a fossorial lifestyle.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest known members of the Pleurodira lineage are the Platychelyidae, from the Late Jurassic. The oldest known unambiguous cryptodire is Sinaspideretes, a close relative of softshell turtles, from the Late Jurassic of China. During the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic, members of the pleurodire families Bothremydidae and Podocnemididae became widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere due to their coastal habits. The oldest known soft-shelled turtles and sea turtles appeared during the Early Cretaceous. Tortoises originated in Asia during the Eocene. A late surviving group of stem-turtles, the Meiolaniidae, survived in Australasia into the Pleistocene and Holocene.",
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"plaintext": "The turtles' exact ancestry has been disputed. It was believed they were the only surviving branch of the ancient evolutionary grade Anapsida, which includes groups such as procolophonids and pareiasaurs. All anapsid skulls lack a temporal opening while all other living amniotes have temporal openings. It was later suggested that the anapsid-like turtle skulls may be due to backward evolution rather than to anapsid descent. Fossil evidence has shown that early stem-turtles possessed small temporal openings.",
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"plaintext": "Some early morphological phylogenetic studies have placed turtles closer to Lepidosauria (tuataras, lizards, and snakes) than to Archosauria (crocodilians and birds). By contrast, several molecular studies place turtles either within Archosauria, or, more commonly, as a sister group to extant archosaurs, though an analysis conducted by Tyler Lyson and colleagues (2012) recovered turtles as the sister group of lepidosaurs instead. Ylenia Chiari and colleagues (2012) analyzed 248 nuclear genes from 16 vertebrates and suggested that turtles share a more recent common ancestor with birds and crocodilians. The date of separation of turtles and birds and crocodilians was estimated to be during the Permian. Through genomic-scale phylogenetic study of ultra-conserved elements (UCEs) to clarify the placement of turtles within reptiles, Nicholas Crawford and colleagues (2012) similarly found that turtles are closer to birds and crocodilians.",
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"plaintext": "Using the draft (unfinished) genome sequences of the green sea turtle and the Chinese softshell turtle, Zhuo Wang and colleagues (2013) concluded that turtles are likely a sister group of crocodilians and birds. The external phylogeny of the turtles is shown in the cladogram below.",
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"plaintext": "Modern turtles and their extinct relatives with a complete shell are classified within the clade Testudinata. The most recent common ancestor of living turtles, corresponding to the split between Pleurodira (side-necked species) and Cryptodira (hidden necked species), is estimated to have occurred around during the Late Triassic. Robert Thompson and colleagues (2021) comment that living turtles have low diversity, relative to how long they existed. Diversity has been stable, according to their analysis, except for a single rapid increase around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary some 30 million years ago, and a large regional extinction at roughly the same time. They suggest that global climate change caused both events, as the cooling and drying caused the land to become arid and turtles to become extinct there, while new continental margins opened up by the climate change provided habitats for other species to evolve.",
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"plaintext": "The cladogram, from Nicholas Crawford and colleagues 2015, shows the internal phylogeny of the Testudines down to the level of families. The analysis by Thompson and colleagues in 2021 supports the same structure down to the family level.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles are divided into two living suborders: Cryptodira and Pleurodira. The two groups differ in the way the neck is retracted for protection. Pleurodirans retract their neck to the side and in front of the shoulder girdles, whereas cryptodirans retract their neck backward into their shell. These motions are enabled by the morphology and arrangement of neck vertebrae. Sea turtles (which belong to Cryptodira) have mostly lost the ability to retract their heads.",
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"plaintext": "The adductor muscles in the lower jaw create a pulley-like system in both subgroups. However, the bones that the muscles articulate with differ. In Pleurodira, the pulley is formed with the pterygoid bones of the palate, but in Cryptodira the pulley is formed with the otic capsule. Both systems help to vertically redirect the adductor muscles and maintain a powerful bite.",
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"plaintext": "A further difference between the suborders is the attachment of the pelvis. In Cryptodira, the pelvis is free, linked to the shell only by ligaments. In Pleurodira, the pelvis is sutured, joined with bony connections, to the carapace and to the plastron, creating a pair of large columns of bone at the back end of the turtle, linking the two parts of the shell.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles are widely distributed across the world's continents, oceans, and islands with terrestrial, fully aquatic, and semi-aquatic species. Sea turtles are mainly tropical and subtropical, but leatherbacks can be found in colder areas of the Atlantic and Pacific. Living Pleurodira all live in freshwater and are found only in the Southern Hemisphere. The Cryptodira include terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species, and these range more widely. The world regions richest in non-marine turtle species are the Amazon basin, the Gulf of Mexico drainages of the United States, and parts of South and Southeast Asia.",
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"plaintext": "For turtles in colder climates, their distribution is limited by constraints on reproduction, which is reduced by long hibernations. North American species barely range above the southern Canadian border. Some turtles are found at high altitudes, for example, the species Terrapene ornata occurs up to in New Mexico. Conversely, the leatherback sea turtle can dive over . Species of the genus Gopherus can tolerate both below freezing and over in body temperature, though they are most active at .",
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"plaintext": "Among vertebrate orders, turtles are second only to primates in the percentage of threatened species. 360 modern species have existed since 1500 AD. Of these, 51–56% are considered threatened and 60% considered threatened or extinct. Turtles face many threats, including habitat destruction, harvesting for consumption, the pet trade, light pollution, and climate change. Asian species have a particularly high extinction risk, primarily due to their long-term unsustainable exploitation for food and medicine, and about 83% of Asia's non-marine turtle species are considered threatened. As of 2021, turtle extinction is progressing much faster than during the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. At this rate, all turtles could be extinct in a few centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Turtle hatcheries can be set up when protection against flooding, erosion, predation, or heavy poaching is required. Chinese markets have sought to satisfy an increasing demand for turtle meat with farmed turtles. In 2007 it was estimated that over a thousand turtle farms operated in China. All the same, wild turtles continue to be caught and sent to market in large numbers, resulting in what conservationists have called \"the Asian turtle crisis\". In the words of the biologist George Amato, the hunting of turtles \"vacuumed up entire species from areas in Southeast Asia\", even as biologists still did not know how many species lived in the region. In 2000, all the Asian box turtles were placed on the CITES list of endangered species.",
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"plaintext": "Harvesting wild turtles is legal in some American states, and there has been a growing demand for American turtles in China. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission estimated in 2008 that around 3,000 pounds of softshell turtles were exported weekly via Tampa International Airport. However, the great majority of turtles exported from the US between 2002 and 2005 were farmed.",
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"plaintext": "Large numbers of sea turtles are accidentally killed in longlines, gillnets, and trawling nets as bycatch. A 2010 study suggested that over 8 million had been killed between 1990 and 2008; the Eastern Pacific and the Mediterranean were identified as among the areas worst affected. Since the 1980s, the United States has required all shrimp trawlers to fit their nets with turtle excluder devices that prevent turtles from being entangled in the net and drowning.",
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"plaintext": "More locally, other human activities are affecting marine turtles. In Australia, Queensland's shark culling program, which uses shark nets and drum lines, has killed over 5,000 turtles as bycatch between 1962 and 2015; including 719 loggerhead turtles and 33 hawksbill sea turtles, which are listed as critically endangered.",
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"plaintext": "Native turtle populations can also be threatened by invasive ones. The central North American red-eared slider turtle has been listed among the \"world's worst invasive species\", pet turtle having been released globally. They appear to compete with native turtle species in eastern and western North America, Europe, and Japan.",
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"plaintext": "Turtles have featured in human cultures across the world since ancient times. They are generally viewed positively despite not being \"cuddly\" or flashy; their association with the ancient times and old age have contributed to their endearing image.",
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"plaintext": "In Hindu mythology, the World Turtle, named Kurma or Kacchapa, supports four elephants on his back; they, in turn, carry the weight of the whole world on their backs. The turtle is one of the ten avatars or incarnations of the god Vishnu. The yoga pose Kurmasana is named for the avatar. World Turtles are found in Native American cultures including the Algonquian, Iroquois, and Lenape. They tell many versions of the creation story of Turtle Island. One version has Muskrat pile up earth on Turtle's back, creating the continent of North America. An Iroquois version has the pregnant Sky Woman fall through a hole in the sky between a tree's roots, where she is caught by birds who land her safely on Turtle's back; the Earth grows around her. The turtle here is altruistic, but the world is a heavy burden, and the turtle sometimes shakes itself to relieve the load, causing earthquakes.",
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"plaintext": "A turtle was the symbol of the Ancient Mesopotamian god Enki from the 3rd millennium BCE onward. An ancient Greek origin myth told that only the tortoise refused the invitation of the gods Zeus and Hera to their wedding, as it preferred to stay at home. Zeus then ordered it to carry its house with it, ever after. Another of their gods, Hermes, invented a seven-stringed lyre made with the shell of a tortoise. In the Shang dynasty Chinese practice of plastromancy, dating back to 1200 BCE, oracles were obtained by inscribing questions on turtle plastrons using the oldest known form of Chinese characters, burning the plastron, and interpreting the resulting cracks. Later, the turtle was one of the four sacred animals in Confucianism, while in the Han period, steles were mounted on top of stone turtles, later linked with Bixi, the turtle-shelled son of the Dragon King. Marine turtles feature significantly in Australian Aboriginal art. The army of Ancient Rome used the (\"tortoise\") formation where soldiers would form a shield wall for protection.",
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"plaintext": "In Aesop's Fables, \"The Tortoise and the Hare\" tells how an unequal race may be won by the slower partner. Lewis Carroll's 1865 Alice's Adventures in Wonderland features a Mock Turtle, named for a soup meant to imitate the expensive soup made from real turtle meat. In 1896, the French playwright Léon Gandillot wrote a comedy in three acts named that was \"a Parisian sensation\" in its run in France, and came to the Manhattan Theatre, Broadway, New York, in 1898 as The Turtle. A \"cosmic turtle\" and the island motif reappear in Gary Snyder's 1974 novel Turtle Island, and again in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series as Great A'Tuin, starting with the 1983 novel The Colour of Magic. It is supposedly of the species Chelys galactica, the galactic turtle, complete with four elephants on its back to support Discworld. Turtles have been featured in comic books and animations such as the 1984 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.",
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"plaintext": "Some turtles, particularly small terrestrial and freshwater species, are kept as pets. The demand for pet turtles increased in the 1950s, with the US being the main supplier, particularly of farm-bred red-eared sliders. The popularity for exotic pets has led to an increase in illegal wildlife trafficking. Around 21% of the value of live animal trade is in reptiles, and turtles are among the more popularly traded species. Poor husbandry of tortoises can cause chronic rhinitis (nasal swelling), overgrown beaks, hyperparathyroidism (which softens their skeleton), constipation, various reproductive problems, and injuries from dogs. In the early 20th century, people in the United States have organized and gambled on turtle races.",
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37,752 | 1,090,770,254 | Éraic | [
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"plaintext": "Éraic (or eric) was the Irish equivalent of the Welsh galanas and the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian weregild, a form of tribute paid in reparation for murder or other major crimes. The term survived into the sixteenth century as , by then relating only to compensation for the killing of an Irishman. In the case of homicide, if the attacker fled, the fine had to be paid by the tribe to which he belonged.",
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"plaintext": "In Irish mythology the éraic takes an important place. In the Oidheadh Chloinne Tuireann, the children of Tuirreann owe an éraic to Lugh. Lug set them a series of seemingly impossible quests as recompense. They achieved them all, but were fatally wounded in completing the last one.",
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37,753 | 1,105,428,770 | Isis | [
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"plaintext": "Isis (; Ēse; ; Meroitic: Wos[a] or Wusa) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingdom () as one of the main characters of the Osiris myth, in which she resurrects her slain brother and husband, the divine king Osiris, and produces and protects his heir, Horus. She was believed to help the dead enter the afterlife as she had helped Osiris, and she was considered the divine mother of the pharaoh, who was likened to Horus. Her maternal aid was invoked in healing spells to benefit ordinary people. Originally, she played a limited role in royal rituals and temple rites, although she was more prominent in funerary practices and magical texts. She was usually portrayed in art as a human woman wearing a throne-like hieroglyph on her head. During the New Kingdom (), as she took on traits that originally belonged to Hathor, the preeminent goddess of earlier times, Isis was portrayed wearing Hathor's headdress: a sun disk between the horns of a cow.",
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"plaintext": "In the first millennium BCE, Osiris and Isis became the most widely worshipped Egyptian deities, and Isis absorbed traits from many other goddesses. Rulers in Egypt and its neighbor to the south, Nubia, built temples dedicated primarily to Isis, and her temple at Philae was a religious center for Egyptians and Nubians alike. Her reputed magical power was greater than that of all other gods, and she was said to protect the kingdom from its enemies, govern the skies and the natural world, and have power over fate itself.",
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"plaintext": "In the Hellenistic period (323–30 BCE), when Egypt was ruled and settled by Greeks, Isis was worshipped by Greeks and Egyptians, along with a new god, Serapis. Their worship diffused into the wider Mediterranean world. Isis's Greek devotees ascribed to her traits taken from Greek deities, such as the invention of marriage and the protection of ships at sea, and she retained strong links with Egypt and other Egyptian deities who were popular in the Hellenistic world, such as Osiris and Harpocrates. As Hellenistic culture was absorbed by Rome in the first century BCE, the cult of Isis became a part of Roman religion. Her devotees were a small proportion of the Roman Empire's population but were found all across its territory. Her following developed distinctive festivals such as the Navigium Isidis, as well as initiation ceremonies resembling those of other Greco-Roman mystery cults. Some of her devotees said she encompassed all feminine divine powers in the world.",
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"plaintext": "The worship of Isis was ended by the rise of Christianity in the fourth through sixth centuries CE. Her worship may have influenced Christian beliefs and practices such as the veneration of Mary, but the evidence for this influence is ambiguous and often controversial. Isis continues to appear in Western culture, particularly in esotericism and modern Paganism, often as a personification of nature or the feminine aspect of divinity.",
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"plaintext": "Whereas some Egyptian deities appeared in the late Predynastic Period (before c. 3100 BCE), neither Isis nor her husband Osiris were mentioned by name before the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BCE). An inscription that may refer to Isis dates to the reign of Nyuserre Ini during that period, and she appears prominently in the Pyramid Texts, which began to be written down at the end of the dynasty and whose content may have developed much earlier. Several passages in the Pyramid Texts link Isis with the region of the Nile Delta near Behbeit el-Hagar and Sebennytos, and her cult may have originated there.",
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"plaintext": "Many scholars have focused on Isis's name in trying to determine her origins. Her Egyptian name was ꜣst, which became (Ēse) in the Coptic form of Egyptian, Wusa in the Meroitic language of Nubia, and Ἶσις, on which her modern name is based, in Greek. The hieroglyphic writing of her name incorporates the sign for a throne, which Isis also wears on her head as a sign of her identity. The symbol serves as a phonogram, spelling the st sounds in her name, but it may have also represented a link with actual thrones. The Egyptian term for a throne was also st and may have shared a common etymology with Isis's name. Therefore, the Egyptologist Kurt Sethe suggested she was originally a personification of thrones. Henri Frankfort agreed, believing that the throne was considered the king's mother, and thus a goddess, because of its power to make a man into a king. Other scholars, such as Jürgen Osing and Klaus P. Kuhlmann, have disputed this interpretation, because of dissimilarities between Isis's name and the word for a throne or a lack of evidence that the throne was ever deified.",
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"plaintext": "The cycle of myth surrounding Osiris's death and resurrection was first recorded in the Pyramid Texts and grew into the most elaborate and influential of all Egyptian myths. Isis plays a more active role in this myth than the other protagonists, so as it developed in literature from the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE) to the Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE), she became the most complex literary character of all Egyptian deities. At the same time, she absorbed characteristics from many other goddesses, broadening her significance well beyond the Osiris myth.",
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"plaintext": "Isis is part of the Ennead of Heliopolis, a family of nine deities descended from the creator god, Atum or Ra. She and her siblings—Osiris, Set, and Nephthys—are the last generation of the Ennead, born to Geb, god of the earth, and Nut, goddess of the sky. The creator god, the world's original ruler, passes down his authority through the male generations of the Ennead, so that Osiris becomes king. Isis, who is Osiris's wife as well as his sister, is his queen.",
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"plaintext": "Set kills Osiris and, in several versions of the story, dismembers his corpse. Isis and Nephthys, along with other deities such as Anubis, search for the pieces of their brother's body and reassemble it. Their efforts are the mythic prototype for mummification and other ancient Egyptian funerary practices. According to some texts, they must also protect Osiris's body from further desecration by Set or his servants. Isis is the epitome of a mourning widow. Her and Nephthys's love and grief for their brother help restore him to life, as does Isis's recitation of magical spells. Funerary texts contain speeches by Isis in which she expresses her sorrow at Osiris's death, her sexual desire for him, and even anger that he has left her. All these emotions play a part in his revival, as they are meant to stir him into action. Finally, Isis restores breath and life to Osiris's body and copulates with him, conceiving their son, Horus. After this point Osiris lives on only in the Duat, or underworld. But by producing a son and heir to avenge his death and carry out funerary rites for him, Isis has ensured that her husband will endure in the afterlife.",
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"plaintext": "Isis's role in afterlife beliefs was based on that in the myth. She helped to restore the souls of deceased humans to wholeness as she had done for Osiris. Like other goddesses, such as Hathor, she also acted as a mother to the deceased, providing protection and nourishment. Thus, like Hathor, she sometimes took the form of Imentet, the goddess of the west, who welcomed the deceased soul into the afterlife as her child. But for much of Egyptian history, male deities such as Osiris were believed to provide the regenerative powers, including sexual potency, that were crucial for rebirth. Isis was thought to merely assist by stimulating this power. Feminine divine powers became more important in afterlife beliefs in the late New Kingdom. Various Ptolemaic funerary texts emphasize that Isis took the active role in Horus's conception by sexually stimulating her inert husband, some tomb decoration from the Roman period in Egypt depicts Isis in a central role in the afterlife, and a funerary text from that era suggests that women were thought able to join the retinue of Isis and Nephthys in the afterlife.",
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"plaintext": "Isis is treated as the mother of Horus even in the earliest copies of the Pyramid Texts. Yet there are signs that Hathor was originally regarded as his mother, and other traditions make an elder form of Horus the son of Nut and a sibling of Isis and Osiris. Isis may only have come to be Horus's mother as the Osiris myth took shape during the Old Kingdom, but through her relationship with him she came to be seen as the epitome of maternal devotion.",
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"plaintext": "In the developed form of the myth, Isis gives birth to Horus, after a long pregnancy and a difficult labor, in the papyrus thickets of the Nile Delta. As her child grows she must protect him from Set and many other hazards—snakes, scorpions, and simple illness. In some texts, Isis travels among humans and must seek their help. According to one such story, seven minor scorpion deities travel with and guard her. They take revenge on a wealthy woman who has refused to help Isis by stinging the woman's son, making it necessary for the goddess to heal the blameless child. Isis's reputation as a compassionate deity, willing to relieve human suffering, contributed greatly to her appeal.",
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"plaintext": "Isis continues to assist her son when he challenges Set to claim the kingship that Set has usurped, although mother and son are sometimes portrayed in conflict, as when Horus beheads Isis and she replaces her original head with that of a cow—an origin myth explaining the cow-horn headdress that Isis wears.",
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"plaintext": "Isis's maternal aspect extended to other deities as well. The Coffin Texts from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE) say the Four sons of Horus, funerary deities who were thought to protect the internal organs of the deceased, were the offspring of Isis and the elder form of Horus. In the same era, Horus was syncretized with the fertility god Min, so Isis was regarded as Min's mother. A form of Min known as Kamutef, \"bull of his mother\", who represented the cyclical regeneration of the gods and of kingship, was said to impregnate his mother to engender himself. Thus, Isis was also regarded as Min's consort. The same ideology of kingship may lie behind a tradition, found in a few texts, that Horus raped Isis. Amun, the foremost Egyptian deity during the Middle and New Kingdoms, also took on the role of Kamutef, and when he was in this form, Isis often acted as his consort. Apis, a bull that was worshipped as a living god at Memphis, was said to be Isis's son, fathered by a form of Osiris known as Osiris-Apis. The biological mother of each Apis bull was thus known as the \"Isis cow\". Isis was said to be the mother of Bastet by Ra.",
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"plaintext": "In the Westcar Papyrus, Isis calls out the names of the three children as they are born. Barbara S. Lesko sees this story as a sign that Isis had the power to predict or influence future events, as did other deities who presided over birth, such as Shai and Renenutet. Texts from much later times call Isis \"mistress of life, ruler of fate and destiny\" and indicate she has control over Shai and Renenutet, just as other great deities such as Amun were said to do in earlier eras of Egyptian history. By governing these deities, Isis determined the length and quality of human lives.",
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"plaintext": "Isis's actions in protecting Osiris against Set became part of a larger, more warlike aspect of her character. New Kingdom funerary texts portray Isis in the barque of Ra as he sails through the underworld, acting as one of several deities who subdue Ra's archenemy, Apep. Kings also called upon her protective magical power against human enemies. In her Ptolemaic temple at Philae, which lay near the frontier with Nubian peoples who raided Egypt, she was described as the protectress of the entire nation, more effective in battle than \"millions of soldiers\", supporting Ptolemaic kings and Roman emperors in their efforts to subdue Egypt's enemies.",
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"plaintext": "Isis was also known for her magical power, which enabled her to revive Osiris and to protect and heal Horus, and for her cunning. By virtue of her magical knowledge, she was said to be \"more clever than a million gods\". In several episodes in the New Kingdom story \"The Contendings of Horus and Set\", Isis uses these abilities to outmaneuver Set during his conflict with her son. On one occasion, she transforms into a young woman who tells Set she is involved in an inheritance dispute similar to Set's usurpation of Osiris's crown. When Set calls this situation unjust, Isis taunts him, saying he has judged himself to be in the wrong. In later texts, she uses her powers of transformation to fight and destroy Set and his followers.",
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"plaintext": "Many stories about Isis appear as historiolae, prologues to magical texts that describe mythic events related to the goal that the spell aims to accomplish. In one spell, Isis creates a snake that bites Ra, who is older and greater than she is, and makes him ill with its venom. She offers to cure Ra if he will tell her his true, secret name—a piece of knowledge that carries with it incomparable power. After much coercion, Ra tells her his name, which she passes on to Horus, bolstering his royal authority. The story may be meant as an origin story to explain why Isis's magical ability surpasses that of other deities, but because she uses magic to subdue Ra, the story seems to treat her as having such abilities even before learning his name.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the roles Isis acquired gave her an important position in the sky. Passages in the Pyramid Texts connect Isis closely with Sopdet, the goddess representing the star Sirius, whose relationship with her husband Sah—the constellation Orion—and their son Sopdu parallels Isis's relations with Osiris and Horus. Sirius's heliacal rising, just before the start of the Nile flood, gave Sopdet a close connection with the flood and the resulting growth of plants. Partly because of her relationship with Sopdet, Isis was also linked with the flood, which was sometimes equated with the tears she shed for Osiris.",
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"plaintext": "By Ptolemaic times she was connected with rain, which Egyptian texts call a \"Nile in the sky\"; with the sun as the protector of Ra's barque; and with the moon, possibly because she was linked with the Greek lunar goddess Artemis by a shared connection with an Egyptian fertility goddess, Bastet. In hymns inscribed at Philae she is called the \"Lady of Heaven\" whose dominion over the sky parallels Osiris's rule over the Duat and Horus's kingship on earth.",
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"plaintext": "In Ptolemaic times Isis's sphere of influence could include the entire cosmos. As the deity that protected Egypt and endorsed its king, she had power over all nations, and as the provider of rain, she enlivened the natural world. The Philae hymn that initially calls her ruler of the sky goes on to expand her authority, so at its climax her dominion encompasses the sky, earth, and Duat. It says her power over nature nourishes humans, the blessed dead, and the gods. Other, Greek-language hymns from Ptolemaic Egypt call her \"the beautiful essence of all the gods\". In the course of Egyptian history, many deities, major and minor, had been described in similar grand terms. Amun was most commonly described this way in the New Kingdom, whereas in Roman Egypt such terms tended to be applied to Isis. Such texts do not deny the existence of other deities but treat them as aspects of the supreme deity, a type of theology sometimes called \"summodeism\".",
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"plaintext": "In the Late, Ptolemaic, and Roman Periods, many temples contained a creation myth that adapted long-standing ideas about creation to give the primary roles to local deities. At Philae, Isis is described as the creator in the same way that older texts speak of the work of the god Ptah, who was said to have designed the world with his intellect and sculpted it into being. Like him, Isis formed the cosmos \"through what her heart conceived and her hands created\".",
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"plaintext": "Like other deities throughout Egyptian history, Isis had many forms in her individual cult centers, and each cult center emphasized different aspects of her character. Local Isis cults focused on the distinctive traits of their deity more than on her universality, whereas some Egyptian hymns to Isis treat other goddesses in cult centers from across Egypt and the Mediterranean as manifestations of her. A text in her temple at Dendera says \"in each nome it is she who is in every town, in every nome with her son Horus.\"",
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"plaintext": "In Ancient Egyptian art, Isis was most commonly depicted as a woman with the typical attributes of a goddess: a sheath dress, a staff of papyrus in one hand, and an ankh sign in the other. Her original headdress was the throne sign used in writing her name. She and Nephthys often appear together, particularly when mourning Osiris's death, supporting him on his throne, or protecting the sarcophagi of the dead. In these situations their arms are often flung across their faces, in a gesture of mourning, or outstretched around Osiris or the deceased as a sign of their protective role. In these circumstances they were often depicted as kites or women with the wings of kites. This form may be inspired by a similarity between the kites' calls and the cries of wailing women, or by a metaphor likening the kite's search for carrion to the goddesses' search for their dead brother. Isis sometimes appeared in other animal forms: as a sow, representing her maternal character; as a cow, particularly when linked with Apis; or as a scorpion. She also took the form of a tree or a woman emerging from a tree, sometimes offering food and water to deceased souls. This form alluded to the maternal nourishment she provided.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the New Kingdom, thanks to the close links between Isis and Hathor, Isis took on Hathor's attributes, such as a sistrum rattle and a headdress of cow horns enclosing a sun disk. Sometimes both headdresses were combined, so the throne glyph sat atop the sun disk. In the same era, she began to wear the insignia of a human queen, such as a vulture-shaped crown on her head and the royal uraeus, or rearing cobra, on her brow. In Ptolemaic and Roman times, statues and figurines of Isis often showed her in a Greek sculptural style, with attributes taken from Egyptian and Greek tradition. Some of these images reflected her linkage with other goddesses in novel ways. Isis-Thermuthis, a combination of Isis and Renenutet who represented agricultural fertility, was depicted in this style as a woman with the lower body of a snake. Figurines of a woman wearing an elaborate headdress and exposing her genitals may represent Isis-Aphrodite.",
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"plaintext": "The tyet symbol, a looped shape similar to the ankh, came to be seen as Isis's emblem at least as early as the New Kingdom, though it existed long before. It was often made of red jasper and likened to Isis's blood. Used as a funerary amulet, it was said to confer her protection on the wearer.",
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"plaintext": "Despite her significance in the Osiris myth, Isis was originally a minor deity in the ideology surrounding the living king. She played only a small role, for instance, in the Dramatic Ramesseum Papyrus, the script for royal rituals performed in the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom. Her importance grew during the New Kingdom, when she was increasingly connected with Hathor and the human queen.",
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"plaintext": "The early first millennium BCE saw an increased emphasis on the family triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus and an explosive growth in Isis's popularity. In the fourth century BCE, Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty claimed Isis as his patron deity, tying her still more closely to political power. The Kingdom of Kush, which ruled Nubia from the eighth century BCE to the fourth century CE, absorbed and adapted the Egyptian ideology surrounding kingship. It equated Isis with the kandake, the queen or queen mother of the Kushite king.",
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"plaintext": "The Ptolemaic Greek kings, who ruled Egypt as pharaohs from 305 to 30 BCE, developed an ideology that linked them with both Egyptian and Greek deities, to strengthen their claim to the throne in the eyes of their Greek and Egyptian subjects. For centuries before, Greek colonists and visitors to Egypt had drawn parallels between Egyptian deities and their own, in a process known as interpretatio graeca. Herodotus, a Greek who wrote about Egypt in the fifth century BCE, likened Isis to Demeter, whose mythical search for her daughter Persephone resembled Isis's search for Osiris. Demeter was one of the few Greek deities to be widely adopted by Egyptians in Ptolemaic times, so the similarity between her and Isis provided a link between the two cultures. In other cases, Isis was linked with Aphrodite through the sexual aspects of her character. Building on these traditions, the first two Ptolemies promoted the cult of the new god Serapis, who combined aspects of Osiris and Apis with those of Greek gods such as Zeus and Dionysus. Isis, portrayed in a Hellenized form, was regarded as the consort of Serapis as well as of Osiris. Ptolemy II and his sister and wife Arsinoe II developed a ruler cult around themselves, so that they were worshipped in the same temples as Serapis and Isis, and Arsinoe was likened to both Isis and Aphrodite. Some later Ptolemaic queens identified themselves still more closely with Isis. Cleopatra III, in the second century BCE, used Isis's name in place of her own in inscriptions, and Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of Egypt before it was annexed by Rome, used the epithet \"the new Isis\".",
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"plaintext": "Down to the end of the New Kingdom, Isis's cult was closely tied to those of male deities such as Osiris, Min, or Amun. She was commonly worshipped alongside them as their mother or consort, and she was especially widely worshipped as the mother of various local forms of Horus. Nevertheless, she had independent priesthoods at some sites and at least one temple of her own, at Osiris's cult center of Abydos, during the late New Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known major temples to Isis were the Iseion at Behbeit el-Hagar in northern Egypt and Philae in the far south. Both began construction during the Thirtieth Dynasty and were completed or enlarged by Ptolemaic kings. Thanks to Isis's widespread fame, Philae drew pilgrims from across the Mediterranean. Many other temples of Isis sprang up in Ptolemaic times, ranging from Alexandria and Canopus on the Mediterranean coast to Egypt's frontier with Nubia. A series of temples of Isis stood in that region, stretching from Philae south to Maharraqa, and were sites of worship for both Egyptians and various Nubian peoples. The Nubians of Kush built their own temples to Isis at sites as far south as Wad ban Naqa, including one in their capital, Meroe.",
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"plaintext": "The most frequent temple rite for any deity was the daily offering ritual, in which priests clothed the deity's cult image and offered it food. In Roman times, temples to Isis in Egypt could be built either in Egyptian style, in which the cult image was in a secluded sanctuary accessible only to priests, and in a Greco-Roman style in which devotees were allowed to see the cult image. Greek and Egyptian culture were highly intermingled by this time, and there may have been no ethnic separation between Isis's worshippers. The same people may have prayed to Isis outside Egyptian-style temples and in front of her statue inside Greek-style temples.",
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"plaintext": "Temples celebrated many festivals in the course of the year, some nationwide and some very local. An elaborate series of rites were performed all across Egypt for Osiris during the month of Khoiak, and Isis and Nephthys were prominent in these rites at least as early as the New Kingdom. In Ptolemaic times, two women acted out the roles of Isis and Nephthys during Khoiak, singing or chanting in mourning for their dead brother. Their chants are preserved in the Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys and Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys.",
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"plaintext": "Festivals dedicated to Isis eventually developed. In Roman times, Egyptians across the country celebrated her birthday, the Amesysia, by carrying the local cult statue of Isis through their fields, probably celebrating her powers of fertility. The priests at Philae held a festival every ten days when the cult statue of Isis visited the neighboring island of Bigeh, which was said to be Osiris's place of burial, and the priests performed funerary rites for him. The cult statue also visited the neighboring temples to the south, even during the last centuries of activity at Philae when those temples were run by Nubian peoples outside Roman rule.",
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"plaintext": "Christianity became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, including Egypt, during the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Egyptian temple cults died out, gradually and at various times, from a combination of lack of funds and Christian hostility. Isis's temple at Philae, supported by its Nubian worshippers, still had an organized priesthood and regular festivals until at least the mid-fifth century CE, making it the last fully functioning temple in Egypt.",
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"plaintext": "In many spells in the Pyramid Texts, Isis and Nephthys help the deceased king reach the afterlife. In the Coffin Texts from the Middle Kingdom, Isis appears still more frequently, though in these texts Osiris is credited with reviving the dead more often than she is. New Kingdom sources such as the Book of the Dead describe Isis as protecting deceased souls as they face the dangers in the Duat. They also describe Isis as a member of the divine councils that judge souls' moral righteousness before admitting them into the afterlife, and she appears in vignettes standing beside Osiris as he presides over this tribunal.",
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"plaintext": "Isis and Nephthys took part in funeral ceremonies, where two wailing women, much like those in the festival at Abydos, mourned the deceased as the two goddesses mourned Osiris. Isis was frequently shown or alluded to in funerary equipment: on sarcophagi and canopic chests as one of the four goddesses who protected the Four Sons of Horus, in tomb art offering her enlivening milk to the dead, and in the tyet amulets that were often placed on mummies to ensure that Isis's power would shield them from harm. Late funerary texts prominently featured her mourning for Osiris, and one such text, one of the Books of Breathing, was said to have been written by her for Osiris's benefit. In Nubian funerary religion, Isis was regarded as more significant than her husband, because she was the active partner while he only passively received the offerings she made to sustain him in the afterlife.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike many Egyptian deities, Isis was rarely addressed in prayers, or invoked in personal names, before the end of the New Kingdom. From the Late Period on, she became one of the deities most commonly mentioned in these sources, which often refer to her kindly character and her willingness to answer those who call upon her for help. Hundreds of thousands of amulets and votive statues of Isis nursing Horus were made during the first millennium BCE, and in Roman Egypt she was among the deities most commonly represented in household religious art, such as figurines and panel paintings.",
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"plaintext": "Isis was prominent in magical texts from the Middle Kingdom onward. The dangers Horus faces in childhood are a frequent theme in magical healing spells, in which Isis's efforts to heal him are extended to cure any patient. In many of these spells, Isis forces Ra to help Horus by declaring that she will stop the sun in its course through the sky unless her son is cured. Other spells equated pregnant women with Isis to ensure that they would deliver their children successfully.",
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"plaintext": "Egyptian magic began to incorporate Christian concepts as Christianity was established in Egypt, but Egyptian and Greek deities continued to appear in spells long after their temple worship had ceased. Spells that may date to the sixth, seventh, or eighth centuries CE invoke the name of Isis alongside Christian figures.",
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"plaintext": "Cults based in a particular city or nation were the norm across the ancient world until the mid- to late first millennium BCE, when increased contact between different cultures allowed some cults to spread more widely. Greeks were aware of Egyptian deities, including Isis, at least as early as the Archaic Period (c. 700–480 BCE), and her first known temple in Greece was built during or before the fourth century BCE by Egyptians living in Athens. The conquests of Alexander the Great late in that century created Hellenistic kingdoms around the Mediterranean and Near East, including Ptolemaic Egypt, and put Greek and non-Greek religions in much closer contact. The resulting diffusion of cultures allowed many religious traditions to spread across the Hellenistic world in the last three centuries BCE. The new mobile cults adapted greatly to appeal to people from a variety of cultures. The cults of Isis and Serapis were among those that expanded in this way.",
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"plaintext": "Spread by merchants and other Mediterranean travelers, the cults of Isis and Serapis were established in Greek port cities at the end of the fourth century BCE and expanded throughout Greece and Asia Minor during the third and second centuries. The Greek island of Delos was an early cult center for both deities, and its status as a trading center made it a springboard for the Egyptian cults to diffuse into Italy. Isis and Serapis were also worshipped at scattered sites in the Seleucid Empire, the Hellenistic kingdom in the Middle East, as far east as Iran, though they disappeared from the region as the Seleucids lost their eastern territory to the Parthian Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Greeks regarded Egyptian religion as exotic and sometimes bizarre, yet full of ancient wisdom. Like other cults from the eastern regions of the Mediterranean, the cult of Isis attracted Greeks and Romans by playing upon its exotic origins, but the form it took after reaching Greece was heavily Hellenized.",
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"plaintext": "Isis's cult reached Italy and the Roman sphere of influence at some point in the second century BCE. It was one of many cults that were introduced to Rome as the Roman Republic's territory expanded in the last centuries BCE. Authorities in the Republic tried to define which cults were acceptable and which were not, as a way of defining Roman cultural identity amid the cultural changes brought on by Rome's expansion. In Isis's case, shrines and altars to her were set up on the Capitoline Hill, at the heart of the city, by private persons in the early first century BCE. The independence of her cult from the control of Roman authorities made it potentially unsettling to them. In the 50s and 40s BCE, when the crisis of the Roman Republic made many Romans fear that peace among the gods was being disrupted, the Roman Senate destroyed these shrines, although it did not ban Isis from the city outright.",
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"plaintext": "Egyptian cults faced further hostility during the Final War of the Roman Republic (32–30 BCE), when Rome, led by Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, fought Egypt under Cleopatra VII. After Octavian's victory, he banned shrines to Isis and Serapis within the pomerium, the city's innermost, sacred boundary, but allowed them in parts of the city outside the pomerium, thus marking Egyptian deities as non-Roman but acceptable to Rome. Despite being temporarily expelled from Rome during the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), the Egyptian cults gradually became an accepted part of the Roman religious landscape. The Flavian emperors in the late first century CE treated Serapis and Isis as patrons of their rule in much the same manner as traditional Roman deities such as Jupiter and Minerva. Even as it was being integrated into Roman culture, Isis's worship developed new features that emphasized its Egyptian background.",
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"plaintext": "Isis's cult, like others in the Greco-Roman world, had no firm dogma, and its beliefs and practices may have stayed only loosely similar as it diffused across the region and evolved over time. Greek aretalogies that praise Isis provide much of the information about these beliefs. Parts of these aretalogies closely resemble ideas in late Egyptian hymns like those at Philae, while other elements are thoroughly Greek. Other information comes from Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE), whose book On Isis and Osiris interprets the Egyptian deities based on his Middle Platonist philosophy, and from several works of Greek and Latin literature that refer to Isis's worship, especially a novel by Apuleius (c. 125–180 CE) known as Metamorphoses or The Golden Ass, which ends by describing how the main character has a vision of the goddess and becomes her devotee.",
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"plaintext": "Elaborating upon Isis's role as a wife and mother in the Osiris myth, aretalogies call her the inventor of marriage and parenthood. She was invoked to protect women in childbirth and, in ancient Greek novels such as the Ephesian Tale, to protect their virginity. Some ancient texts called her the patroness of women in general. Her cult may have served to promote women's autonomy in a limited way, with Isis's power and authority serving as a precedent, but in myth she was devoted to, and never fully independent of, her husband and son. The aretalogies show ambiguous attitudes toward women's independence: one says Isis made women equal to men, whereas another says she made women subordinate to their husbands.",
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"plaintext": "Isis was often characterized as a moon goddess, paralleling the solar characteristics of Serapis. She was also seen as a cosmic goddess more generally. Various texts claim she organized the behavior of the sun, moon, and stars, governing time and the seasons which, in turn, guaranteed the fertility of the earth. These texts also credit her with inventing agriculture, establishing laws, and devising or promoting other elements of human society. This idea derives from older Greek traditions about the role of various Greek deities and culture heroes, including Demeter, in establishing civilization.",
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"plaintext": "She also oversaw seas and harbors. Sailors left inscriptions calling upon her to ensure the safety and good fortune of their voyages. In this role she was called Isis Pelagia, \"Isis of the Sea\", or Isis Pharia, referring to a sail or to the island of Pharos, site of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. This form of Isis, which emerged in Hellenistic times, may have been inspired by Egyptian images of Isis in a barque, as well as by Greek deities who protected seafaring, such as Aphrodite. Isis Pelagia developed an added significance in Rome. Rome's food supply was dependent on grain shipments from its provinces, especially Egypt. Isis therefore guaranteed fertile harvests and protected the ships that carried the resulting food across the seas—and thus ensured the well-being of the empire as a whole. Her protection of the state was said to extend to Rome's armies, much as it was in Ptolemaic Egypt, and she was sometimes called Isis Invicta, \"Unconquered Isis\". Her roles were so numerous that she came to be called myrionymos, \"one with countless names,\" and panthea, \"all-goddess\".",
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"plaintext": "Both Plutarch and a later philosopher, Proclus, mentioned a veiled statue of the Egyptian goddess Neith, whom they conflated with Isis, citing it as an example of her universality and enigmatic wisdom. It bore the words \"I am all that has been and is and will be; and no mortal has ever lifted my mantle.\"",
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"plaintext": "Isis was also said to benefit her followers in the afterlife, which was not much emphasized in Greek and Roman religion. The Golden Ass and inscriptions left by worshippers of Isis suggest that many of her followers thought she would guarantee them a better afterlife in return for their devotion. They characterized this afterlife inconsistently. Some said they would benefit from Osiris's enlivening water while others expected to sail to the Fortunate Isles of Greek tradition.",
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"plaintext": "As in Egypt, Isis was said to have power over fate, which in traditional Greek religion was a power not even the gods could defy. Valentino Gasparini says this control over destiny binds together Isis's disparate traits. She governs the cosmos, yet she also relieves people of their comparatively trivial misfortunes, and her influence extends into the realm of death, which is \"individual and universal at the same time\".",
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"plaintext": "More than a dozen Egyptian deities were worshipped outside Egypt in Hellenistic and Roman times in a series of interrelated cults, though many were fairly minor. Of the most important of these deities, Serapis was closely connected with Isis and often appeared with her in art, but Osiris remained central to her myth and prominent in her rituals. Temples to Isis and Serapis sometimes stood next to each other, but it was rare for a single temple to be dedicated to both. Osiris, as a dead deity unlike the immortal gods of Greece, seemed strange to Greeks and played only a minor role in Egyptian cults in Hellenistic times. In Roman times he became, like Dionysus, a symbol of a joyous afterlife, and the Isis cult increasingly focused on him. Horus, often under the name Harpocrates, also appeared in Isis's temples as her son by Osiris or Serapis. He absorbed traits from Greek deities such as Apollo and served as a god of the sun and of crops. Another member of the group was Anubis, who was linked to the Greek god Hermes in his Hellenized form Hermanubis. Isis was also sometimes said to have learned her wisdom from, or even be the daughter of, Thoth, the Egyptian god of writing and knowledge, who was known in the Greco-Roman world as Hermes Trismegistus.",
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"plaintext": "Isis also had an extensive network of connections with Greek and Roman deities, as well as some from other cultures. She was not fully integrated into the Greek pantheon, but she was at different times equated with a variety of Greek mythological figures, including Demeter, Aphrodite, or Io, a human woman who was turned into a cow and chased by the goddess Hera from Greece to Egypt. The cult of Demeter was an especially important influence on Isis's worship after its arrival in Greece. Isis's relationship with women was influenced by her frequent equation with Artemis, who had a dual role as a virgin goddess and a promoter of fertility. Because of Isis's power over fate, she was linked with the Greek and Roman personifications of fortune, Tyche and Fortuna. At Byblos in Phoenicia in the second millennium BCE, Hathor had been worshipped as a form of the local goddess Baalat Gebal; Isis gradually replaced Hathor there in the course of the first millennium BCE. In Noricum in central Europe, Isis was syncretized with the local tutelary deity Noreia, and at Petra she may have been linked with the Arab goddess al-Uzza. The Roman author Tacitus said Isis was worshipped by the Suebi, a Germanic people living outside the empire, but he may have mistaken a Germanic goddess for Isis because, like her, the goddess was symbolized by a ship.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the aretalogies include long lists of goddesses with whom Isis was linked. These texts treat all the deities they list as forms of her, suggesting that in the eyes of the authors she was a summodeistic being: the one goddess for the entire civilized world. In the Roman religious world, many deities were referred to as \"one\" or \"unique\" in religious texts like these. At the same time, Hellenistic philosophers frequently saw the unifying, abstract principle of the cosmos as divine. Many of them reinterpreted traditional religions to fit their concept of this highest being, as Plutarch did with Isis and Osiris. In The Golden Ass Isis says \"my one person manifests the aspects of all the gods and goddesses\" and that she is \"worshipped by all the world under different forms, with various rites, and by manifold names,\" although the Egyptians and Nubians use her true name, Isis. But when she lists the forms in which various Mediterranean peoples worship her, she mentions only female deities. Greco-Roman deities were firmly divided by gender, thus limiting how universal Isis could truly be. One aretalogy avoids this problem by calling Isis and Serapis, who was often said to subsume many male gods, the two \"unique\" deities. Similarly, both Plutarch and Apuleius limit Isis's importance by treating her as ultimately subordinate to Osiris. The claim that she was unique was meant to emphasize her greatness more than to make a precise theological statement.",
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"plaintext": "Images of Isis made outside Egypt were Hellenistic in style, like many of the images of her made in Egypt in Hellenistic and Roman times. The attributes she bore varied widely. She sometimes wore the Hathoric cow-horn headdress, but Greeks and Romans reduced its size and often interpreted it as a crescent moon. She could also wear headdresses incorporating leaves, flowers, or ears of grain. Other common traits included corkscrew locks of hair and an elaborate mantle tied in a large knot over the breasts, which originated in ordinary Egyptian clothing but was treated as a symbol of the goddess outside Egypt. In her hands she could carry a uraeus or a sistrum, both taken from her Egyptian iconography, or a situla, a vessel used for libations of water or milk that were performed in Isis's cult.",
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"plaintext": "As Isis-Fortuna or Isis-Tyche she held a rudder, representing control of fate, in her right hand and a cornucopia, standing for abundance, in her left. As Isis Pharia she wore a cloak that billowed behind her like a sail, and as Isis Lactans, she nursed Harpocrates. At times she was shown resting a foot on a celestial sphere, representing her control of the cosmos. The diverse imagery sprang from her varied roles; as Robert Steven Bianchi says, \"Isis could represent anything to anyone and could be represented in any way imaginable.\"",
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"plaintext": "Like most cults of the time, the Isis cult did not require its devotees to worship Isis exclusively, and their level of commitment probably varied greatly. Some devotees of Isis served as priests in a variety of cults and underwent several initiations dedicated to different deities. Nevertheless, many emphasized their strong devotion to her, and some considered her the focus of their lives. They were among the very few religious groups in the Greco-Roman world to have a distinctive name for themselves, loosely equivalent to \"Jew\" or \"Christian\", that might indicate they defined themselves by their religious affiliation. However, the word—Isiacus or \"Isiac\"—was rarely used.",
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"plaintext": "Isiacs were a very small proportion of the Roman Empire's population, but they came from every level of society, from slaves and freedmen to high officials and members of the imperial family. Ancient accounts imply that Isis was popular with lower social classes, providing a possible reason why authorities in the Roman Republic, troubled by struggles between classes, regarded her cult with suspicion. Women were more strongly represented in the Isis cult than in most Greco-Roman cults, and in imperial times, they could serve as priestesses in many of the same positions in the hierarchy as their male counterparts. Women make up much less than half of the Isiacs known from inscriptions and are rarely listed among the higher ranks of priests, but because women are underrepresented in Roman inscriptions, their participation may have been greater than is recorded. Several Roman writers accused Isis's cult of encouraging promiscuity among women. Jaime Alvar suggests the cult attracted male suspicion simply because it gave women a venue to act outside their husbands' control.",
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"plaintext": "Priests of Isis were known for their distinctive shaven heads and white linen clothes, both characteristics drawn from Egyptian priesthoods and their requirements of ritual purity. A temple of Isis could include several ranks of priests, as well as various cultic associations and specialized duties for lay devotees. There is no evidence of a hierarchy overseeing multiple temples, and each temple may well have functioned independently of the others.",
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"plaintext": "Temples to Egyptian deities outside Egypt, such as the Red Basilica in Pergamon, the Temple of Isis at Pompeii, or the Iseum Campense in Rome, were built in a largely Greco-Roman style but, like Egyptian temples, were surrounded by large courts enclosed by walls. They were decorated with Egyptian-themed artwork, sometimes including antiquities imported from Egypt. Their layout was more elaborate than that of traditional Roman temples and included rooms for housing priests and for various ritual functions, with a cult statue of the goddess in a secluded sanctuary. Unlike Egyptian cult images, Isis's Hellenistic and Roman statues were life-size or larger. The daily ritual still entailed dressing the statue in elaborate clothes each morning and offering it libations, but in contrast with Egyptian tradition, the priests allowed ordinary devotees of Isis to see the cult statue during the morning ritual, pray to it directly, and sing hymns before it.",
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"plaintext": "Another object of veneration in these temples was water, which was treated as a symbol of the waters of the Nile. Isis temples built in Hellenistic times often included underground cisterns that stored this sacred water, raising and lowering the water level in imitation of the Nile flood. Many Roman temples instead used a pitcher of water that was worshipped as a cult image or manifestation of Osiris.",
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"plaintext": "Roman lararia, or household shrines, contained statuettes of the penates, a varied group of protective deities chosen based on the preferences of the members of the household. Isis and other Egyptian deities were found in lararia in Italy from the late first century BCE to the beginning of the fourth century CE.",
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"plaintext": "The cult asked both ritual and moral purity of its devotees, periodically requiring ritual baths or days-long periods of sexual abstinence. Isiacs sometimes displayed their piety on irregular occasions, singing Isis's praises in the streets or, as a form of penance, declaring their misdeeds in public.",
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"plaintext": "Some temples to Greek deities, including Serapis, practiced incubation, in which worshippers slept in a temple hoping that the god would appear to them in a dream and give them advice or heal their ailments. Some scholars believe that this practice took place in Isis's temples, but there is no firm evidence that it did. Isis was, however, thought to communicate through dreams in other circumstances, including to call worshippers to undergo initiation.",
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"plaintext": "Some temples of Isis performed mystery rites to initiate new members of the cult. These rites were claimed to be of Egyptian origin and may have drawn on the secretive tendencies of some Egyptian rites. However, they were mainly based on Greek mystery cults, especially the Eleusinian mysteries dedicated to Demeter, colored with Egyptian elements. Although mystery rites are among the best-known elements of Isis's Greco-Roman cult, they are only known to have been performed in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. By giving the devotee a dramatic, mystical experience of the goddess, initiations added emotional intensity to the process of joining her following.",
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"plaintext": "The Golden Ass, in describing how the protagonist joins Isis's cult, gives the only detailed account of Isiac initiation. Apuleius's motives for writing about the cult and the accuracy of his fictionalized description are much debated. But the account is broadly consistent with other evidence about initiations, and scholars rely heavily on it when studying the subject.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient mystery rites used a variety of intense experiences, such as nocturnal darkness interrupted by bright light and loud music and noise, to overwhelm their senses and give them an intense religious experience that felt like direct contact with the god they devoted themselves to. Apuleius's protagonist, Lucius, undergoes a series of initiations, though only the first is described in detail. After entering the innermost part of Isis's temple at night, he says, \"I came to the boundary of death and, having trodden on the threshold of Proserpina, I travelled through all the elements and returned. In the middle of the night I saw the sun flashing with bright light, I came face to face with the gods below and the gods above and paid reverence to them from close at hand.\" This cryptic description suggests that the initiate's symbolic journey to the world of the dead was likened to Osiris's rebirth, as well as to Ra's journey through the underworld in Egyptian myth, possibly implying that Isis brought the initiate back from death as she did her husband.",
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"plaintext": "Roman calendars listed the two most important festivals of Isis as early as the first century CE. The first festival was the Navigium Isidis in March, which celebrated Isis's influence over the sea and served as a prayer for the safety of seafarers and, eventually, of the Roman people and their leaders. It consisted of an elaborate procession, including Isiac priests and devotees with a wide variety of costumes and sacred emblems, carrying a model ship from the local Isis temple to the sea or to a nearby river. The other was the Isia in late October and early November. Like its Egyptian forerunner, the Khoiak festival, the Isia included a ritual reenactment of Isis's search for Osiris, followed by jubilation when the god's body was found. Several more minor festivals were dedicated to Isis, including the Pelusia in late March that may have celebrated the birth of Harpocrates, and the Lychnapsia, or lamp-lit festival, that celebrated Isis's own birth on August 12.",
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"plaintext": "Festivals of Isis and other polytheistic deities were celebrated throughout the fourth century CE, despite the growth of Christianity in that era and the persecution of pagans that intensified toward the end of the century. The Isia was celebrated at least as late as 417 CE, and the Navigium Isidis lasted well into the sixth century. Increasingly, the religious meaning of all Roman festivals was forgotten or ignored even as the customs continued. In some cases, these customs became part of the combined classical and Christian culture of the Early Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "A contentious question about Isis is whether her cult influenced Christianity. Some Isiac customs may have been among the pagan religious practices that were incorporated into Christian traditions as the Roman Empire was Christianized. Andreas Alföldi, for instance, argued in the 1930s that the medieval Carnival festival, in which a model boat was carried, developed from the Navigium Isidis.",
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"plaintext": "Much attention focuses on whether traits of Christianity were borrowed from pagan mystery cults, including that of Isis. The more devoted members of Isis's cult made a personal commitment to a deity they regarded as superior to others, as Christians did. Both Christianity and the Isis cult had an initiation rite: the mysteries for Isis, baptism in Christianity. One of the mystery cults' shared themes—a god whose death and resurrection may be connected with the individual worshipper's well-being in the afterlife—resembles the central theme of Christianity. The suggestion that Christianity's basic beliefs were taken from mystery cults has provoked heated debate for more than 200 years. In response to these controversies, both Hugh Bowden and Jaime Alvar, scholars who study ancient mystery cults, suggest that similarities between Christianity and the mystery cults were not produced by direct borrowing of ideas but by their common background: the Greco-Roman culture in which they all developed.",
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"plaintext": "Similarities between Isis and Mary, the mother of Jesus, have also been scrutinized. They have been subject to controversy between Protestant Christians and the Catholic Church, as many Protestants have argued that Catholic veneration of Mary is a remnant of paganism. The classicist R. E. Witt saw Isis as the \"great forerunner\" of Mary. He suggested that converts to Christianity who had formerly worshipped Isis would have seen Mary in much the same terms as their traditional goddess. He pointed out that the two had several spheres of influence in common, such as agriculture and the protection of sailors. He compared Mary's title \"Mother of God\" to Isis's epithet \"mother of the god\", and Mary's \"queen of heaven\" to Isis's \"queen of heaven\". Stephen Benko, a historian of early Christianity, argues that devotion to Mary was deeply influenced by the worship of several goddesses, not just Isis. In contrast, John McGuckin, a church historian, says that Mary absorbed superficial traits from these goddesses, such as iconography, but the fundamentals of her cult were thoroughly Christian.",
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"plaintext": "Images of Isis with Horus in her lap are often suggested as an influence on the iconography of Mary, particularly images of the Mary nursing the infant Jesus, as images of nursing women were rare in the ancient Mediterranean world outside Egypt. Vincent Tran Tam Tinh points out that the latest images of Isis nursing Horus date to the fourth century CE, while the earliest images of Mary nursing Jesus date to the seventh century CE. Sabrina Higgins, drawing on his study, argues that if there is a connection between the iconographies of Isis and Mary, it is limited to images from Egypt. In contrast, Thomas F. Mathews and Norman Muller think Isis's pose in late antique panel paintings influenced several types of Marian icons, inside and outside Egypt. Elizabeth Bolman says these early Egyptian images of Mary nursing Jesus were meant to emphasize his divinity, much as images of nursing goddesses did in ancient Egyptian iconography. Higgins argues that such similarities prove that images of Isis influenced those of Mary, but not that Christians deliberately adopted Isis's iconography or other elements of her cult.",
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"plaintext": "Western esotericism has often made reference to Isis. Two Roman esoteric texts used the mythic motif in which Isis passes down secret knowledge to Horus. In Kore Kosmou, she teaches him wisdom passed down from Hermes Trismegistus, and in the early alchemical text Isis the Prophetess to Her Son Horus, she gives him alchemical recipes. Early modern esoteric literature, which saw Hermes Trismegistus as an Egyptian sage and frequently made use of texts attributed to his hand, sometimes referred to Isis as well. In a different vein, Apuleius's description of Isiac initiation has influenced the practices of many secret societies. Jean Terrasson's 1731 novel Sethos used Apuleius as inspiration for a fanciful Egyptian initiation rite dedicated to Isis. It was imitated by actual rituals in various Masonic and Masonic-inspired societies during the eighteenth century, as well as in other literary works, most notably Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's 1791 opera The Magic Flute.",
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"plaintext": "Among modern Egyptians, Isis was used as a national symbol during the Pharaonism movement of the 1920s and 1930s, as Egypt gained independence from British rule. In works such as Mohamed Naghi's painting in the parliament of Egypt, titled Egypt's Renaissance, and Tawfiq al-Hakim's play The Return of the Spirit, Isis symbolizes the revival of the nation. A sculpture by Mahmoud Mokhtar, also called Egypt's Renaissance, plays upon the motif of Isis's removing her veil.",
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"plaintext": "Isis is found frequently in works of fiction, such as a superhero franchise, and her name and image appear in places as disparate as advertisements and personal names. The name Isidoros, meaning \"gift of Isis\" in Greek, survived in Christianity despite its pagan origins, giving rise to the English name Isidore and its variants. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, \"Isis\" itself became a popular feminine given name.",
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"plaintext": "Isis continues to appear in modern esoteric and pagan belief systems. The concept of a single goddess incarnating all feminine divine powers, partly inspired by Apuleius, became a widespread theme in literature of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Influential groups and figures in esotericism, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in the late nineteenth century and Dion Fortune in the 1930s, adopted this all-encompassing goddess into their belief systems and called her Isis. This conception of Isis influenced the Great Goddess found in many forms of contemporary witchcraft. Today, reconstructions of ancient Egyptian religion, such as Kemetic Orthodoxy or the Church of the Eternal Source, include Isis among the deities they revere. An eclectic religious organization focused on female divinity calls itself the Fellowship of Isis because, in the words of one of its priestesses, M. Isidora Forrest, Isis can be \"all Goddesses to all people\".",
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"plaintext": " Vol. I: ; Vol. II: ; Vol. III: ; Vol. IV: .",
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"plaintext": " Vol. I: ; Vol. II: ; Vol. III: .",
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"plaintext": " A–D: ; E–K: ; L–Q: ; R–Z: .",
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"plaintext": " \"Isis and the Name of Ra\", as translated by A. G. McDowell.",
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"plaintext": " Plutarch: Isis and Osiris, as translated by Frank Cole Babbitt.",
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"plaintext": " Lucius Apuleius: The Golden Ass, Book XI, as translated by A. S. Kline.",
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"African_goddesses",
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"Mother_goddesses",
"Queens_of_Heaven_(antiquity)",
"Wisdom_goddesses",
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"Avian_humanoids"
]
| 79,876 | 62,576 | 979 | 339 | 0 | 1 | Isis | Egyptian deity | []
|
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"plaintext": "A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres (1,000 feet) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges.",
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"plaintext": "Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers.",
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"plaintext": "High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging, along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing.",
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"plaintext": "The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at .",
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"plaintext": "There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the Oxford English Dictionary a mountain is defined as \"a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable.\"",
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"plaintext": "Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma, USA, is only from its base to its highest point. Whittow's Dictionary of Physical Geography states \"Some authorities regard eminences above as mountains, those below being referred to as hills.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually defined as any summit at least high, which accords with the official UK government's definition that a mountain, for the purposes of access, is a summit of or higher. In addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, such as that the mountain rises above the surrounding terrain. At one time the U.S. Board on Geographic Names defined a mountain as being or taller, but has abandoned the definition since the 1970s. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US.",
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"plaintext": " Class 1: Elevation greater than .",
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"plaintext": " Class 2: Elevation between and .",
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"plaintext": " Class 3: Elevation between and .",
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"plaintext": " Class 4: Elevation between and , with a slope greater than 2 degrees.",
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"plaintext": " Class 5: Elevation between and , with a slope greater than 5 degrees and/or elevation range within .",
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"plaintext": " Class 6: Elevation between and , with a elevation range within .",
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"plaintext": " Class 7: Isolated inner basins and plateaus less than in area that are completely surrounded by Class 1 to 6 mountains, but do not themselves meet criteria for Class 1 to 6 mountains.",
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"plaintext": "Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous.",
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"plaintext": "There are three main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics: when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.",
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"plaintext": "Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, or at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot. At a depth of around 100km, melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US.",
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"plaintext": "Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense continental crust \"floats\" on the denser mantle rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be balanced by the buoyancy force of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The Balkan Mountains and the Jura Mountains are examples of fold mountains.",
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"plaintext": "Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges and Rhine valley, and the Basin and Range Province of Western North America. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.",
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"plaintext": "During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of erosion (water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down. Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that form the mountains themselves. Glacial processes produce characteristic landforms, such as pyramidal peaks, knife-edge arêtes, and bowl-shaped cirques that can contain lakes. Plateau mountains, such as the Catskills, are formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau.",
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"plaintext": "Climate in the mountains becomes colder at high elevations, due to an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.",
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"plaintext": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8°C per kilometre (or per 1000feet) of altitude.",
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"plaintext": "The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5°C per kilometre or per 1000feet)",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, moving up 100metres on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80kilometres (45miles or 0.75° of latitude) towards the nearest pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of precipitation becomes snow and the winds increase.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the biotemperature, as described by Leslie Holdridge in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below are considered to be 0°C. When the temperature is below 0°C, plants are dormant, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have a biotemperature below .",
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"plaintext": "The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal zonation.",
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"plaintext": "In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation.",
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"plaintext": "Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or dispersal. These isolated ecological systems are known as sky islands.",
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"plaintext": "Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line, one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that, montane forests grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf trees growing in a rain forest.",
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"plaintext": "The highest known permanently tolerable altitude is at . At very high altitudes, the decreasing atmospheric pressure means that less oxygen is available for breathing, and there is less protection against solar radiation (UV). Above elevation, there is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is sometimes referred to as the \"death zone\". The summits of Mount Everest and K2 are in the death zone.",
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"plaintext": "Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for agriculture. While 7% of the land area of Earth is above , only 140 million people live above that altitude and only 20-30 million people above elevation. About half of mountain dwellers live in the Andes, Central Asia, and Africa.",
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"plaintext": "With limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist above of elevation. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on industries such as agriculture, mining, and tourism. An example of such a specialized town is La Rinconada, Peru, a gold-mining town and the highest elevation human habitation at . A counterexample is El Alto, Bolivia, at , which has a highly diverse service and manufacturing economy and a population of nearly 1 million.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of crop failure than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with mining being an important component of the economics of some montane societies. More recently, tourism supports mountain communities, with some intensive development around attractions such as national parks or ski resorts. About 80% of mountain people live below the poverty line.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water.",
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"plaintext": "In geopolitics mountains are often seen as preferable \"natural boundaries\" between polities.",
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"plaintext": "Mountain climbing, or alpinism is the sport, hobby or profession of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing, depending on whether the route chosen is over rock, snow or ice. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge of the terrain to maintain safety.",
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"plaintext": "Mountains often play a significant role in religion. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within Greece such as Mount Olympus which was held to be the home of the gods. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24m (12,389ft) volcano of Mount Fuji is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year. Mount Kailash, in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions: Hinduism, Bon, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Ireland, pilgrimages are made up the Mount Brandon by Irish Catholics. The Himalayan peak of Nanda Devi is associated with the Hindu goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983. Mount Ararat is a sacred mountain, as it is believed to be the landing place of Noah's Ark. In Europe and especially in the Alps, summit crosses are often erected on the tops of prominent mountains.",
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"plaintext": "Heights of mountains are typically measured above sea level. Using this metric, Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth, at . There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but Denali, Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea ( above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about from the Pacific Ocean floor.",
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"plaintext": "The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa () is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about ) and volume (about ). Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area () and volume (). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area ().",
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"plaintext": "The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than less than that of Everest.",
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"plaintext": " List of mountain ranges",
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| [
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"Geography_terminology",
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| 8,502 | 43,492 | 7,416 | 180 | 0 | 0 | mountain | large landform that stretches above the surrounding land | [
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"⛰️"
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|
37,756 | 1,107,667,602 | Delhi | [
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"plaintext": "Delhi (; Dillī; Dillī; Dêhlī), officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders with the state of Uttar Pradesh in the east and with the state of Haryana in the remaining directions. The NCT covers an area of . According to the 2011 census, Delhi's city proper population was over 11million, while the NCT's population was about 16.8million. Delhi's urban agglomeration, which includes the satellite cities of Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida in an area known as the National Capital Region (NCR), has an estimated population of over 28million, making it the largest metropolitan area in India and the second-largest in the world (after Tokyo).",
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"plaintext": "The topography of the medieval fort Purana Qila on the banks of the river Yamuna matches the literary description of the citadel Indraprastha in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata; however, excavations in the area have revealed no signs of an ancient built environment. From the early 13th century until the mid-19th century, Delhi was the capital of two major empires, the Delhi sultanate and the Mughal Empire, which covered large parts of South Asia. All three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the city, the Qutub Minar, Humayun's Tomb, and the Red Fort, belong to this period. Delhi was the early centre of Sufism and Qawwali music. The names of Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusrau are prominently associated with it. The Khariboli dialect of Delhi was part of a linguistic development that gave rise to the literature of the Urdu language and then of Modern Standard Hindi. Major Urdu poets from Delhi include Mir Taqi Mir and Mirza Ghalib. Delhi was a major centre of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. In 1911, New Delhi, a southern region within Delhi, became the capital of the British Indian Empire. During the Partition of India in 1947, Delhi was transformed from a Mughal city to a Punjabi one, losing two-thirds of its Muslim residents, in part due to the pressure brought to bear by arriving Hindu refugees from western Punjab. After independence in 1947, New Delhi continued as the capital of the Dominion of India, and after 1950 of the Republic of India. ",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is home to the second highest number of billionaires and millionaires of any city in India. Delhi ranks fifth among the Indian states and union territories in human development index. Delhi has the second-highest GDP per capita in India (after Goa). Although a union territory, the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India, with its own legislature, high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal government of India and the local government of Delhi, and serves as the capital of the nation as well as the NCT of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is an \"interstate regional planning\" area created in 1985.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi hosted the inaugural 1951 Asian Games, the 1982 Asian Games, the 1983 Non-Aligned Movement summit, the 2010 Men's Hockey World Cup, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, and the 2012 BRICS summit and was one of the major host cities of the 2011 Cricket World Cup.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi. One of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50BCE and named it after himself. Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the Hindi/Prakrit word (loose) and that it was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the iron pillar of Delhi had a weak foundation and had to be moved. According to Panjab Notes and Queries, the name of the city at the time of King Prithviraj was , and that and are probably derived from the old Hindi word meaning \"eminence\". The former director of the Archaeological Survey of India, Alexander Cunningham, mentioned that later became . Some suggest the coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal. According to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali. Some historians believe that Dhilli or Dhillika is the original name for the city while others believe the name could be a corruption of the Hindustani words dehleez or dehali—both terms meaning \"threshold\" or \"gateway\"—and symbolic of the city as a gateway to the Gangetic Plain.",
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"plaintext": "The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas. The city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Examples include:",
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"plaintext": " Abhī Dillī dūr hai (अभी दिल्ली दूर है / ابھی دلی دور ہے) or its Persian version, Hanuz Dehli dur ast (), literally meaning \"Delhi is still far away\", which is generically said about a task or journey still far from completion.",
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"plaintext": " (आस-पास बरसे, दिल्ली पानी तरसे \\ آس پاس برسے، دلی پانی ترسے), literally meaning \"It pours all around, while Delhi lies parched\". An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it idiomatically refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty.",
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"plaintext": "The form Delhi, used in Latin script and strangely with an h following an l, originated under colonial rule and is a corrupt spelling based on the Urdu name of the city (, Dehli).",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, seven cities have been associated with the region of Delhi. The earliest, Indraprastha, is part of a literary description in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata (composed c. 400 BCE to 200 CE but describing an earlier time) which situates a city on a knoll on the banks of the river Yamuna. According to art historian Catherine B. Asher, the topographical description of the Mahabharata matches the area of Purana Qila, a 14th-century CE fort of the Delhi sultanate, but the analogy does not go much further. Whereas the Mahabharata speaks of a beautifully decorated city with surrounding fortification, the excavations have yielded \"uneven findings of painted grey pottery characteristic of the eleventh century BCE; no signs of a built environment, much fewer fortifications, have been revealed.\"",
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"plaintext": "The earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period (c. 300 BCE); in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273–235 BCE) was discovered near Srinivaspuri. The remains of several major cities can be found in Delhi. The first of these was in the southern part of present-day Delhi. King Anang Pal of the Tomara dynasty built Lal Kot and several temples in 1052 CE. Vigraharaj Chauhan conquered Lal Kot in the mid-12th century and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.",
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"plaintext": "The king Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori in the second battle of Tarain, an invader from Afghanistan, who made a concerted effort to conquer northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India until Ghori returned to his capital, Ghor. When Ghori died without an heir in 1206 CE, Qutb-ud-din assumed control of Ghori's Indian possessions, and laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mamluk dynasty. He began construction of the Qutb Minar and Quwwat-al-Islam (Might of Islam) mosque, the earliest extant mosque in India. It was his successor, Iltutmish (1211–1236), who consolidated the Turkic conquest of northern India. Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, succeeded him as the Sultan of Delhi. She was the first and only woman to rule over Delhi before the British Raj.",
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"plaintext": "For the next three hundred years, Delhi was ruled by a succession of Turkic and an Afghan, Lodi dynasty. They built several forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi. Delhi was a major centre of Sufism during this period. The Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) was overthrown in 1290 by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji (1290–1320). Under the second Khalji ruler, Ala-ud-din Khalji, the Delhi sultanate extended its control south of the Narmada River in the Deccan. The Delhi sultanate reached its greatest extent during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351). In an attempt to bring the whole of the Deccan under control, he moved his capital to Daulatabad, Maharashtra in central India. However, by moving away from Delhi he lost control of the north and was forced to return to Delhi to restore order. The southern provinces then broke away. In the years following the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388), the Delhi Sultanate rapidly began to lose its hold over its northern provinces. Delhi was captured and sacked by Timur in 1398, who massacred 100,000 captive civilians. Delhi's decline continued under the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), until the sultanate was reduced to Delhi and its hinterland. Under the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526), the Delhi sultanate recovered control of Punjab and the Gangetic plain to once again achieve domination over Northern India. However, the recovery was short-lived and the sultanate was destroyed in 1526 by Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "In 1526, Babur a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, from the Fergana Valley in modern-day Uzbekistan invaded India, defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi and Agra. The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries, with a sixteen-year hiatus during the reigns of Sher Shah Suri and Hemu from 1540 to 1556. Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name Shahjahanabad, which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the Old City or Old Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire from Deccan Plateau rose to prominence. In 1737, Maratha forces led by Baji Rao I sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but militarily superior Persian army led by Nader Shah of Persia. After his invasion, he completely sacked and looted Delhi, carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne, the Daria-i-Noor, and Koh-i-Noor. The Mughals, severely further weakened, could never overcome this crushing defeat and humiliation which also left the way open for more invaders to come, including eventually the British. Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury. A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protectors of the Mughal throne in Delhi. The city was sacked again in 1757 by the forces of Ahmad Shah Durrani, although it was not annexed by the Afghan Empire and being its vassal state under the Mughal emperor. Then the Marathas battled and won control of Delhi from the Mughals. By the end of the century, Delhi had also come under control of the Bharatpur State and the Sikh Empire.",
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"plaintext": "In 1803, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the Siege of Delhi. The city came under the direct control of the British Government in 1858. It was made a district province of the Punjab. In 1911, it was announced that the capital of British-held territories in India was to be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi. The name \"New Delhi\" was given in 1927, and the new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931. New Delhi was officially declared as the capital of the Union of India after the country gained independence on 15 August 1947. It has expanded since; the small part of it that was constructed during the British period has come to be informally known as Lutyens' Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "During the partition of India, around five lakh Hindu and Sikh refugees, mainly from West Punjab fled to Delhi, while around three lakh Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. Ethnic Punjabis are believed to account for at least 40% of Delhi's total population and are predominantly Hindi-speaking Punjabi Hindus. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues (), contributing more to the rise of Delhi's population than the birth rate, which is declining.",
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"plaintext": "The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created the Union Territory of Delhi from its predecessor, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Act gave Delhi its legislative assembly along Civil lines, though with limited powers.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi was the primary site in the nationwide anti-Sikh pogroms of 1984, which resulted in the death of around 2,800 people in the city according to government figures, though independent estimates of the number of people killed tend to be higher. The riots were set off by the assassination of Indira Gandhi—the Prime Minister of India at the time—by her Sikh bodyguards.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, the Parliament of India building in New Delhi was attacked by armed militants, killing six security personnel. India suspected Pakistan-based militant groups were behind the attack, which caused a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries. There were further terrorist attacks in Delhi in 2005 and 2008, resulting in a total of 92 deaths. ",
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"plaintext": "The 2020 Delhi riots, Delhi's worst communal violence in decades, was caused mainly by Hindu mobs attacking Muslims. Of the 53 people killed, two-thirds were Muslims, and the rest Hindus.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is located in Northern India, at . The city is bordered on its northern, western, and southern sides by the state of Haryana and to the east by that of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge. The Yamuna River was the historical boundary between Punjab and UP, and its flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods. The Yamuna, a sacred river in Hinduism, is the only major river flowing through Delhi. The Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. The Delhi ridge originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west, northeast, and northwest parts of the city. It reaches a height of and is a dominant feature of the region. In addition to the wetlands formed by the Yamuna river, Delhi continues to retain over 500 ponds (wetlands < 5 ha), that in turn support considerable number of bird species. Delhi's ponds, despite experiencing ecological deterioration due to garbage dumping and concretization, supports the largest number of bird species known to be using ponds anywhere in the world. Existing policy in Delhi prevents the conversion of wetlands and, quite inadvertently, has led to the city's ponds becoming invaluable refugia for birds.",
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"plaintext": "The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of , of which is designated rural, and urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country. It has a length of and a width of .",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is included in India's seismic zone-IV, indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi features a dry-winter humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). The warm season lasts from 21 March to 15 June with an average daily high temperature above . The hottest day of the year is 22 May, with an average high of and low of . The cold season lasts from 26 November to 9 February with an average daily high temperature below . The coldest day of the year is 4 January, with an average low of and high of . In early March, the wind direction changes from north-westerly to south-westerly. From April to October the weather is hot. The monsoon arrives at the end of June, along with an increase in humidity. The brief, mild winter starts in late November, peaks in January and heavy fog often occurs.",
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"plaintext": "Temperatures in Delhi usually range from , with the lowest and highest temperatures ever recorded being , respectively. However, was recorded at Mungeshpur on 15 May 2022 whereas one of the main weathering station, that is, Airport station recorded all time high of on 26 May 1998. The lowest ever temperature ever recorded is at airport on 11 January 1967. The annual mean temperature is ; monthly mean temperatures range from . The highest temperature recorded in July was in 1931. The average annual rainfall is approximately , most of which falls during the monsoon in July and August. The average date of the advent of monsoon winds in Delhi is 29 June.",
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"plaintext": "According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Delhi was the most polluted city in the world in 2014. In 2016 WHO downgraded Delhi to eleventh-worst in the urban air quality database. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year. Air quality index of Delhi is generally moderate (101–200) level between January to September, and then it drastically deteriorates to Very Poor (301–400), Severe (401–500) or Hazardous (500+) levels in three months between October to December, due to various factors including stubble burning, fire crackers burning during Diwali and cold weather. During 2013–14, peak levels of fine particulate matter (PM) in Delhi increased by about 44%, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions, construction work and crop burning in adjoining states. It has the highest level of the airborne particulate matter, PM2.5 considered most harmful to health, with 153 micrograms. Rising air pollution level has significantly increased lung-related ailments (especially asthma and lung cancer) among Delhi's children and women. The dense smog and haze in Delhi during winter results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year. According to Indian meteorologists, the average maximum temperature in Delhi during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution.",
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"plaintext": "India's Ministry of Earth Sciences published a research paper in October 2018 attributing almost 41% of PM2.5 air pollution in Delhi to vehicular emissions, 21.5% to dust/fire and 18% to industries. The director of Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) alleged that the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) is lobbying \"against the report\" because it is \"inconvenient\" to the automobile industry. Environmentalists have also criticised the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues. In 2014, an environmental panel appealed to India's Supreme Court to impose a 30% cess on diesel cars, but till date no action has been taken to penalise the automobile industry.",
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"plaintext": "Most of Delhi's residents are unaware of alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it; however, , awareness, particularly among the foreign diplomatic community and high-income Indians, was noticeably increasing. Since the mid-1990s, Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution—Delhi has the third-highest quantity of trees among Indian cities and the Delhi Transport Corporation operates the world's largest fleet of environmentally friendly compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. In 1996, the CSE started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered the conversion of Delhi's fleet of buses and taxis to run on CNG and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the United States Department of Energy's first 'Clean Cities International Partner of the Year' award for its \"bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives\". The Delhi Metro has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in the city.",
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"plaintext": "However, according to several authors, most of these gains have been lost, especially due to stubble burning, a rise in the market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus ridership. According to CSE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR), burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "The Circles of Sustainability assessment of Delhi gives a marginally more favourable impression of the ecological sustainability of the city only because it is based on a more comprehensive series of measures than only air pollution. Part of the reason that the city remains assessed at basic sustainability is because of the low resource-use and carbon emissions of its poorer neighbourhoods. On 3 January 2020, Delhi got its first smog tower to tackle air pollution.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, the National Capital Territory of Delhi is made up of one division, 11 districts, 33 subdivisions, 59census towns, and 300villages. ",
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"plaintext": "The National Capital Territory of Delhi is divided into three municipalities, Delhi Municipality, New Delhi and Delhi Cantonment, each with their own governance apparatus. The Municipality of Delhi is administered by Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) which occupies an area of 1397.3 km2 and is sub-divided into 12 zones, that is, Centre, South, West, Najafgarh, Rohini, Civil Lines, Karol Bagh, SP-City, Keshavpuram, Narela, Shahdara North and Shahdara South. Municipal services in New Delhi, which occupies an area of 42.7 km2, are provided by the New Delhi Municipal Council and Delhi Cantonment is administered by a Cantonment board.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2011 and 22 May 2022 Delhi Municipality was divided into three municipal corporations:",
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"plaintext": " South Delhi had jurisdiction over South and West Delhi areas including Mahipalpur, Rajouri Garden, Badarpur, Jaitpur, Janakpuri, Hari Nagar, Tilak Nagar, Dwarka, Jungpura, Greater Kailash, R K Puram, Malviya Nagar, Kalkaji, Ambedkar Nagar and Pul pehladpur.",
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"plaintext": " North Delhi had jurisdiction over areas such as Badli, Rithala, Bawana, Kirari, Mangolpuri, Tri Nagar, Model Town, Sadar Bazar, Chandni Chowk, Matia Mahal, Karol Bagh, Moti Nagar",
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"plaintext": " East Delhi had jurisdiction over areas such as Patparganj, Kondli, Laxmi Nagar, Seemapuri, Gonda, Karawal Nagar, Babarpur and Shahadra.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is home to the Supreme Court of India which is also the apex court of the nation. Delhi is also home to the High Court of Delhi. The High Court of Delhi is the highest in the Delhi before Supreme Court. The High Court of Delhi just like the apex court and other High Courts in India is the Court of record. Delhi is also home to various District Court according to jurisdictions. Delhi have Currently seven District Courts namely Tis Hazari Court Complex, Karkardooma Court Complex, Patiala House Court Complex, Rohini Court Complex, Dwarka Courts Complex, Saket Court Complex, and Rouse Avenue Court ",
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"plaintext": "Apart from the District Courts Delhi also have Consumer Courts, CBI Courts, Labour Courts, Revenue Courts, Army tribunals, electricity tribunals, Railway Tribunals, and other various tribunals situated according to appropriate jurisdictions.",
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"plaintext": "For policing purposes Delhi is divided into fifteen police districts which are further subdivided into 95 local police station zones. Delhi currently has 180 police stations.",
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"plaintext": "As a first-level administrative division, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own Legislative Assembly, Lieutenant Governor, the council of ministers, and Chief Minister. Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the NCT. The legislative assembly was abolished in 1956, after which direct federal control was implemented until it was re-established in 1993. The Municipal corporation handles civic administration for the city as part of the Panchayati Raj Act. The Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi jointly administer New Delhi, where both bodies are located. The Parliament of India, the Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace), Cabinet Secretariat, and the Supreme Court of India are located in the municipal district of New Delhi. There are 70 assembly constituencies and seven Lok Sabha (Indian parliament's lower house) constituencies in Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "The Indian National Congress (Congress) formed all the governments in Delhi until the 1990s, when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Madan Lal Khurana, came to power. In 1998, the Congress returned to power under the leadership of Sheila Dikshit, who was subsequently re-elected for 3 consecutive terms. But in 2013, the Congress was ousted from power by the newly formed Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) led by Arvind Kejriwal forming the government with outside support from the Congress. However, that government was short-lived, collapsing only after 49 days. Delhi was then under President's rule until February 2015. On 10 February 2015, the Aam Aadmi Party returned to power after a landslide victory, winning 67 out of the 70 seats in the Delhi Legislative Assembly.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is the largest commercial center in northern India. recent estimates of the economy of the Delhi urban area have been around $370billion (PPP metro GDP) ranking it either the most or second-most productive metro area of India. The nominal GSDP of the NCT of Delhi for 2016–17 was estimated at , 13% higher than in 2015–16.",
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"plaintext": "As per the Economic survey of Delhi (2005–2006), the tertiary sector contributes 70.95% of Delhi's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors with 25.20% and 3.85% contributions, respectively. Delhi's workforce constitutes 32.82% of the population, and increased by 52.52% between 1991 and 2001. Delhi's unemployment rate decreased from 12.57% in 1999–2000 to 4.63% in 2003. In December 2004, 636,000 people were registered with various employment exchange programmes in Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001 the total workforce in national and state governments and the quasi-government sector was 620,000, and the private sector employed 219,000. Key service industries are information technology, telecommunications, hotels, banking, media and tourism. Construction, power, health and community services and real estate are also important to the city's economy. Delhi has one of India's largest and fastest growing retail industries. Manufacturing also grew considerably as consumer goods companies established manufacturing units and headquarters in the city. Delhi's large consumer market and the availability of skilled labour has also attracted foreign investment. In 2001, the manufacturing sector employed 1,440,000 workers and the city had 129,000 industrial units.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi's municipal water supply is managed by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB). , it supplied 650million gallons per day (MGD), whereas the estimated consumption requirement is 963MGD. The shortfall is met by private and public tube wells and hand pumps. At 240MGD, the Bhakra storage is DJB's largest water source, followed by the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. Delhi's groundwater level is falling and its population density is increasing, so residents often encounter acute water shortage. Research on Delhi suggests that up to half of the city's water use is unofficial groundwater.In Delhi, daily domestic solid waste production is 8000tonnes which is dumped at three landfill locations by MCD. The daily domestic waste water production is 470MGD and industrial waste water is 70MGD. A large portion of the sewage flows untreated into the Yamuna river.",
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"plaintext": "The city's electricity consumption is about 1,265kWh per capita but the actual demand is higher. In Delhi power distribution is managed by TPDDL and BSES Yamuna & BSES Rajdhani since 2002. The Delhi Fire Service runs 43 fire stations that attend about 15,000 fire and rescue calls per year. The state-owned BSNL and private enterprises such as Airtel, Vi, Jio, and provide telephone and cell phone services to the city. Cellular coverage is available in GSM, CDMA, 3G, 4G and 4G+.",
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"plaintext": "Indira Gandhi International Airport, situated to the south-west of Delhi, is the main gateway for the city's domestic and international civilian air traffic. In 2015–16, the airport handled more than 48million passengers, making it the busiest airport in India and South Asia. Terminal 3, which cost to construct between 2007 and 2010, handles an additional 37million passengers annually. In 2010, IGIA was conferred the 4th best airport award in the world in the 15–25million category, by Airports Council International. The airport was rated as the Best airport in the world in the 25–40million passengers category in 2015, by Airports Council International. Delhi Airport was awarded The Best Airport in Central Asia and Best Airport Staff in Central Asia at the Skytrax World Airport Awards 2015. Hindon Domestic Airport in Ghaziabad was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi as the second airport for the Delhi-NCR Region on 8 March 2019. A second international airport open for commercial flights has been suggested either by expansion of Meerut Airport or construction of a new airport in Greater Noida.",
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"plaintext": "The Taj International Airport project in Jewar has been approved by the Uttar Pradesh government.",
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"plaintext": "The Delhi Flying Club, established in 1928 with two de Havilland Moth aircraft named Delhi and Roshanara, was based at Safdarjung Airport which started operations in 1929, when it was the Delhi's only airport and the second in India. The airport functioned until 2001; however, in January 2002 the government closed the airport for flying activities because of security concerns following the New York attacks in September 2001. Since then, the club only carries out aircraft maintenance courses and is used for helicopter rides to Indira Gandhi International Airport for VIP including the president and the prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi has the highest road density of 2103km/100km2 in India. It is connected to other parts of India by five National Highways: NH 1, NH 2, NH 8, NH 10 and NH 24. The Delhi–Mumbai and Delhi–Kolkata prongs of the Golden Quadrilateral start from the city. The city's road network is maintained by MCD, NDMC, Delhi Cantonment Board, Public Works Department (PWD) and Delhi Development Authority.",
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"plaintext": "Buses are the most popular means of road transport catering to about 60% of Delhi's total demand. Delhi has one of India's largest bus transport systems. In 1998, the Supreme Court of India ruled that all public transport vehicles in Delhi must be fuelled by compressed natural gas (CNG) to tackle increasing vehicular pollution. The state-owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) is a major bus service provider which operates the world's largest fleet of CNG-fuelled buses. In addition, cluster scheme buses are operated by Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System (DIMTS) with the participation of private concessionaires and DTC. In December 2017, the DTC and cluster buses carried over 4.19million passengers per day. Kashmiri Gate ISBT, Anand Vihar ISBT and Sarai Kale Khan ISBT are the main bus terminals for outstation buses plying to neighbouring states. Delhi's rapid rate of economic development and population growth has resulted in an increasing demand for transport, creating excessive pressure on the city's transport infrastructure. To meet the transport demand, the State and Union government constructed a mass rapid transit system, including the Delhi Metro. Delhi Bus Rapid Transit System runs between Ambedkar Nagar and Delhi Gate.",
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"plaintext": "Personal vehicles especially cars also form a major chunk of vehicles plying on Delhi roads. , private vehicles account for 30% of the total demand for transport. Delhi has the highest number of registered cars compared to any other metropolitan city in India. Taxis, auto rickshaws, and cycle rickshaws also ply on Delhi roads in large numbers. , the number of vehicles in the metropolitan region, Delhi NCR, was 11.2million (11.2million). In 2008, there were 85 cars in Delhi for every 1,000 of its residents. In 2017, the number of vehicles in Delhi city alone crossed the ten million mark with the transport department of Delhi Government putting the total number of registered vehicles at 10,567,712 until 25 May of the year.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway. The main railway stations are New Delhi, Old Delhi, Hazrat Nizamuddin, Anand Vihar, Delhi Sarai Rohilla and Delhi Cantt. The Delhi Metro, a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring cities Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida. , the metro consists of ten operational lines with a total length of and 254 stations, and several other lines are under construction. The Phase-I was built at a cost of US$2.3billion and the Phase-II was expected to cost an additional . Phase-II has a total length of 128km and was completed by 2010. Delhi Metro completed 10years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day. In addition to the Delhi Metro, a suburban railway, the Delhi Suburban Railway exists.",
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"plaintext": "The Delhi Metro is a rapid transit system serving Delhi, Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida in the National Capital Region of India. Delhi Metro is the world's tenth-largest metro system in terms of length. Delhi Metro was India's second modern public transportation system. The network consists of Network serving 255 stations with a total length of . The system has a mix of underground, at-grade, and elevated stations using both broad-gauge and standard-gauge. All stations have escalators, lifts, and tactile tiles to guide the visually impaired from station entrances to trains. There are 18 designated parking sites at Metro stations to further encourage the use of the system. In March 2010, DMRC partnered with Google India (through Google Transit) to provide train schedule and route information to mobile devices with Google Maps.",
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"plaintext": "It has a combination of elevated, at-grade, and underground lines, and uses both broad gauge and standard gauge rolling stock. Four types of rolling stock are used: Mitsubishi–ROTEM Broad gauge, Bombardier MOVIA, Mitsubishi–ROTEM Standard gauge, and CAF Beasain Standard gauge. The Phase-I of Delhi Metro was built for US$2.3billion and the Phase-II was expected to cost an additional . Phase-II has a total length of 128km and was completed by 2010. Delhi Metro completed 10years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi Metro is being built and operated by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited (DMRC), a state-owned company with equal equity participation from the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. However, the organization is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. Besides the construction and operation of the Delhi Metro, DMRC is also involved in the planning and implementation of metro rail, monorail, and high-speed rail projects in India and providing consultancy services to other metro projects in the country as well as abroad. The Delhi Metro project was spearheaded by Padma Vibhushan E. Sreedharan, the managing director of DMRC and popularly known as the \"Metro Man\" of India. He famously resigned from DMRC taking moral responsibility for a metro bridge collapse, which took five lives. Sreedharan was awarded the Legion of Honour by the French Government for his contribution to Delhi Metro.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2011 census of India, the population of NCT of Delhi is 16,753,235. The corresponding population density was 11,297 persons per km2 with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men, and a literacy rate of 86.34%. In 2004, the birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate per 1000 population were 20.03, 5.59 and 13.08, respectively. In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by 215,000 as a result of natural population growth, which made Delhi one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. Dwarka Sub City, Asia's largest planned residential area, is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Urban expansion has resulted in Delhi's urban area now being considered as extending beyond the NCT boundaries to incorporate the towns and cities of neighbouring states including Faridabad and Gurgaon of Haryana, and Ghaziabad and Noida of Uttar Pradesh, the total population of which is estimated by the United Nations at over 28 million. According to the UN this makes Delhi urban area the world's second-largest, after Tokyo, although Demographia declares the Jakarta urban area to be the second-largest. The 2011 census provided two figures for urban area population: 16,314,838 within the NCT boundary, and 21,753,486 for the Extended Urban Area. The 2021 regional plan released by the Government of India renamed the Extended Urban Area from Delhi Metropolitan Area (DMA) as defined by the 2001 plan to Central National Capital Region (CNCR). Around 49% of the population of Delhi lives in slums and unauthorized colonies without any civic amenities. The majority of the slums have inadequate provisions to the basic facilities and according to a DUSIB report, almost 22% of the people do open defecation.",
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"plaintext": "Major social groups of Delhi include Brahmins, Gujjars, Jats, Vaishyas, Khatris, Rajputs, Ahirs, Punjabis, Purvanchalis, Bengalis, Uttarakhandis, Muslims, Sikhs, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Hinduism is Delhi's predominant religious faith, with 81.68% of Delhi's population, followed by Islam (12.86%), Sikhism (3.40%), Jainism (0.99%), Christianity (0.87%), and Buddhism (0.11%). Other minority religions include Zoroastrianism, Baháʼísm and Judaism.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 50th report of the commissioner for linguistic minorities in India, which was submitted in 2014, Hindi is Delhi's most spoken language, with 80.94% speakers, followed by Punjabi (7.14%), Urdu (6.31%) and Bengali (1.50%). 4.11% of the Delhites speak other languages. Hindi is also the official language of Delhi while Urdu and Punjabi have been declared as additional official languages.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Directorate of Education, GNCTD the following languages are taught in schools in Delhi under the three-language formula:",
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"plaintext": " Second Language",
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"plaintext": " Sindhi",
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"plaintext": " Kannada",
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"plaintext": " Gujarati",
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"plaintext": " Marathi",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit",
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"plaintext": "Delhi's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India. Although a strong Punjabi Influence can be seen in language, Dress and Cuisine brought by the large number of refugees who came following the partition in 1947 the recent migration from other parts of India has made it a melting pot. This is exemplified by many significant monuments in the city. The Archaeological Survey of India recognises 1,200 heritage buildings and 175 monuments as national heritage sites.",
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"plaintext": "In the Old City, the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architecturally significant buildings, such as the Jama Masjid—India's largest mosque built in 1656 and the Red Fort. Three World Heritage Sites—the Red Fort, Qutub Minar and Humayun's Tomb—are located in Delhi. Other monuments include the India Gate, the Jantar Mantar—an 18th-century astronomical observatory—and the Purana Qila—a 16th-century fortress. The Laxminarayan Temple, Akshardham temple, Gurudwara Bangla Sahib, the Baháʼí Faith's Lotus Temple and the ISKCON temple are examples of modern architecture. Raj Ghat and associated memorials houses memorials of Mahatma Gandhi and other notable personalities. New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of British colonial architecture, including the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the Secretariat, Rajpath, the Parliament of India and Vijay Chowk. Safdarjung's Tomb is an example of the Mughal gardens style. Some regal havelis (palatial residences) are in the Old City. Lotus Temple is a Baháʼí House of Worship completed in 1986. Notable for its flowerlike shape, it serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent and has become a prominent attraction in the city. ",
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"plaintext": "Delhi's association and geographic proximity to the capital, New Delhi, has amplified the importance of national events and holidays like Republic Day, Independence Day (15 August) and Gandhi Jayanti. On Independence Day, the Prime Minister addresses the nation from the Red Fort. The Republic Day Parade is a large cultural and military parade showcasing India's cultural diversity and military strength. Over the centuries, Delhi has become known for its composite culture, and a festival that symbolises this is the Phool Walon Ki Sair, which takes place in September. Flowers and pankhe—fans embroidered with flowers—are offered to the shrine of the 13th-century Sufi saint Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki and the Yogmaya Temple, both situated in Mehrauli.",
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"plaintext": "Religious festivals include Diwali (the festival of lights), Mahavir Jayanti, Guru Nanak's Birthday, Raksha Bandhan, Durga Puja, Holi, Lohri, Chauth, Krishna Janmastami, Maha Shivratri, Eid ul-Fitr, Moharram and Buddha Jayanti. The Qutub Festival is a cultural event during which performances of musicians and dancers from all over India are showcased at night, with the Qutub Minar as a backdrop. Other events such as Kite Flying Festival, International Mango Festival and Vasant Panchami (the Spring Festival) are held every year in Delhi. The Auto Expo, Asia's largest auto show, is held in Delhi biennially. The New Delhi World Book Fair, held biennially at the Pragati Maidan, is the second-largest exhibition of books in the world. Delhi is often regarded as the \"Book Capital\" of India because of high readership. India International Trade Fair (IITF), organised by ITPO is the biggest cultural and shopping fair of Delhi which takes place in November each year and is visited by more than 1.5million people.",
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"plaintext": "As India's national capital and centuries old Mughal capital, Delhi influenced the food habits of its residents and is where Mughlai cuisine originated. Along with Indian cuisine, a variety of international cuisines are popular among the residents. The dearth of food habits among the city's residents created a unique style of cooking which became popular throughout the world, with dishes such as Kebab, biryani, tandoori. The city's classic dishes include butter chicken, dal makhani, shahi paneer, aloo chaat, chaat, dahi bhalla, kachori, gol gappe, samosa, chole bhature, chole kulche, gulab jamun, jalebi and lassi.",
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"plaintext": "The fast living habits of Delhi's people has motivated the growth of street food outlets. A trend of dining at local dhabas is popular among the residents. High-profile restaurants have gained popularity in recent years, among the popular restaurants are the Karim Hotel, the Punjab Grill and Bukhara. The Gali Paranthe Wali (the street of fried bread) is a street in Chandni Chowk particularly for food eateries since the 1870s. Almost the entire street is occupied by fast food stalls or street vendors. It has nearly become a tradition that almost every prime minister of India has visited the street to eat paratha at least once. Other Indian cuisines are also available in this area even though the street specialises in north Indian food.",
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"plaintext": "Private schools in Delhi—which use either English or Hindi as the language of instruction—are affiliated to one of three administering bodies, the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) or the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In 2004–05, approximately 1,529,000 students were enrolled in primary schools, 822,000 in middle schools and 669,000 in secondary schools across Delhi. Female students represented 49% of the total enrolment. The same year, the Delhi government spent between 1.58% and 1.95% of its gross state domestic product on education.",
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"plaintext": "Schools and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the Directorate of Education, the NCT government or private organisations. In 2006, Delhi had 165 colleges, five medical colleges and eight engineering colleges, seven major universities and nine deemed universities.",
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"plaintext": "The premier management colleges of Delhi such as Faculty of Management Studies (Delhi) and Indian Institute of Foreign Trade rank the best in India. All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi is a premier medical school for treatment and research. National Law University, Delhi is a prominent law school and is affiliated with the Bar Council of India. The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi situated in Hauz Khas is a premier engineering college of India and ranks as one of the top institutes in South Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi Technological University (formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women (formerly Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology), Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Netaji Subhas University of Technology (formerly Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology), Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and National Law University, Delhi are the only state universities. University of Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Jamia Millia Islamia are the central universities, and Indira Gandhi National Open University is for distance education.",
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"plaintext": ", about 16% of all Delhi residents possessed at least a college graduate degree.",
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"plaintext": "As the capital of India, Delhi is the focus of political reportage, including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions. Many national media agencies, including the state-owned Press Trust of India, Media Trust of India and Doordarshan, are based in the city. Television programming includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan, and several Hindi, English, and regional-language cable channels offered by multi system operators. Satellite television has yet to gain a large number of subscribers in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Delhi. The city's Hindi newspapers include Navbharat Times, Hindustan Dainik, Punjab Kesari, Pavitra Bharat, Dainik Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar, Amar Ujala and Dainik Desbandhu. Amongst the English language newspapers, the Hindustan Times, with a daily circulation of over a million copies, is the single largest daily. Other major English newspapers include The Times of India, The Hindu, Indian Express, Business Standard, The Pioneer, The Statesman, and The Asian Age. Regional language newspapers include the Malayalam daily Malayala Manorama and the Tamil dailies Dinamalar and Dinakaran.",
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"plaintext": "Radio is a less popular mass medium in Delhi, although FM radio has gained popularity since the inauguration of several new stations in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "A number of state-owned and private radio stations broadcast from Delhi.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi has hosted many major international sporting events:",
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"plaintext": "1951 Asian Games (Inaugural)",
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"plaintext": "Delhi hosted the first Asian Games in 1951 from 4 to 11 March. A total of 489 athletes representing 11 Asian National Olympic Committees participated in 57 events from eight sports and discipline. The Games was the successor of the Far Eastern Games and the revival of the Western Asiatic Games. On 13 February 1949, the Asian Games Federation was formally established in Delhi, with Delhi unanimously announced as the first host city of the Asian Games. National Stadium was the venue for all events. Over 40,000 spectators watched the opening ceremony of the Games in National Stadium.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi hosted the ninth Asian Games for the second time in 1982 from 19 November to 4 December. This was the second time the city has hosted the Asian Games and was also the first Asian Games to be held under the aegis of the Olympic Council of Asia. A total of 3,411 athletes from 33 National Olympic Committees participated in these games, competing in 196 events in 21 sports and 23 disciplines. The Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, which has a capacity of 60,000 people, was built purposely for the event and hosted its opening ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "Delhi hosted the Nineteenth Commonwealth Games in 2010, which ran from 3 to 14 October and was the largest sporting event held in India. The opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games was held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, the main stadium of the event, in New Delhi at 7:00pm Indian Standard Time on 3 October 2010. The ceremony featured over 8,000 performers and lasted for two and a half hours. It is estimated that were spent to produce the ceremony. Events took place at 12 competition venues. 20 training venues were used in the Games, including seven venues within Delhi University. The rugby stadium in Delhi University North Campus hosted rugby games for Commonwealth Games.",
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"plaintext": " Delhi metropolitan area",
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"plaintext": " List of people from Delhi",
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"plaintext": " Economic Survey of Delhi 2005–2006. Planning Department. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi. Retrieved 12 February 2007",
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37,757 | 1,106,262,207 | Vindolanda | [
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"plaintext": "Vindolanda was a Roman auxiliary fort (castrum) just south of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, which it originally pre-dated. Archaeological excavations of the site show it was under Roman occupation from roughly 85 AD to 370 AD. Located near the modern village of Bardon Mill in Northumberland, it guarded the Stanegate, the Roman road from the River Tyne to the Solway Firth. It is noted for the Vindolanda tablets, a set of wooden leaf-tablets that were, at the time of their discovery, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "The first post-Roman record of the ruins at Vindolanda was made by the antiquarian William Camden, in his Britannia (1586). Occasional travellers reached the site over the next two hundred years, and the accounts they left predate much of the stone-stealing that has damaged the site. The military (bath-house) was still partly roofed when Christopher Hunter visited the site in 1702. In about 1715 an excise officer named John Warburton found an altar there, which he removed. In 1814 the first real archaeological work was begun, by the Rev. Anthony Hedley.",
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"plaintext": "Hedley died in 1835, before writing up his discoveries. Little more was done for a long time, although in 1914 a workman found another altar at the site, set up by the civilians living at the fort in honour of the Divine House and Vulcan. Several names for the site are used in the early records, including \"Chesters on Caudley\", \"Little Chesters\", \"The Bower\" and \"Chesterholm\"; the altar found in 1914 confirmed that the Roman name for the site was \"Vindolanda\", which had been in dispute as one early source referred to it as \"Vindolana\".",
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"plaintext": "The garrison consisted of infantry or cavalry , not components of Roman legions. From the early third century, this was the Cohors IV Gallorum equitata also known as the Fourth Cohort of Gauls. It had been presumed that this title was, by this time, purely nominal, with auxiliary troops being recruited locally but an inscription found in a recent season of excavations suggests that native Gauls were still to be found in the regiment and that they liked to distinguish themselves from British soldiers. The inscription reads:",
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"plaintext": "A translation of this is \"The troops from Gaul dedicate this statue to the goddess Gallia with the full support of the British-born troops\".",
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"plaintext": "Among the troops were Basque-speaking soldiers of the Varduli.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest Roman forts at Vindolanda were built of wood and turf. The remains are now buried as much as deep in the anoxic waterlogged soil. There are five timber forts, built (and demolished) one after the other. The first, a small fort, was probably built by the 1st Cohort of Tungrians about 85 AD. By about 95 AD this was replaced by a larger wooden fort built by the 9th Cohort of Batavians, a mixed infantry-cavalry unit of about 1,000 men. That fort was repaired in about 100 AD under the command of the Roman prefect Flavius Cerialis. When the 9th Cohort of Batavians left in 105 AD, their fort was demolished. The 1st Cohort of Tungrians returned to Vindolanda, built a larger wooden fort and remained here until Hadrian's Wall was built around 122 AD, when they moved, most likely to Vercovicium (Housesteads Roman Fort) on the wall, about two miles to the north-east of Vindolanda.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after Hadrian's Wall was built, most of its men were moved north to the Antonine Wall. A stone fort was built at Vindolanda, possibly for the 2nd Cohort of Nervians. From 208 to 211 AD, there was a major rebellion against Rome in Britain, and the Emperor Septimius Severus led an army to Britain to cope with it personally. The old stone fort was demolished, and replaced by an unconventional set of army buildings on the west, and an unusual array of many round stone huts where the old fort had been. Some of these circular huts are visible by the north and the southwest walls of the final stone fort. The Roman army may have built these to accommodate families of British farmers in this unsettled period. Septimius Severus died at York in 211 AD; his sons paid off the rebels and left for Rome. The stone buildings were demolished, and a large new stone fort was built where the huts had been, for the 4th Cohort of Gauls.",
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"plaintext": "A , a self-governing village, developed to the west of the fort. The contains several rows of buildings, each containing several one-room chambers. Most are not connected to the existing drainage system. The one that does was perhaps a butchery where, for health reasons, an efficient drain would have been important. A stone altar found in 1914 (and exhibited in the museum) proves that the settlement was officially a and that it was named Vindolanda. To the south of the fort is a (a large imperial bath complex), that would have been used by many of the individuals on the site. The later stone fort, and the adjoining village, remained in use until about 285 AD, when it was largely abandoned for unknown reasons.",
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"plaintext": "About 300 AD, the fort was again rebuilt, but the was not reoccupied, so most likely the area remained too unsafe for life outside the defended walls of the fort. In about 370, the fort was roughly repaired, perhaps by irregular soldiers. There is no evidence for the traditional view that Roman occupation ended suddenly in 410; it may have declined slowly.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1930s, the house at Chesterholm where the museum is now located was purchased by archaeologist Eric Birley, who was interested in excavating the site. The excavations have been continued by his sons, Robin and Anthony, and his grandson, Andrew Birley, into the present day. They are undertaken each summer, and some of the archaeological deposits reach depths of six metres. The anoxic conditions at these depths have preserved thousands of artefacts, such as wooden writing tablets and over 160 boxwood combs, that normally disintegrate in the ground, thus providing an opportunity to gain a fuller understanding of Roman life – military and otherwise – on the northern frontier. A study of spindle whorls from the north-western quadrant has indicated the presence of spinners of low- and high- status in the fort in the 3rd and 4th century AD. Along with ongoing excavations (in season) and excavated remains, a full-size replica of a section of Hadrian's Wall in both stone and turf can be seen on the site. As of yet there is no reconstruction of the Vallum.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly 2000-year-old Roman boxing gloves were uncovered at Vindolanda in 2017 by the Vindolanda Trust experts led by Dr Andrew Birley. According to the Guardian, being similar in style and function to the full-hand modern boxing gloves, these two gloves found at Vindolanda look like leather bands and date back to 120 AD. It is suggested that, based on their difference from gladiator gloves, warriors using this type of gloves had no purpose to kill each other. These gloves were probably used in a sport for promoting fighting skills. The gloves are currently displayed at Vindolanda's museum. According to Birley, they are not part of a matching pair:",
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"plaintext": "Recent excavations have been accompanied by new archaeological methodologies. 3-D imaging has been used to investigate the use of an ox cranium in target practice.",
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"plaintext": "In 2021, a carved sandstone artifact was discovered a few inches below the floor of the fort. It depicts a nude warrior or deity before a horse or similar animal. Early interpretations point to the figure being of a Roman deity, perhaps of Mars or Mercury.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the older initial findings of ink tablets, shoes and combs, several more artifacts and discoveries of note have been covered by the media. In 2017, the British newspaper The Guardian focused on a discovery of cavalry barracks that were uncovered during the excavation season that held a large number of artifacts including swords, ink tablets, textiles, arrowheads, and other military paraphernalia. Relative dating of the barracks had determined that they were built around 105 AD. The Guardian also publicized the discovery of a cache of 25 ink tablets found earlier in the 2017 season. The tablets were discovered in a trench in one of the earliest layers of the fort, dating to the 1st century AD. This discovery was considered to be the second-largest discovery of ink tablets in the world, with the first being a cache that was also discovered at Vindolanda in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2014 excavation season, BBC ran a story about the discovery of one of the few surviving examples of a wooden toilet seat to be found in the Roman Empire. In the same year, they also recorded the discovery of the only (very old, very worn) gold coin ever to be found on the site with a mint date of 64 or 65 AD, lying in a site layer dating to the 4th century AD.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the BBC announced the discovery of the remains of a child between the ages of 8 and 10 years, which was uncovered in a shallow pit in a barrack room in a position suggesting that its arms may have been bound. Further archaeological analysis indicated that it could be female. She is believed to have died about 1,800 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Another find publicised on the BBC website in 2006 was a bronze and silver fibula modelled with the figure of Mars, with the name Quintus Sollonius punched into its surface.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, archaeologists discovered a 5th-century chalice covered in religious iconography within a collapsed church structure. The images include crosses, angels, a smiling priestly figure holding a crook, fish, a whale, ships, the Greek letters chi-rho. In addition, the chalice bears scripts written in Latin, Greek, and possibly Ogham.",
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"plaintext": "The Vindolanda site museum, also known as Chesterholm Museum, conserves and displays finds from the site. The museum is set in gardens, which include full-sized reconstructions of a Roman temple, a Roman shop, a Roman house and Northumbrian croft, all with audio presentations. Exhibits include Roman boots, shoes, armour, jewellery and coins, infrared photographs of the writing tablets and, from 2011, a small selection of the tablets themselves, on loan from the British Museum. 2011 saw the reopening of the museum at Vindolanda, and also the Roman Army Museum at Magnae Carvetiorum (Carvoran), refurbished with a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970, the Vindolanda Trust, a registered charity, was founded to administer the site and its museum, and in 1997, the Trust took over the running of the Roman Army Museum at Carvoran to the west, another Hadrian's Wall fort, which it had acquired in 1972.",
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"plaintext": " Vindolanda tablets",
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"plaintext": " History of Northumberland",
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"plaintext": " Minimus, Latin textbooks for primary-school children, using stories based in Vindolanda",
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"plaintext": " Birley, R. Vindolanda: a Roman frontier post on Hadrian's Wall. Thames and Hudson, London, 1977.",
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"plaintext": " Birley, R. Vindolanda Guide: the home of Britain's finest treasures. Roman Army Museum Publications, Greenhead, 2012.",
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"plaintext": " Vindolanda Trust",
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"plaintext": " BBC page on Vindolanda",
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"plaintext": " Directions and further details about Vindolanda and the remaining sections of Hadrian's Wall ",
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"plaintext": " Hadrian's Wall Discussion Forum",
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37,760 | 1,100,411,984 | Plzeň | [
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 1-Bolevec (Bolevec and Severní Předměstí)",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 2-Slovany (Božkov, Černice (partly), Doudlevce (partly), Hradiště, Koterov, Lobzy (partly) and Východní Předměstí (partly))",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 3-Bory (Doudlevce (partly), Jižní Předměstí, Litice (partly), Nová Hospoda, Radobyčice, Skvrňany, Valcha, Vnitřní Město and Východní Předměstí (partly))",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 4-Doubravka (Bukovec, Červený Hrádek, Doubravka, Lobzy (partly), Újezd and Východní Předměstí (partly))",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 7-Radčice",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 8-Černice (Černice (partly))",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 9-Malesice (Dolní Vlkýš and Malesice)",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň 10-Lhota",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň was first mentioned as a castle in 976, as the scene of a battle between Duke Boleslaus II the Pious of Bohemia and Emperor Otto II. It became a town in 1295 when King Wenceslaus II granted Plzeň its civic charter as a \"Royal City\" and established a new town site, some away from the original settlement, which is the current town of Starý Plzenec. It quickly became an important town on trade routes leading to Nuremberg and Regensburg; in the 14th century, it was the third-largest town in Bohemia after Prague and Kutná Hora.",
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"plaintext": "In the second half of the 19th century Plzeň, already an important trade centre for Bohemia, near the Bavarian/German border, began to industrialise rapidly. In 1869 Emil Škoda founded the Škoda Works, which became the most important and influential engineering company in the country and a crucial supplier of arms to the Austro-Hungarian Army. By 1917 the Škoda Works employed over 30,000 workers.",
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"plaintext": "After 1898 the second largest employer was the National Railways train workshop, with about 2,000 employees: this was the largest rail repair shop in all Austria-Hungary. Between 1861 and 1877, the Plzeň railway junction was completed and in 1899 the first tram line started in the city. This burst of industry had two important effects: the growth of the local Czech population and of the urban poor. After 1868 first Czech mayor of the city was elected.",
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"plaintext": "Following Czechoslovak independence from Austria-Hungary in 1918 the German-speaking minority in the countryside bordering the city of Plzeň hoped to be united with Austria and were unhappy at being included in Czechoslovakia. Many allied themselves to the Nazis after 1933 in the hope that Adolf Hitler might be able to unite them with their German-speaking neighbours.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, Plzeň became literally a frontier town; the creation of the Sudetenland moved Nazi Germany's borders to the city's outer limits. During the German occupation from 1939 to 1945, the Škoda Works in Pilsen was forced to provide armaments for the Wehrmacht, and Czech contributions, particularly in the field of tanks, were noted. The Germans operated a Gestapo prison in the city, and a forced labour camp in the Karlov district.",
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"plaintext": "Between 17 and 26 January 1942, over 2,000 Jewish inhabitants, most of Plzeň's Jewish population, were deported by the Nazis to the Theresienstadt concentration camp.",
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"plaintext": "The German-speaking population was expelled from the city after the end of the war in 1945, according to the provisions of the Potsdam Agreement. All of their property was confiscated.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 May 1945, in the final days before the end of World War II in Europe, Plzeň was liberated from Nazi Germany by the 16th Armored Division of General George Patton's 3rd Army. Also participating in the liberation of the city were elements of the 97th and 2nd Infantry Divisions supported by the Polish Holy Cross Mountains Brigade. Other Third Army units liberated major portions of Western Bohemia. The rest of Czechoslovakia was liberated from German control by the Soviet Red Army. Elements of the 3rd Army, as well as units from the 1st Army, remained in Plzeň until late November 1945.",
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"plaintext": "After the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, the government launched a currency reform in 1953, which caused a wave of discontent, including the Plzeň uprising. On 1 June 1953, over 20,000 people, mainly workers at the Škoda Works, began protesting against the government. Protesters forced their way into the town hall and threw communist symbols, furniture and other objects out of the windows. The protest caused a retaliation from the government. As part of its retaliation, they destroyed the statue of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. The statue has since been re-erected.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, a West German homing pigeon was lost near the Czechoslovak border. It returned two days later, bearing a strong anticommunist message, signed \"Unbowed Pilsen.\" The bird, named Leaping Lena, was taken to the United States, where it was celebrated as a Cold War hero.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň has a cool and temperate Oceanic climate (Cfb). Plzeň has low rainfall ( year average) evenly spread over the year. Precipitation occurs on average every second day, and the number of days with thunderstorms is 19. It receives on average 1,700 hours of sunshine though winters have longer periods without sunshine. Terrain features and a relatively low altitude () give some shelter from strong winds.",
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"plaintext": "Winters are chilly but milder than some adjacent areas. Snow cover is erratic and lasts on average for 51 days. Though an average year has 113 days with minimum temperature below zero, the temperature falls below on 5 days. The record low temperatures is around . Winters are often murky with frequent long-standing haze. Spring is short, and in April to June there is blooming vegetation. Summer lasts from the end of May until the first third of September. During that period Plzeň has changeable weather which can be warm to hot. Temperatures are always above 5 degrees Celsius with nights between and days between . Days are up to 16 hours long.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň can be hot, especially during heat waves originating in the southern Mediterranean. The number of hot days above is steadily growing, with 5 months (late April – early September) of possible 30+ °C days. If hot weather does occur, it is often changes after a few weeks into cold and rainy weather with incoming Atlantic-based fronts. Nights can be unpleasantly cold even in summer, with high level of humidity. Winter frosts frequently occur from the second half of November to the end of March. February is the driest month with of precipitation, and July the wettest with . The only natural hazards are occasional fast changes of weather with negative consequences, e.g. floodings.",
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"plaintext": "Extreme values for years 2011 and 2012: ",
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"plaintext": "An extremely cold day of 2011 had on average (23 February), and extremely hot day on average (24 August, . The year 2012 had the coldest day on 12 February with minimum plummeting to and maximum around with average . The hottest day of 2012 occurred on 21 August with daily maximum temperature and minimum staying on with all day average on . Absolute minimum and maximum for both years were (February 2012) and during August 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Number of rainy/snowy days for 2011: 78; number of days with frost: 76; number of days with minimal temperatures below : 12; number of days with average temperature below zero: 35; number of days with daily average temperature higher than : 188; number of days with daily average higher than : 32. ",
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"plaintext": "Total amount of precipitation for year 2011: ; average year humidity value: 80.8%. Maximal temperature: ; minimal temperature .",
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"plaintext": "Average 2011 temperature: ; average speed of wind: , mainly from SSE.",
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"plaintext": "Number of days with frost was 96 during year 2012; 18 days had minima below and 165 days with an average temperature on or above . Number of days with maxima on or above was 42.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň is an important city in the history of beer, including the development of Pilsner. In 1375 Bohemian king Charles IV endowed the Dobrow Monastery near Plzeň with the beer right, and it is one of the oldest breweries to survive to modern times. Many breweries were located in the interconnected deep cellars of the city.",
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"plaintext": "The officials of Plzeň founded a city-owned brewery in 1839, (Citizens' Brewery, now Plzeňský Prazdroj), and recruited Bavarian brewer Josef Groll (1813–1887) who produced the first batch of modern Pilsner beer on 5 October 1842. This included mastering the art of triple decoction mashing. The combination of pale colour from the new malts, Plzeň's remarkably soft water, Saaz noble hops from nearby Žatec (Saaz in German) and Bavarian-style lagering produced a clear, golden beer which was regarded as a sensation. Improving transport meant that this new beer was soon available throughout Central Europe and -style brewing was widely imitated.",
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"plaintext": "In 1859, \"Pilsner Bier\" was registered as a brand name at the Chamber of Commerce and Trade in Plzeň. In 1898, the Pilsner Urquell trade mark was created to put emphasis on it being the original brewery.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň is a centre of business in the western part of the Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Since the late 1990s the city has experienced high growth in foreign investment. In 2007, Israeli mall developer Plaza Centers opened the Pilsen Plaza, a shopping mall and entertainment centre featuring a multiplex cinema from Cinema City Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň produces about two-thirds of the Plzeň Region GDP, even though it contains only 29.8% of its population. Based on these figures, the city of Plzeň has a total GDP of approximately $7.2billion, and a per capita GDP of $44,000. While part of this is explained by commuters to the city, it is one of the most prosperous cities in the Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "The Škoda company, established in Plzeň in 1859, has been an important element of Austro-Hungarian, Czechoslovak and Czech engineering, and one of the biggest European arms factories. During the Communist era (1948–1989) the company's production had been directed to the needs of the Eastern Bloc. Disarray in the era after the Velvet Revolution, and unsuccessful efforts to gain new Western markets, resulted in sales problems and debts. After a huge restructuring process, the company was divided into several subsidiaries, which were later sold. The most important successors companies are Škoda Transportation and Doosan Škoda Power.",
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"plaintext": "Many foreign companies now have manufacturing bases in Plzeň, including Daikin, Hisense and Panasonic. There has been much discussion of redeveloping those large areas of the Škoda plant which the company no longer uses.",
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"plaintext": "Stock, located in the Božkov district, is the biggest distillery in the Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Since 31 May 1993 Plzeň has been the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Plzeň. The first bishop (current bishop emeritus) was František Radkovský. The current bishop is Tomáš Holub. The diocese covers an area with a total of 818,700 inhabitants. The diocesan see is in St. Bartholomew's Cathedral on Republiky Square in Plzeň. The diocese is divided into 10 vicariates with a total of 72 parishes.",
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"plaintext": "The seat of the West Bohemian seniorate (literary presbytery; Central European protestant equivalent of a diocese) of Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren is currently set in Plzeň. The current senior is Miroslav Hamari, the preacher of Koranda parish congregation of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren in Plzeň, commonly known as Koranda congregation located in the city centre of Plzeň. The senioral churchwarden is Josef Beneš, the parish churchwarden of the same congregation. There are two other parish congregations of Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren in the Plzeň-City District – The Western congregation of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren in Plzeň, known as The Western congregation located in the Western part of the city in the borough of Jižní předměstí and The Congregation of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren in Chrást located in Chrást in the very east of Plzeň-City District.",
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"plaintext": "The seat of Plzeň diocese of the Czechoslovak Hussite Church is located in Plzeň (although the bishop has resided in Mirovice for several years due to a reconstruction of episcopacy). The current bishop is Filip Štojdl.",
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"plaintext": "The Czech Evangelical Lutheran Church is headquartered in Plzeň. St. Paul's Lutheran Church is a church of the Czech Evangelical Lutheran Church in Plzeň.",
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"plaintext": "The other churches also present in Plzeň are the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in the Czech Republic, the United Methodist Church, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Brethren, the Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia, the Greek Catholic Church, and others.",
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"plaintext": "The University of West Bohemia in Plzeň is well known for its Faculty of Law, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Faculty of Applied Science in particular.",
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"plaintext": "Martin Luther Elementary School (Základní škola Martina Luthera) is a private Christian school of the Czech Evangelical Lutheran Church in Plzeň.",
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"plaintext": "The ice hockey club HC Škoda Plzeň plays in the Czech Extraliga. The team plays its home games at Home Monitoring Aréna.",
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"plaintext": "The football club FC Viktoria Plzeň plays in the Czech First League and belongs among the most successful clubs in the Czech Republic. Viktoria Plzeň has played in the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League. The team plays its home games at Doosan Arena.",
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"plaintext": "Handball club Talent Plzeň plays in the Czech Handball Extraliga.",
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"plaintext": "The most prominent sights of Plzeň are the Gothic St. Bartholomew's Cathedral, founded in the late 13th century, whose tower, at , is the highest in the Czech Republic, the Renaissance Town Hall, and the Moorish Revival Great Synagogue, the second largest synagogue in Europe, after the Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest. There is also a historic tunnel and cellar network, among the longest in Central Europe. Part of this network is open to the public for tours of about in length and down to a depth of .",
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"plaintext": "Built in 1532, the former water tower was integrated into the city's fortification system at Prague Gate. Another storey was added in 1822 in French Imperial style. The Gothic portal dating from the 1500s and coming from another house, which had been demolished, was added in 1912. Above the portal there is a commemorative plaque dedicated to Dr Josef Škoda (a professor at the Vienna University), who was born next door on 10 December 1805.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň is also well known for the Pilsner Urquell (since 1842) and Gambrinus (since 1869) breweries, currently owned by Asahi Group Holdings. A popular tourist attraction is the Plzeňský Prazdroj brewery tour where visitors can discover the history of beer. The pilsener style of beer was developed in Plzeň in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň was a European Capital Of Culture in 2015, along with Mons in Belgium.",
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"plaintext": " Franciscan Monastery – Museum of Christian Art",
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"plaintext": " Západočeské muzeum v Plzni",
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"plaintext": "The Plzeň metropolitan area is largely served by a network of trams, trolleybuses and buses operated by the PMDP. Like other continental European cities, tickets bought from vending machines or small shops are valid for any transport run by the city of Plzeň. For residents of the city, a Plzeň Card can be purchased and through a system of \"topping up\" be used on any public transport with no limitations, as long as it is paid up and valid. Tickets can be purchased in vehicles with a contactless smart card.",
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"plaintext": "Plzeň is an important centre of Czech railway transport, with the crossing of five main railway lines:",
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"plaintext": " line Nr. 170: Prague – Beroun – Plzeň – Cheb",
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"plaintext": " line Nr. 180: Plzeň – Domažlice – Furth im Wald (Germany)",
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"plaintext": " line Nr. 183: Plzeň – Klatovy – Železná Ruda",
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"plaintext": " line Nr. 160: Plzeň – Žatec",
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"plaintext": " line Nr. 190: Plzeň – České Budějovice",
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"plaintext": "Tamar was also pressured into dismissing her father's appointees, among them the constable Kubasar, a Georgian Kipchak of ignoble birth, who had helped George III in his crackdown on the defiant nobility. One of the few untitled servitors of George III to escape this fate was the treasurer Qutlu Arslan who now led a group of nobles and wealthy citizens in a struggle to limit the royal authority by creating a new council, karavi, whose members would alone deliberate and decide policy. This attempt at \"feudal constitutionalism\" was rendered abortive when Tamar had Qutlu Arslan arrested and his supporters were inveigled into submission. Yet, Tamar's first moves to reduce the power of the aristocratic élite were unsuccessful. She failed in her attempt to use a church synod to dismiss the Catholicos-Patriarch Michael, and the noble council, Darbazi, asserted the right to approve royal decrees.",
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"plaintext": "Queen Tamar's marriage was a question of state-importance. Pursuant to dynastic imperatives and the ethos of the time, the nobles required Tamar to marry in order to have a leader for the army and to provide an heir to the throne. Every group strove to select and secure the acceptance of its candidate in order to strengthen its position and influence at court. Two main factions fought for the influence in Tamar's court: clan of Mkhargrdzeli and Abulasan. The faction of the Abulasan won, the choice was approved by Tamar's aunt Rusudan and council of feudal lords. Their choice fell on Yuri, son of the murdered prince Andrei I Bogolyubsky of Vladimir-Suzdal, who later lived as a refugee among the Kipchaks of the North Caucasus. They called an influential person in the kingdom, the great merchant Zankan Zorababeli. He was given the mission of bringing the bridegroom to Tbilisi. He fulfilled his mission with zeal, the prince was brought to Georgia to marry the queen in 1185.",
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"plaintext": "The young man – valiant, perfect of body and pleasant to behold – Yuri proved to be an able soldier, but a difficult person and he soon ran afoul of his wife. The strained spousal relations paralleled a factional struggle at the royal court in which Tamar was becoming more and more assertive of her rights as a queen regnant. The turning point in Tamar's fortunes came with the death of the powerful Catholicos-Patriarch Michael whom the queen replaced, as a chancellor, with her supporter, Anton Gnolistavisdze. Tamar gradually expanded her own power-base and elevated her loyal nobles to high positions at the court, most notably the Mkhargrdzeli.",
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"plaintext": "In 1187, Tamar persuaded the noble council to approve her to divorce Yuri, who was accused of addiction to drunkenness and \"sodomy\" and was sent off to Constantinople. Assisted by several Georgian aristocrats anxious to check Tamar's growing power, Yuri made two coup attempts, but failed and went off to obscurity after 1191. The queen chose her second husband herself. He was David Soslan, an Alan prince, to whom the 18th-century Georgian scholar Prince Vakhushti ascribes descent from the early 11th-century Georgian king George I. David, a capable military commander, became Tamar's major supporter and was instrumental in defeating the rebellious nobles who rallied behind Yuri.",
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"plaintext": "Tamar and David had two children. In 1192 or 1194, the queen gave birth to a son, George-Lasha, the future king George IV. The daughter, Rusudan, was born 1195 and would succeed her brother as a sovereign of Georgia.",
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"plaintext": "David Soslan's status of a king consort, as well as his presence in art, on charters, and on coins, was dictated by the necessity of male aspects of kingship, but he remained a subordinate ruler who shared the throne with and derived his power from Tamar. Tamar continued to be styled as mep’et’a mep’e– \"king of kings\". In Georgian, a language with no grammatical genders, mep'e (\"king\") does not necessarily imply a masculine connotation and can be rendered as a \"sovereign\". The female equivalent of mep'e is dedop'ali (\"queen\"), which was applied to wives or other senior female relatives of kings. Tamar is occasionally called dedop'ali and dedop'alt’a dedop'ali in the Georgian chronicles and on some charters. Thus, the title of mep'e might have been applied to Tamar to mark out her unique position among women.",
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"plaintext": "Once Tamar succeeded in consolidating her power and found a reliable support in David Soslan, the Mkhargrdzeli, Toreli, and other noble families, she revived the expansionist foreign policy of her predecessors. Repeated occasions of dynastic strife in Georgia combined with the efforts of regional successors of the Great Seljuq Empire, such as the Eldiguzids, Shirvanshahs, and the Ahlatshahs, had slowed down the dynamic of the Georgians achieved during the reigns of Tamar's great-grandfather, David IV, and her father, George III. However, the Georgians became again active under Tamar, more prominently in the second decade of her rule.",
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"plaintext": "Early in the 1190s, the Georgian government began to interfere in the affairs of the Eldiguzids and of the Shirvanshahs, aiding rivaling local princes and reducing Shirvan to a tributary state. The Eldiguzid atabeg Abu Bakr attempted to stem the Georgian advance, but suffered a defeat at the hands of David Soslan at the Battle of Shamkor and lost his capital to a Georgian protégé in 1195. Although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Eldiguzids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays.",
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"plaintext": "The question of liberation of Armenia remained of prime importance in Georgia's foreign policy. Tamar's armies led by two Christianised Kurdish generals, Zakare and Ivane Mkhargrdzeli (Zakarian) overran fortresses and cities towards the Ararat Plain, reclaiming one after another fortresses and districts from local Muslim rulers.",
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"plaintext": "Alarmed by the Georgian successes, Süleymanshah II, the resurgent Seljuqid sultan of Rûm, rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, but his camp was attacked and destroyed by David Soslan at the Battle of Basian in 1203 or 1204. The chronicler of Tamar describes how the army was assembled at the rock-hewn town of Vardzia before marching on to Basian and how the queen addressed the troops from the balcony of the church. Exploiting her success in this battle, between 1203–1205 Georgians seized the town of Dvin and entered Ahlatshah possessions twice and subdued the emir of Kars (vassal of the Saltukids in Erzurum), Ahlatshahs, the emirs of Erzurum and Erzincan.In 1206 the Georgian army, under the command of David Soslan, captured Kars and other fortresses and strongholds along the Araxes. This campaign was evidently started because the ruler of Erzerum refused to submit to Georgia. The emir of Kars requested aid from the Ahlatshahs, but the latter was unable to respond, it was soon taken over by the Ayyubid Sultanate In 1207. By 1209 Georgia challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia and led liberational war for south Armenia. The Georgian army besieged Ahlat. In response Ayyubid Sultan al-Adil I assembled and personally led a large Muslim army that included the emirs of Homs, Hama and Baalbek as well as contingents from other Ayyubid principalities to support al-Awhad, emir of Jazira. During the siege, Georgian general Ivane Mkhargrdzeli accidentally fell into the hands of the al-Awhad on the outskirts of Ahlat. Using Ivane as a bargaining chip, al-Awhad agreed to release him in return for a thirty year truce with Georgia, thus ending the immediate Georgian threat to the Ayyubids. This brought the struggle for the Armenian lands to a stall, leaving the Lake Van region to the Ayyubids of Damascus.",
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"plaintext": "In 1209, the brothers Mkhargrzeli laid waste to Ardabil – according to the Georgian and Armenian annals – as a revenge for the local Muslim ruler's attack on Ani and his massacre of the city's Christian population. In a great final burst, the brothers led an army marshaled throughout Tamar's possessions and vassal territories in a march, through Nakhchivan and Julfa, to Marand, Tabriz, and Qazvin in northwest Iran, pillaging several settlements on their way. Georgians reached countries where nobody had heard of either their name or existence. These victories brought Georgia to the summit of its power and glory, establishing a pan-Caucasian Empire that extended from the Black Sea to the Caspian and from the Caucasus Mountains to Lake Van.",
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"plaintext": "Among the remarkable events of Tamar's reign was the foundation of the Empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea coast in 1204. This state was established by Alexios I Megas Komnenos (r. 1204–1222) and his brother, David, in the northeastern Pontic provinces of the crumbling Byzantine Empire with the aid of Georgian troops. Alexios and David, Tamar's relatives, were fugitive Byzantine princes raised at the Georgian court. According to Tamar's historian, the aim of the Georgian expedition to Trebizond was to punish the Byzantine emperor Alexios IV Angelos (r. 1203–1204) for his confiscation of a shipment of money from the Georgian queen to the monasteries of Antioch and Mount Athos. However, Tamar's Pontic endeavor can better be explained by her desire to take advantage of the Western European Fourth Crusade against Constantinople to set up a friendly state in Georgia's immediate southwestern neighborhood, as well as by the dynastic solidarity to the dispossessed Komnenoi.",
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"plaintext": "Tamar sought to make use of the weakness of the Byzantine Empire and the Crusaders' defeat at the hands of the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in order to gain Georgia's position on the international stage and to assume the traditional role of the Byzantine crown as a protector of the Christians of the Middle East. Christian Georgian missionaries were active in the North Caucasus and the expatriate monastic communities were scattered throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Tamar's chronicle praises her universal protection of Christianity and her support of churches and monasteries from Egypt to Bulgaria and Cyprus.The Georgian court was primarily concerned with the protection of the Georgian monastic centers in the Holy Land. By the 12th century, eight Georgian monasteries were listed in Jerusalem. Saladin's biographer, Bahā' ad-Dīn ibn Šaddād, reports that after the Ayyubid conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, Tamar sent envoys to the sultan to request that the confiscated possessions of the Georgian monasteries in Jerusalem be returned. Saladin's response is not recorded, but the queen's efforts seem to have been successful: Jacques de Vitry, who attained to the bishopric of Acre shortly after Tamar's death, gives further evidence of the Georgians’ presence in Jerusalem. He writes that the Georgians were – in contrast to the other Christian pilgrims – allowed a free passage into the city, with their banners unfurled. Ibn Šaddād furthermore claims that Tamar outbid the Byzantine emperor in her efforts to obtain the relics of the True Cross, offering 200,000 gold pieces to Saladin who had taken the relics as booty at the Battle of Hattin – to no avail, however.",
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"plaintext": "Georgia's political and cultural exploits of Tamar's epoch were rooted in a long and complex past. Tamar owed her accomplishments most immediately to the reforms of her great-grandfather David IV (r. 1089–1125) and, more remotely, to the unifying efforts of David III and Bagrat III who became architects of a political unity of Georgian kingdoms and principalities in the opening decade of the 11th century. Tamar was able to build upon their successes. By the last years of Tamar's reign, the Georgian state had reached the zenith of its power and prestige in the Middle Ages. Tamar's realm stretched from the Greater Caucasus crest in the north to Erzurum in the south, and from the Zygii in the northwest to the vicinity of Ganja in the southeast, forming a pan-Caucasian empire, with the loyal Zachariad regime in northern and central Armenia, Shirvan as a vassal and Trebizond as an ally. A contemporary Georgian historian extols Tamar as the master of the lands \"from the Sea of Pontus [i.e., the Black Sea] to the Sea of Gurgan [i.e., the Caspian Sea], from Speri to Derbend, and all the Hither and the Thither Caucasus up to Khazaria and Scythia.\"",
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"plaintext": "The royal title was correspondingly aggrandized. It now reflected not only Tamar's sway over the traditional subdivisions of the Georgian realm, but also included new components, emphasizing the Georgian crown's hegemony over the neighboring lands. Thus, on the coins and charters issued in her name, Tamar is identified as:",
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"plaintext": "The queen never achieved autocratic powers and the noble council continued to function. However, Tamar's own prestige and the expansion of patronq'moba – a Georgian version of feudalism – kept the more powerful dynastic princes from fragmenting the kingdom. This was a classical period in the history of Georgian feudalism. Attempts at transplanting feudal practices in the areas where they had previously been almost unknown did not pass without resistance. There was a revolt among the mountainers of Pkhovi and Dido on Georgia's northeastern frontier in 1212, which was put down by Ivane Mkhargrzeli after three months of heavy fighting.",
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"plaintext": "With flourishing commercial centers now under Georgia's control, industry and commerce brought new wealth to the country and the court. Tribute extracted from the neighbors and war booty added to the royal treasury, giving rise to the saying that \"the peasants were like nobles, the nobles like princes, and the princes like kings.\"",
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"plaintext": "With this prosperity came an outburst of the distinct Georgian culture, emerging from the amalgam of Christian, secular, as well as Byzantine and Iranian influences. Despite this, the Georgians continued to identify with the Byzantine West, rather than Islamic East, with the Georgian monarchy seeking to underscore its association with Christianity and present its position as God-given. It was in that period that the canon of Georgian Orthodox architecture was redesigned and a series of large-scale domed cathedrals were built. The Byzantine-derived expression of royal power was modified in various ways to bolster Tamar's unprecedented position as a woman ruling in her own right. The five extant monumental church portraits of the queen are clearly modeled on Byzantine imagery, but also highlight specifically Georgian themes and Persian-type ideals of female beauty. Despite Georgia's Byzantine-leaning culture, the country's intimate trade connections with the Middle East is evidenced on contemporary Georgian coinage, whose legends were composed in Georgian and Arabic. A series of coins minted in circa 1200 in the name of Queen Tamar depicted a local variant of the Byzantine obverse and an Arabic inscription on the reverse proclaiming Tamar as the \"Champion of the Messiah\".",
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"plaintext": "The contemporary Georgian chronicles enshrined Christian morality and patristic literature continued to flourish, but it had, by that time, lost its earlier dominant position to secular literature, which was highly original, even though it developed close contact with neighboring cultures. The trend culminated in Shota Rustaveli's epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin (Vepkhistq'aosani), which celebrates the ideals of an \"Age of Chivalry\" and is revered in Georgia as the greatest achievement of native literature.",
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"plaintext": "Tamar outlived her consort, David Soslan, and died of a \"devastating disease\" not far from her capital Tbilisi, having previously crowned her son, Lasha-Giorgi, coregent. Tamar's historian relates that the queen suddenly fell ill when discussing state affairs with her ministers at the Nacharmagevi castle near the town of Gori. She was transported to Tbilisi and later to the nearby castle of Agarani where Tamar died and was mourned by her subjects. Her remains were transferred to the cathedral of Mtskheta and later to the Gelati monastery, a family burial ground of the Georgian royal dynasty. The traditional scholarly opinion is that Tamar died in 1213, although there are several indications that she might have died earlier, in 1207 or 1210.In later times, a number of legends emerged about Tamar's place of burial. One of them has it that Tamar was buried in a secret niche at the Gelati monastery so as to prevent the grave from being profaned by her enemies. Another version suggests that Tamar's remains were reburied in a remote location, possibly in the Holy Land. The French knight Guillaume de Bois, in a letter dated from the early 13th century, written in Palestine and addressed to the bishop of Besançon, claimed that he had heard that the king of the Georgians was heading towards Jerusalem with a huge army and had already conquered many cities of the Saracens. He was carrying, the report said, the remains of his mother, the \"powerful queen Tamar\" (regina potentissima Thamar), who had been unable to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in her lifetime and had bequeathed her body to be buried near the Holy Sepulchre.",
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century, the quest for Tamar's grave became a subject of scholarly research, as well as the focus of broader public interest. The Georgian writer Grigol Robakidze wrote in his 1918 essay on Tamar: \"Thus far, nobody knows where Tamar's grave is. She belongs to everyone and to no one: her grave is in the heart of the Georgian. And in the Georgians' perception, this is not a grave, but a beautiful vase in which an unfading flower, the great Tamar, flourishes.\" An orthodox academic view still places Tamar's grave at Gelati, but a series of archaeological studies, beginning with Taqaishvili in 1920, has failed to locate it at the monastery.",
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"plaintext": "Over the centuries, Queen Tamar has emerged as a dominant figure in the Georgian historical pantheon. The construction of her reign as a \"Golden age\" began in the reign itself and Tamar became the focus of the era. Several medieval Georgian poets, including Shota Rustaveli, claimed Tamar as the inspiration for their works. A legend has it that Rustaveli was even consumed with love for the queen and ended his days in a monastery. A dramatic scene from Rustaveli's poem where the seasoned King Rostevan crowns his daughter Tinatin is an allegory to George III's co-option of Tamar. Rustaveli comments on this: \"A lion cub is just as good, be it female or male\".",
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"plaintext": "The queen became a subject of several contemporary panegyrics, such as Chakhrukhadze's Tamariani and Ioane Shavteli's Abdul-Mesia. She was eulogized in the chronicles, most notably in the two accounts centered on her reign – The Life of Tamar, Queen of Queens and The Histories and Eulogies of the Sovereigns – which became the primary sources of Tamar's sanctification in Georgian literature. The chroniclers exalt her as a \"protector of the widowed\" and \"the thrice blessed\", and place a particular emphasis on Tamar's virtues as a woman: beauty, humility, love of mercy, fidelity, and purity. Although Tamar was canonized by the Georgian church much later, she was even named as a saint in her lifetime in a bilingual Greco-Georgian colophon attached to the manuscript of the Vani Gospels.",
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"plaintext": "The idealization of Tamar was further accentuated by the events that took place under her immediate successors; within two decades of Tamar's death, the Khwarezmian and Mongol invasions brought Georgian ascendancy to an abrupt end. Later periods of national revival were too ephemeral to match the achievements of Tamar's reign. All of these contributed to the cult of Tamar which blurred the distinction between the idealized queen and the real personality.",
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"plaintext": "In popular memory, Tamar's image has acquired a legendary and romantic façade. A diverse set of folk songs, poems and tales illustrate her as an ideal ruler, a holy woman onto whom certain attributes of pagan deities and Christian saints were sometimes projected. For example, in an old Ossetian legend, Queen Tamar conceives her son of a sunbeam which shines through the window. Another myth, from the Georgian mountains, equates Tamar with the pagan deity of weather, Pirimze, who controls winter. Similarly, in the highland district of Pshavi, Tamar's image fused with a pagan goddess of healing and female fertility.",
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"plaintext": "While Tamar occasionally accompanied her army and is described as planning some campaigns, she was never directly involved in the fighting. Yet, the memory of the military victories of her reign contributed to Tamar's other popular image, that of a model warrior-queen. It also echoed in the Tale of Queen Dinara, a popular 16th-century Russian story about a fictional Georgian queen fighting against the Persians. Tsar of All the Russias Ivan the Terrible before the seizure of Kazan encouraged his army by the examples of Tamar's battles by describing her as \"the most wise Queen of Iberia, endowed with the intelligence and courage of a man\".",
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"plaintext": "Much of the modern perception of Queen Tamar was shaped under the influence of 19th-century Romanticism and growing nationalism among Georgian intellectuals of that time. In the Russian and Western literatures of the 19th century, the image of Queen Tamar reflected the European conceptions of the Orient – of which Georgia was perceived as a part – and the position and characteristics of women in it. The Tyrolean writer Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer described Tamar as a \"Caucasian Semiramis\". Fascinated by the \"exotic\" Caucasus, the Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov wrote the romantic poem Tamara (; 1841) in which he utilized the old Georgian legend about a siren-like mountainous princess whom the poet gave the name of Queen Tamar. Although Lermontov's depiction of the Georgian queen as a destructive seductress had no apparent historical background, it has been influential enough to raise the issue of Tamar's sexuality, a question that was given some prominence by the 19th-century European authors. Knut Hamsun's 1903 play Queen Tamara was less successful; the theatre critics saw in it \"a modern woman dressed in a medieval costume\" and read the play as \"a commentary on the new woman of the 1890s.\" Russian conductor Mily Balakirev composed a symphonic poem named \"Tamara\".",
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"plaintext": "In Georgian literature, Tamar was also romanticized, but very differently from the Russian and Western European view. The Georgian romanticists followed a medieval tradition in Tamar's portrayal as a gentle, saintly woman who ruled a country permanently at war. This sentiment was further inspired by the rediscovery of a contemporary, 13th-century wall painting of Tamar in the then-ruined Betania monastery, which was uncovered and restored by Prince Grigory Gagarin in the 1840s. The fresco became a source of numerous engravings circulating in Georgia at that time and inspired the poet Grigol Orbeliani to dedicate a romantic poem to it. Furthermore, the Georgian literati, reacting to Russian rule in Georgia and the suppression of national institutions, contrasted Tamar's era to their contemporary situation, lamenting the irretrievably lost past in their writings. Hence, Tamar became a personification of the heyday of Georgia, a perception that has persisted down to the present time.",
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"plaintext": "Tamar's marriage to the Rus' prince Yuri has become a subject of two resonant prose works in modern Georgia. Shalva Dadiani's play, originally entitled The Unfortunate Russian (უბედური რუსი; 1916–1926), was attacked by Soviet critics for distorting the \"centuries-long friendship of the Russian and Georgian peoples.\" Under Communist Party pressure, Dadiani had to revise both the title and plot in accordance with the official ideology of the Soviet state. In 2002, a satirical short-story The First Russian (პირველი რუსი) penned by the young Georgian writer Lasha Bughadze and focused on a frustrated wedding night of Tamar and Yuri outraged many conservatives and triggered a nationwide controversy, including heated discussions in the media, the Parliament of Georgia and the Patriarchate of the Georgian Orthodox Church.",
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"plaintext": "She is a playable leader of Georgia in the 4X video game Civilization VI.",
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"plaintext": "Tamar has been canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church as the Holy Righteous Queen Tamar (წმიდა კეთილმსახური მეფე თამარი, ts'mida k'etilmsakhuri mepe tamari; also venerated as \"Right-believing Tamara\"), with her feast day commemorated on 1 May (of the Julian Calendar , which equates to 14 May on the Gregorian Calendar) and on Sunday of the Holy Myrrhbearing Women. The Antiochian Orthodox observe the feast of St Tamara on 22 April.",
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"plaintext": "The chart below shows the abbreviated genealogy of Tamar and her family, tracing it from Tamar's grandfather to her grandchildren.",
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"plaintext": " Order of Queen Tamara (disambiguation)",
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"plaintext": " (English Summary)",
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"plaintext": "Queen Tamar: The myth of a perfect ruler The Forum, BBC Sounds",
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"plaintext": " Georgian coins minted in Tamar's reign, Zeno – Oriental Coins Database.",
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"plaintext": " Irakli Paghava, THE FIRST ARABIC COINAGE OF GEORGIAN MONARCHS: REDISCOVERING THE SPECIE OF DAVIT IV THE BUILDER (1089–1125), KING OF KINGS AND SWORD OF MESSIAH",
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| 244,007 | 8,818 | 267 | 251 | 1 | 0 | Tamar of Georgia | Queen of Georgia from 1184 to 1213 | [
"Tamar mepe",
"Tamar the Great",
"Queen Tamar",
"Queen Tamara"
]
|
37,764 | 1,107,914,733 | Hippopotamus | [
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"plaintext": "The hippopotamus ( ; Hippopotamus amphibius), also called the hippo, common hippopotamus, or river hippopotamus, is a large semiaquatic mammal native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis or Hexaprotodon liberiensis). Its name comes from the ancient Greek for \"river horse\" ().",
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"plaintext": "Aside from elephants and rhinos, the hippopotamus is the largest land mammal. It is also the largest extant land artiodactyl. Despite their physical resemblance to pigs and other terrestrial even-toed ungulates, the closest living relatives of the Hippopotamids are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises, etc.), from which they diverged about 55 million years ago. Hippos are recognisable for their barrel-shaped torsos, wide-opening mouths with large canine tusks, nearly hairless bodies, pillar-like legs, and large size: adults average for bulls (males) and for cows (females). Despite its stocky shape and short legs, it is capable of running over short distances.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos inhabit rivers, lakes, and mangrove swamps. Territorial bulls each preside over a stretch of water and a group of five to thirty cows and calves. Reproduction and birth both occur in the water. During the day, hippos remain cool by staying in water or mud, emerging at dusk to graze on grasses. While hippos rest near each other in the water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos typically do not display territorial behaviour on land. Hippos are among the most dangerous animals in the world due to their highly aggressive and unpredictable nature. They are threatened by habitat loss and poaching for their meat and ivory (canine teeth).",
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"plaintext": "The Latin word hippopotamus is derived from the ancient Greek , hippopótamos, from , híppos, 'horse', and , potamós, 'river', meaning \"horse of the river\". In English, the plural is \"hippopotamuses\", but \"hippopotami\" is also used.",
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"plaintext": "The modern hippopotamus and the pygmy hippopotamus are the only living members of the family Hippopotamidae. Some taxonomists group hippos and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea. Hippopotamidae are classified along with other even-toed ungulates in the order Artiodactyla.",
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"plaintext": "Five subspecies of hippos have been described based on morphological differences in their skulls as well as differences in geographical range:",
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"plaintext": "Great northern hippopotamus or Nile hippopotamus H. a. amphibius – (the nominate subspecies) which ranged from Egypt, where they are now extinct, south up the Nile River to Tanzania and Mozambique",
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"plaintext": "East African hippopotamus H. a. kiboko – was present in Kenya in the African Great Lakes region, and in Somalia in the Horn of Africa. Featured broader nasals and a more hollowed interorbital region",
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"plaintext": "Cape hippopotamus or South African hippopotamus H. a. capensis – ranged from Zambia to South Africa; had the most flattened skull of the various subspecies",
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"plaintext": "West African hippopotamus or Tchad hippopotamus H. a. tschadensis – ranged throughout Western Africa to Chad, as the name suggests; featured a slightly shorter and wider face, with prominent orbits",
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"plaintext": "Angola hippopotamus H. a. constrictus – ranged from the southern Democratic Republic of Congo to Angola and Namibia; named for its deeper preorbital constriction",
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"plaintext": "The suggested subspecies above were never widely used or validated by field biologists; the described morphological differences were small enough that they could have resulted from simple variation in nonrepresentative samples. Genetic analyses have tested the existence of three of these putative subspecies. A study examining mitochondrial DNA from skin biopsies taken from 13 sampling locations considered genetic diversity and structure among hippo populations across the continent. The authors found low, but significant, genetic differentiation among H. a. amphibius, H. a. capensis, and H. a. kiboko. Neither H. a. tschadensis nor H. a. constrictus have been tested.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1909, naturalists classified hippos together with pigs based on molar patterns. Several lines of evidence, first from blood proteins, then from molecular systematics and DNA and the fossil record, show their closest living relatives are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises). The common ancestor of hippos and whales branched off from Ruminantia and the rest of the even-toed ungulates; the cetacean and hippo lineages split soon afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "The most recent theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests hippos and whales shared a common semiaquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around . This hypothesised ancestral group likely split into two branches again around .",
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"plaintext": "One branch would evolve into cetaceans, possibly beginning about , with the protowhale Pakicetus and other early whale ancestors collectively known as Archaeoceti. This group eventually underwent aquatic adaptation into the completely aquatic cetaceans. The other branch became the anthracotheres, a large family of four-legged beasts, the earliest of which in the late Eocene would have resembled skinny hippos with comparatively small and narrow heads. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, became extinct during the Pliocene without leaving any descendants.",
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"plaintext": "A rough evolutionary lineage of the hippo can thus be traced from Eocene and Oligocene species: from Anthracotherium and Elomeryx to the Miocene species Merycopotamus and Libycosaurus and finally the very latest anthracotheres in the Pliocene. These groups lived in Eurasia, and the discovery of Epirigenys in East Africa, which was likely in a sister group to Hippopotamidae, suggests hippo ancestors entered Africa around and were the earliest large mammals to colonise the continent. A early hippopotamid is the genus Kenyapotamus, which lived in Africa from 15 to . Hippopotamid species would spread across Africa and Eurasia, including the modern pygmy hippo. From 7.5 to , a possible ancestor to the modern hippo, Archaeopotamus, lived in Africa and the Middle East.",
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"plaintext": "Three species of Malagasy hippopotamus became extinct during the Holocene on Madagascar, the last of them within the past 1,000 years. The Malagasy hippos were smaller than the modern hippo, a likely result of the process of insular dwarfism. Fossil evidence indicates many Malagasy hippos were hunted by humans, a factor in their eventual extinction. Isolated individual Malagasy hippos may have survived in remote pockets; in 1976, villagers described a living animal called the kilopilopitsofy, which may have been a Malagasy hippo.",
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"plaintext": "An extinct species, Hippopotamus antiquus, ranged throughout Europe, extending as far north as Britain during the Early and Middle Pleistocene epochs, before being replaced by the modern H. amphibius during the latter part of the Middle Pleistocene. The Pleistocene also saw a number of dwarf species evolve on several Mediterranean islands, including Crete (Hippopotamus creutzburgi), Cyprus (the Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus, Hippopotamus minor), Malta (Hippopotamus melitensis), and Sicily (Hippopotamus pentlandi). Of these, the Cyprus dwarf hippo survived until the end of the Pleistocene or early Holocene. Evidence from the archaeological site Aetokremnos continues to cause debate on whether or not the species was driven to extinction, or even encountered, by man. Across Eurasia, the hippopotamus became extinct between 50,000 and 16,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "The hippopotamus is a megaherbivore and is exceeded in size among land animals only by elephants and some rhinoceros species. The mean adult weight is around for bulls and for cows. Exceptionally large males have been recorded reaching . Male hippos appear to continue growing throughout their lives, while females reach maximum weight at around age 25. Hippos measure long, including a tail of about in length and tall at the shoulder, with males and females ranging and tall at the shoulder respectively. The species has a typical head-body length of and an average standing height of at the shoulder.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos have barrel-shaped bodies with short tails and legs, and an hourglass-shaped skull with a long muzzle. Their skeletal structures are graviportal, adapted to carrying their enormous weight, and their dense bones and low centre of gravity allows them to sink and move along the bottom of the water. Hippopotamuses have small legs (relative to other megafauna) because the water in which they live reduces the weight burden. The pelvis rests at an angle of 45 degrees. Though they are bulky animals, hippos can gallop at on land, but they normally trot. They are incapable of jumping but do climb up steep banks.",
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"plaintext": "The eyes, ears, and nostrils of hippos are placed high on the roof of their skulls. This allows these organs to remain above the surface while the rest of the body is submerged. Muscular closing valves exist in the nostrils while nictitating membranes cover the eyes. Despite being semiaquatic and having webbed feet, an adult hippo is not a particularly good swimmer, nor can it float. It is rarely found in deep water; when it is, the animal moves by porpoise-like leaps off the bottom. Adult hippos move at speeds of up to in water, typically resurfacing to breathe every three to five minutes. The young have to breathe every two to three minutes. The hippopotamus sleeps with both hemispheres of the brain resting, as in all land mammals. Despite this, it is able to sleep while submerged, intermittently surfacing to breathe seemingly without waking. They may be able to transition between different phases of sleep more quickly than other mammals.",
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"plaintext": "The hippo's jaw is powered by a large masseter and a well-developed digastric; the latter loops up behind the former to the hyoid. The jaw hinge is located far back enough to allow the animal to open its mouth at almost 180°. A moderate folding of the orbicularis oris muscle allows the hippo to achieve such a large gape without tearing any tissue. Hippo teeth sharpen themselves as they grind together. The lower canines and lower incisors are enlarged, especially in bulls, and grow continuously. The incisors can reach , while the canines can grow to up to . The canines and incisors are used for combat and play no role in feeding. Hippos rely on their broad, rough lips to grasp and pull grasses which are then ground by the molars. The hippo is considered to be a pseudoruminant; it has a complex three-chambered stomach, but does not \"chew cud\".",
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"plaintext": "Unlike most other semiaquatic animals, hippos have very little hair. The skin is thick, providing the hippo with great protection against predators and other hippos. By contrast, its subcutaneous fat layer is thin. The animals' upper parts are purplish-grey to blue-black, while the under parts and areas around the eyes and ears can be brownish-pink. Their skin secretes a natural, red-coloured sunscreen substance that is sometimes referred to as \"blood sweat\" but is neither blood nor sweat. This secretion is initially colourless and turns red-orange within minutes, eventually becoming brown. Two highly acidic pigments have been identified in the secretions; one red (hipposudoric acid) and one orange (norhipposudoric acid), which inhibit the growth of disease-causing bacteria and their light-absorption profile peaks in the ultraviolet range, creating a sunscreen effect. Regardless of diet, all hippos secrete these pigments so food does not appear to be their source; rather, they may be synthesised from precursors such as the amino acid tyrosine. This natural sunscreen cannot prevent the animal's skin from cracking if it stays out of water too long.",
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"plaintext": "The testes of the males descend only partially and a scrotum is not present. In addition, the penis retracts into the body when not erect. The genitals of the female hippos are unusual in that the vagina is ridged and two large diverticula protrude from the vulval vestibule. The function of these is unknown.",
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"plaintext": "A hippo's lifespan is typically 40 to 50 years. Donna the Hippo was one of the oldest living hippos in captivity. She lived at the Mesker Park Zoo in Evansville, Indiana, in the US until her death in 2012 at the age of 61. The oldest hippo ever recorded was called Bertha; she had lived in the Manila Zoo in the Philippines since it first opened in 1959. When she died in 2017, her age was estimated to be 65.",
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"plaintext": "Hippopotamus amphibius was widespread in North Africa and Europe during the Eemian (130-115,000 years ago), with remains found as far north as England. Archaeological evidence exists of its presence in the Levant, dating to less than 3,000 years ago. The species was common in Egypt's Nile region during antiquity, but it has since been driven out. According to Pliny the Elder, in his time, the best location in Egypt for capturing this animal was in the Saite nome; the animal could still be found along the Damietta branch of the Nile after the Arab Conquest in 639. Reports of the slaughter of the last hippo in Natal Province were made at the end of the 19th century. Hippos are still found in the rivers and lakes of the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya, north through to Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan, west to The Gambia, and south to South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic evidence suggests common hippos in Africa experienced a marked population expansion during or after the Pleistocene, attributed to an increase in water bodies at the end of the era. These findings have important conservation implications, as hippo populations across the continent are currently threatened by loss of access to fresh water. Hippos are also subject to unregulated hunting and poaching. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international export/import (including in parts and derivatives) requires CITES documentation to be obtained and presented to border authorities. ",
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"plaintext": "As of 2017, the IUCN Red List drawn up by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the species as vulnerable, with a stable population estimated between 115,000 and 130,000 animals. Zambia (40,000) and Tanzania (20,000–30,000) possess the largest populations. The hippo population has declined most dramatically in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. By 2005, the population in Virunga National Park had dropped to 800 or 900 from around 29,000 in the mid-1970s. This decline is attributed to the disruptions caused by the Second Congo War. The poachers are believed to be Mai-Mai rebels, poorly paid Congolese soldiers, and local militia groups. Reasons for poaching include the belief hippos are harmful to society, as well as financial gain. As of 2016, the Virunga hippo population appears to have increased again, possibly due to greater enforcement and cooperation between fishermen and park authorities. The sale of hippo meat is illegal, but black-market sales are difficult for Virunga National Park officers to track. Hippo meat is considered a delicacy in some areas of central Africa and the teeth have become a valued substitute for elephant ivory.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1980s, Pablo Escobar kept four hippos in a private menagerie at his residence in Hacienda Nápoles, east of Medellín, Colombia, after buying them in New Orleans. They were deemed too difficult to seize and move after Escobar's death in 1993, and hence were left on the untended estate. By 2007, the animals had multiplied to 16 individuals which had taken to roaming the area for food in the nearby Magdalena River. In 2009, two adults and one calf left their herd, attacking humans and killing cattle. One of the adults (called \"Pepe\") was killed by hunters under authorisation of the local authorities.",
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"plaintext": "When a photo of the dead hippo became public, it caused considerable controversy among animal rights groups both within the country and abroad, and plans of further culling the hippos were put on hold. Alternative methods of dealing with the hippos have been considered, but they are either unproven, too difficult, or expensive. A wild male hippo was caught, castrated, and released again, but this process cost about US$50,000. As of 2020, there were no plans by the local government for managing the population, but further studies of their effect on the habitat have been initiated. Because of the fast-growing population, conservationists have urged a management plan be developed quickly. Scientists say these hippos must be culled, as they are breeding voraciously and are an increasing menace to humans and the environment.",
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"plaintext": "In the U.S., Representative Robert F. Broussard of Louisiana introduced the \"American Hippo Bill\" in 1910 to authorise the importation and release of hippopotamus into the bayous of Louisiana. Broussard argued the hippos would eat the invasive water hyacinth that was clogging the rivers and also produce meat to help solve the American meat crisis. The chief collaborators and proponents of Broussard's bill were Major Frederick Russell Burnham and Captain Fritz Duquesne. Former President Theodore Roosevelt backed the plan, as did the U.S. Department of Agriculture, The Washington Post, and The New York Times, which praised hippo meat as \"lake cow bacon\". Although the \"American Hippo Bill\" developed a broad base of support, it was never passed by the US Congress.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos differ from all other large land mammals as they are semiaquatic, spending their days in lakes and rivers. They require habitat with enough water to submerge themselves in and which has plenty of grass nearby. When bodies of water feature firm, smooth, sloping beaches, larger numbers of hippos may congregate. Male hippos may also be found in very small numbers in rapid waters in rocky gorges. Hippos mostly live in freshwater habitats; however, populations in West Africa mostly inhabit estuarine waters and may even be found out at sea.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos spend most the day in water to stay cool and hydrated. Just before night begins, they leave the water to feed on land. Like most herbivores, hippos will consume a variety of plants if presented with them in captivity, but their diet in nature consists almost entirely of grass, with only minimal consumption of aquatic plants. A hippo will eat around of grass in a night while traveling . They typically return to the water before dawn. On occasion, hippos have been filmed eating carrion, usually near the water. There are other reports of meat-eating and even cannibalism and predation. The stomach anatomy of a hippo is not suited to carnivory, and meat-eating is likely caused by aberrant behaviour or nutritional stress.",
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"plaintext": "Because of their size and their habit of taking the same paths to feed, hippos can have a significant impact on the land across which they walk, by keeping the land clear of vegetation and depressing the ground. Over prolonged periods, hippos can divert the paths of swamps and channels. By defecating in the water, the animals also appear to pass on microbes from their gut, affecting the biogeochemical cycle.",
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"plaintext": "It is challenging to study the interaction of bulls and cows because hippos are not sexually dimorphic, so cows and young bulls are almost indistinguishable in the field. Although hippos lie close to one another, they are generally not social animals, and they do not seem to form social bonds except between mothers and daughters. The reason they huddle close together is unknown. Hippos exhibit territorial behaviour only in water, where the dominant bull – also known as a \"beachmaster\" – presides over a small stretch of river, on average in length. The beachmaster's territory typically contains a pod of 10 cows, but pods can contain over 100 hippos. Younger bachelors are allowed in a beachmaster's stretch, as long as they behave submissively toward him. Hippo territories are used to establish mating access. Within the pods, the hippos tend to segregate by sex. Bachelors lounge near other bachelors, females with other females, and the beachmaster is on his own. When hippos emerge from the water to graze, they do so individually.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos engage in \"muck-spreading\" which involves defecating while spinning their tails to distribute the faeces over a greater area. Muck-spreading occurs both on land and in water and its function is not well understood. It is likely not territorial as the animals only establish territories in the water. \"Yawning\" serves as a threat display. When fighting, bulls use their incisors to block each other's attacks and their large canines to inflict injuries. When hippos become over-populated or a habitat shrinks, bulls sometimes attempt infanticide, but this behaviour is not common under normal conditions. Incidents of hippo cannibalism have been documented, but this is believed to be the behaviour of distressed or sick hippos.",
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"plaintext": "The most common hippo vocalisation is the \"wheeze honk\", which can be heard over long distances. This call starts as a high-pitched squeal followed by a deeper, resonant call. While the purpose of these vocalisations is currently unknown, they appear to be used for social cohesion, and the animals can recognise the calls of other individuals. Hippos are more likely to react aggressively to the wheeze honks of strangers than those of animals they are more familiar with. They may be able to utilise wheeze honks for echolocation. Hippos have the unique ability to hold their heads partially above the water and send out a cry that travels through both water and air; individuals respond both above and below water. They will also express threat and alarm with exhalations. Fighting bulls produce loud bellows.",
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"plaintext": "Cows reach sexual maturity at five to six years of age and have a gestation period of eight months. A study of endocrine systems revealed cows may begin puberty at as early as three or four years. Males reach maturity at around 7.5 years. A study of hippo reproductive behaviour in Uganda showed that peak conceptions occurred during the end of the wet season in the summer, and peak births occurred toward the beginning of the wet season in late winter. This is because of the female's oestrous cycle; as with most large mammals, male hippo spermatozoa is active year-round. Studies of hippos in Zambia and South Africa also showed evidence of births occurring at the start of the wet season. After becoming pregnant, a female hippo will typically not begin ovulation again for 17 months.",
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"plaintext": "Mating occurs in the water, with the cow submerged for most of the encounter, her head emerging periodically to draw breath. Cows isolate themselves to give birth and return to the pod within 10 to 14 days. Calves are born underwater weighing between and at an average length of around . They must swim to the surface to take their first breaths. A mother typically gives birth to only one calf, though sometimes they give birth to twins. The young often rest on their mothers' backs when the water is too deep for them, and they swim under water to suckle. They will suckle on land as well when the mother leaves the water.",
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"plaintext": "Mother hippos are very protective of their young and may keep others at a distance. One cow was recorded protecting a calf's carcass after it had died. Calves are occasionally left in nurseries which are guarded by one or a few adults. Calves in nurseries often engage in playfights. Weaning starts between six and eight months after birth, and most calves are fully weaned after a year. Like many other large mammals, hippos are described as K-strategists, in this case typically producing just one large, well-developed infant every couple of years (rather than many small, poorly developed young several times per year, as is common among small mammals such as rodents).",
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"plaintext": "Hippos coexist alongside a variety of large predators in their habitats. Nile crocodiles, lions, and spotted hyenas are known to prey on young hippos. Beyond these, adult hippos are not usually preyed upon by other animals due to their aggression and size. Cases where large lion prides have successfully preyed on adult hippos have been reported, but it is generally rare. Lions occasionally prey on adults at Gorongosa National Park and calves are sometimes taken at Virunga. Crocodiles are frequent targets of hippo aggression, probably because they often inhabit the same riparian habitats; crocodiles may be either aggressively displaced or killed by hippos. In turn, very large Nile crocodiles have been observed preying occasionally on calves, \"half-grown\" hippos, and possibly also adult female hippos. Groups of crocodiles have also been observed finishing off still-living male hippos that were previously injured in mating battles with other males.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos occasionally visit cleaning stations in order to be cleaned of parasites by certain species of fishes. They signal their readiness for this service by opening their mouths wide. This is an example of mutualism, in which the hippo benefits from the cleaning while the fish receive food. Hippo defecation creates allochthonous deposits of organic matter along the river beds. These deposits have an unclear ecological function. A 2015 study concluded hippo dung provides nutrients from terrestrial material for fish and aquatic invertebrates, while a 2018 study found that their dung can be toxic to aquatic life in large quantities, due to absorption of dissolved oxygen in water bodies.",
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"plaintext": "The parasitic monogenean flatworm Oculotrema hippopotami infests hippopotamus eyes, mainly the nictitating membrane. It is the only monogenean species (which normally live on fish) documented to live on a mammal.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest evidence of human interaction with hippos comes from butchery cut marks on hippo bones found at the Bouri Formation and dated to around 160,000 years ago. Later rock paintings and engravings showing hippos being hunted have been found in the Tassili n'Ajjer Mountains of the central Sahara near Djanet, dated to 4,000–5,000 years ago The ancient Egyptians recognised the hippo as a ferocious denizen of the Nile and representations on the tombs of nobles show the animals were hunted by humans.",
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"plaintext": "The hippo was also known to the Greeks and Romans. The Greek historian Herodotus described the hippo in The Histories (written circa 440 BC) and the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote about the hippo in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia (written circa 77 AD). The Yoruba people called the hippo erinmi, which means \"elephant of the water\". Some individual hippos have achieved international fame. Huberta became a celebrity during the Great Depression for trekking across a great distance in South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "The hippo is considered to be extremely aggressive and has frequently been reported charging and attacking boats. Small boats can easily be capsized by hippos and passengers can be injured or killed by the animals, or drown in the water. In one 2014 case in Niger, a boat was capsized by a hippo and 13 people were killed. Hippos will often raid farm crops if the opportunity arises, and humans may come into conflict with them on these occasions. These encounters can be fatal to either humans or hippos.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos generally breed well in captivity; birth rates are lower than in the wild, but this can be attributed to zoos' desire to limit births, since hippos are relatively expensive to maintain. The Cincinnati Zoo began building a US$73 million exhibit for three adult hippos in 2015, featuring a tank. Modern hippo enclosures also have a complex filtration system for the animal's waste, an underwater viewing platform for the visitors, and glass that may be up to thick and capable of withstanding water pressures of . In 1987, the Toledo Zoo saw the first underwater birth by a captive hippo. The exhibit was so popular, the logo of the Toledo Zoo was updated to feature the hippos.",
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"plaintext": "In Egyptian mythology, the god Set takes the form of a red hippopotamus and fights Horus for control of the land, but is defeated. The goddess Tawaret is depicted as a pregnant woman with a hippo head, representing fierce maternal love. The Ijaw people of the Niger Delta wore masks of aquatic animals like the hippo when practising their water spirit cults, and hippo ivory was used in the divination rituals of the Yoruba. Hippo masks were also used in Nyau rituals of the Chewa of Southern Africa. These rituals were performed at funerals. According to Robert Baden-Powell, Zulu warriors referred to hippos in war chants. The Behemoth from the Book of Job, 40:15–24 is thought to be based on the hippo.",
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"plaintext": "Hippos have been the subjects of various African folktales. According to a San story, when the Creator assigned each animal its place in nature, the hippos wanted to live in the water, but were refused out of fear they might eat all the fish. After begging and pleading, the hippos were finally allowed to live in the water on the condition they would eat grass instead of fish, and fling their dung so it can be inspected for fish bones. In a Ndebele tale, the hippo originally had long, beautiful hair, but it was set on fire by a jealous hare and the hippo had to jump into a nearby pool. The hippo lost most of his hair and was too embarrassed to leave the water.",
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"plaintext": "Hippopotamuses were rarely depicted in European art during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, due to less access to specimens by Europeans. One notable exception is Peter Paul Rubens' The Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (1615–1616). Ever since Obaysch inspired the \"Hippopotamus Polka\", hippos have been popular animals in Western culture for their rotund appearance, which many consider comical. The Disney film Fantasia featured a ballerina hippo dancing to the opera La Gioconda. The film Hugo the Hippo involves the title character escaping Zanzibar to Dar es Salaam to avoid being slaughtered, where he is cared for by local children. The Madagascar films feature a hippo named Gloria. Hippos even inspired a popular board game, Hungry Hungry Hippos.",
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"plaintext": "Among the most famous poems about the hippo is \"The Hippopotamus\" by T. S. Eliot, where he compares the animal to the Catholic Church. Hippos were mentioned in the novelty Christmas song \"I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas\" that became a hit for child star Gayla Peevey in 1953. They also feature in the popular \"The Hippopotamous Song\" by Flanders and Swann.",
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"plaintext": "A popular internet myth reports that hippos have pink milk. Biologist David Wynick states, \"I think this is an Internet legend that is oft repeated but without any evidence for it that I can find... Like all mammals, hippos produce white or off-white milk for their young.\"",
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"plaintext": "UCLA is considered one of the country's Public Ivies, and is frequently ranked among the best universities in the world by major college and university rankings. , 27 Nobel laureates, five Turing Award winners, two Chief Scientists of the U.S. Air Force and one Fields Medalist have been affiliated with UCLA as faculty, researchers or alumni. Among the current faculty members, 55 have been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, 32 to the National Academy of Engineering, 41 to the National Academy of Medicine and 167 to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1881, at the request of state senator Reginaldo Francisco del Valle, the California State Legislature authorized the creation of a southern branch of the California State Normal School (now San José State University) in downtown Los Angeles to train teachers for the growing population of Southern California. The Los Angeles branch of the California State Normal School opened on August 29, 1882, on what is now the site of the Central Library of the Los Angeles Public Library system. The facility included a demonstration school where teachers-in-training could practice their techniques with children. That elementary school would become the present day UCLA Lab School. In 1887, the branch campus became independent and changed its name to Los Angeles State Normal School.",
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"plaintext": "In 1914, the school moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue (now the site of Los Angeles City College) in East Hollywood. In 1917, UC Regent Edward Augustus Dickson, the only regent representing the Southland at the time, and Ernest Carroll Moore, Director of the Normal School, began to lobby the State Legislature to enable the school to become the second University of California campus, after UC Berkeley. They met resistance from UC Berkeley alumni, Northern California members of the state legislature and then-UC President Benjamin Ide Wheeler, who were all vigorously opposed to the idea of a southern campus. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California in 1919, did not share Wheeler's objections.",
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"plaintext": "On May 23, 1919, the Southern Californians' efforts were rewarded when Governor William D. Stephens signed Assembly Bill 626 into law, which acquired the land and buildings and transformed the Los Angeles Normal School into the Southern Branch of the University of California. The same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the Junior College. The Southern Branch campus opened on September 15 of that year, offering two-year undergraduate programs to 250 Junior College students and 1,250 students in the Teachers College, under Moore's continued direction.",
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"plaintext": "Southern Californians were furious that their so-called \"branch\" provided only an inferior junior college program (mocked at the time by University of Southern California students as \"the twig\"), and continued to fight Northern Californians (specifically, Berkeley) for the right to three and then four years of instruction, culminating in bachelor's degrees. On December 11, 1923, the Board of Regents authorized a fourth year of instruction and transformed the Junior College into the College of Letters and Science, which awarded its first bachelor's degrees on June 12, 1925.",
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"plaintext": "Under UC President William Wallace Campbell, enrollment at the Southern Branch expanded so rapidly that by the mid-1920s the institution was outgrowing the 25acre Vermont Avenue location. The Regents searched for a new location and announced their selection of the so-called \"Beverly Site\"—just west of Beverly Hills—on March 21, 1925, edging out the panoramic hills of the still-empty Palos Verdes Peninsula. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname \"Bruins\", a name offered by the student council at UC Berkeley. In 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles (the word \"at\" was officially replaced by a comma in 1958, in line with other UC campuses). In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, for whom the Janss Steps are named. The campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929.",
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"plaintext": "The original four buildings were the College Library (now Powell Library), Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building (which became the Humanities Building and is now the Renee and David Kaplan Hall), and the Chemistry Building (now Haines Hall), arrayed around a quadrangular courtyard on the 400acre (1.6km2) campus. The first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. After lobbying by alumni, faculty, administration and community leaders, UCLA was permitted to award the master's degree in 1933, and the doctorate in 1936, against continued resistance from UC Berkeley.",
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"plaintext": "During its first 32 years, UCLA was treated as an off-site department of UC. As such, its presiding officer was called a \"provost\", and reported to the main campus in Berkeley. In 1951, UCLA was formally elevated to co-equal status with UC Berkeley, and its presiding officer Raymond B. Allen was the first chief executive to be granted the title of chancellor. The appointment of Franklin David Murphy to the position of Chancellor in 1960 helped spark an era of tremendous growth of facilities and faculty honors. By the end of the decade, UCLA had achieved distinction in a wide range of subjects. This era also secured UCLA's position as a proper university and not simply a branch of the UC system. This change is exemplified by an incident involving Chancellor Murphy, which was described by him:",
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"plaintext": "I picked up the telephone and called in from somewhere, and the phone operator said, \"University of California.\" And I said, \"Is this Berkeley?\" She said, \"No.\" I said, \"Well, who have I gotten to?\" \"UCLA.\" I said, \"Why didn't you say UCLA?\" \"Oh\", she said, \"we're instructed to say University of California.\" So the next morning I went to the office and wrote a memo; I said, \"Will you please instruct the operators, as of noon today, when they answer the phone to say, 'UCLA. And they said, \"You know they won't like it at Berkeley.\" And I said, \"Well, let's just see. There are a few things maybe we can do around here without getting their permission.\"",
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"plaintext": "On June 1, 2016, two men were killed in a murder-suicide at an engineering building in the university. School officials put the campus on lockdown as Los Angeles Police Department officers, including SWAT, cleared the campus.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, a graduate student adviser and professor in the history department, Gabriel Piterberg, was accused of sexually assaulting two students. A lawsuit was filed against the university by sexual harassment attorney Ann Olivarius for its failure to properly act on the accusations. An editorial in the student newspaper wrote about the university's response, \"This outcome is an embarrassment for UCLA. Not only does this represent a huge step backward and a betrayal of students’ trust, but it displays a startlingly low standard when it comes to treatment of sexual assault suspects.\" The university settled with the plaintiffs and eventually, after simply suspending and fining Piterberg, did more after student protest and legal efforts, including \"separation from employment, denial of emeritus status, [and] denial of future employment with the University of California.\"",
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"plaintext": "general appearance, adding several rows of minimalist, slab–shaped brick buildings to the southern half, the largest of these being the UCLA Medical Center. Architects such as A. Quincy Jones, William Pereira, and Paul Williams designed many subsequent structures on the campus during the mid-20th century. More recent additions include buildings designed by architects I.M. Pei, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates, Richard Meier, Cesar Pelli, and Rafael Vinoly. To accommodate UCLA's rapidly growing student population, multiple construction and renovation projects are in progress, including expansions of the life sciences and engineering research complexes. This continuous construction gives UCLA the nickname \"Under Construction Like Always\".",
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"plaintext": "\"UCLA is located in Los Angeles, the same place as the American motion picture industry\", said UCLA visiting professor of film and television Jonathan Kuntz. \"So we're convenient for (almost) all of the movie companies, TV production companies, commercial companies and so on. We're right where the action is.\"",
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"plaintext": "The David Geffen School of Medicine, School of Nursing, School of Dentistry and Fielding School of Public Health constitute the professional schools of health science.",
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"plaintext": "The UCLA Health System operates the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, a hospital in Santa Monica and twelve primary care clinics throughout Los Angeles County. In addition, the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine uses two Los Angeles County public hospitals as teaching hospitals—Harbor–UCLA Medical Center and Olive View–UCLA Medical Center—as well as the largest private nonprofit hospital on the west coast, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. The Greater Los Angeles VA Medical Center is also a major teaching and training site for the university. The UCLA Medical Center made history in 1981 when Assistant Professor Michael Gottlieb first diagnosed AIDS. UCLA medical researchers also pioneered the use of positron emission tomography (PET) scanning to study brain function. Professor of Pharmacology Louis Ignarro was one of the recipients of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering the signaling cascade of nitric oxide, one of the most important molecules in cardiopulmonary physiology.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\" and had $1.32 billion in research expenditures in FY 2018.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA's library system has over nine million books and 70,000 serials spread over twelve libraries and eleven other archives, reading rooms, and research centers. It is the United States' 12th largest library in number of volumes.",
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"plaintext": "The first library, University Library (presently Powell Library), was founded in 1884. In 1910, Elizabeth Fargo became the university's first librarian. Lawrence Powell became librarian in 1944, and began a series of system overhauls and modifications, and in 1959, was named Dean of the School of Library Service. More libraries were added as previous ones filled. Page Ackerman became University Librarian in 1973 and was the nation's first female librarian of a system as large and complex as UCLA's. She oversaw the first coordinations between other UC schools, and formed a new administrative network that is still in use today. Since her retirement, the system has seen steady growth and improvement under various librarians. The present University Librarian is Virginia Steel, who took office on July 15, 2013.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), UCLA supplies the most undergraduate applicants to U.S. medical schools among all American universities. In 2015, UCLA supplied 961 medical school applicants, followed by UC Berkeley with 819 and the University of Florida with 802.",
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"plaintext": "Among first-time medical school applicants who received their bachelor's degree from UCLA in 2014, 51% were admitted to at least one U.S. medical school.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. News & World Report rates UCLA \"Most Selective\" and The Princeton Review rates its admissions selectivity of 98 out of 99. 102,242 prospective freshmen applied for Fall 2017, the most of any four-year university in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Admission rates vary according to the residency of applicants. For Fall 2019, California residents had an admission rate of 12.0%, while out-of-state U.S. residents had an admission rate of 16.4% and internationals had an admission rate of 8.4%. UCLA's overall freshman admit rate for the Fall 2019 term was 12.3%.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2020, the basis for selection at UCLA includes several academic and nonacademic factors. Those considered \"very important\" are all academic; they are rigor of secondary school record, academic GPA, standardized test scores, and application essay(s). Those considered \"important\" are talent/ability, character/personal qualities, volunteer work, work experience, and extracurricular activities. Factors that are not considered at all include class rank, interviews, alumni relation, and racial/ethnic status.",
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"plaintext": "Enrolled freshman for Fall 2019 had an unweighted GPA of 3.90, an SAT interquartile range of 1280–1510, and an ACT interquartile range of 27–34. The SAT interquartile ranges were 640–740 for reading/writing and 640–790 for math. Among the admitted freshman applicants for the Fall 2019 term, 43.1% chose to enroll at UCLA.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA's freshman admission rate varies drastically across colleges. For Fall 2016, the College of Letters and Science had an admission rate of 21.2%, the Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science (HSSEAS) had an admission rate of 12.4%, the Herb Alpert School of Music had an admission rate of 23.5%, the School of the Arts and Architecture had an admission rate of 10.3%, the School of Nursing had an admission rate of 2.2%, and the School of Theater, Film and Television had an admission rate of 4.4%.",
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"plaintext": "One of the major issues is the decreased admission of African-Americans since the passage of Proposition 209 in 1996, prohibiting state governmental institutions from considering race, sex, or ethnicity, specifically in the areas of public employment, public contracting, and public education. UCLA responded by shifting to a holistic admissions process starting Fall 2007. The holistic admissions process evaluates applicants based on their opportunities in high school, their personal hardships and unusual circumstances at home.",
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"plaintext": "For Fall 2020, the David Geffen School of Medicine admitted 2.9% of its applicants, making it the 8th most selective U.S. medical school. The School of Law had a median undergraduate GPA of 3.82 and median Law School Admission Test (LSAT) score of 170 for the enrolled class of 2024. The Anderson School of Management had a middle-80% GPA range of 3.1 – 3.8 and an average Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) score of 711 for the enrolled MBA class of 2024.",
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"plaintext": "The School of Dentistry had an average overall GPA of 3.65, an average science GPA of 3.6 and an average Dental Admissions Test (DAT) score of 22.8 for the enrolled class of 2025. The Graduate School of Nursing currently has an acceptance rate of 33%. For Fall 2020, the Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science (HSSEAS) had a graduate acceptance rate of 27%.",
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"plaintext": "The university has a significant impact in the Los Angeles economy. It is the fifth largest employer in the county (after Los Angeles County, the Los Angeles Unified School District, the federal government and the City of Los Angeles) and the seventh largest in the region.",
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"plaintext": "The UCLA trademark \"is the exclusive property of the Regents of the University of California\", but it is managed, protected, and licensed through UCLA Trademarks and Licensing, a division of the Associated Students UCLA, the largest student employer on campus. As such, the ASUCLA also has a share in the profits.",
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"plaintext": "Due to UCLA's academic and athletic prestige, as well as the name, being associated with popular images of Southern California lifestyle, apparel with UCLA logos and insignia sells not just in the United States, but as an overseas clothing and accessories brand. High demand for UCLA apparel has inspired the licensing of its trademark to UCLA brand stores throughout Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Since 1980, 15 UCLA stores have opened in South Korea, and 49 are currently open in China. The newest store was opened in Kuwait. There are also stores in Mexico, Singapore, India and Europe. UCLA makes $400,000 in royalties every year through its international licensing program.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA has various store locations around campus, with the main store in Ackerman Union. In addition, UCLA-themed products are sold at the gift shop of Fowler Museum on campus.",
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"plaintext": "Due to licensing and trademarks, products with UCLA logos and insignia are usually higher priced than their unlicensed counterparts. These products have popularity among visitors, who buy them as gifts and souvenirs. For certain products (such as notebooks and folders) the UCLA Store offers both licensed (logo) and unlicensed (without logo, thus cheaper) options, but for many other products the latter option is often unavailable.",
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"plaintext": "Students who are part-time employed by ASUCLA at a UCLA Store or a UCLA Restaurant are offered certain discounts when they are shopping at UCLA Stores, in addition to their salary.",
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"plaintext": "The school's sports teams are called the Bruins, represented by the colors true blue and gold. The Bruins participate in NCAA Division I as part of the Pac-12 Conference. Two notable sports facilities serve as home venues for UCLA sports. The Bruin men's football team plays home games at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena; the team won a national title in 1954. The basketball and volleyball teams, and the women's gymnastics team compete at Pauley Pavilion on campus. The school also sponsors cross country, soccer, women's rowing, golf, tennis, water polo, track and field, and women's softball.",
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"plaintext": "The mascots are Joe and Josephine Bruin, and the fight songs are Sons of Westwood and Mighty Bruins. The alma mater is Hail to the Hills of Westwood.",
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"plaintext": "When Henry \"Red\" Sanders came to UCLA to coach football in 1949, the uniforms were redesigned. Sanders added a gold loop on the shoulders—the UCLA Stripe. The navy blue was changed to a lighter shade of blue. Sanders figured that the baby blue would look better on the field and in film. He dubbed the uniform \"Powder Keg Blue\", a powder blue with an explosive kick. This would also differentiate UCLA from all other UC teams, whose official colors are blue and gold.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA competes in all major Division I sports and has won 128 national championships, including 119 NCAA championships. Only Stanford University has more NCAA team championships, with 126. On April 21, 2018, UCLA's women's gymnastics team defeated Oklahoma Sooners to win its 7th NCAA National Championship as well as UCLA's 115th overall team title. Most recently, UCLA's women's soccer team defeated Florida State to win its first NCAA National Championship along with women's tennis who defeated North Carolina to win its second NCAA National title ever. UCLA's softball program is also outstanding. Women's softball won their NCAA-leading 12th National Championship, on June 4, 2019. The women's water polo team is also dominant, with a record 7 NCAA championships. Notably, the team helped UCLA become the first school to win 100 NCAA championships overall when they won their fifth on May 13, 2007.",
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"plaintext": "The men's water polo team won UCLA's 112th, 113th, and 114th national championships, defeating USC in the championship game three times: on December 7, 2014, on December 6, 2015, and on December 3, 2017. On October 9, 2016, the top-ranked men's water polo team broke the NCAA record for consecutive wins when they defeated UC Davis for their 52nd straight win. This toppled Stanford's previous record of 51 consecutive wins set in 1985–87. The men's water polo team has become a dominant sport on campus with a total of 11 national championships.",
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"plaintext": "Among UCLA's 118 championship titles, some of the more notable victories are in men's basketball. Under legendary coach John Wooden, UCLA men's basketball teams won 10 NCAA championships, including a record seven consecutive, in 1964, 1965, 1967–1973, and 1975, and an 11th was added under then-coach Jim Harrick in 1995 (through 2008, the most consecutive by any other team is two). From 1971 to 1974, UCLA men's basketball won an unprecedented 88 consecutive games.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA has also shown dominance in men's volleyball, with 19 national championships. All 19 teams were led by former coach Al Scates, which ties him with John McDonnell of the University of Arkansas as NCAA leader for national championships in a single sport.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA is one of only six universities (Michigan, Stanford, Ohio State, California, and Florida being the others) to have won national championships in all three major men's sports (baseball, basketball, and football).",
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"plaintext": "UCLA shares a traditional sports rivalry with the University of Southern California. UCLA teams have won the second-most NCAA Division I-sanctioned team championships, while USC has the third-most. Only Stanford University, a fellow Pac-12 member also located in California, has more than either UCLA or USC. The football rivalry is distinctive for two of the strongest conference programs located in one city. In football, UCLA has one national champion team and 16 conference titles, compared to USC's 11 national championships and 37 conference championships. The two football teams compete for annual possession of the Victory Bell, the trophy of the rivalry football game.",
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"plaintext": "The schools share a rivalry in many other sports, and are each the best in the nation for many. UCLA has won 19 NCAA Championships in Men's Volleyball, 11 in Men's Basketball, 12 in Softball, and 7 in Women's Water Polo, the most of any school in those sports. USC has won 26 NCAA Championships in Men's Outdoor Track and Field, 21 in Men's Tennis, and 12 in Baseball, also the most of any school in each respective sport.",
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"plaintext": "The annual SoCal BMW Crosstown Cup compares the two schools based on their performance in 19 varsity sports; UCLA has won five times and USC has won nine times. This rivalry extends to the Olympic Games, where UCLA athletes have won 250 medals over a span of 50 years while USC athletes have won 287 over 100 years.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA and USC also compete in the We Run The City 5K, an annual charity race to raise donations for Special Olympics Southern California. The race is located on the campus of one of the schools and switches to the other campus each year. USC won the race in 2013 and 2015, while UCLA won the race in 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The campus is located near prominent entertainment venues such as the Getty Center, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) and the Santa Monica Pier. UCLA offers classical orchestras, intramural sports, and over 1000 student organizations UCLA is also home to 66 fraternities and sororities, which represent 13% of the undergraduate population. Phrateres, a non-exclusive social-service club for women was founded here in 1924 by the Dean of Women, Helen Matthewson Laughlin. Students and staff participate in dinghy sailing, surfing, windsurfing, rowing, and kayaking at the UCLA Marina Aquatic Center in Marina del Rey.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA's first contemporary a cappella group, Awaken A Cappella, was founded in 1992. The all-male group, Bruin Harmony, has enjoyed a successful career since its inception in 2006, portraying a collegiate a cappella group in The Social Network (2010), while the ScatterTones finished in second-place in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella in 2012, 2013, and 2014, and third-place in 2017 and 2019. In 2020, The A Cappella Archive ranked the ScatterTones at #2 among all ICCA-competing groups. Other a cappella groups include Signature, Random Voices, Medleys, YOUTHphonics, Resonance, Deviant Voices, AweChords, Pitch Please, Da Verse, Naya Zaamana, Jewkbox, On That Note, Tinig Choral, and Cadenza. YOUTHphonics and Medleys are UCLA's only nonprofit service-oriented a cappella groups.",
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"plaintext": "There are a variety of cultural organizations on campus, such as Nikkei Student Union (NSU), Japanese Student Association (JSA), Association of Chinese Americans (ACA), Chinese Students and Scholars Association (CSSA), Chinese Music Ensemble (CME), Chinese Cultural Dance Club (CCDC), Taiwanese American Union (TAU), Taiwanese Student Association (TSA), Hong Kong Student Society (HKSS), Hanoolim Korean Cultural Awareness Group, Samahang Pilipino, Vietnamese Student Union (VSU), and Thai Smakom. Many of these organizations have an annual \"culture night\" consisting of drama and dance which raises awareness of culture and history to the campus and community.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, there are over 20 LGBTQ organizations on campus, including the undergraduate student organizations Queer Alliance, BlaQue, Lavender Health Alliance, OutWrite Newsmagazine, Queer and Trans in STEM (qtSTEM), and Transgender UCLA Pride (TransUP) as well as the graduate student organizations Out@Anderson, OUTLaw, and Luskin PRIDE. Notably, OutWrite, established under the name TenPercent in 1979, is the first college queer newsmagazine in the country. ",
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"plaintext": "UCLA operates on a quarter calendar with the exception of the UCLA School of Law and the UCLA School of Medicine, which operate on a semester calendar.",
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"plaintext": "There are more than 65 inter/national and local Greek-letter organizations at UCLA in six governing councils; Asian Greek Council (AGC), Interfraternity Greek Council (IFC), Latino Greek Council (LGC), Multi-Interest Greek Council (MIGC), National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), and Panhellenic Council (Panhel). Approximately 3,800 undergraduate students (13%) are involved in UCLA Greek life.",
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"plaintext": "Asian Greek Council (AGC):",
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"plaintext": "Governing body of the 4 historically Asian-founded fraternities and sororities.",
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"plaintext": "Latino Greek Council (LGC):",
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"plaintext": "Governing body of the 8 Latino/a founded Greek-letter organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Multi-Interest Greek Council (MIGC):",
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"plaintext": "Governing body of the 15 cultural-based/special-interest fraternity and sorority organizations.",
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"plaintext": "National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC):",
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"plaintext": "Governing body of the 7 historically African American Greek-letter organizations at UCLA.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA's official charity is UniCamp, founded in 1934. It is a week-long summer camp for under-served children from the greater Los Angeles area, with UCLA volunteer counselors. UniCamp runs for seven weeks throughout the summer at Camp River Glen in the San Bernardino National Forest. Because UniCamp is a non-profit organization, student volunteers from UCLA also fundraise money throughout the year to allow these children to attend summer camp.",
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"plaintext": "True Bruin Welcome begins the fall quarter to introduce new students to clubs and activities. The week includes the Day of Service for all freshmen, the Enormous Activities Fair, and the Sports Fair. At the end of move-in and the beginning of True Bruin Welcome, UCLA holds Bruin Bash, which includes a concert, dance and movie pre-release. Bruin Bash was created as a replacement for Black Sunday, a large-scale day of partying including all fraternities in North Westwood Village.",
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"plaintext": "The Pediatric AIDS Coalition organizes the annual Dance Marathon in Pauley Pavilion, where thousands of students raise a minimum of $250 and dance for 26 hours to support the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Project Kindle, and the UCLA AIDS Institute. Dancers are not allowed to sit (except to use the restroom) during the marathon, literally taking a stand against pediatric AIDS, and symbolizing the suffering of affected children around the world. In 2015, Dance Marathon at UCLA raised $446,157.",
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"plaintext": "During Finals Week, UCLA students participate in \"Midnight Yell\", where they yell as loudly as possible for a few minutes at midnight to release some stress from studying. The quarterly Undie Run takes place during the Wednesday evening of Finals Week, when students run through the campus in their underwear or in skimpy costumes. The run began in Fall of 2001 when a student, Eric Whitehead, wearing what he described as \"really short shorts\" walked around singing and playing guitar to protest the police restrictions on the Midnight Yell. With the increasing safety hazards and Police and Administration involvement, a student committee changed the route to a run through campus to Shapiro Fountain, which now culminates with students dancing in the fountain. In 2007, the route was changed again to begin at Strathmore Avenue instead of Landfair Avenue. The Undie Run has spread to other American universities, including the University of Texas at Austin, Arizona State University, and Syracuse University.",
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"plaintext": "The Alumni Association sponsors several events, usually large extravaganzas involving huge amounts of coordination, such as the 70-year-old Spring Sing, organized by the Student Alumni Association (SAA). UCLA's oldest tradition, Spring Sing is an annual gala of student talent, which is held at either Pauley Pavilion or the outdoor Los Angeles Tennis Center. The committee bestows the George and Ira Gershwin Lifetime Achievement Award each year to a major contributor to the music industry. Past recipients have included Stevie Wonder, Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, James Taylor, Ray Charles, Natalie Cole, Quincy Jones, Lionel Richie, and in 2009, Julie Andrews. The Dinner for 12 Strangers is a gathering of students, alumni, administration and faculty to network around different interests. The \"Beat 'SC Bonfire and Rally\" occurs the week before the USC rivalry football game.",
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"plaintext": "The USAC Cultural Affairs Commission hosts the JazzReggae Festival, a two-day concert on Memorial Day weekend that attracts more than 20,000 attendees. The JazzReggae Festival is the largest, entirely student produced and run event of its kind on the West Coast.",
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"plaintext": "Sigma Eta Pi and Bruin Entrepreneurs organize LA Hacks, an annual hackathon where students from around the United States come to build technology products. LA Hacks established itself as the largest hackathon in the United States when over 1500 students participated on April 11–13, 2014. LA Hacks also holds the record for the most funds raised via corporate sponsorships with $250,000 raised. Some of the tech world's most prominent people have given talks and judged projects at LA Hacks, including Evan Spiegel (Founder and CEO of Snapchat), Alexis Ohanian (co-founder of Reddit), Sam Altman (President of Y Combinator) and Chris De Wolfe (Founder of Myspace).",
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"plaintext": "The Associated Students UCLA (ASUCLA) encompasses the student government and student-led enterprises at UCLA. ASUCLA has four major components: the Undergraduate Students Association, the Graduate Students Association, Student Media, and Services & Enterprises. However, in common practice, the term ASUCLA refers to the services and enterprises component. This includes the Student Store, Bookstore, Food Services, Student Union, etc. These commercial enterprises generate approximately $40 million in annual revenues. As a nonprofit corporation, the financial goal of ASUCLA is to provide quality services and programs for students. ASUCLA is governed by a student-majority Board of Directors. The Undergraduate Students Association and Graduate Students Association each appoint three members plus one alternative. In addition to the student members, there are representatives appointed by the administration, the academic senate, and the alumni association. The \"services and enterprises\" portion of ASUCLA is run by a professional executive director who oversees some 300 staff and 2,000 student employees.",
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"plaintext": "The Graduate Students Association is the governing body for approximately 13,000 graduate and professional students at UCLA.",
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"plaintext": "The Undergraduate Students Association Council (USAC) is the governing body of the Undergraduate Students Association (USA) whose membership comprises every UCLA undergraduate student. , the student body had two major political slates: Bruins United and Let's Act. In the Spring 2016 election, the two competing parties were Bruins United and Waves of Change—a smaller faction that broke off of Lets Act.",
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"plaintext": "USAC's fourteen student officers and commissioners are elected by members of the Undergraduate Students Association at an annual election held during Spring Quarter. In addition to its fourteen elected members, USAC includes appointed representatives of the Administration, the Alumni, and the Faculty, as well as two ex-officio members, the ASUCLA Executive Director and a student Finance Committee Chairperson who is appointed by the USA President and approved by USAC. All members of USAC may participate fully in Council deliberations, but only the elected officers, minus the USAC President may vote.",
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"plaintext": "Along with the council, the student government also includes a seven-member Judicial Board, which similar to the Supreme Court, serves as the judicial branch of government and reviews actions of the council. These seven students are appointed by the student body president and confirmed by the council.",
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"plaintext": "USAC's programs offers additional services to the campus and surrounding communities. For example, each year approximately 40,000 students, faculty and staff attend programs of the Campus Events Commission, including a low-cost film program, a speakers program which presents leading figures from a wide range of disciplines, and performances by dozens of entertainers. Two to three thousand UCLA undergraduates participate annually in the more than twenty voluntary outreach programs run by the Community Service Commission. A large corps of undergraduate volunteers also participate in programs run by the Student Welfare Commission, such as AIDS Awareness, Substance Abuse Awareness, Blood Drives and CPR/First Aid Training.",
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"plaintext": "The film program is part of the Bruin Film Society, which is also a registered organization to host advance screenings of films during Oscars season. It hosts other events, like filmmaker panels, through its partnership with production and distribution company A24.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA Student Media is the home of UCLA's newspaper, magazines, and radio station. Most student media publications are governed by the ASUCLA Communications Board.",
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"plaintext": "The Daily Bruin is UCLA's most prominent student publication. Founded in 1919 under the name Cub Californian, it has since then developed into Los Angeles' third-most circulated newspaper. It has won dozens of national awards, and is regularly commended for layout and content. In 2016, the paper won two National Pacemaker Awards – one for the best college newspaper in the country, and another for the best college media website in the country. The newspaper has not been without scrutiny and controversy, and in 1954, the administration attempted to intervene with the previous policy of electing editors by a student council.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA Student Media also publishes seven special-interest news magazines: Al-Talib, Fem, Ha'Am, La Gente, Nommo, Pacific Ties, and OutWrite, a school yearbook, BruinLife, and the student-run radio station, UCLA Radio.",
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"plaintext": "Student groups such as The Forum for Energy Economics and Development also publish yearly journals focused on energy technologies and industries. There are also numerous graduate student-run journals at UCLA, such as Carte Italiane, Issues in Applied Linguistics, and Mediascape. Many of these publications are available through open access. The School of Law publishes the UCLA Law Review which is currently ranked seventh among American law schools.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA provides housing to over 10,000 undergraduate and 2,900 graduate students.",
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"plaintext": "Most undergraduate students are housed in 14 complexes on the western side of campus, referred to by students as \"The Hill\". Students can live in halls, plazas, suites, or university apartments, which vary in pricing and privacy. Housing plans also offer students access to dining facilities, which have been ranked by the Princeton Review as some of the best in the United States. Dining halls are located in Covel Commons, Rieber Hall, Carnesale Commons and De Neve Plaza. In winter 2012, a dining hall called The Feast at Rieber opened to students. The newest dining hall (as of Winter Quarter 2014) is Bruin Plate, located in the Carnesale Commons (commonly referred to as Sproul Plaza). Residential cafes include Bruin Cafe, Rendezvous, The Study at Hedrick, and Cafe 1919. UCLA currently offers three years guaranteed housing to its incoming freshmen, and one year to incoming transfer students. There are four type of housing available for students: residential halls, deluxe residential halls, residential plazas, and residential suites. Available on the hill are study rooms, basketball courts, tennis courts, and Sunset Recreational Center which includes three swimming pools.",
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"plaintext": "Graduate students are housed in one of five apartment complexes. Weyburn Terrace is located just southwest of the campus in Westwood Village. The other four are roughly five miles south of UCLA in Palms and Mar Vista. They too vary in pricing and privacy. Approximately 400 students live at the University Cooperative Housing Association, located two blocks off campus.",
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"plaintext": "Students who are involved in Greek life have the option to also live in Greek housing while at UCLA. Sorority houses are located east of campus on Hilgard Avenue, and fraternity houses are located west of campus throughout Westwood Village. A student usually lives with 50+ students in Greek housing.",
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"plaintext": "Hospitality constituents of the university include departments not directly related to student life or administration. The Hospitality department manages the university's two on-campus hotels, the UCLA Guest House and the Meyer and Renee Luskin Conference Center. The 61-room Guest House services those visiting the university for campus-related activities. The department also manages the UCLA Conference Center, a 40-acre (0.2km2) conference center in the San Bernardino Mountains near Lake Arrowhead. Hospitality also operates UCLA Catering, a vending operation, and a summer conference center located on the Westwood campus.",
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"plaintext": "The UCLA Chabad House is a community center for Jewish students operated by the Orthodox Jewish Chabad movement. Established in 1969, it was the first Chabad House at a university. In 1980, three students died in a fire in the original building of the UCLA Chabad House. The present building was erected in their memory. The building, completed in 1984, was the first of many Chabad houses worldwide designed as architectural reproductions of the residence of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson at 770 Eastern Parkway in Brooklyn, New York. The Chabad House hosts the UCLA chapter of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute's Sinai Scholars Society.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2013, Chancellor Gene Block launched the UCLA Healthy Campus Initiative (HCI), envisioned and supported by Jane and Terry Semel. The Semel HCI prioritizes the health and wellness of UCLA students, staff, and faculty by \"making the healthy choice the easy choice.\" The goal of the initiative is to make UCLA the healthiest campus in the country, and to share best practices and research with other communities, locally and beyond.",
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"plaintext": "The initiative is a campuswide, multi-year effort that champions programs such as the tobacco-free policy, expansion of campus gardens, stairwell makeovers, bicycle infrastructure improvements, healthy and sustainable dining options, and peer counseling, among others.",
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"plaintext": "The UCLA Healthy Campus Initiative is credited with providing inspiration for national initiatives including the Partnership for a Healthier America (PHA) Healthier Campus Initiative and the University of California Office of the President (UCOP) Global Food Initiative (GFI). In November 2014, UCLA was one of the 20 inaugural colleges and universities to pledge to adopt PHA's guidelines for food and nutrition, physical activity and programming over three years. The Semel HCI is a member of both the Menus of Change Research Collaborative and the Teaching Kitchen Collaborative, and a contributor to The Huffington Post.",
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"plaintext": "As of October 2021, 28 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with UCLA: 12 professors, 8 alumni and 10 researchers (three overlaps).",
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"plaintext": "Two other faculty members winning the Nobel Prize were Bertrand Russell and Al Gore, who each had a short stay at UCLA.",
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"plaintext": "The alumni Nobel laureates include Richard Heck (Chemistry, 2010); Elinor Ostrom (Economic Sciences, 2009); and Randy Schekman (Physiology or Medicine, 2013). Fifty-two UCLA professors have been awarded Guggenheim Fellowships, and eleven are MacArthur Foundation Fellows. Mathematics professor Terence Tao was awarded the 2006 Fields Medal.",
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"plaintext": "Geography professor Jared Diamond won the 1998 Pulitzer Prize for his book Guns, Germs, and Steel. Two UCLA history professors have each won 2008 Pulitzer Prizes for general nonfiction and history. Saul Friedländer, noted scholar of the Nazi Holocaust, won the prize for general nonfiction for his 2006 book, The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945, and Daniel Walker Howe for his 2007 book, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848.",
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"plaintext": "A number of UCLA alumni are notable politicians. In the State of Hawaii, Ben Cayetano ('68), became the first Filipino American to be elected Governor of a U.S. state. In the U.S. House of Representatives, Henry Waxman ('61, '64) represented California's 30th congressional district and was Chairman of the House Energy and Commerce Committee. U.S. Representative Judy Chu ('74) represents California's 32nd congressional district and became the first Chinese American woman elected to the U.S. Congress in 2009. Kirsten Gillibrand ('91) is U.S. Senator from the State of New York and former U.S. Representative for New York's 20th congressional district. UCLA boasts two Mayors of Los Angeles: Tom Bradley (1937–1940), the city's only African-American mayor, and Antonio Villaraigosa ('77), who served as mayor from 2005 to 2013. Nao Takasugi was the mayor of Oxnard, California and the first Asian-American California assemblyman. Azadeh Kian, PhD at UCLA and Director of social sciences at University of Paris, is a prominent expert on Iranian politics.",
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"plaintext": "Ben Shapiro (BA '04) is an American conservative political commentator, nationally syndicated columnist, author, radio talk show host, and attorney. He is the editor-in-chief at The Daily Wire.",
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"plaintext": "Michael Morhaime (BA '90), Allen Adham (BA '90) and Frank Pearce (BA '90) are the founders of Blizzard Entertainment, developer of the award-winning Warcraft, StarCraft and Diablo computer game franchises. Tom Anderson (MA '00) is a co-founder of the social networking website Myspace. Computer scientist Vint Cerf ('70, '72) is vice president and Chief Internet Evangelist at Google and the person most widely considered the \"father of the Internet.\" Henry Samueli ('75) is co-founder of Broadcom Corporation and owner of the Anaheim Ducks. Susan Wojcicki (MBA '98) is the CEO of YouTube. Travis Kalanick is one of the founders of Uber. Guy Kawasaki (MBA '79) is one of the earliest employees at Apple. Nathan Myhrvold is the founder of Microsoft Research.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA alumni have also achieved prominence in the arts and entertainment. John Williams is laureate conductor at the Boston Pops Orchestra and Academy Award-winning composer of the Star Wars film score. Martin Sherwin ('71) was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Actors Ben Stiller, Tim Robbins, James Franco, George Takei, Mayim Bialik, Sean Astin, Holland Roden, Danielle Panabaker, and Milo Ventimiglia are also UCLA alumni. Popular music artists Sara Bareilles, The Doors, Linkin Park, and Maroon 5 all attended UCLA. Ryan Dusick of Maroon 5 majored in English. Giada De Laurentiis is a program host at Food Network and former chef at Spago. Greg Graffin, lead singer of punk rock band Bad Religion, earned a master's degree in geology at UCLA, and used to teach a course on evolution there. Carol Burnett was the winner of the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor in 2013 (also winner of Emmys, a Peabody and a Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005). Francis Ford Coppola ('67) was the director of the gangster film trilogy The Godfather, The Outsiders starring Tom Cruise, and the Vietnam War film Apocalypse Now and Dustin Lance Black is the Academy Award-winning screenwriter of the film Milk.",
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"plaintext": "Meb Keflezighi ('98) is the winner of the 2014 Boston Marathon and the 2004 Olympic silver medalist in the marathon. The UCLA men's basketball team has produced Basketball Hall of Fame players such as Bill Walton and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar as well as current NBA players Kevin Love and Russell Westbrook. Noted Bruins baseball players include Troy Glaus, Chase Utley, Brandon Crawford, Gerrit Cole, and Trevor Bauer. Los Angeles Dodgers manager Dave Roberts won World Series titles as a member of the 2004 Boston Red Sox and in 2020 as manager of the Dodgers.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA also boasts an excellent military background, with hundreds of alumni serving their nation. Carlton Skinner was a U.S. Coast Guard Commander who racially integrated that service at the end of World War II on the Sea Cloud. He was also the first civilian governor of Guam. Francis B. Wai is, to date, the only Chinese-American and the first Asian-American to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for his actions in World War II. UCLA also lost an alumnus in early 2007 when Second Lieutenant Mark Daily was killed in Mosul, Iraq after his HMMWV was hit by an IED. Lieutenant Daily's service is marked by a plaque located on the northern face of the Student Activities Center (SAC), where the ROTC halls are currently located.",
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"plaintext": " 105 Academy Awards",
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"plaintext": " 278 Emmy Awards",
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"plaintext": " 1 Fields Medal",
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"plaintext": " 3 Turing Awards",
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"plaintext": " 11 Fulbright Scholars (since 2000)",
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"plaintext": " 78 Guggenheim Fellows",
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"plaintext": " 12 MacArthur Fellows",
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"plaintext": " 1 Mark Twain Prize for American Humor",
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"plaintext": " 10 National Medals of Science",
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"plaintext": " 16 Nobel Laureates",
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"plaintext": " 3 Presidential Medals of Freedom",
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"plaintext": " 1 Pritzker Prize in Architecture",
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"plaintext": " 3 Pulitzer Prizes",
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"plaintext": " 1 Rome Prize in Design",
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"plaintext": " 12 Rhodes Scholars",
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"plaintext": "As of August 1, 2016, the top three places where UCLA alumni work are Kaiser Permanente with 1,459+ alumni, UCLA Health with 1,127+ alumni, and Google with 1,058+ alumni.",
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"plaintext": " 2019 college admissions bribery scandal",
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"plaintext": " Image of UCLA on a zoning map of Los Angeles, 1927 . Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.",
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|
37,767 | 1,067,773,587 | Patch_collecting | [
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"plaintext": "Patch collecting or badge collecting (also, scutelliphily, from Latin scutellus meaning little shield, and Greek phileein meaning to love) is the hobby of collecting patches or badges.",
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"plaintext": "Souvenir patches are usually shield-shaped and generally contain a coat of arms, a map or a miniature view. The patches can be made of any material, but are usually woven or embroidered fabric, though they can also be made from paper or, increasingly, plastic.",
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"plaintext": "Other types of collectible patches include police or service patches, space mission patches, Scout patches, fashion patches, political and sports stickers, walking stick labels, car window pennants, and pin badges. Collecting metal badges or pins, either military or civil is known as faleristics.",
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"plaintext": "Badges have been collected since ancient times. Greek and Roman pilgrims to pagan shrines made collections of miniature images of gods and goddesses or their emblems, and Christian pilgrims later did the same. Usually medieval Christian pilgrim badges were metal pin badges - most famously the shell symbol showing the wearer had been to the shrine of St. James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain. These were stuck in hats or into clothing and hardworking pilgrims could assemble quite a collection, as mentioned by Chaucer in his 'Canterbury Tales'.",
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"plaintext": "The growth in the 19th century of travel for ordinary people saw a huge increase in the souvenir industry, as these new secular pilgrims - like their medieval counterparts - wanted to bring back reminders of their holidays/vacations and sightseeing, ranging from china plates to postcards.",
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"plaintext": "The production of stick-on souvenir badges seems to have started in mainland Europe during the early 20th-century, probably in Germany shortly after the First World War when hiking became popular, and people began sewing badges of resort towns onto their backpacks and jackets. In the U.S., the development of the National parks system and the growing popularity of vacationing saw a similar development of patch collecting.",
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"plaintext": "After the Second World War, American GIs occupying Germany sent badges back to their loved ones, showing where they were stationed. These badges became known as sweetheart patches. They were also imported to Britain by Sampson Souvenirs Ltd., which also began producing badges of British tourist spots, and went on to become (and still is) the largest British manufacturer of souvenir badges. The biggest American manufacturer is Voyager Emblems of Sanborn, New York.",
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"plaintext": "See Police patch collecting",
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"plaintext": "Another patch collecting specialty is police agencies such as sheriff, police, highway patrol, marshal, constable, park rangers, law enforcement explorer scouts, or other law enforcement related personnel. Emblems worn on uniforms have been exchanged between officials as a sign of cooperation for decades, and displays of patches are found in police stations. The publishing of reference books on law enforcement insignia over the past decade has made law enforcement patch collecting a popular way to preserve law enforcement history.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to police patches, fire department patches are also traded amongst fire agencies and some are sold to the general public. Station patches are available amongst large fire departments in North America. Some station patches are worn by firefighters, but mostly not on official uniforms. The patch design is sometimes found on fire vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Flag patch",
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"plaintext": " PatchGallery.com",
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| 7,144,329 | 457 | 10 | 31 | 0 | 0 | Patch collecting | Hobby | []
|
37,770 | 1,105,261,509 | Seville | [
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"plaintext": "The mythological founder of the city is Hercules (Heracles), commonly identified with the Phoenician god Melqart, who the myth says sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar to the Atlantic, and founded trading posts at the current sites of Cádiz and of Seville. The original core of the city, in the neighbourhood of the present-day street, Cuesta del Rosario, dates to the 8th century BC, when Seville was on an island in the Guadalquivir. Archaeological excavations in 1999 found anthropic remains under the north wall of the Real Alcázar dating to the 8th–7th century BC. The town was called Hisbaal by the Phoenicians and by the Tartessians, the indigenous pre-Roman Iberian people of Tartessos, who controlled the Guadalquivir Valley at the time.",
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"plaintext": "The city was known from Roman times as Hispal and later as Hispalis. Hispalis developed into one of the great market and industrial centres of Hispania, while the nearby Roman city of Italica (present-day Santiponce, birthplace of the Roman emperors Trajan and Hadrian) remained a typically Roman residential city. Large-scale Roman archaeological remains can be seen there and at the nearby town of Carmona as well.",
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"plaintext": "Existing Roman features in Seville itself include the remains exposed in situ in the underground Antiquarium of the Metropol Parasol building, the remnants of an aqueduct, three pillars of a temple in Mármoles Street, the columns of La Alameda de Hércules and the remains in the Patio de Banderas square near the Seville Cathedral. The walls surrounding the city were originally built during the rule of Julius Caesar, but their current course and design were the result of Moorish reconstructions.",
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"plaintext": "Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Germanic Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths during the 5th and 6th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "In the wake of the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Seville (Spalis) was seemingly taken by Musa ibn Nusayr in the late summer of 712, while he was on his way to Mérida. Yet it had to be retaken in July 713 by troops led by his son Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, as the Visigothic population who had fled to Beja had returned to Seville once Musa left for Mérida. The seat of the Wali of Al-Andalus (administrative division of the Umayyad Caliphate) was thus established in the city until 716, when the capital of Al-Andalus was relocated to Córdoba.",
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"plaintext": "Seville (Ishbīliya) was sacked by Vikings in the mid-9th century. After Vikings arrived by 25 September 844, Seville fell to invaders on 1 October, and they stood for 40 days before they fled from the city. During Umayyad rule, under an Andalusi-Arab framework, the bulk of the population were Muladi converts, to which Christian and Jewish minorities added up. Up until the arrival of the Almohads in the 12th century, the city remained as the see of a Metropolitan Archbishop, the leading Christian religious figure in al-Andalus. However, the transfer of the relics of Saint Isidore to León circa 1063, in the taifa period, already hinted at a possible worsening of the situation of the local Christian minority.",
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"plaintext": "A powerful taifa kingdom with capital in Seville emerged after 1023, in the wake of the fitna of al-Andalus. Ruled by the Abbadid dynasty, the taifa grew by aggregation of smaller neighbouring taifas. During the taifa period, Seville became an important scholarly and literary centre. After several months of siege, Seville was conquered by the Almoravids in 1091.",
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"plaintext": "The city fell to the Almohads on 17 January 1147 (12 Shaʽban 541). After an informal Almohad settlement in Seville during the early stages of the Almohad presence in the Iberian Peninsula and then a brief relocation of the capital of al-Andalus to Córdoba in 1162 (which had dire consequences for Seville, reportedly depopulated and under starvation), Seville became the definitive seat of the Andalusi part of the Almohad Empire in 1163, a twin capital alongside Marrakech. Almohads carried out a large urban renewal. By the end of the 12th century, the walled enclosure perhaps contained 80,000 inhabitants.",
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"plaintext": "In the wider context of the Castilian–Leonese conquest of the Guadalquivir Valley that ensued in the 13th century, Ferdinand III laid siege on Seville in 1247. A naval blockade came to prevent relief of the city. The city surrendered on 23 November 1248, after fifteen months of siege. The conditions of capitulation contemplated the eviction of the population, with contemporary sources seemingly confirming that a mass movement of people out of Seville indeed took place.",
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"plaintext": "The city's development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248. Public buildings were constructed including churches—many of which were built in the Mudéjar and Gothic styles—such as the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture. Other Moorish buildings were converted into Catholic edifices, as was customary of the Catholic Church during the Reconquista. The Moors' Palace became the Castilian royal residence, and during Pedro I's rule it was replaced by the Alcázar (the upper levels are still used by the Spanish royal family as the official Seville residence).",
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"plaintext": "After the 1391 pogrom, believed to having been instigated by the Archdeacon Ferrant Martínez, all the synagogues in Seville were converted to churches (renamed Santa María la Blanca, San Bartolomé, Santa Cruz, and Convento Madre de Dios). The Jewish quarter's land and shops (which were located in modern-day Barrio Santa Cruz) were appropriated by the church. Many were killed during the pogrom, although most were forced to convert.",
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"plaintext": "The first tribunal of the Spanish Inquisition was instituted in Seville in 1478. Its primary charge was to ensure that all nominal Christians were really behaving like Christians, and not practicing what Judaism they could in secret. At first, the activity of the Inquisition was limited to the dioceses of Seville and Córdoba, where the Dominican friar, Alonso de Ojeda, had detected converso activity. The first Auto de Fé took place in Seville on 6 February 1481, when six people were burned alive. Alonso de Ojeda himself gave the sermon. The Inquisition then grew rapidly. The Plaza de San Francisco was the site of the 'autos de fé'. By 1492, tribunals existed in eight Castilian cities: Ávila, Córdoba, Jaén, Medina del Campo, Segovia, Sigüenza, Toledo, and Valladolid; and by the Alhambra Decree all Jews were forced to convert to Catholicism or be exiled (expelled) from Spain.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Columbian exploration of the New World, Seville was chosen as headquarters of the Casa de Contratación in 1503, which was the decisive development for Seville becoming the port and gateway to the Indies. Unlike other harbours, reaching the port of Seville required sailing about up the River Guadalquivir. The choice of Seville was made in spite of the difficulties for navigation in the Guadalquivir stemming from the increasing tonnage of ships as a result of the relentless drive to make maritime transport cheaper during the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, technical suitability issues notwithstanding, the choice was still reasonable in the sense that Seville had become the largest demographic, economic and financial centre of Christian Andalusia in the late Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "A 'golden age of development' commenced in Seville, due to its being the only port awarded the royal monopoly for trade with the growing Spanish colonies in the Americas and the influx of riches from them.",
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"plaintext": "Since only sailing ships leaving from and returning to the inland port of Seville could engage in trade with the Spanish Americas, merchants from Europe and other trade centres needed to go to Seville to acquire New World trade goods. The city's population grew to more than a hundred thousand people.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 16th century the monopoly was broken, with the port of Cádiz also authorised as a port of trade. Throughout the 17th century, colonial trade declined. Spain's American Colonies improved their production of basic goods, reducing their need to import. Compounded with these tribulations was the silting of the Guadalquivir river in the 1620s, which made Seville's harbors harder to use, and ceased upriver shipping. The Great Plague of Seville in 1649, exacerbated by excessive flooding of the Guadalquivir, reduced the population by almost half, and it would not recover until the early 19th century. By the 18th century, Seville's international importance was in decline. After the silting up of the harbour by the River Guadalquivir, upriver shipping ceased and the city went into relative economic decline.",
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"plaintext": "The writer Miguel de Cervantes lived primarily in Seville between 1596 and 1600. Because of financial problems, Cervantes worked as a purveyor for the Spanish Armada, and later as a tax collector. In 1597, discrepancies in his accounts of the three years previous landed him in the Royal Prison of Seville for a short time. His short story Rinconete y Cortadillo, since the 19th century one of his most-read pieces, includes much description of Sevillian society; it features two young vagabonds who come to Seville, attracted by the riches and disorder that the 16th-century commerce with the Americas had brought to the city.",
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"plaintext": "During the 18th century Charles III of Spain promoted Seville's industries. Construction of the Real Fábrica de Tabacos (Royal Tobacco Factory) began in 1728. It was the second-largest building in Spain, after the royal residence El Escorial. Since the 1950s it has been the seat of the rectorate (administration) of the University of Seville, as well as its Schools of Law, Philology (language/letters), Geography, and History.",
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"plaintext": "More operas have been set in Seville than in any other city of Europe. In 2012, a study of experts concluded the total number of operas set in Seville is 153. Among the composers who fell in love with the city are Beethoven (Fidelio), Mozart (The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni), Rossini (The Barber of Seville), Donizetti (La favorite), and Bizet (Carmen).",
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"plaintext": "The first newspaper in Spain outside of Madrid was Seville's Hebdomario útil de Seville, which began publication in 1758.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1825 and 1833, Melchor Cano acted as chief architect in Seville; most of the urban planning policy and architectural modifications of the city were made by him and his collaborator Jose Manuel Arjona y Cuba.",
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"plaintext": "Industrial architecture surviving today from the first half of the 19th century includes the ceramics factory installed in the Carthusian monastery at La Cartuja in 1841 by the Pickman family, and now home to the El Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo (CAAC), which manages the collections of the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Sevilla. It also houses the rectory of the UNIA.",
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"plaintext": "In the years that Queen Isabel II ruled directly, about 1843–1868, the Sevillian bourgeoisie invested in a construction boom unmatched in the city's history. The Isabel II bridge, better known as the Triana bridge, dates from this period; street lighting was expanded in the municipality and most of the streets were paved during this time as well.",
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"plaintext": "By the second half of the 19th century, Seville had begun an expansion supported by railway construction and the demolition of part of its ancient walls, allowing the urban space of the city to grow eastward and southward. The Sevillana de Electricidad Company was created in 1894 to provide electric power throughout the municipality, and in 1901 the Plaza de Armas railway station was inaugurated.",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of Fine Arts (Museo de Bellas Artes de Sevilla) opened in 1904.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929 the city hosted the Ibero-American Exposition, which accelerated the southern expansion of the city and created new public spaces such as the Plaza de España and the Maria Luisa Park. Not long before the opening, the Spanish government began a modernisation of the city in order to prepare for the expected crowds by erecting new hotels and widening the mediaeval streets to allow for the movement of automobiles.",
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"plaintext": "Seville fell very quickly at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. General Queipo de Llano carried out a coup within the city, quickly capturing the city centre. Radio Seville opposed the uprising and called for the peasants to come to the city for arms, while workers' groups established barricades. Queipo then moved to capture Radio Seville, which he used to broadcast propaganda on behalf of the Francoist forces. After the initial takeover of the city, resistance continued among residents of the working-class neighbourhoods for some time, until a series of fierce reprisals took place.",
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"plaintext": "Under Francisco Franco's rule Spain was officially neutral in World War II (although it did collaborate with the Axis powers), and like the rest of the country, Seville remained largely economically and culturally isolated from the outside world. In 1953 the shipyard of Seville was opened, eventually employing more than 2,000 workers in the 1970s. Before the existence of wetlands regulation in the Guadalquivir basin, Seville suffered regular heavy flooding; perhaps worst of all were the floods that occurred in November 1961 when the River Tamarguillo, a tributary of the Guadalquivir, overflowed as a result of a prodigious downpour of rain, and Seville was consequently declared a disaster zone.",
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"plaintext": "Trade unionism in Seville began during the 1960s with the underground organisational activities of the Workers' Commissions or Comisiones Obreras (CCOO), in factories such as Hytasa, the Astilleros shipyards, Hispano Aviación, etc. Several of the movement's leaders were imprisoned in November 1973. ",
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"plaintext": "On 3 April 1979 Spain held its first democratic municipal elections after the end of Franco's dictatorship; councillors representing four different political parties were elected in Seville. On 5 November 1982, Pope John Paul II arrived in Seville to officiate at a Mass before more than half a million people at the fairgrounds. He visited the city again on 13 June 1993, for the International Eucharistic Congress.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, coinciding with the fifth centenary of the Discovery of the Americas, the Universal Exposition was held for six months in Seville, on the occasion of which the local communications network and urban infrastructure was greatly improved under a 1987 PGOU plan launched by Mayor Manuel del Valle: the SE-30 ring road around the city was completed and new highways were constructed; the new Seville-Santa Justa railway station had opened in 1991, while the Spanish High-Speed Rail system, the Alta Velocidad Española (AVE), began to operate between Madrid-Seville. The Seville Airport was expanded with a new terminal building designed by the architect Rafael Moneo, and various other improvements were made. The Alamillo Bridge and the Centenario Bridge, both crossing over the Guadalquivir, also were built for the occasion. Some of the installations remaining at the site after the exposition were converted into the Scientific and Technological Park Cartuja 93.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004 the Metropol Parasol project, commonly known as Las Setas (The Mushrooms), due to the appearance of the structure, was launched to revitalise the Plaza de la Encarnación, for years used as a car park and seen as a dead spot between more popular tourist destinations in the city. The Metropol Parasol was completed in March 2011, costing just over €102million in total, more than twice as much as originally planned. Constructed from crossed wooden beams, Las Setas is said to be the largest timber-framed structure in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has an area of , according to the National Topographic Map (Mapa Topográfico Nacional) series from the Instituto Geográfico Nacional– Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica, the country's civilian survey organisation (pages 984, 985 and 1002). The city is situated in the fertile valley of the River Guadalquivir. The average height above sea level is . Most of the city is on the east side of the river, while Triana, La Cartuja and Los Remedios are on the west side. The Aljarafe region lies further west, and is considered part of the metropolitan area. The city has boundaries on the north with La Rinconada, La Algaba and Santiponce; on the east with Alcalá de Guadaira; on the south with Dos Hermanas and Gelves and on the west with San Juan de Aznalfarache, Tomares and Camas.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is on the same parallel as United States west coast city San Jose in central California. São Miguel, the main island of the Azores archipelago, lies on the same latitude. Further east from Seville in the Mediterranean Basin, it is on the same latitude as Catania in Sicily, Italy and just south of Athens, the capital of Greece. Beyond that, it is located on the same parallel as South Korean capital, Seoul. Seville is located inland, not very far from the Andalusian coast, but still sees a much more continental climate than the nearest port cities, Cádiz and Huelva. Its distance from the sea makes summers in Sevilla much hotter than along the coastline.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), featuring very hot, dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall. Seville has an annual average of . The annual average temperature is during the day and at night. Seville is located in the lower part of the Guadalquivir Valley, which is often referred to as \"the frying pan of Spain\", as it features the hottest cities in the country.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is the warmest city in Continental Europe. It is also the hottest major metropolitan area in Europe, with summer average high temperatures of above and also the hottest in Spain. After the city of Córdoba (also in Andalusia), Seville has the hottest summer in continental Europe among all cities with a population over 100,000 people, with average daily highs of in July.",
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"plaintext": "Temperatures above are not uncommon in summer. The hottest temperature extreme of was registered by the weather station at Seville Airport on 23 July 1995 while the coldest temperature extreme of was also registered by the airport weather station on 12 February 1956. A historical record high (disputed) of was recorded on 4 August 1881, according to the NOAA Satellite and Information Service. There is an unaccredited record by the National Institute of Meteorology of on 1 August during the 2003 heat wave, according to a weather station (83910 LEZL) located in the southern part of Seville Airport, near the former US San Pablo Air Force Base. This temperature would be one of the highest ever recorded in Spain, yet it hasn't been officially confirmed.",
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"plaintext": "The average sunshine hours in Seville are approximately 3000 per year. Snowfall is virtually unknown, and the last important snowfall occurred in 1954. Since the year 1500, only 10 snowfalls have been recorded/reported in Seville. During the 20th century, Seville registered just 2 snowfalls, the last one on 2 February 1954.",
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"plaintext": " Winters are mild: December and January are the coolest months, with average maximum temperatures around and minimums of .",
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"plaintext": " Summers are very hot: July and August are the hottest months, with average maximum temperatures around and minimums of .",
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"plaintext": " Precipitation varies from and there are around 50 rainy days per year, with frequent torrential rain. December is the wettest month, with an average rainfall of .",
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"plaintext": "Seville is a municipality, the basic level of local government in Spain. The Ayuntamiento is the body charged with the municipal government and administration. The Plenary of the ayuntamiento is formed by 31 elected municipal councillors, who in turn invest the mayor. The last municipal election took place on 26 May 2019. The current mayor is Antonio Muñoz (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), who has held the post since the reign of the previous mayor, Juan Espadas in early 2022.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia, according to Article 4 of the Statute of Autonomy of Andalusia of 2007, and is the capital of the Province of Seville as well. The historical building of the Palace of San Telmo is now the seat of the presidency of the Andalusian Autonomous Government. The administrative headquarters are in Torre Triana, in La Cartuja. The Hospital de las Cinco Llagas (literally, \"Hospital of the Five Holy Wounds\") is the current seat of the Parliament of Andalusia.",
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"plaintext": "The municipal administration is decentralized into 11 districts, further divided into 108 neighbourhoods.",
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"plaintext": " Casco Antiguo",
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"plaintext": " Distrito Sur",
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"plaintext": " Triana",
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"plaintext": " Macarena",
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"plaintext": " Nervión",
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"plaintext": " Los Remedios",
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"plaintext": " Este-Alcosa-Torreblanca",
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"plaintext": " Cerro-Amate",
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"plaintext": " Bellavista-La Palmera",
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"plaintext": " San Pablo-Santa Justa",
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"plaintext": "Seville is a big tourist centre in Spain. In 2018, there were over 2.5million travellers and tourists who stayed at a tourist accommodation, placing it third in Spain after Madrid and Barcelona. The city has an overall low level of seasonality, so there are tourists year-round. There are many landmarks, museums, parks, gardens and other kinds of tourist spots around the city so there is something for everyone.",
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"plaintext": "The Alcázar, the Cathedral, and the Archivo General de Indias (General Archive of the Indies) are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.",
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"plaintext": "The St. Mary of the See Cathedral was built from 1401 to 1519 after the Reconquista on the former site of the city's mosque. It is among the largest of all medieval and Gothic cathedrals, in terms of both area and volume. The interior is the longest nave in Spain and is lavishly decorated, with a large quantity of gold evident. La Giralda is a tower attached to the Cathedral that dates back to the twelfth century. It was originally built as part of a mosque when the Moors ruled in Spain and was later added onto by the Christians. Tourists today can climb the tower by walking up a series of ramps that were previously used by officials who rode their horses to the top of the tower. The overall tower construction is consistent with Roman lighthouse construction methods such as with the",
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"plaintext": "Tower of Hercules (circa 2nd century CE) built on the northwest coast of Spain. La Giralda gets its name from the weathervane attached to the very top of it, as \"gira\" means \"turning one\" in the Spanish language.",
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"plaintext": "The Alcázar facing the cathedral was developed from a previous Moorish Palace which was developed from a Visigoth establishment which was itself developed from an existing Roman construction. The redevelopment was started in 1181 and continued for over 500 years, mainly in the Mudéjar style, but also in the Renaissance style. The TV show Game of Thrones has shot many scenes at this location.",
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"plaintext": "The Church of Saint Louis of France, located in the historic district of Seville represents an example of Baroque architecture in the 18th century.",
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"plaintext": "The Torre del Oro was built as a watchtower and defensive barrier on the river. The river was used as a mode of defense. A chain was strung through the water from the base of the tower to prevent boats from traveling into the river port.",
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"plaintext": "The City Hall was built in the 16th century in high Plateresque style by master architect Diego de Riaño. The façade to Plaza Nueva was built in the 19th century in Neoclassical style.",
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"plaintext": "The Palacio de San Telmo, formerly the University of Sailors, and later the Seminary, is now the seat for the Andalusian Autonomous Government. It is one of the most emblematic buildings of baroque architecture, mainly to its world-renowned churrigueresque principal façade and the impressive chapel.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Tobacco Factory is housed on the original site of the first tobacco factory in Europe, a vast 18th-century building in Baroque style and the purported inspiration for the opera Carmen.",
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"plaintext": "The Metropol Parasol, in La Encarnación square, is the world's largest wooden structure. A monumental umbrella-like building designed by the German architect Jürgen Mayer, finished in 2011. This modern architecture structure houses the central market and an underground archaeological complex. The terrace roof is a city viewpoint.",
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"plaintext": "The General Archive of the Indies, is the repository of extremely valuable archival documents illustrating the history of the Spanish Empire in the Americas and the Philippines. The building itself, an unusually serene and Italianate example of Spanish Renaissance architecture, was designed by Juan de Herrera.",
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"plaintext": "The Plaza de España in the Parque de María Luisa (María Luisa Park) was built by the architect Aníbal González for the 1929 Exposición Ibero-Americana. It is an outstanding example of Regionalist Revival Architecture, a bizarre and loftily conceived mixture of diverse historic styles, such as Art Deco and lavishly ornamented with typical glazed tiles.",
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"plaintext": "The Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with plants and small fountains in the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, and the main section of the Giralda, the bell tower of the Seville Cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "The neighbourhood of Triana, situated on the west bank of the River Guadalquivir, had an important role in the history of the city and constitutes by itself a folk, monumental and cultural centre.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, La Macarena neighbourhood is located on the northern side of the city centre. It contains some important monuments and religious buildings, such as the Museum and Catholic Church of La Macarena or the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas.",
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"plaintext": "The most important art collection of Seville is the Museum of Fine Arts of Seville. It was established in 1835 in the former Convent of La Merced. It holds many masterworks by Murillo, Pacheco, Zurbarán, Valdés Leal, and others masters of the Baroque Sevillian School, containing also Flemish paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Other museums in Seville are:",
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"plaintext": " The Archaeological Museum, which contains collections from the Tartessian, Roman and some of Almohad and Christian periods, located in América square at the Parque de María Luisa (María Luisa Park).",
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"plaintext": " The Museum of Arts and Traditions, also in América Square, in front of the Archaeological Museum.",
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"plaintext": " The Andalusian Contemporary Art Centre, situated in the neighbourhood of La Cartuja.",
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"plaintext": " The Naval Museum, housed in the golden Torre del Oro, next to the River Guadalquivir.",
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"plaintext": " The Carriages Museum, in the Los Remedios neighbourhood.",
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"plaintext": " The Flamenco Art Museum",
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"plaintext": " The Bullfighting Museum, in the La Maestranza bullring",
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"plaintext": " The Palace of the Countess of Lebrija, a private collection that contains many of the mosaic floors discovered in the nearby Roman town of Italica.",
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"plaintext": " The Centro Velázquez (Velázquez Centre) located at the Old Priests Hospital in the touristic Santa Cruz neighbourhood.",
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"plaintext": " The Antiquarium in Metropol Parasol, an underground museum which is composed of the most important archaeological site of the ancient Roman stage of Seville and remains preserved.",
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"plaintext": " The Castillo de San Jorge (Castle of St. George) is situated near the Triana market, next to the Isabel II bridge. It was the last seat for the Spanish Inquisition.",
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"plaintext": " The Museum and Treasure of La Macarena, where the collection of the Macarena brotherhood is exhibited. This exhibition gives visitors an accurate impression of Seville's Holy Week.",
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"plaintext": " La Casa de la Ciencia (The House of Science), a science centre and museum opposite the María Luisa Park.",
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"plaintext": " Museum of Pottery in Triana.",
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"plaintext": " Pabellon de la Navegación (Pavilion of Navigation).",
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"plaintext": " The Parque de María Luisa (María Luisa Park), is a monumental park built for the 1929 World's Fair held in Seville, the Exposición Ibero-Americana. The so-called Jardines de las Delicias (literally, Delighting Gardens), closer to the river, are part of the Parque de María Luisa.",
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"plaintext": " The Alcázar Gardens, within the grounds of the Alcázar palace, consist of several sectors developed in different historical styles.",
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"plaintext": " The Gardens of Murillo and the Gardens of Catalina de Ribera, both along and outside the South wall of the Alcázar, lie next to the Santa Cruz quarter.",
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"plaintext": " The Parque del Alamillo y San Jerónimo, the largest park in Andalusia, was originally built for Seville Expo '92 to reproduce the Andalusian native flora. It lines both Guadalquivir shores around the San Jerónimo meander. The 32-metres-high bronze sculpture, The Birth of a New Man (popularly known as Columbus's Egg, el Huevo de Colón), by the Georgian sculptor Zurab Tsereteli, is located in its northwestern sector.",
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"plaintext": " The American Garden, also completed for Expo '92, is in La Cartuja. It is a public botanical garden, with a representative collection of American plants donated by different countries on the occasion of the world exposition. Despite its extraordinary botanical value, it remains a mostly abandoned place.",
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"plaintext": " The Buhaira Gardens, also historically known as the Huerta del Rey, are a public park and historic site, originally created as a garden estate during the Almohad period (12th century).",
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"plaintext": "The Teatro Lope de Vega is located on Avenida de María Luisa avenue (next to Parque de María Luisa). It was built in 1929, being its architect Vicente Traver y Tomás. It was the auditorium of the pavilion of the city in the Ibero-American Exhibition. This pavilion had a large room that became the Casino of the Exhibition. The theater occupied an area of 4600 m2 and could accommodate 1100 viewers. Its architecture is Spanish Baroque Revival, being the building faithful to this style both in the set and in its ornamentation.",
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"plaintext": "It has hosted varied performances, including theater, dance, opera, jazz, and flamenco and nowadays the most outstanding of the panorama is its programming national and international, becoming one of the most important theaters in Spain.",
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"plaintext": "Others important theatres are Teatro de la Maestranza, Auditorio Rocío Jurado and Teatro Central.",
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"plaintext": "Seville also has a corral de comedias theatre, which is the Corral del Coliseo, now used as a residential building.",
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"plaintext": "There are many entertainment options around the city of Seville and one of its biggest attractions is the numerous festivals that happen around the year. Some of the festivals concentrate on religion and culture, others focus on the folklore of the area, traditions, and entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "Semana Santa is celebrated all over Spain and Latin America, but the celebration in Seville is large and well known as a Fiesta of International Tourist Interest. 54 local brotherhoods, or \"cofradías\", organize floats and processions throughout the week, reenacting the story of the Passion of Christ. There is traditional music and art incorporated into the processions, making Semana Santa an important source of both material and immaterial Sevillian cultural identity.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is home to the bi-annual flamenco festival La Bienal, which claims to be \"the biggest flamenco event worldwide\" and lasts for nearly a month.",
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"plaintext": "In the district of Triana, the Velá de Santiago y Santa Ana is held every July and includes sporting events, performances, and cultural activities as the city honors St. James and St. Ana.",
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"plaintext": "The April Fair (Feria de Abril) is a huge celebration that takes place in Seville about two weeks after the Holy Week. It was previously associated with celebrating livestock; however, nowadays its purpose is to create a fun cheerful environment tied to the appreciation of the Spanish folklore.",
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"plaintext": "During the Feria, families, businesses, and organisations set up casetas (marquees) in which they spend the week dancing, drinking, and socialising. Traditionally, women wear elaborate flamenco dresses and men dress in their best suits. The marquees are set up on a permanent fairground in the district of Los Remedios, in which each street is named after a famous bullfighter.",
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"plaintext": "The International Boat Show of Seville is an annual event that takes place in the only indoor maritime port of the country, which is one of the most important in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Seville had a vibrant rock music scene in the 1970s and 1980s with bands like Triana, Alameda and Smash, who fused Andalusia's traditional flamenco music with British-style progressive rock. The punk rock group Reincidentes and indie band Sr Chinarro, as well as singer Kiko Veneno, rose to prominence in the early 1990s. The city's music scene now features rap acts such as SFDK, Mala Rodríguez, Dareysteel, Tote King, Dogma Crew, Bisley DeMarra, Haze and Jesuly. Seville's diverse music scene is reflected in the variety of its club-centred nightlife.",
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"plaintext": "The city is also home to many theatres and performance spaces where classical music is performed, including Teatro Lope de Vega, Teatro La Maestranza, Teatro Central, the Real Alcazar Gardens and the Sala Joaquín Turina.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its name, the sevillana dance, commonly presented as flamenco, is not thought to be of Sevillan origin. However, the folksongs called sevillanas are authentically Sevillan, as is the four-part dance performed with them.",
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"plaintext": "The Triana district in Seville is considered a birthplace of flamenco, where it found its beginning as an expression of the poor and marginalized. Seville's Gypsy population, known as Flamencos, were instrumental in the development of the art form. While it began as and remains a representation of Andalusian culture, it has also become a national heritage symbol of Spain.",
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"plaintext": "There are more flamenco artists in Seville than anywhere else in the country, supporting an entire industry surrounding it and drawing in a significant amount of tourism for the city.",
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"plaintext": "The tapas scene is one of the main cultural attractions of the city: people go from one bar to another, enjoying small dishes called tapas (literally \"lids\" or \"covers\" in Spanish, referring to their probable origin as snacks served on small plates used to cover drinks).",
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"plaintext": "Local specialities include fried and grilled seafood (including squid, choco (cuttlefish), swordfish, marinated dogfish, and ortiguillas), grilled and stewed meat, spinach with chickpeas, Jamón ibérico, lamb kidneys in sherry sauce, snails, caldo de puchero, and gazpacho. A sandwich known as a serranito is the typical and popular version of fast food.",
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"plaintext": "Typical desserts from Seville include pestiños, a honey-coated sweet fritter; torrijas, fried slices of bread with honey; roscos fritos, deep-fried sugar-coated ring doughnuts; magdalenas or fairy cakes; yemas de San Leandro, which provide the city's convents with a source of revenue; and tortas de aceite, a thin sugar-coated cake made with olive oil. Polvorones and mantecados are traditional Christmas products, whereas pestiños and torrijas are typically consumed during the Holy Week.",
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"plaintext": "Bitter Seville oranges grow on trees lining the city streets. Large quantities are collected and exported to Britain to be used in marmalade. Locally, the fruit is used predominantly in aromatherapy, herbal medicine, and dietary diet products, rather than as a foodstuff. According to legend, the Arabs brought the bitter orange to Seville from East Asia via Iraq around the 10th century to beautify and perfume their patios and gardens, as well as to provide shade. The flowers of the tree are a source of neroli oil, commonly used in perfumery and in skin lotions for massage.",
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"plaintext": "In 2021, the municipal water company, Emasesa, began a pilot scheme to use the methane produced as the fruit ferments to generate clean electricity. The company plans to use 35 tonnes of fruit to generate clean energy to power one of the city's water purification plants.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is the most populated city in southern Spain, and has the largest GDP (gross domestic product) of any in Andalusia, accounting for one-quarter of its total GDP. All municipalities in the metropolitan area depend directly or indirectly on Seville's economy, while agriculture dominates the economy of the smaller villages, with some industrial activity localised in industrial parks. The Diputacion de Sevilla (Deputation of Seville), with provincial headquarters in the Antiguo Cuartel de Caballería (Old Cavalry Barracks) on Avenida Menendez Pelayo, provides public services to distant villages that they can not provide themselves.",
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"plaintext": "The economic activity of Seville cannot be detached from the geographical and urban context of the city; the capital of Andalusia is the centre of a growing metropolitan area. Aside from traditional neighbourhoods such as Santa Cruz, Triana and others, those further away from the centre, such as Nervión, Sevilla Este, and El Porvenir have seen recent economic growth. Until the economic crisis of 2007, this urban area saw significant population growth and the development of new industrial and commercial parks.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, availability of infrastructure in the city contributed to the growth of an economy dominated by the service sector, but in which industry still holds a considerable place.",
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"plaintext": "The 1990s saw massive growth in investment in infrastructure in Seville, largely due to its hosting of the Universal Exposition of Seville in 1992. This economic development of the city and its urban area is supported by good transportation links to other Spanish cities, including a high-speed AVE railway connection to Madrid, and a new international airport.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has the only inland port in Spain, located from the mouth of the River Guadalquivir. This harbour complex offers access to the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and allows trade in goods between the south of Spain (Andalusia, Extremadura) and Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The port has undergone reorganisation. Annual tonnage rose to 5.3million tonnes of goods in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Cartuja 93 is a research and development park. employing 15,000 persons. The Parque Tecnológico y Aeronáutico Aerópolis (Technological and Aeronautical Park) is focused on the aircraft industry. Outside of Seville are nine PS20 solar power towers which use the city's sunny weather to provide most of it with clean and renewable energy.",
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"plaintext": "The Sevilla Tower skyscraper was started in March 2008 and was completed in 2015. With a height of and 40 floors, it's the tallest building in Andalusia.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has conference facilities, including the Conference and Convention Centre.",
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"plaintext": "The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas en Sevilla (CSIC) is based in the former Pavilion of Peru in the Maria Luisa Park. In April 2008 the city council of Seville provided a grant to renovate the building to create the Casa de la Ciencia (Science Centre) to encourage popular interest in science.",
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"plaintext": "The internationally recognised company Neocodex has its headquarters in Seville; it maintains the first and largest DNA bank in Spain and has made significant contributions to scientific research in genetics. Seville is also considered an important technological and research centre for renewable energy and the aeronautics industry.",
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"plaintext": "The output of the research centres in Sevillan universities working in tandem with city government, and the numerous local technology companies, have made Seville a leader among Spanish cities in technological research and development. The Parque Científico Tecnológico Cartuja 93 is a nexus of private and public investment in various fields of research.",
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"plaintext": "Principal fields of innovation and research are telecommunications, new technologies, biotechnology (with applications in local agricultural practices), environment and renewable energy.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is served by the TUSSAM (Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla) bus network which runs buses throughout the city. The Consorcio de Transportes de Sevilla communicates by bus with all the satellite towns of Seville.",
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"plaintext": "Two bus stations serve transportation between surrounding areas and other cities: Plaza de Armas Station, with destinations north and west, and Prado de San Sebastián Station, covering routes to the south and east. Plaza de Armas station has direct bus lines to many Spanish cities as well as Lisbon, Portugal.",
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"plaintext": "The Seville metro (\"Metro de Sevilla\" in Spanish) is a light metro network serving the city of Seville and its metropolitan area. The system is totally independent of any other rail or street traffic. All stations were built with platform screen doors.",
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"plaintext": "It was the sixth Metro system to be built in Spain, after those in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao and Palma de Mallorca. Currently, it is the fifth-biggest Metro company in Spain by the number of passengers carried (more than 12,000,000 in 2009).",
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"plaintext": "The metro of Sevilla has 1 line with 22 stations and is currently expanding, with 3 more different lines projected.",
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"plaintext": "MetroCentro is a surface tramway serving the centre of the city. It began operating in October 2007.",
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"plaintext": "The service has just five stops: Plaza Nueva, Archivo de Indias, Puerta de Jerez, Prado de San Sebastián and San Bernardo, all as part of Phase I of the project. It is expected to be extended to Santa Justa AVE station, including four new stops: San Francisco Javier, Eduardo Dato, Luis de Morales, and Santa Justa. This extension was postponed although the City Council had made expanding the metro lines a priority. ",
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"plaintext": "The Seville-Santa Justa railway station is served by the AVE high-speed rail system, operated by the Spanish state-owned rail company Renfe. A five-line commuter rail service (Cercanías) joins the city with the Metropolitan area. Seville is on the Red Ciudades AVE, a net created with Seville connected to 17 major cities of Spain with high-speed rail.",
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"plaintext": "Although Seville is close to the Portuguese city of Faro, it is not possible to cross the border by train.",
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"plaintext": "The Sevici community bicycle program has integrated bicycles into the public transport network. Bicycles are available for hire around the city at low cost, and green curb-raised bicycle lanes can be seen on most major streets. The number of people using bicycles as a means of transport in Seville has increased substantially in recent years, multiplying tenfold from 2006 to 2011. , an estimated 9 percent of all mechanized trips in the city (and 5.6 percent of all trips including those on foot) are made by bicycle.",
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"plaintext": "The city council signed a contract with the multinational corporation JCDecaux, an outdoor advertising company. The public bicycle rental system is financed by a local advertising operator in return for the city signing over a 10-year licence to exploit citywide billboards. The overall scheme is called Cyclocity by JCDecaux, but each city's system is branded under an individual name.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2022, some companies in the e-bike community bicycle program industry such as Lime_(transportation_company) and Ridemovi started working in the city, thanks to the new parking spots made by the City Council of Seville",
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"plaintext": "The San Pablo Airport is the main airport for Seville and is Andalusia's second busiest airport, after Málaga's, and first in cargo. The airport handled 7,544,357 passengers and just under 9,891 tonnes of cargo in 2019. It has one terminal and one runway.",
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"plaintext": "It is one of many bases for the Spanish low-cost carrier Vueling, and from November 2010 Ryanair based aircraft at the airport. In addition, Ryanair opened its first aircraft maintenance facility in Spain at Seville Airport in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "This enabled low-cost direct flights to several Spanish cities, as well as to the neighbor country of Portugal with weekly flights to Porto and to other European cities.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is the only commercial river port in Spain and the only inland city in the country where cruise ships can arrive in the historical centre. On 21 August 2012, the Muelle de las Delicias, controlled by the Port Authority of Seville, hosted the cruise ship Azamara Journey for two days, the largest ship ever to visit the town. This vessel belongs to the shipping company Royal Caribbean and can accommodate up to 700 passengers.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has one ring road, the SE-30, which connects with the dual carriageway of the south, the A-4, that directly communicates the city with Cádiz, Cordoba and Madrid. Also there is another dual carriageway, the A-92, linking the city with Osuna, Antequera, Granada, Guadix and Almeria. The A-49 links Seville with Huelva and the Algarve in the south of Portugal.",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Sevilla, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 34 min. 7% of public transit riders, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is eight minutes, while 15% of riders wait for over 20minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 7% travel for over in a single direction.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is home to three public universities. The University of Seville (US), founded in 1505; as of 2019, it had 72,000 students. The Pablo de Olavide University (UPO), founded in 1997, with 9,152 students in 2019; and the International University of Andalusia (UNIA), founded in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "The US and the UPO are important centres of learning in Western Andalusia as they offer a wide range of academic courses; consequently, the city has a large number of students from Huelva and Cádiz.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, there is the School of Hispanic American Studies, founded in 1942, the Menéndez Pelayo International University, based in Santander, which operates branch campuses in Seville, and Loyola University Andalusia.",
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"plaintext": " Lycée Français de Séville (French school)",
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"plaintext": " Deutsche Schule Sevilla (German school)",
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"plaintext": " St. George's British School of Seville",
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"plaintext": "Seville is also home to many international schools and colleges that cater to American students who come to study abroad.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is the hometown of two rival association football teams: Real Betis Balompié and Sevilla Fútbol Club; both teams play in La Liga. Both teams have only won the league once each: Betis in 1935 and Sevilla in 1946. Only Sevilla has won European competitions, winning consecutive UEFA Cup finals in 2006 and 2007 and the UEFA Europa League in 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2020. The Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán and Benito Villamarín, stadiums of Sevilla and Betis respectively, were a venue during the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Also Sevilla's stadium hosted the 1986 European Cup Final and the multi-purpose stadium built in 1999 La Cartuja, was the venue for the 2003 UEFA Cup Final. Seville has an ACB League basketball club, the Real Betis Baloncesto.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has hosted both indoor (1991) and outdoor (1999) World Championships in athletics, while housed the tennis Davis Cup final in 2004 and 2011. The city unsuccessfully bid for the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics, for which the 60,000-seat Estadio de La Cartuja was designed to stage. Seville's River Guadalquivir is one of only three FISA approved international training centres for rowing and the only one in Spain; the 2002 World Rowing Championships and the 2013 European Rowing Championships were held there.",
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"plaintext": " The picaresque novel Rinconete y Cortadillo by Miguel de Cervantes takes place in the city of Seville.",
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"plaintext": " The novel La Femme et le pantin (The Woman and the Puppet) (1898) by Pierre Louÿs, adapted for film several times, is set mainly in Seville.",
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"plaintext": " Seville is the setting for the legend of Don Juan (inspired by the real aristocrat Don Miguel de Mañara) on the Paseo Alcalde Marqués de Contadero.",
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"plaintext": " Seville is the primary setting of many operas, the best known of which are Bizet's Carmen (based on Mérimée's novella), Rossini's The Barber of Seville, Verdi's La forza del destino, Beethoven's Fidelio, Mozart's Don Giovanni and The Marriage of Figaro, and Prokofiev's Betrothal in a Monastery.",
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"plaintext": " Seville is the setting of the novel The Seville Communion by Arturo Pérez-Reverte.",
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"plaintext": " Seville is both the location and setting for much of the 1985 Doctor Who television serial \"The Two Doctors\".",
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"plaintext": " Seville is also used as one of the locations in Dan Brown's Digital Fortress.",
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"plaintext": " Seville is one of the settings in Jostein Gaarder's book The Orange Girl (Appelsinpiken).",
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"plaintext": " Seville is the hometown of the two main characters in the 2000 film The Road to El Dorado by DreamWorks. Miguel and Tulio are con artists that stow away on a ship bound for the New World and win a map for the fabled lost city of gold, El Dorado, and are invariably seen as gods by the locals.",
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"plaintext": " Arthur Koestler's book Spanish Testament is based on the writer's experiences while held in the Seville prison, under a sentence of death, during the Spanish Civil War.",
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"plaintext": " Robert Wilson's police novel The Hidden Assassins (2006) concerns a terrorist incident in Seville and the political context thereof, with much local colour.",
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"plaintext": " The Plaza de España in the Parque de María Luisa appears in George Lucas' Episode II – Attack of the Clones, in The Dictator, starring Sacha Baron Cohen, as the palace of the dictator Aladeen, and in Lawrence of Arabia as the British Army headquarters in Cairo, while the courtyard was the King Alfonso XIII Hotel.",
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"plaintext": " The Plaza of the Americas also appeared in Lawrence, substituting for Jerusalem, and in Anthony Mann's El Cid. It also appears as the Palace of Vladek Sheybal's Bashaw in The Wind and the Lion (1975).",
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"plaintext": " The Alcázar and other sites appear in the television series Game of Thrones, in the cities of Dorne.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2016 film Assassin's Creed, Master Assassins Aguilar de Nerha and Maria escape execution and are pursued by Templars through the city, eventually performing Leaps of Faith off of an unfinished Seville Cathedral to escape.",
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{
"plaintext": "In Impossible 2, Ethan Hunt is sent to Seville to recruit Nyah Nordoff-Hall.",
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{
"plaintext": " The Tomb in Seville by Norman Lewis.",
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"plaintext": "Seville is twinned with the following cities:",
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{
"plaintext": " Angers (France), 1989.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Barcelona (Spain), 1987.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Buenos Aires (Argentina), 1976.",
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"section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Columbus, Ohio (United States), 1988.",
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"section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Córdoba (Spain), 1908.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guadalajara (Mexico), 1984.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Havana (Cuba), 2007.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kansas City, Missouri (United States), 1969. The relationship between Seville and Kansas City is due to a small replica of the Giralda tower, Sevilla's cathedral belltower, that exists in Kansas City.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Laredo (Spain), 2017.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marrakech (Morocco), 2017.",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Medina de Rioseco (Spain), 2016.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " San Salvador (El Salvador), 2018.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sevilla la Nueva (Spain).",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Partnerships",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kraków (Poland), 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Seville has been given titles by Spanish monarchs and heads of state throughout its history.",
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"plaintext": " Very Noble, by King Ferdinand III of Castile after his reconquest of the city.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Very Loyal, by King Alfonso X of Castile for supporting him against a rebellion. See also the Motto \"NO8DO\".",
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},
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"plaintext": " Very Heroic, by King Ferdinand VII of Spain by Royal Document on 13 October 1817 for support against the French invasion.",
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"plaintext": " Invictus (Invincible in Latin), by Queen Isabella II of Spain for the city's resistance against General Van Halen's asedium and bombing in 1843.",
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"plaintext": " Mariana, by General Francisco Franco in 1946 for the city's devotion to the Virgin Mary.",
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"plaintext": " Maria Antonietta of Spain, Queen consort of Sardinia (1729–1785)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad Poet and Arabic king of Sevilla 1040–1095",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Physician Avenzoar",
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},
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"plaintext": " The family of the Arabic historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun",
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"plaintext": " 13th-century poet Ibn Sahl of Seville",
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},
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"plaintext": " Renaissance composers Cristóbal de Morales, Francisco Guerrero",
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"plaintext": " 16th-century novelist Mateo Alemán",
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},
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"plaintext": " Playwrights Lope de Rueda and Hermanos Alvarez Quintero",
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"plaintext": " Historian of New Spain Bartolomé de Las Casas",
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"plaintext": " Colonial governor of La Florida and Cuba: Laureano de Torres y Ayala",
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"plaintext": " Colonial governor of La Florida: Pablo de Hita y Salazar",
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"plaintext": " Baroque painters Diego Velázquez, Valdés Leal and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo",
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"plaintext": " Explorer and astronomer Antonio de Ulloa",
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"plaintext": " Renaissance poets Fernando de Herrera and Gutierre de Cetina",
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"plaintext": " Notable Costumbrista painter who liked to depict the 19th century society of Seville and its buildings José Jiménez Aranda",
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"plaintext": " Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer",
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"plaintext": "Montague Rhodes James (1 August 1862 – 12 June 1936) was an English author, medievalist scholar and provost of King's College, Cambridge (1905–1918), and of Eton College (1918–1936). He was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge (1913–15).",
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"plaintext": "James's work as a medievalist and scholar is still highly regarded, but he is best remembered for his ghost stories, which some consider among the best in the genre. He redefined the ghost story for the new century by abandoning many of the formal Gothic clichés of his predecessors and using more realistic contemporary settings. However, his protagonists and plots tend to reflect his own antiquarian interests. Accordingly, he is known as the originator of the \"antiquarian ghost story\".",
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"plaintext": "James was born in a clergy house in Goodnestone, Dover, Kent, England, although his parents had associations with Aldeburgh in Suffolk. His father was Herbert James, an Evangelical Anglican clergyman, and his mother, Mary Emily (née Horton), was the daughter of a naval officer. He had two older brothers, Sydney and Herbert (nicknamed \"Ber\"), and an older sister, Grace. Sydney James later became Archdeacon of Dudley. From the age of three (1865) until 1909 James's home, if not always his residence, was at the Rectory in Great Livermere, Suffolk. This had previously been the childhood home of another eminent Suffolk antiquary, Thomas Martin of Palgrave (1696–1771). Several of James's ghost stories are set in Suffolk, including 'Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad' (Felixstowe), \"A Warning to the Curious\" (Aldeburgh), \"Rats\" and \"A Vignette\" (Great Livermere).",
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"plaintext": "James is best known for his ghost stories, but his work as a medievalist scholar was prodigious and remains highly respected in scholarly circles. Indeed, the success of his stories was founded on his antiquarian talents and knowledge. His discovery of a manuscript fragment led to excavations in the ruins of the abbey at Bury St Edmunds, West Suffolk, in 1902, in which the graves of several twelfth-century abbots described by Jocelyn de Brakelond (a contemporary chronicler) were rediscovered, having been lost since the Dissolution of the Monasteries. He published a detailed description of the sculptured ceiling bosses of the cloisters of Norwich Cathedral in 1911. This included drawings of all the bosses in the north walk by C. J. W. Winter. His 1917 edition of the Latin hagiography of Æthelberht II of East Anglia, king and martyr, remains authoritative.",
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"plaintext": "He also achieved a great deal during his directorship of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge (1893–1908). He managed to secure a large number of important paintings and manuscripts, including notable portraits by Titian.",
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"plaintext": "James was Provost of Eton College from 1918 to 1936. He was awarded the Order of Merit in 1930. He died in 1936 (age 73) and was buried in Eton town cemetery.",
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"plaintext": "James's ghost stories were published in a series of collections: Ghost Stories of an Antiquary (1904), More Ghost Stories of an Antiquary (1911), A Thin Ghost and Others (1919), and A Warning to the Curious and Other Ghost Stories (1925). The first hardback collected edition appeared in 1931. Many of the tales were written as Christmas Eve entertainments and read aloud to friends. This idea was used by the BBC in 2000 when they filmed Christopher Lee reading James's stories in a candle-lit room in King's College.",
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"plaintext": "James perfected a method of story-telling which has since become known as Jamesian. The classic Jamesian tale usually includes the following elements:",
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"plaintext": " a characterful setting in an English village, seaside town or country estate; an ancient town in France, Denmark or Sweden; or a venerable abbey or university",
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"plaintext": " a nondescript and rather naive gentleman-scholar as protagonist (often of a reserved nature)",
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"plaintext": " the discovery of an old book or other antiquarian object that somehow unlocks, calls down the wrath, or at least attracts the unwelcome attention of a supernatural menace, usually from beyond the grave",
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"plaintext": "According to James, the story must \"put the reader into the position of saying to himself, 'If I'm not very careful, something of this kind may happen to me!'\" He also perfected the technique of narrating supernatural events through implication and suggestion, letting his reader fill in the blanks, and focusing on the mundane details of his settings and characters in order to throw the horrific and bizarre elements into greater relief. He summed up his approach in his foreword to the anthology Ghosts and Marvels: \"Two ingredients most valuable in the concocting of a ghost story are, to me, the atmosphere and the nicely managed crescendo. ... Let us, then, be introduced to the actors in a placid way; let us see them going about their ordinary business, undisturbed by forebodings, pleased with their surroundings; and into this calm environment let the ominous thing put out its head, unobtrusively at first, and then more insistently, until it holds the stage.\"",
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"plaintext": "He also noted: \"Another requisite, in my opinion, is that the ghost should be malevolent or odious: amiable and helpful apparitions are all very well in fairy tales or in local legends, but I have no use for them in a fictitious ghost story.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite his suggestion (in the essay \"Stories I Have Tried to Write\") that writers employ reticence in their work, many of James's tales depict scenes and images of savage and often disturbing violence. For example, in \"Lost Hearts\", pubescent children are taken in by a sinister dabbler in the occult who cuts their hearts from their still-living bodies. In a 1929 essay, James stated:",
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"plaintext": "Reticence may be an elderly doctrine to preach, yet from the artistic point of view, I am sure it is a sound one. Reticence conduces to effect, blatancy ruins it, and there is much blatancy in a lot of recent stories. They drag in sex too, which is a fatal mistake; sex is tiresome enough in the novels; in a ghost story, or as the backbone of a ghost story, I have no patience with it. At the same time don't let us be mild and drab. Malevolence and terror, the glare of evil faces, 'the stony grin of unearthly malice', pursuing forms in darkness, and 'long-drawn, distant screams', are all in place, and so is a modicum of blood, shed with deliberation and carefully husbanded; the weltering and wallowing that I too often encounter merely recall the methods of M G Lewis.",
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"plaintext": "Although not overtly sexual, plots of this nature have been perceived as unintentional metaphors of the Freudian variety. James's biographer Michael Cox wrote in M. R. James: An Informal Portrait (1983), \"One need not be a professional psychoanalyst to see the ghost stories as some release from feelings held in check.\" Reviewing this biography (Daily Telegraph, 1983), the novelist and diarist Anthony Powell, who attended Eton under James's tutelage, commented that \"I myself have heard it suggested that James's (of course platonic) love affairs were in fact fascinating to watch.\" Powell was referring to James's relationships with his pupils, not his peers.",
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"plaintext": "Other critics have seen complex psychological undercurrents in James's work. His authorial revulsion from tactile contact with other people has been noted by Julia Briggs in Night Visitors: The Rise and Fall of the English Ghost Story (1977). As Nigel Kneale wrote in the introduction to the Folio Society edition of Ghost Stories of M. R. James, \"In an age where every man is his own psychologist, M. R. James looks like rich and promising material. ... There must have been times when it was hard to be Monty James.\" Or, to put it another way, \"Although James conjures up strange beasts and supernatural manifestations, the shock effect of his stories is usually strongest when he is dealing in physical mutilation and abnormality, generally sketched in with the lightest of pens.\"",
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"plaintext": "In addition to writing his own stories, James championed the works of Sheridan Le Fanu, whom he viewed as \"absolutely in the first rank as a writer of ghost stories\", editing and supplying introductions to Madame Crowl's Ghost (1923) and Uncle Silas (1926).",
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"plaintext": "James's statements about his actual beliefs about ghosts are ambiguous. He wrote, \"I answer that I am prepared to consider evidence and accept it if it satisfies me.\"",
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"plaintext": "James held strongly traditional views about literature. In addition to ghost stories, he also enjoyed reading the work of William Shakespeare and the detective stories of Agatha Christie. He disliked most contemporary literature, strongly criticising the work of Aldous Huxley, Lytton Strachey and James Joyce (whom he called \"a charlatan\" and \"that prostitutor of life and language\"). He also supported the banning of Radclyffe Hall's 1928 novel about lesbianism, The Well of Loneliness, stating, \"I believe Miss Hall's book is about birth control or some kindred subject, isn't it? I find it difficult to believe either that it is a good novel or that its suppression causes any loss to literature.\"",
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"plaintext": "When he was a student at King's, James had opposed the appointment of Thomas Henry Huxley as Provost of Eton because of Huxley's agnosticism; he later became Provost of Eton himself. In his later life James showed little interest in politics and rarely spoke on political issues. However, he often spoke out against the Irish Home Rule movement, and in his letters he also expressed a dislike for Communism. His friend A. C. Benson considered him to be \"reactionary\", and \"against modernity and progress\".",
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"plaintext": "H. P. Lovecraft was an admirer of James's work, extolling the stories as the peak of the ghost story form in his essay \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\" (1927). Another renowned fan of James in the horror and fantasy genre was Clark Ashton Smith, who wrote an essay on him. Michael Sadleir described James as \"the best ghost-story writer England has ever produced\". Marjorie Bowen also admired his work, referring to his ghost stories as \"the supreme art of M. R. James\". Mary Butts, another admirer, wrote the first critical essay on his work, \"The Art of Montagu James\", in the February 1934 issue of the London Mercury. Manly Wade Wellman esteemed his fiction. In The Great Railway Bazaar, Paul Theroux refers to \"The Mezzotint\" as \"the most frightening story I know\". In his list \"The 13 Most Terrifying Horror Stories\", T. E. D. Klein placed James's \"Casting the Runes\" at number one. E. F. Bleiler stated that James is \"in the opinion of many, the foremost modern writer of supernatural fiction\", and he described Ghost Stories of an Antiquary as \"one of the landmark books in the history of supernatural fiction\" and characterised the stories in James's other collections as \"first-rate stories\" and \"excellent stories\". Ruth Rendell has also expressed admiration for James's work, stating, \"There are some authors one wished one had never read in order to have the joy of reading them for the first time. For me, M. R. James is one of these.\" David Langford has described James as the author of \"the 20th century's most influential canon of ghost stories\".",
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"plaintext": "Sir John Betjeman, in an introduction to Peter Haining's book about James, shows how influenced he was by James's work:",
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"plaintext": "In the year 1920 I was a new boy at the Dragon school, Oxford, then called Lynam's, of which the headmaster was C. C. Lynam, known as 'the Skipper'. He dressed and looked like an old Sea Salt, and in his gruff voice would tell us stories by firelight in the boys' room of an evening with all the lights out and his back to the fire. I remember he told the stories as having happened to himself. ... they were the best stories I ever heard, and gave me an interest in old churches, and country houses, and Scandinavia that not even the mighty Hans Christian Andersen eclipsed.",
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"plaintext": "Betjeman later discovered the stories were all based on those of M. R. James.",
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"plaintext": "H. Russell Wakefield's supernatural fiction was strongly influenced by the work of James. A large number of British writers deliberately wrote ghost stories in the Jamesian style; these writers, sometimes described as the \"James Gang\", include A. N. L. Munby, E. G. Swain, \"Ingulphus\" (pseudonym of Sir Arthur Gray, 1852–1940), Amyas Northcote and R. H. Malden, although some commentators consider their stories to be inferior to those of James himself. Although most of the early Jamesian writers were male, there were several notable female writers of such fiction, including Eleanor Scott (pseudonym of Helen M. Leys, 1892–1965) in the stories of her book Randall's Round (1929) and D. K. Broster in the collection Couching at the Door: Strange and Macabre Tales (1942). L. T. C. Rolt also modelled his ghost stories on James's work, but, unlike other Jamesian writers, set them in industrial locations, such as mines and railways.",
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"plaintext": "James's stories continue to influence many of today's great supernatural writers, including Stephen King (who discusses James in the 1981 non-fiction book Danse Macabre) and Ramsey Campbell, who edited Meddling with Ghosts: Stories in the Tradition of M. R. James and wrote the short story \"The Guide\" in tribute. The author John Bellairs paid homage to James by incorporating plot elements borrowed from James's ghost stories into several of his own juvenile mysteries. Several of Jonathan Aycliffe's novels, including Whispers in the Dark and The Matrix are influenced by James's work. Aycliffe/MacEoin studied for his PhD in Persian Studies at King's College, Cambridge. This makes three King's College authors of ghost stories (James, Munby and Aycliffe).",
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"plaintext": "The composer Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji wrote two pieces for piano with a link to James: Quaere reliqua hujus materiei inter secretiora (1940), inspired by \"Count Magnus\", and St. Bertrand de Comminges: \"He was laughing in the tower\" (1941), inspired by \"Canon Alberic's Scrap-Book\".",
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"plaintext": "H. Russell Wakefield's story \"He Cometh and He Passeth By!\" (1928) is a homage to James's \"Casting the Runes\".",
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"plaintext": "W. F. Harvey's ghost story \"The Ankardyne Pew\" (1928) is also a homage to James's work, which Harvey admired.",
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"plaintext": "Gerald Heard's novel The Black Fox is an occult thriller inspired by \"The Stalls of Barchester Cathedral\".",
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"plaintext": "Kingsley Amis' novel The Green Man is partly a homage to James's ghost stories.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1976 and 1992, Sheila Hodgson authored and produced for BBC Radio 4 a series of plays which portrayed M. R. James as the diarist of a series of fictional ghost stories, mainly inspired by fragments referred to in his essay \"Stories I Have Tried to Write\". These consisted of Whisper in the Ear (October 1976), Turn, Turn, Turn (March 1977), The Backward Glance (22 September 1977), Here Am I, Where Are You? (29 December 1977), Echoes from the Abbey (21 November 1984), The Lodestone (19 April 1989), and The Boat Hook (15 April 1992). David March appeared as James in all but the final two, which starred Michael Williams. Raidió Teilifís Éireann also broadcast The Fellow Travellers, with Aiden Grennell as James, on 20 February 1994. All the stories later appeared in Hodgson's collection The Fellow Travellers and Other Ghost Stories (Ash-Tree Press, 1998).",
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"plaintext": "On Christmas Day 1987, The Teeth of Abbot Thomas, a James parody by Stephen Sheridan, was broadcast on Radio 4. It starred Alfred Marks (as Abbot Thomas), Robert Bathurst, Denise Coffey, Jonathan Adams and Bill Wallis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, Ramsey Campbell published the short story \"The Guide\", which takes an antiquarian on a macabre journey to a ruined church after following marginalia in a copy of James's guidebook Suffolk and Norfolk. In 2001, Campbell edited the anthology Meddling with Ghosts: Stories in the Tradition of M. R. James.",
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"plaintext": "The novelist James Hynes wrote an updated version of \"Casting the Runes\" in his 1997 story collection Publish and Perish.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Radio 4 broadcast The House at World's End by Stephen Sheridan. A pastiche of James's work, it contained numerous echoes of his stories while offering a fictional account of how he became interested in the supernatural. The older James was played by John Rowe, and the younger James by Jonathan Keeble.",
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"plaintext": "Chris Priestley's Uncle Montague's Tales of Terror (2007) is a volume of ghost stories influenced by James in mood, atmosphere and subject matter, as the title suggests.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008 the English experimental neofolk duo The Triple Tree, featuring Tony Wakeford and Andrew King from Sol Invictus, released the album Ghosts on which all but three songs were based upon the stories of James. One of the songs, \"Three Crowns\" (based on the short story \"A Warning to the Curious\"), also appeared on the compilation album John Barleycorn Reborn (2007).",
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"plaintext": "In February 2012, the UK psychedelic band The Future Kings of England released their 4th album, Who Is This Who Is Coming, based on James's 'Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad'. An instrumental work, it evokes the story from beginning to end, with the tracks segueing into one another to form a continuous piece of music.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 February 2012 the Royal Mail released a stamp featuring James as part its \"Britons of Distinction\" series.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, the Fan Museum in London hosted two performances of The Laws of Shadows, a play by Adrian Drew about M. R. James. The play is set in James's rooms at Cambridge University and deals with his relationships with his colleague E. F. Benson and the young artist James McBryde.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 January 2019, in the third episode of the seventh series of the BBC One programme Father Brown, titled \"The Whistle in the Dark\", the character Professor Robert Wiseman reads a collection of ghost stories by M. R. James and later suggests that the whistle in his possession in the one described in James's Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad.",
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"plaintext": "Comedian and writer John Finnemore is a fan of the ghost stories of M. R. James. His radio sketch series John Finnemore's Souvenir Programme, first broadcast in 2011, features the recurring character of a storyteller (a fictionalised version of Finnemore) who tells tall tales partly influenced by M. R. James's ghost stories. During the ninth series broadcast in 2021, which underwent a format change due to the coronavirus pandemic, Oswald 'Uncle Newt' Nightingale, analogous with Finnemore's storyteller character, meets M. R. James during the Christmas of 1898 as a young boy, who proceeds to tell him the story of The Rose Garden. Later in Uncle Newt's life (or earlier in the series), he tells an iteration of said story whilst babysitting Deborah and Myra Wilkinson.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022, British post punk band Funboy Five released \"Kissing the Ghost of M R James\" and \"A Warning to the Curious (Disturbed Mix)\", a remix of a song, based on the James story, that first appeared on their 2019 release An Autumn Collection.",
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"plaintext": "There have been numerous television adaptations of James's stories. The very first TV adaptation was American—a 1951 version of \"The Tractate Middoth\" in the Lights Out series, called \"The Lost Will of Dr Rant\" and featuring Leslie Nielsen. It is available on several DVDs, including an Alpha Video release alongside Gore Vidal's Climax! adaptation of Doctor Jekyll and Mister Hyde, starring Michael Rennie.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of television adaptations of James's works have been made in Britain. The best-known adaptations include Whistle and I'll Come to You (1968, directed by Jonathan Miller) and A Warning to the Curious (1972; directed by Lawrence Gordon Clark), starring Michael Hordern and Peter Vaughan respectively. The latter was part of an annual BBC series titled A Ghost Story for Christmas, which would ultimately produce five dramatizations of James's stories in the 1970s: The Stalls of Barchester (1971), A Warning to the Curious (1972), Lost Hearts (1973), The Treasure of Abbot Thomas (1974) and The Ash-tree (1975).",
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"plaintext": "Although ITV produced four black-and-white adaptations of James's ghost stories between 1966 and 1968, no surviving copies are known to exist. However, a short preview trailer featuring several scenes from the 1968 adaptation of \"Casting the Runes\" survived and has been shown at cult film festivals. The trailer is also available on Network DVD's Mystery and Imagination DVD set. \"Casting the Runes\" was again adapted for television in 1979 as an episode of the ITV Playhouse series with Lawrence Gordon Clark directing and starring Jan Francis as the lead protagonist (a man in previous adaptations). It has been released by Network DVD which also includes a 20-minute adaptation of \"Mr Humphreys and His Inheritance\" (made in 1976 by Yorkshire Television as part of the Music Scene ITV Schools programme) and A Pleasant Terror, a 1995 ITV documentary about James.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, the BBC produced a series, aimed at older children, of readings of classic horror stories read by various actors entitled Spine Chillers. This included readings of James's stories \"The Mezzotint\", \"The Diary of Mr Poynter\" and \"A School Story\", all read by Michael Bryant. In December 1986, BBC2 broadcast partially dramatized readings by the actor Robert Powell of \"The Mezzotint\", \"The Ash-Tree\", \"Wailing Well\", Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad and \"The Rose Garden\". In a similar vein, the BBC also produced a short series (M. R. James' Ghost Stories for Christmas) of further readings in 2000, which featured Christopher Lee as James, who (in character) read 30-minute adaptations of \"The Stalls of Barchester Cathedral\", \"The Ash-tree\", \"Number 13\" and \"A Warning to the Curious\".",
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"plaintext": "The Ghost Story for Christmas strand was revived in December 2005, when BBC Four broadcast a new version of James's story \"A View from a Hill\", with \"Number 13\" following in December 2006. These were broadly faithful to the originals and were well received. A new version of Whistle and I'll Come to You, starring John Hurt, was broadcast by BBC Two on Christmas Eve 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Ten of the BBC productions made between 1968 and 2010 (including three episodes of the Christopher Lee readings series) were released on DVD in October 2011 as a five-disc boxed set in Australia by Shock DVD, as The Complete Ghost Stories of M. R. James. A boxed set of the BBC's Ghost Stories For Christmas productions, including all of the M. R. James adaptations, was released in Britain in 2012, and an expanded six-disc set (including Robert Powell's series of readings from 1986, and readings from the BBC's 1980 Spine Chillers series for children) was released in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "A new adaptation of \"The Tractate Middoth\", the directorial debut of Mark Gatiss, was broadcast on BBC Two on 25 December 2013. Gatiss also presented a new documentary, entitled M. R. James: Ghost Writer, which was screened directly afterwards; it featured scenes from the BBC television adaptations, along with Robert Lloyd Parry of the Nunkie Theatre Company performing as M. R. James himself and reading excerpts from his stories.",
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"plaintext": "On 31 October 2014, the BBC daytime soap opera Doctors presented an adaptation of Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad with Dr Al Haskey (played by Ian Midlane) substituted for Professor Parkins. \"Whistle...\" was written by Jeremy Hylton Davies and directed by Pip Short. The BBC website also produced a behind-the-scenes video of the production.",
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"plaintext": "On Christmas Eve 2019, the BBC broadcast an adaptation of \"Martin's Close\", written and directed by Mark Gatiss, and starring Peter Capaldi. It became BBC Four's \"most watched programme of 2019\", with 1.5 million viewers.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2021, the BBC announced another Christmas Gatiss adaptation: \"The Mezzotint\", now promoted to appear on BBC Two.",
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"plaintext": "1932 – The first broadcast of an M. R. James story was made on 27 October 1932 (four years before his death) during a Bach piano concert transmitted by the BBC Midlands Regional Programme. During the 20-minute interval, \"A School Story\" was read \"from the studio\" by Vincent Curran.",
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"plaintext": "1938 – On 12 March, the BBC's London Regional Programme broadcast an adaptation of \"Martin's Close\" under the title Madam, Will You Walk? The 40-minute play was written by C. Whitaker-Wilson and produced by John Cheatle. The Radio Times printed the musical notation for the ghostly refrain and noted, \"You will have had quite enough of that tune before the play has ended. You will hear it played by a string quartet... you will hear it sung by Judge Jeffries in court (an actual fact); and, worse still, you will hear it floating on a gale of wind, sung by a murdered girl near a lonely inn in a Devonshire village. That also is a fact.\"",
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"plaintext": "1940 – The BBC broadcast a second version of \"Martin's Close\" on 4 April, this time as a 25-minute reading by John Gloag for the new Home Service.",
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"plaintext": "1946 – World War II had done nothing to dampen the BBC's enthusiasm for \"Martin's Close\", and on 13 February, C. Whitaker-Wilson's 1938 script of Madam, Will You Walk? was remounted, this time produced by Noel Iliff. Whitaker-Wilson himself played the part of Judge Jeffreys in a 45-minute production for the BBC Home Service.",
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"plaintext": "The same year, the anthology series Stories Old and New featured David Lloyd James reading a 20-minute version of \"Lost Hearts\" for the BBC Home Service on 16 September.",
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"plaintext": "1947 – The BBC's Wednesday Matinee strand presented a version of \"The Mezzotint\", adapted by Ashley Sampson, with Martin Lewis as Dennistoun. The play was produced by John Richmond and transmitted on 21 May as the second half of a double bill, in an \"approximate\" 25-minute slot on the Home Service.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 November, the fifteenth episode of the CBS radio series Escape was an adaptation of \"Casting the Runes\".",
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"plaintext": "1949 – Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad became the second instalment of the new Man in Black series, arranged for radio by John Keir Cross. George Owen played Professor Parkins, Charles Lefeaux was Colonel Wilson, while Valentine Dyall starred as the eponymous host. The 30-minute play was transmitted on 7 February on the BBC Light Programme and repeated on the Home Service on 6 April.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 June the Home Service broadcast a 15-minute reading of \"Rats\" performed by Anthony Jacobs.",
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"plaintext": "1951 – On 21 April, Saturday Matinee presented a version of \"Casting the Runes\" for the BBC Home Service. Roger Delgado appeared as Harrington, Derek Birch played Dunning and Australian actor Dodd Mehan starred as Karswell. The play was adapted by Simona Pakenham and produced by Leonarde Chase.",
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"plaintext": "1952 – \"The Uncommon Prayer Book\" was dramatised by Michael Gambier-Parry for the regional BBC Home Service West. Broadcast on 24 April, the play was billed as a \"ghost story for St. Mark's Eve\" (\"The prayer books, though repeatedly closed, are always found open at a particular psalm... above the text of this particular psalm is a quite unauthorised rubric 'For the 25th Day of April\".) The 60-minute play was produced by Owen Reed and starred George Holloway as Henry Davidson. It was repeated on 26 November on BBC Home Service Basic as part of the Wednesday Matinee strand.",
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"plaintext": "1954 – On 10 December, BBC Home Service Midland broadcast a version of \"A Warning to the Curious\", adapted by documentary maker Philip Donnellan.",
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"plaintext": "1957 – The association between M. R. James and the festive period began on Christmas Day 1957 as Lost Hearts was read by Hugh Burden on the BBC Third Programme.",
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"plaintext": "1959 – \"The Tractate Middoth\" was adapted as A Mass of Cobwebs by Brian Batchelor for the BBC's Thirty-Minute Theatre. It was produced by Robin Midgley and starred Peter Howell as William Garrett, with Edgar Norfolk as Eldred. It was first broadcast on the Light Programme on 28 April 1959 and received its first repeat 59 years later on 27 August 2018 on BBC Radio 4 Extra.",
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"plaintext": "1963 – Charles Lefeaux had acted in the 1949 production of Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad, and fourteen years later he would produce three M. R. James adaptations of his own. The first of these was \"The Diary of Mr. Poynter\", an entry in the Mystery Playhouse strand for the Home Service. (\"My hair! Give me back my hair! Give me back my beautiful brown hair\" teased the Radio Times.) The 15-minute play was again adapted by Philip Donnellan and starred Marius Goring as Denton.",
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"plaintext": "Lefeaux's second production was a new version of \"Martin's Close\", this time adapted by Michael and Mollie Hardwick, again for Mystery Playhouse and the Home Service. The 30-minute piece starred Donald Wolfit as Judge Jeffreys and was transmitted on 20 August 1963. (\"What see you in the corner of the Court, that you fix your eyes on it and not on me, your Judge?\" teased the Radio Times again.) The play was repeated on BBC Radio 4 Extra on 26 February 2018.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 December 1963, \"The Ash Tree\" was dramatised for The Black Mass, an American anthology series broadcast on KPFA (Berkeley) and KPFK (Los Angeles). The series was produced by Eric Bauersfeld.",
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"plaintext": "The final installment of Lefeaux's M. R. James trilogy came on Christmas Eve with another version of Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad. (\"Easy enough to whistle – but there's no telling what will answer.\") Again adapted by Michael and Mollie Hardwick, and again broadcast on the Home Service, the production is notable for the casting of Michael Hordern as Parkins – a role he would reprise for Jonathan Miller's TV adaptation five years later. The 30-minute play was repeated on BBC Radio 4 Extra on New Year's Day, 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Sound effects for \"Martin's Close\" and Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad were provided by the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, and the original sound-effects reel was preserved in their archive.",
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"plaintext": "1964 – Eric Bauersfeld's The Black Mass broadcast a second M. R. James adaptation, with \"An Evening's Entertainment\" airing on Hallowe'en Night.",
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"plaintext": "1965 – A supernaturally-themed edition of Story Time aired on the Home Service on 23 March. A number of performers read from \"stories in prose and verse\", including Scottish ballads and James's \"Wailing Well\".",
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"plaintext": "1968 – Three years later, Story Time presented five M. R. James stories read by Howieson Culff. The 30-minute episodes were produced by David Davis and broadcast weekly on BBC Radio 4 FM between 20 August and 17 September. Episodes were \"The Mezzotint\", \"The Rose Garden\", \"The Haunted Dolls' House\", \"The Uncommon Prayer-Book\" and \"A Neighbour's Landmark\". Selected episodes were repeated as Three Ghost Stories the following year.",
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"plaintext": "1971 – Radio 3's Study on 3 presented a four-part analysis of The Horror Story. The second episode (\"Ghosts\") was transmitted on 23 December 1971 – the day before the first Ghost Story for Christmas aired on BBC1 – and featured a discussion with Jonathan Miller and a reading of \"Lost Hearts\" by Bernard Cribbins. The series was repeated the following year.",
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"plaintext": "1974 – On 12 January, the CBS Radio Mystery Theater, hosted by E. G. Marshall, presented the episode \"This Will Kill You\", which was an updated, loose adaptation of \"Casting the Runes\".",
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"plaintext": "1975 – Radio 4's Story Time presented a \"Ghost Trilogy\", broadcast over three consecutive days in December. The second edition, on 23 December, was an abridged version of \"Number 13\" read by Peter Barkworth.",
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"plaintext": "1977 – Michell Raper was a BBC producer who had already made documentaries about Peter Underwood and the London Ghost Club. On 27 December, he presented a 30-minute talk entitled The Ghosts of M. R. James, which also featured readings by Gerald Cross, Norman Shelley and Kenneth Fortescue from \"Wailing Well\", \"Lost Hearts\", Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad and \"Rats\".",
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"plaintext": "1978 – On 2 May, the CBS Radio Mystery Theater presented The Figure in the Moonlight, a loose and uncredited adaptation of \"The Mezzotint\". In Roy Winsor's script, \"The Department of Fine Arts at Wheeler College, New Hampshire, is bequeathed a collection of mostly worthless art: reproductions, some photographs, an engraving or two. Upon closer inspection, one of the items stands out for its clarity and tone: an engraving of a Victorian mansion with a flagstone path and a wide front porch. A mysterious figure seems to appear and disappear from the engraving, as if re-enacting an earlier encounter.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, the Hallowe'en edition of Radio 4's Forget Tomorrow's Monday (\"a Sunday morning miscellany\") featured Peter Underwood (president of the Ghost Club) talking \"about all things strange, from Alchemy to Zombies\", and Peter Cushing, who gave a reading of \"Lost Hearts\".",
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"plaintext": "1980 – On 19 December, Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad became Radio 4's Book at Bedtime. It was read in a 15-minute slot by Robert Trotter.",
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"plaintext": "1981 – On 2 January, BBC Radio 4 broadcast an Afternoon Theatre play called \"The Hex\", written by Gregory Evans and loosely based on \"Casting the Runes\", starring Conrad Phillips, Peter Copley, Carole Boyer and Kim Hartman. The play was subsequently transmitted, in translation, in several other countries. The 60-minute play has been repeated regularly on BBC Radio 4 Extra since December 2014.",
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"plaintext": "1982 – Radio 4 transmitted two M. R. James stories in the 15-minute Morning Story slot in 1982. \"The Rose Garden\" aired on 14 June, and \"Rats\" followed on 15 November. Both stories were read by Richard Hurndall and the series was produced by Michell \"Mitch\" Raper.",
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"plaintext": "1983 – Morning Story also produced \"The Haunted Doll's House\" [sic] on 11 February the following year. The 15-minute tale was read by David Ashford and broadcast on Radio 4 Long Wave only.",
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"plaintext": "1986 – Morning Story transmitted another reading of \"Rats\" on 9 June on BBC Radio 4. James Aubrey was the storyteller, with Mitch Raper again in the producer's chair. The 15-minute show was repeated on 7 October 2018 on Radio 4 Extra.",
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"plaintext": "1997–98 – After a hiatus of eleven years, M. R. James returned to the British airwaves in 1997. Running nightly from 29 December through to 2 January, The Late Book: Ghost Stories featured readings of five tales: \"Canon Alberic's Scrapbook\", \"Lost Hearts\", \"A School Story\", \"The Haunted Dolls' House\" and \"Rats\". The stories were abridged and produced by Paul Kent and read by Benjamin Whitrow. Episodes were repeated regularly on BBC 7 (Later becoming BBC Radio 7) from December 2003, then on Radio 4 Extra from 2011. According to the BBC Genome database, the episodes were originally transmitted in a 30-minute slot; however, these listings may be incomplete, as all subsequent broadcasts have been 15 minutes long.",
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"plaintext": "2000 – Radio 4's Woman's Hour Drama presented The Red Room, a nine-part anthology of ghost stories by various authors, told as part of an overarching story (\"At a Christmas party, the young Rebecca West meets a mysterious stranger. Literary passions, among others, are aroused. What does it take to tell a good ghost story? A challenge is proffered, a battle of wits begins, as does a descent into dark imaginings.\") The third episode was a version of \"Casting the Runes\", with Sean Baker as Dunning, while episode five was a dramatisation of \"Count Magnus\", with Charlie Simpson as Wraxall. The Red Room was dramatised by Robin Brooks and directed by Clive Brill, and the nine 15-minute instalments were broadcast between 18 and 29 December, with several – including the M. R. James adaptations – actually listed as \"Ghost stories for Christmas\" in the Radio Times.",
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"plaintext": "2006 − On 15 March, Radio 4's Afternoon Play featured The Midnight House by Jonathan Hall, a drama influenced by \"The Mezzotint\". The play was repeated on Radio 4 on 2 July 2007 and has appeared several times on Radio 4 Extra since December 2015.",
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"plaintext": "2007 − Radio 4 presented more M. R. James adaptations in the form of M.R. James at Christmas, a series of five plays in the Woman's Hour Drama slot. Stories adapted were Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad starring Jamie Glover as Professor Parkins, \"The Tractate Middoth\" with Joseph Mlllson as Garrett and John Rowe as Eldred, \"Lost Hearts\" with Peter Marinker as Abney, \"The Rose Garden\" with Anton Lesser as George and Carolyn Pickles as Mary, and \"Number 13\" with Julian Rhind-Tutt as Dr Anderson. The plays were adapted by Chris Harrald and directed and produced by Gemma Jenkins. Each episode was introduced by Derek Jacobi as James himself. The series ran from Christmas Eve to 28 December, culminating in an original Jamesian drama, A Warning to the Furious. The episodes were released on CD as Spine Chillers by BBC Audio in 2008. They were repeated on BBC 7 in December 2009 and (under the title M. R. James Stories) on Radio 4 Extra in 2011 and 2018.",
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"plaintext": "These plays would be the last M. R. James radio adaptations for some time. Although repeats of older plays continued on BBC 7 and Radio 4 Extra, it would be more than 10 years before any new dramatisations were produced.",
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"plaintext": "2009 − The series Classic Tales of Horror included a reading of \"The Mezzotint\" delivered by Robin Bailey. The episode was transmitted on BBC Radio 7 on 9 October 2009 and repeated on 20 May the following year.",
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"plaintext": "2011 − Radio 3's Twenty Minutes, an \"eclectic arts magazine programme\", featured a version of \"A Warning to the Curious\" on 13 June. The twenty-minute reading was by Alex Jennings, and the script produced and abridged by Justine Willett.",
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"plaintext": "2018 – Woman's Hour Drama had broadcast the last M. R. James dramatisations before the hiatus. The slot was subsequently rebranded as 15-Minute Drama, and in 2018 introduced a new series, The Haunting of M. R. James. \"Five of the most powerful tales by this master of the ghost story\" were adapted by Neil Brand: \"The Mezzotint\", \"Casting The Runes\", \"The Stalls of Barchester Cathedral\", \"A Warning to the Curious and \"Rats\". As had happened in 2007, the five adaptations were followed by an original drama, this time entitled The Haunting of M.R. James. The series aired daily from 17 to 21 December and was directed by David Hunter.",
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"plaintext": "Also on 21 December, a series apparently entitled Classic Stories: Tales for Christmas was uploaded to BBC Sounds. The episodes included a reading of \"The Mezzotint\" performed by Sam Dale and produced by Justine Willett. The provenance of this series is something of a mystery as it appears to never have been broadcast prior to its appearance online.",
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"plaintext": "2019 – Another website-only production was added to BBC Soundson 21 June. The 25-minute reading of \"Wailing Well\" was performed by Joseph Ayre and produced as part of Classic Stories: Stories for Summer by Julian Wilkinson.",
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"plaintext": "The second radio adaptation of the year arrived in the form of Ghost Stories from Ambridge, a spin-off from The Archers. The second episode, which aired on Radio 4 on New Year’s Eve, was a reading of \"Lost Hearts\" (\"on a biting December night, in the darkened attic of Lower Loxley, Jim Lloyd enthrals an assembly of Ambridge residents with three chilling ghost stories from the turn of the last century\", teased the BBC webpage.) John Rowe played narrator Jim Lloyd and the 14-minute script was abridged by Jeremy Osborne.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, a series of four double audio cassettes was released by Argo Records, featuring nineteen unabridged James stories narrated by Michael Hordern. The tapes were titled Ghost Stories (1982), More Ghost Stories (1984), A Warning to the Curious (1985) and No. 13 and Other Ghost Stories (1988). ISIS Audio Books also released two collections of unabridged James stories, this time narrated by Nigel Lambert. These tapes were titled A Warning to the Curious and Other Tales (four audio cassettes, six stories, March 1992) and Ghost Stories of an Antiquary (three audio cassettes, eight stories, December 1992).",
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"plaintext": "In Spring 2007 UK-based Craftsman Audio Books released the first complete set of audio recordings of James's stories on CD, spread across two volumes and read by David Collings. The ghost story author Reggie Oliver acted as consultant on the project.",
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"plaintext": "April 2007 also saw the release of Tales of the Supernatural, Volume One, an audiobook presentation by Fantom Films, featuring the James stories \"Lost Hearts\" read by Geoffrey Bayldon, \"Rats\" and \"Number 13\" by Ian Fairbairn, with Gareth David-Lloyd reading \"Casting the Runes\" and \"There Was a Man Dwelt by a Churchyard\". Volume Two was to follow in the summer.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2007, BBC Audio released Ghost Stories Volume One (including \"A View from a Hill\", \"Rats\", \"A School Story\", \"The Ash Tree\", and \"The Story of a Disappearance and an Appearance\") read by Derek Jacobi. Ghost Stories Volume Two followed in 2009 (including \"A Warning to the Curious'\" \"The Stalls of Barchester Cathedral\"', \"The Mezzotint\", and \"A Neighbour's Landmark\"').",
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"plaintext": "As of 2010 the audiobooks site LibriVox offers a set of audio readings (available as free downloads) under the collective heading Ghost Stories of an Antiquary.",
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"plaintext": "A full-cast audio dramatization of \"Casting the Runes\" was distributed by Audible in 2019. With a contemporary setting, it was scripted by Stephen Gallagher and featured Tom Burke and Anna Maxwell Martin, with Reece Shearsmith in the role of Karswell.",
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"plaintext": "in 2020, a full cast, audio adaptation of Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad was produced under the title \"Whistle\" by White Heron Theatre of Nantucket, Massachusetts. It was written and directed by Mark Shanahan with original audio production and music by John Gromada. The audio drama bears a contemporary setting and was set on Nantucket Island. Though it deviates from the source material in many aspects, it retains the original's core traits. The cast includes Steve Pacek Alexandra Kopko and Catherine Shanahan. The audio drama was broadcast on Nantucket's NPR affiliate station, WNCK, on October 31, 2020.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, Shadows at the Door: The Podcast began a series of full-cast adaptations of James' stories, including Number 13, Canon Alberic's Scrapbook and A Warning to the Curious. Episodes also featured full readings of Rats and There Was A Man Dwelt By a Churchyard.",
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"plaintext": "The only notable film version of James's work to date has been the 1957 British adaptation of \"Casting the Runes\" by Jacques Tourneur, titled Night of the Demon (known as Curse of the Demon in the US), starring Dana Andrews, Peggy Cummins and Niall MacGinnis. The Brides of Dracula (Terence Fisher, 1960) lifts the padlocked coffin scene from \"Count Magnus\", while Michele Soavi's 1989 film The Church—featuring a script co-authored by Dario Argento—borrows the motif of the \"stone with seven eyes\", as well as a few other important details, from \"The Treasure of Abbot Thomas\".",
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"plaintext": "The Bestiary: Being a Reproduction in Full of the Manuscript Ii.4.26 in the University Library, Cambridge. Printed for the Roxburghe club, by John Johnson at the University Press, 1928.",
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"plaintext": "\"Rats\", in At Random (Eton ephemeral magazine), 23 March 1929, pp.12–14",
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"plaintext": "\"The Experiment: A New Year's Eve Ghost Story\", in Morning Post, 31 December 1931, p.8",
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"plaintext": "\"The Malice of Inanimate Objects\", in The Masquerade (Eton ephemeral magazine), no. 1 (June 1933), pp.29–32",
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"plaintext": "\"A Vignette\", written 1935, in London Mercury 35 (November 1936), pp.18–22",
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"plaintext": "The Collected Ghost Stories of M. R. James. 1931. Contains the 26 stories from the original four books, plus \"After Dark in the Playing Fields\" (1924), \"There Was a Man Dwelt by a Churchyard\" (1924), \"Wailing Well\" (1928), and \"Rats\" (1929). It does not include three stories completed between 1931 and James's death in 1936.",
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"plaintext": "The Ghost Stories of M. R. James. 1986. Selection by Michael Cox, including an excellent introduction with numerous photographs.",
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"plaintext": "Two Ghost Stories: A Centenary. 1993.",
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"plaintext": "The Fenstanton Witch and Others: M. R. James in Ghosts and Scholars. 1999. Contains seven unpublished or unfinished tales or drafts: \"A Night in King's College Chapel\" (1892?), \"The Fenstanton Witch\" (1924?), \"John Humphreys\" (unfinished, pre-1911), \"Marcilly-le-Hayer\"(story draft, pre-1929), \"Speaker Lenthall's Tomb\" (unfinished, 1890s?), \"The Game of Bear\" (unfinished) and \"Merfield House\" (unfinished). ",
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"plaintext": "A Pleasing Terror: The Complete Supernatural Writings. 2001. Ash-Tree Press. Contains 40 stories: the 30 stories from Collected Ghost Stories, the three tales published after them and the seven items from The Fenstanton Witch and Others. It also includes some related non-fiction by James and some writings about him by others. It is the only complete collection of his ghost fiction, although revised versions of unfinished tales and drafts have subsequently appeared on the Ghosts and Scholars website, following further deciphering of James's handwriting.",
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"plaintext": "Curious Warnings: The Great Ghost Stories of M. R. James. 2012. Edited, reparagraphing the text for the modern reader, by Stephen Jones.",
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"plaintext": "Suffolk and Norfolk. 1930.",
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"plaintext": " The Five Jars. 1922.",
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"plaintext": " As translator: Forty-Two Stories, by Hans Christian Andersen, translated and with an introduction by M. R. James. 1930.",
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"plaintext": " Eton and King's, Recollections Mostly Trivial, 1875–1925, Cambridge University Press, 1925. .",
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"plaintext": "Bleiler, E. F. The Checklist of Fantastic Literature. Shasta Publishers, 1948.",
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"plaintext": "Bloom, Clive. \"M. R. James and His Fiction.\" in Clive Bloom, ed., Creepers: British Horror and Fantasy in the Twentieth Century. London and Boulder CO: Pluto Press, 1993, pp.64–71.",
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"plaintext": "Cox, Michael. M. R. James: An Informal Portrait. Oxford University Press, 1983. .",
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"plaintext": "Haining, Peter. M. R. James: Book of the Supernatural. W. Foulsham, 1979. ",
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"plaintext": "Japanese knotweed has hollow stems with distinct raised nodes that give it the appearance of bamboo, though it is not related. While stems may reach a maximum height of each growing season, it is typical to see much smaller plants in places where they sprout through cracks in the pavement or are repeatedly cut down. The leaves are broad oval with a truncated base, long and broad, with an entire margin. The flowers are small, cream or white, produced in erect racemes long in late summer and early autumn.",
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"plaintext": "Related species include giant knotweed (Reynoutria sachalinensis, syns. Fallopia sachalinensis, Polygonum sachalinense) and Russian vine (Fallopia baldschuanica, syn. Polygonum baldschuanicum).",
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"plaintext": "Common names for Japanese knotweed include fleeceflower, Himalayan fleece vine, billyweed, monkeyweed, monkey fungus, elephant ears, pea shooters, donkey rhubarb, American bamboo, and Mexican bamboo, among many others, depending on country and location. In Japanese, the name is . The kanji expression is from the Chinese meaning 'tiger stick'. One interpretation of the Japanese name is that it comes from 'remove pain' (alluding to its painkilling use), though there are other etymological explanations offered.",
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"plaintext": "Identification of Japanese knotweed is not always easy. Many other plants are suspected of being knotweed, due often to the similar appearance of leaves and stems. Dogwood, lilac, houttuynia (Houttuynia cordata), ornamental bistorts such as red bistort (Persicaria amplexicaulis), lesser knotweed (Koenigia campanulata), Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera), broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius), bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), bamboo, Himalayan honeysuckle (Leycesteria formosa), and Russian vine (Fallopia baldschuanica) have been suspected of being Reynoutria japonica.",
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"plaintext": "New leaves of Reynoutria japonica are dark red and long; young leaves are green and rolled back with dark red veins; leaves are green and shaped like a heart flattened at the base, or a shield, and are usually around long. Mature R.japonica forms , dense thickets. The stems look somewhat like bamboo, with rings and purple speckles. Leaves shoot from the stem nodes alternately in a zigzag pattern. Mature, healthy stems are hollow and not woody. Plants that are immature or affected by mowing and other restrictions have much thinner and shorter stems than mature stands, and are not hollow.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese knotweed flowers are valued by some beekeepers as an important source of nectar for honeybees, at a time of year when little else is flowering. Japanese knotweed yields a monofloral honey, usually called bamboo honey by northeastern U.S. beekeepers, like a mild-flavoured version of buckwheat honey (a related plant also in the Polygonaceae).",
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"plaintext": "The young stems are edible as a spring vegetable, with a flavour similar to rhubarb. In some locations, semi-cultivating Japanese knotweed for food has been used as a means of controlling knotweed populations that invade sensitive wetland areas and drive out the native vegetation. In Japan as sansai or wild foraged vegetable.",
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"plaintext": "It is used in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine to treat various disorders through the actions of resveratrol, although there is no high-quality evidence from clinical research for any medical efficacy. Extracts of resveratrol from R. japonica roots are higher in content than those from stems or leaves, and have highest levels at the end of the growing season.",
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"plaintext": "Ground-feeding songbirds and gamebirds also eat the seeds. ",
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"plaintext": "It grows widely throughout Japan and is foraged as a wild edible vegetable (sansai), though not in sufficient quantities to be included in statistics. They are called by such regional names as tonkiba (Yamagata), itazuiko (Nagano, Mie), itazura (Gifu, Toyama, Nara, Wakayama, Kagawa), gonpachi (Shizuoka, Nara, Mie, Wakayama), sashi (Akita, Yamagata), jajappo (Shimane, Tottori, Okayama), sukanpo (many areas).",
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"plaintext": "Young leaves and shoots, which look like asparagus, are used. They are extremely sour; the fibrous outer skin must be peeled, soaked in water for half a day raw or after parboiling, before being cooked.",
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"plaintext": "Places in Shikoku such as central parts of Kagawa Prefecture pickle the peeled young shoots by weighting them down in salt mixed with 10% nigari (magnesium chloride). People in Kochi also rub these cleaned shoots with coarse salt-nigari blend. It is said (though no authority is cited) that the magnesium of the nigari binds with the oxalic acid thus mitigating its hazard.",
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"plaintext": "This species is listed by the World Conservation Union as one of the world's worst invasive species.",
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"plaintext": "It is a frequent colonizer of temperate riparian ecosystems, roadsides, and waste places. It forms thick, dense colonies that completely crowd out any other herbaceous species and is now considered one of the worst invasive exotics in parts of the eastern United States. The success of the species has been partially attributed to its tolerance of a very wide range of conditions; including drought, different soil types, variable soil pH, and high salinity. Its rhizomes can survive temperatures of and can extend horizontally and deep, making removal by excavation extremely difficult. The plant is also resilient to cutting, vigorously resprouting from the roots.",
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"plaintext": "The invasive root system and strong growth can damage concrete foundations, buildings, flood defences, roads, paving, retaining walls and architectural sites. It can also reduce the capacity of channels in flood defences to carry water.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese knotweed shades out other vegetation, overgrows buildings and other structures, encourages fire, and damages paved surfaces.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese knotweed has a large underground network of roots (rhizomes). To eradicate the plant the roots need to be killed. All above-ground portions of the plant need to be controlled repeatedly for several years in order to weaken and kill the entire patch. Picking the right herbicide is essential, as it must travel through the plant and into the root system below. But also more ecologically-friendly means are being tested as an alternative to chemical treatments.",
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"plaintext": "The abundance of the plant can be significantly reduced by applying glyphosate, imazapyr, a combination of both, or by cutting all visible stalks and filling the stems with glyphosate. However, these methods have not been proven to provide reliable long-term results in completely eliminating the treated population.",
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"plaintext": "Digging up the rhizomes is a common solution where the land is to be developed, as this is quicker than the use of herbicides, but safe disposal of the plant material without spreading it is difficult; knotweed is classed as controlled waste in the UK, and disposal is regulated by law. Digging up the roots is also very labour-intensive and not always effective. The roots can extend up to deep, and leaving only a few centimetres of root behind will result in the plant quickly growing back.",
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"plaintext": "Covering the affected patch of ground with a non-translucent material can be an effective follow-up strategy. However, the trimmed stems of the plant can be razor sharp and are able to pierce through most materials. Covering with non-flexible materials such as concrete slabs has to be done meticulously and without leaving even the smallest splits. The slightest opening can be enough for the plant to grow back.",
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"plaintext": "Soil steam sterilization involves injecting steam into contaminated soil in order to kill subterranean plant parts.",
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"plaintext": "Trials in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, using sea water sprayed on the foliage, have not demonstrated promising results.",
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"plaintext": "Research has been carried out on a Mycosphaerella leaf spot fungus, which devastates knotweed in its native Japan. This research has been relatively slow due to the complex life cycle of the fungus.",
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"plaintext": "Following earlier studies, imported Japanese knotweed psyllid insects Aphalara itadori, whose only food source is Japanese knotweed, were released at a number of sites in Britain in a study running from 1 April 2010 to 31 March 2014. In 2012, results suggested that establishment and population growth were likely, after the insects overwintered successfully. In 2020 Amsterdam imported and released 5,000 Japanese Aphalara itadori leaf fleas, exempting them from a strict ban on the introduction of alien species, as one of the measures to contain the knotweed. The psyllids suck up sap from the plant, potentially killing young shoots and slowing or even stopping growth. It was hoped that the psyllid would hibernate over winter and establish themselves in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Anecdotal reports of effective control describe the use of goats to eat the plant parts above ground followed by the use of pigs to root out and eat the underground parts of the plant.",
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"plaintext": "Japanese knotweed is classed as an unwanted organism in New Zealand and is established in some parts of the country.",
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"plaintext": "European adventurer Philipp Franz von Siebold transported Japanese knotweed from a Japanese volcano to Leiden in the Netherlands. By 1850, a specimen from this plant was donated by Von Siebold to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It was favoured by gardeners because it looked like bamboo and grew everywhere. Ann Conolly provided the first authoritative work on the history and distribution of the plant in the UK and Europe in the 1970s. According to The Daily Telegraph, the weed has travelled rapidly, aided by rail and water networks. In the UK, Japanese knotweed is a single female clone. However, it is able to readily hybridise with related species.",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, Japanese knotweed is established in the wild in many parts of the country and creates problems due to the impact on biodiversity, flooding management and damage to property. It is an offence under section 14(2) of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 to \"plant or otherwise cause to grow in the wild\" any plant listed in Schedule nine, Part II to the Act, which includes Japanese knotweed. As of 2014, householders and landlords within towns, who do not control the plant in their gardens, can receive an on-the-spot fine or be prosecuted. It is also classed as \"controlled waste\" in Britain under part 2 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. This requires disposal at licensed landfill sites.",
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"plaintext": "Some home owners in the United Kingdom are unable to sell their homes if there is any evidence of knotweed on the property. The species is expensive to remove. According to the UK government, the cost of controlling knotweed had hit £1.25 billion in 2014. It cost £70 million to eradicate knotweed from 10 acres of the London 2012 Olympic Games velodrome and aquatic centre. Defra's Review of Non-native Species Policy states that a national eradication programme would be prohibitively expensive at £1.56 billion. The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology has been using citizen science to develop a system that gives a knotweed risk rating throughout Britain.",
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"plaintext": "The decision was taken on 9 March 2010 in the UK to release into the wild a Japanese psyllid insect, Aphalara itadori. Its diet is highly specific to Japanese knotweed and shows good potential for its control. Controlled release trials began in South Wales in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "In Scotland, the Wildlife and Natural Environment (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force in July 2012 that superseded the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. This act states that is an offence to spread intentionally or unintentionally Japanese knotweed (or other non-native invasive species).",
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"plaintext": "In Northern Ireland it has been recorded from Counties Down, Antrim and Londonderry. The earliest record is in 1872. In the Republic of Ireland, it has been recorded from Howth Head, Co. Dublin at Doldrum Bay.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, Japanese knotweed has received a lot of attention in the press as a result of very restrictive lending policies by banks and other mortgage companies. Several lenders have refused mortgage applications on the basis of the plant being discovered in the garden or neighbouring gardens. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors published a report in 2012 in response to lenders refusing to lend \"despite [knotweed] being treatable and rarely causing severe damage to the property\".",
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"plaintext": "In response to this guidance, several lenders have relaxed their criteria in relation to discovery of the plant. As recently as 2012, the policy at the Woolwich (part of Barclays plc) was \"if Japanese knotweed is found on or near the property then a case will be declined due to the invasive nature of the plant.\" Their criteria have since been relaxed to a category-based system depending on whether the plant is discovered on a neighbouring property (categories 1 and 2) or the property itself (categories 3 and 4) incorporating proximity to the property curtilage and the main buildings. Even in a worst-case scenario (category 4), where the plant is \"within 7 metres of the main building, habitable spaces, conservatory and/or garage and any permanent outbuilding, either within the curtilage of the property or on neighbouring land; and/or is causing serious damage to permanent outbuildings, associated structures, drains, paths, boundary walls and fences\" Woolwich lending criteria now specify that this property may be acceptable if \"remedial treatment by a Property Care Association (PCA) registered firm has been satisfactorily completed. Treatment must be covered by a minimum 10-year insurance-backed guarantee, which is property specific and transferable to subsequent owners and any mortgagee in possession.\" Santander have relaxed their attitude in a similar fashion.",
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"plaintext": " In 2022 the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors produced updated guidance for assessing knotweed. Since the 2012 RICS report much more information on the risks from Japanese knotweed have been gained. One important change is that the distance of a plant from a property to be considered a problem has been reduced to 3 metres.",
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"plaintext": "Property Care Association chief executive Steve Hodgson, whose trade body has set up a task force to deal with the issue, said: \"Japanese knotweed is not 'house cancer' and could be dealt with in the same way qualified contractors dealt with faulty wiring or damp.\"",
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"plaintext": "The weed can be found in 42 of the 50 United States.",
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"plaintext": "According to Gail Wallin, executive director of the Invasive Species Council of B.C., and co-chair of the Canadian Council on Invasive Species, by 2015 it was found in all provinces in Canada except Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In Vancouver the aggressive plant went under \"four lanes of highway and have popped up on the other side.\" At Mission Point Park in Davis Bay, British Columbia municipal crews attempted to eradicate it by digging out the plant to a depth of about three metres with an excavator. It grew back twice as large the next year. To avoid an epidemic as in the United Kingdom, some provinces in Canada are pushing for relaxation of provincial limits on the use of herbicides close to waterways so knotweed can be aggressively managed with strong chemicals. In spite of its status as an invasive species it is still sometimes sold or swapped in Canada as an edible \"false bamboo.\" Bohemian knotweed, a hybrid between Japanese and giant knotweed that produces huge quantities of viable seeds, now accounts for about 80 per cent of knotweed infestations in British Columbia.",
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"plaintext": " Persicaria capitata for another plant species called Japanese knotweed.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese knotweed",
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"plaintext": " Photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1994",
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"plaintext": " Species Profile - Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Japanese knotweed.",
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"plaintext": " Best management practice A variety of ways to control knotweed (under \"knotweed\")(USA)",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
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"plaintext": " Strategies for the eradication of Japanese knotweed",
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},
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"plaintext": " American Journal of Botany - Sexual Reproduction in the Invasive Species Fallopia japonica",
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},
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"plaintext": " Japanese Knotweed Alliance (UK)",
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"plaintext": " Recipes from \"Wildman\" Steve Brill",
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"plaintext": " Time lapse video of knotweed growth BBC",
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"plaintext": " Insect that fights Japanese knotweed to be released BBC News 2010-03-09",
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"plaintext": " How close is Japanese Knotweed to my home? BBC News 11 August 2017",
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"plaintext": " UK location map at planttracker.org.uk",
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"Flora_of_Eastern_Asia",
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"Polygonoideae",
"Stem_vegetables",
"Plants_described_in_1777",
"Flora_of_China"
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| 18,421,053 | 18,980 | 185 | 104 | 0 | 0 | Reynoutria japonica | species of plant | [
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"Flowering Bamboo"
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|
37,775 | 1,079,770,127 | English_mythology | [
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"plaintext": "English mythology is the collection of myths that have emerged throughout the history of England, sometimes being elaborated upon by successive generations, and at other times being rejected and replaced by other explanatory narratives. These narratives consist of folk traditions developed in England after the Norman Conquest, integrated with traditions from Anglo-Saxon mythology, Christian mythology, and Celtic mythology. Elements of the Matter of Britain, Welsh mythology and Cornish mythology which relate directly to England are included, such as the foundation myth of Brutus of Troy and the Arthurian legends, but these are combined with narratives from the Matter of England and traditions from English folklore.",
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"plaintext": " Alfred the Great (849–899): In 878, burns the cakes in Athelney, Somerset before defeating the Great Heathen Army at the Battle of Edington.",
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"plaintext": " Angul (13th century): Legendary founder and king of the Angles.",
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"plaintext": " King Arthur (late 5th and early 6th centuries A.D.): Legendary leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the Knights of the Round Table in the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders. A central figure in the legends making up the Matter of Britain. (see also: Welsh, Cornish, and Breton mythologies)",
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{
"plaintext": " Athelston (mid- or late 14th century): Anonymous Middle English verse romance, often classified as a Matter of England text. Its themes of kingship, justice and the rule of law relate to the politics of Richard II's reign.",
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{
"plaintext": " Beowulf (dates to between the 8th and the early 11th centuries): Epic poem in Old English. The original manuscript has no title, but the story it tells has become known by the name of its protagonist. Beowulf may be the oldest surviving long poem in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature.",
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"plaintext": " Sir Bevis of Hampton (dates to the first half of the 13th century): Legendary English hero; the subject of medieval metrical romances which bear his name.",
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"plaintext": " Brutus of Troy, or Brute of Troy (dates to the 9th century: Legendary descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas, known in medieval British history as the eponymous founder and first king of Britain. Brutus first appears in the Historia Brittonum, but is best known from Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.",
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"plaintext": " Fulk FitzWarin (c. 1160–1258): Subject of the medieval legend Fouke le Fitz Waryn, which relates the story of Fulk's life as an outlaw and his struggle to regain his familial right to Whittington Castle from King John.",
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"plaintext": " The Tale of Gamelyn (dates to c. 1350): Romance taking place during the reign of King Edward I, telling the story of Gamelyn and the various obstacles he must overcome in order to retrieve his rightful inheritance from his older brother. Written in a dialect of Middle English and considered part of the Matter of England.",
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"plaintext": " Guy of Warwick (dates to the 13th century): Legendary English hero of Romance popular in England and France from the 13th to 17th centuries; considered to be part of the Matter of England.",
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"plaintext": " Havelok the Dane, or Lay of Havelok the Dane (between 1280 and 1290): Middle English Romance considered to be part of the Matter of England; the story derives from two earlier Anglo-Norman texts.",
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"plaintext": " Hengist and Horsa (5th century): Legendary brothers said to have led the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in their invasion of Britain in the 5th century; Horsa was killed fighting the Britons, but Hengist successfully conquered Kent, becoming the forefather of its Jutish kings. A figure named Hengest appears in the Finnesburg Fragment and in Beowulf.",
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{
"plaintext": " King Horn (dates to the middle of the 13th century): Chivalric romance in Middle English; considered part of the Matter of England. Believed to be the oldest extant romance in Middle English.",
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"plaintext": " Lady Godiva (dates to at least the 13th century): English noblewoman who, according to legend, rode naked – covered only in her long hair – through the streets of Coventry to gain a remission of the oppressive taxation that her husband imposed on his tenants. The term \"Peeping Tom\" originates from later versions of this legend, in which a man named Thomas watched her ride and was struck blind or dead.",
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"plaintext": " Robin Hood (dates to the 1370s): Heroic outlaw of English folklore who, according to legend, was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. Traditionally depicted dressed in Lincoln green, he is said to rob from the rich and give to the poor. Alongside his band of Merry Men in Sherwood Forest and against the Sheriff of Nottingham, he became a popular folk figure in the Late Middle Ages, and continues to be represented in literature, film and television.",
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"plaintext": " Sceafa (dates, arguably, to the 6th century): Ancient Lombardic king in English legend. The story has Sceafa appearing mysteriously as a child, coming out of the sea in an empty skiff. The name has historically been modernized Shava.",
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"plaintext": " Waltheof of Melrose (c. 1095 – 1159): 12th century English abbot and saint; born to the English nobility, Waltheof is noted for his severe, self-imposed austerities and kindness to the poor.",
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"plaintext": " Wayland the Smith (dates to the 8th century): Legendary master blacksmith who appears in Deor, Waldere, and Beowulf; the legend is depicted on the Franks Casket.",
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"plaintext": " Arthurian tales: see King Arthur.",
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"plaintext": " The Tales of Robin Hood and his Merry Men: see Robin Hood.",
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"plaintext": " The works of C.S. Lewis (1898–1963).",
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"plaintext": " The works of William Shakespeare (1564–1616).",
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"plaintext": " The works of J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973).",
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"plaintext": " Alfred the Great – British Library",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur – British Library",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Beowulf – British Library",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Layamon's Roman de Brut – British Library",
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| [
"English_mythology"
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| 52,699,397 | 2,939 | 13 | 129 | 0 | 0 | English mythology | [
"British mythos",
"Mythology of England"
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|
|
37,776 | 1,105,594,353 | Lyonesse | [
{
"plaintext": "Lyonesse is a kingdom which, according to legend, consisted of a long strand of land stretching from Land's End at the southwestern tip of Cornwall, England to what is now the Isles of Scilly in the Celtic Sea portion of the Atlantic Ocean. It was considered lost after being swallowed by the ocean in a single night. The people of Lyonesse allegedly lived in what is described as fair towns, with over 140 churches, and worked in fertile low-lying plains. Lyonesse's most significant attraction was a castle-like cathedral that was presumably built on top of what is now the Seven Stones Reef between Land's End and the Isles of Scilly, some west of Land's End and north-east of the Isles of Scilly.",
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"plaintext": "Lyonesse is mentioned in Arthurian legend, but particularly in the tragic love and loss story of Tristan and Iseult. Lyonesse is most notable as the home of the hero Tristan (one of the Knights of the Round Table), whose father Meliodas was king of Lyonesse. After the death of Meliodas, Tristan became the heir of Lyonesse, but he was never to take up his inheritance because Lyonesse sank beneath the sea while he was away at his uncle King Mark's court in Cornwall. In later traditions, Lyonesse is said to have sunk beneath the waves in a single night, yet stories differ whether this catastrophic event occurred on 11 November 1099, or ten years earlier in 1089. According to legend, the people of Lyonesse allegedly had committed a crime so terrible that God took his revenge against them and their kingdom. The crime is never mentioned in any text or stories, but the legend tells of a horrific storm that occurred over the course of a single night which resulted in an enormous wave that swallowed the kingdom and everything that was in its path. In what may have been a tsunami or tidal wave, the Kingdom of Lyonesse was lost forever and disappeared from the face of the earth as if it had never existed.",
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"plaintext": "Local Cornwall village tourism guides offer stories of a man who escaped the storm and a subsequent wave while riding a white horse. Apparently, the horse lost one of its shoes during the escape. It is thought that the rider's name was Trevelyan (or Trevilian). The rider had been out hunting during the day and had fallen asleep under a tree. Trevelyan was awoken by a horrible noise and raced across the land to higher ground. This story is linked to local Cornwall families who have used the image of three horseshoes as part of their family crest for generations. One family in particular that goes by the name Vyvyan and are one of Cornwall's oldest families, also has a crest of a white horse and they also claim to be descendants of the sole survivor, Trevelyan. The Vyvyan family claims that Trevelyan was the last governor of the lost kingdom before Lyonesse was swallowed by the ocean.",
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"plaintext": "Today, many myths and legends continue to rise to the surface about Lyonesse without physical evidence. Included among these legends are tales of local fishermen who claim that on calm days one can still hear the bells of the many churches softly ringing in the seas off the west Cornish coast. Local fishermen also claim that they have caught glass, forks, and wood in their fishing nets.",
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"plaintext": "A 2009–13 joint study titled The Lyonesse Project: a study of the coastal and marine environment of the Isles of Scilly was commissioned by English Heritage and carried out by the Historic Environment Projects, Cornwall Council with a team of academics, local experts and enthusiasts \"to reconstruct the evolution of the physical environment of the Isles of Scilly during the Holocene, the progressive occupation of this changing coastal landscape by early peoples and their response to marine inundation and changing marine resource availability.\" The project found that while much of the story of Lyonesse can be \"dismissed as fantasy\", an overflow of legends and memories of submergences are common throughout the northwestern portion of Europe. It concluded that the Isles of Scilly were once a single large island which separated into smaller islands due to the rapid sea-level rise. Stone walls have been located under the water in the vicinity of the Isles of Scilly which supports the findings that sea level rises impacted the towns of the area, although it remains unclear whether they are evidence of buildings or the remains of medieval fish traps.",
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"plaintext": "In medieval Arthurian legend, there are no references to the sinking of Lyonesse, because the name originally referred to a still-existing place. Lyonesse is an English alteration of French Léoneis or Léonois (earlier Loönois), a development of Lodonesia, the Latin name for Lothian in Scotland. Continental writers of Arthurian romances were often puzzled by the internal geography of Great Britain; thus it is that the author of the French Prose Tristan appears to place Léonois beside Cornwall.",
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"plaintext": "In English adaptations of the French tales, Léonois, now \"Lyonesse\", becomes a kingdom wholly distinct from Lothian, and closely associated with the Cornish region, though its exact geographical location remained unspecified. The name was not attached to Cornish legends of lost coastal lands until the reign of Elizabeth I of England. However, the legendary lost land between Land's End and Scilly has a distinct Cornish name: Lethowsow. This derives from the Cornish name for the Seven Stones Reef, on the reputed site of the lost land's capital and the site of the notorious wreck of the . The name means 'the milky ones', from the constant white water surrounding the reef.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Arthurian epic Idylls of the King describes Lyonesse as the site of the final battle between King Arthur and Mordred (King Arthur's nephew and illegitimate son). One passage in particular references legends of Lyonesse and its rise from (and subsequent return to) the ocean:",
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"plaintext": "The legend of a sunken kingdom appears in both Cornish and Breton mythology. In Christian times it came to be viewed as a sort of Cornish Sodom and Gomorrah, an example of divine wrath provoked by unvirtuous living.",
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"plaintext": "There is a Breton parallel in the tale of the Cité d'Ys or Ker Ys, similarly drowned as a result of its debauchery with a single virtuous survivor escaping on a horse, in this case, King Gradlon. The Welsh equivalent to Lyonesse and Ys is Cantre'r Gwaelod, a legendary drowned kingdom in Cardigan Bay. Not too dissimilarly, the Gaelic otherworld Tír na nÓg ('Land of Youth') was often conceived of as a mystical place that had to be reached via a sea voyage, though it lacks an inundation myth.",
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"plaintext": "It is often suggested that the tale of Lyonesse represents an extraordinary survival of folk memory of the flooding of the Isles of Scilly and Mount's Bay near Penzance when the sea levels rose during the Bronze Age. For example, the Cornish name of St Michael's Mount is Karrek Loos y'n Koos – literally \"the grey rock in the wood\", suggesting that the bay was once a forest. According to local tourism guides in the region, Lyonesse was once connected to the west of Cornwall and is firmly rooted in Cornwall's traditions and mythology. Cornish people around Penzance still get occasional glimpses at extreme low water of a sunken forest in Mount's Bay, where petrified tree stumps become visible adjacent to the Celtic Sea. John of Worcester, a famous English monk and chronicler, wrote in 1099, that St Michael's Mount (now an island in Mount's Bay) was five or six miles from the sea, enclosed in a thick wood. The importance of the maintenance of this memory can be seen in that it came to be associated with the legendary Brython hero Arthur, although the date of its inundation is actually c. 2500 BC.",
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"plaintext": " Dawn in Lyonesse, a 1938 short novel by Mary Ellen Chase",
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"plaintext": " Lyonesse: The Well Between The Worlds (2009) and Lyonesse: Dark Solstice (2010), two children's books by Sam Llewellyn.",
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"plaintext": " The plot of the manga and anime series Seven Deadly Sins revolves around the kingdom of Liones (Lyonesse)",
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"plaintext": "In the 1995 film First Knight, before her marriage to King Arthur, Guinevere rules as Lady of Lyonesse.",
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"plaintext": "Tristram of Lyonesse (1882), an epic poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne",
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"plaintext": " When I Set out for Lyonnesse (1914), by Thomas Hardy. An edition published in 1932 adds the year 1870 to the title, a reference to Hardy's trip to St Juliot where he met his first wife Emma Gifford. The poem said Lyonnesse is \"a hundred miles away\"; the straight-line distance from St Juliot to Dorchester is 97 miles.",
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"plaintext": " Sunk Lyonesse (1922), by Walter de la Mare",
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"plaintext": " Lyonnesse (1962), by Sylvia Plath",
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"plaintext": " Lyonnesse (2021), by Penelope Shuttle",
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"plaintext": " Lyonesse, a song by Cornish folk composer Richard Gendall, appears as the title track of the 1982 album by Brenda Wootton",
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"plaintext": " When I Set out for Lyonnesse, a setting of Hardy's poem by the English composer Gerald Finzi in his 1936 song cycle Earth and Air and Rain",
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"plaintext": "\"The Bells of Lyonesse\", a song by German Progressive Metal band Subsignal, appears on their 2018 album \"La Muerta\"",
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"plaintext": " SS Lyonesse: a steam ferry of the West Cornwall Steam Ship Company",
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"plaintext": " Lyonesse: Great Western Railway Bulldog Class steam locomotive no. 3361",
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"plaintext": " Lyonnesse: Southern Railway King Arthur Class steam locomotive no. 743",
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"plaintext": " Lyonnesse: British Railways Standard Class 5 steam locomotive no. 73113.",
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"plaintext": " Ys",
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"plaintext": "Listeneise",
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"plaintext": " Gallia Lugdunensis",
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"plaintext": " Matter of Britain",
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"plaintext": " Where Troy Once Stood",
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"plaintext": " Eilhart von Oberge (c. 1180) Tristant",
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"plaintext": " Anonymous (c. 1220) Prose Tristan",
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"plaintext": " Anonymous (c. 1335) La Tavola Ritonda",
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"plaintext": " Malory, Sir Thomas (1470) Le Morte D'Arthur",
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"plaintext": " Anonymous (1555) I Due Tristani",
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"plaintext": " Tennyson, Alfred Lord (1886) Idylls of the King",
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"plaintext": " Lyonesse. (2019, January 15). Retrieved November 25, 2020, from ",
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"plaintext": " Coate, M. (2009, February 12). The Vyvyan Family of Trelowarren: Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Retrieved November 25, 2020, from ",
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"plaintext": " Trejo, A. (2020, July 24). Discover The Legends of the Lost Kingdom of Lyonesse. Retrieved November 17, 2020, from ",
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"plaintext": " Lyonesse. (2018, July 20). Retrieved November 17, 2020, from ",
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{
"plaintext": " Mrreese. (2014, December 23). The Lost Land of Lyonesse – Legendary City on the Bottom of the Sea.",
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| [
"Locations_associated_with_Arthurian_legend",
"Cornish_folklore",
"Locations_in_Celtic_mythology",
"Mythological_populated_places",
"Fictional_European_countries",
"Flood_myths",
"History_of_the_Isles_of_Scilly"
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| 508,541 | 4,626 | 60 | 89 | 0 | 0 | Lyonesse | country in Arthurian legend | []
|
37,777 | 857,840,219 | Dragon_Book | [
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"plaintext": "The Dragon Book may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " Principles of Compiler Design, a book by Alfred V. Aho, and Jeffrey D. Ullman",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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| []
| 1,254,228 | 280 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Dragon Book | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,778 | 1,107,402,076 | Tajiks | [
{
"plaintext": "Tajiks (, Tājīk, Tājek; ) are a Persian-speaking Iranian ethnic group native to Central Asia, living primarily in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Tajiks are the largest ethnicity in Tajikistan, and the second-largest in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. They speak varieties of Persian, a Western Iranian language. In Tajikistan, since the 1939 Soviet census, its small Pamiri and Yaghnobi ethnic groups are included as Tajiks. In China, the term is used to refer to its Pamiri ethnic groups, the Tajiks of Xinjiang, who speak the Eastern Iranian Pamiri languages. In Afghanistan, the Pamiris are counted as a separate ethnic group.",
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"plaintext": "As a self-designation, the literary New Persian term Tajik, which originally had some previous pejorative usage as a label for eastern Persians or Iranians, has become acceptable during the last several decades, particularly as a result of Soviet administration in Central Asia. Alternative names for the Tajiks are Eastern Persian, Fārsīwān (Persian-speaker), and Dīhgān (cf. ) which translates to \"farmer or settled villager\", in a wider sense \"settled\" in contrast to \"nomadic\" and was later used to describe a class of land-owning magnates as \"Persian of noble blood\" in contrast to Arabs, Turks and Romans during the Sassanid and early Islamic period.",
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"plaintext": "The Tajiks are an Iranian people, speaking a variety of Persian, concentrated in the Oxus Basin, the Farḡāna valley (Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan) and on both banks of the upper Oxus, i.e., the Pamir Mountains (Mountain Badaḵšān, in Tajikistan) and northeastern Afghanistan (Badaḵšān). Historically, the ancient Tajiks were chiefly agriculturalists before the Arab Conquest of Iran. While agriculture remained a stronghold, the Islamization of Iran also resulted in the rapid urbanization of historical Khorasan and Transoxiana that lasted until the devastating Mongolian invasion. Several surviving ancient urban centers of the Tajik people include Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand and Termez.",
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"plaintext": "Contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples. According to Richard Nelson Frye, a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian migration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians, along with some elements of East-Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of modern Tajiks. In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that many \"factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia\" and that \"the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them.\"",
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"plaintext": "During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Tajik-dominated Jamiat-e Islami founded by Burhanuddin Rabbani resisted the Red Army and the communist Afghan government. Tajik commander, Ahmad Shah Massoud, successfully repelled nine Soviet campaigns from taking Panjshir Valley and earned the nickname \"Lion of Panjshir\" (شیر پنجشیر).",
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"plaintext": "According to John Perry (Encyclopaedia Iranica):",
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"plaintext": "The most plausible and generally accepted origin of the word is Middle Persian tāzīk 'Arab' (cf. New Persian tāzi), or an Iranian (Sogdian or Parthian) cognate word. The Muslim armies that invaded Transoxiana early in the eighth century, conquering the Sogdian principalities and clashing with the Qarluq Turks (see Bregel, Atlas, Maps 8–10) consisted not only of Arabs, but also of Persian converts from Fārs and the central Zagros region (Bartol'd [Barthold], \"Tadžiki,\" pp. 455–57). Hence the Turks of Central Asia adopted a variant of the Iranian word, täžik, to designate their Muslim adversaries in general. For example, the rulers of the south Indian Chalukya dynasty and Rashtrakuta dynasty also referred to the Arabs as \"Tajika\" in the 8th and 9th century. By the eleventh century (Yusof Ḵāṣṣ-ḥājeb, Qutadḡu bilig, lines 280, 282, 3265), the Qarakhanid Turks applied this term more specifically to the Persian Muslims in the Oxus basin and Khorasan, who were variously the Turks' rivals, models, overlords (under the Samanid Dynasty), and subjects (from Ghaznavid times on). Persian writers of the Ghaznavid, Seljuq and Atābak periods (ca. 1000–1260) adopted the term and extended its use to cover Persians in the rest of Greater Iran, now under Turkish rule, as early as the poet ʿOnṣori, ca. 1025 (Dabirsiāqi, pp. 3377, 3408). Iranians soon accepted it as an ethnonym, as is shown by a Persian court official's referring to mā tāzikān \"we Tajiks\" (Bayhaqi, ed. Fayyāz, p. 594). The distinction between Turk and Tajik became stereotyped to express the symbiosis and rivalry of the (ideally) nomadic military executive and the urban civil bureaucracy (Niẓām al-Molk: tāzik, pp. 146, 178–79; Fragner, \"Tādjīk. 2\" in EI2 10, p. 63).",
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"plaintext": "The word also occurs in the Tonyukuk inscriptions as tözik, used for a local Arab tribe in Tashkent area. These Arabs were said to be from the Taz tribe, which is still found in Yemen. In the 7th century, the Taz began to Islamize Transoxiana.",
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"plaintext": "The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, as well as in northern and western Afghanistan, though there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a substantial minority in Uzbekistan, as well as in overseas communities. Historically, the ancestors of the Tajiks lived in a larger territory in Central Asia than now.",
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"plaintext": "Tajiks comprise around 84.3% of the population of Tajikistan. This number includes speakers of the Pamiri languages, including Wakhi and Shughni, and the Yaghnobi people who in the past were considered by the government of the Soviet Union nationalities separate from the Tajiks. In the 1926 and 1937 Soviet censuses, the Yaghnobis and Pamiri language speakers were counted as separate nationalities. After 1937, these groups were required to register as Tajiks.",
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"plaintext": "According to the World Factbook, Tajiks make up about 27% of the population in Afghanistan, but according to other sources they form 37%–39% of the population. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica they constitute about one-fifth of the population. They are predominant in four of the largest cities in Afghanistan (Kabul, Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, and Ghazni) and make up the largest ethnic group in the northern and western provinces of Balkh, Takhar, Badakhshan, Samangan, Parwan, Panjshir, Kapisa, Baghlan, Ghor, Badghis and Herat.",
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"plaintext": "In Afghanistan, the Tajiks do not organize themselves by tribes and refer to themselves by the region, province, city, town, or village that they are from; such as Badakhshi, Baghlani, Mazari, Panjsheri, Kabuli, Herati, Kohistani etc. Although in the past, some non-Pashto speaking tribes were identified as Tajik, for example the Furmuli.",
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"plaintext": "In Uzbekistan, the Tajiks are the largest part of the population of the ancient cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, and are found in large numbers in the Surxondaryo Region in the south and along Uzbekistan's eastern border with Tajikistan. According to official statistics (2000), Surxondaryo Region accounts for 24.4% of all Tajiks in Uzbekistan, with another 34.3% in Samarqand and Bukhara regions.",
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"plaintext": "Official statistics in Uzbekistan state that the Tajik community comprises 5% of the nation's total population. However, these numbers do not include ethnic Tajiks who, for a variety of reasons, choose to identify themselves as Uzbeks in population census forms. During the Soviet \"Uzbekization\" supervised by Sharof Rashidov, the head of the Uzbek Communist Party, Tajiks had to choose either stay in Uzbekistan and get registered as Uzbek in their passports or leave the republic for Tajikistan, which is mountainous and less agricultural. It is only in the last population census (1989) that the nationality could be reported not according to the passport, but freely declared on the basis of the respondent's ethnic self-identification. This had the effect of increasing the Tajik population in Uzbekistan from 3.9% in 1979 to 4.7% in 1989. Some scholars estimate that Tajiks may make up 35% of Uzbekistan's population.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese Tajiks or Mountain Tajiks in China (Sarikoli: , Tujik; ), including Sarikolis (majority) and Wakhis (minority) in China, are the Pamiri ethnic group that lives in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. They are one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 1999 population census, there were 26,000 Tajiks in Kazakhstan (0.17% of the total population), about the same number as in the 1989 census.",
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"plaintext": "According to official statistics, there were about 47,500 Tajiks in Kyrgyzstan in 2007 (0.9% of the total population), up from 42,600 in the 1999 census and 33,500 in the 1989 census.",
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"plaintext": "According to the last Soviet census in 1989, there were 3,149 Tajiks in Turkmenistan, or less than 0.1% of the total population of 3.5 million at that time. The first population census of independent Turkmenistan conducted in 1995 showed 3,103 Tajiks in a population of 4.4 million (0.07%), most of them (1,922) concentrated in the eastern provinces of Lebap and Mary adjoining the borders with Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.",
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"plaintext": "The population of Tajiks in Russia was about 200,303 according to the 2010 census, up from 38,000 in the last Soviet census of 1989. Most Tajiks came to Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, often as guest workers in places like Moscow and Saint Petersburg or federal subjects near the Kazakhstan border. There are currently estimated to be over one million Tajik guest workers living in Russia, with their remittances accounting for as much as half of Tajikistan's economy.",
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"plaintext": "There are an estimated 220,000 Tajiks in Pakistan as of 2012, mainly refugees from Afghanistan. During the 1990s, as a result of the Tajikistan Civil War, between 700 and 1,200 Tajikistanis arrived in Pakistan, mainly as students, the children of Tajikistani refugees in Afghanistan. In 2002, around 300 requested to return home and were repatriated back to Tajikistan with the help of the IOM, UNHCR and the two countries' authorities.",
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"plaintext": "The dominant haplogroup among modern Tajiks is the Haplogroup R1a Y-DNA. ~45% of Tajik men share R1a (M17), ~18% J (M172), ~8% R2 (M124), and ~8% C (M130 & M48). Tajiks of Panjikent score 68% R1a, Tajiks of Khojant score 64% R1a. The high frequency of haplogroup R1a in the Tajiks probably reflects a strong founder effect. According to another genetic test, 63% of Tajik male samples from Tajikistan carry R1a.",
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"plaintext": "An autosomal DNA study by Guarino-Vignon et al. 2022, analyzing 5019 individuals (3102 ancient and 1915 modern), revealed that Iranian peoples, specifically Tajiks and Yaghnobis, show genetic continuity with ancient Indo-Iranian samples from pre-Turkic Central Asia, including Iron Age samples from Turkmenistan. The authors concluded that Tajiks stayed largely unaffected by outside geneflow, and show continuity with ancient samples since the Iron Age.",
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"plaintext": "The language of the Tajiks is an eastern dialect of Persian, called Dari (derived from Darbārī, \"[of/from the] royal courts\", in the sense of \"courtly language\"), or also Parsi-e Darbari. In Tajikistan, where Cyrillic script is used, it is called the Tajiki language. In Afghanistan, unlike in Tajikistan, Tajiks continue to use the Perso-Arabic script, as well as in Iran. However, when the Soviet Union introduced the Latin script in 1928, and later the Cyrillic script, the Persian dialect of Tajikistan came to be considered a separate (Persian) language. Since the 19th century, Tajiki has been strongly influenced by the Russian language and has incorporated many Russian language loan words. It has also adopted fewer Arabic loan words than Iranian Persian while retaining vocabulary that has fallen out of use in the latter language. In Tajikistan, in ordinary speech, also known as \"zaboni kucha\" (lit. \"street language\", as opposed to \"zaboni adabi\", lit. \"literary language\", which is used in schools, media etc.), many urban Tajiks prefer to use Russian loanwords instead of their literary Persian analogs.",
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"plaintext": "The dialects of modern Persian spoken throughout Greater Iran have a common origin. This is due to the fact that one of Greater Iran's historical cultural capitals, called Greater Khorasan, which included parts of modern Central Asia and much of Afghanistan and constitutes as the Tajik's ancestral homeland, played a key role in the development and propagation of Persian language and culture throughout much of Greater Iran after the Muslim conquest. Furthermore, early manuscripts of the historical Persian spoken in Mashhad during the development of Middle to New Persian show that their origins came from Sistan, in present-day Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "Various scholars have recorded the Zoroastrian, Hindu, and Buddhist pre-Islamic heritage of the Tajik people. Early temples for fire worship have been found in Balkh and Bactria and excavations in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan show remnants of Zoroastrian fire temples.",
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"plaintext": "Today, however, the great majority of Tajiks follow Sunni Islam, although small Twelver and Ismaili Shia minorities also exist in scattered pockets. Areas with large numbers of Shias include Herat, Badakhshan provinces in Afghanistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in Tajikistan, and Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County in China. Some of the famous Islamic scholars were from either modern or historical East-Iranian regions lying in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan and therefore can arguably be viewed as Tajiks. They include Abu Hanifa, Imam Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Abu Dawood, Nasir Khusraw and many others.",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2009 U.S. State Department release, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim, (approximately 85% Sunni and 5% Shia). In Afghanistan, the great number of Tajiks adhere to Sunni Islam. The smaller number of Tajiks who may follow Twelver Shia Islam are locally called Farsiwan. The community of Bukharian Jews in Central Asia speak a dialect of Persian. The Bukharian Jewish community in Uzbekistan is the largest remaining community of Central Asian Jews and resides primarily in Bukhara and Samarkand, while the Bukharaian Jews of Tajikistan live in Dushanbe and number only a few hundred. From the 1970s to the 1990s the majority of these Tajik-speaking Jews emigrated to the United States and to Israel in accordance with Aliyah. Recently, the Protestant community of Tajiks descent has experienced significant growth, a 2015 study estimates some 2,600 Muslim Tajik converted to Christianity.",
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"plaintext": "Tajikistan marked 2009 as the year to commemorate the Tajik Sunni Muslim jurist Abu Hanifa, whose ancestry hailed from Parwan Province of Afghanistan, as the nation hosted an international symposium that drew scientific and religious leaders. The construction of one of the largest mosques in the world, funded by Qatar, was announced in October 2009. The mosque is planned to be built in Dushanbe and construction is said to be completed by 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The collapse of the Soviet Union and the Civil War in Afghanistan both gave rise to a resurgence in Tajik nationalism across the region, including a trial to revert to the Perso-Arabic script in Tajikistan. Furthermore, Tajikistan in particular has been a focal point for this movement, and the government there has made a conscious effort to revive the legacy of the Samanid empire, the first Tajik-dominated state in the region after the Arab advance. For instance, the President of Tajikistan, Emomalii Rahmon, dropped the Russian suffix \"-ov\" from his surname and directed others to adopt Tajik names when registering births. According to a government announcement in October 2009, approximately 4,000 Tajik nationals have dropped \"ov\" and \"ev\" from their surnames since the start of the year.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2009, the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan proposed a draft law to have the nation's language referred to as \"Tajiki-Farsi\" rather than \"Tajik.\" The proposal drew criticism from Russian media since the bill sought to remove the Russian language as Tajikistan's inter-ethnic lingua franca. In 1989, the original name of the language (Farsi) had been added to its official name in brackets, though Rahmon's government renamed the language to simply \"Tajiki\" in 1994. On 6 October 2009, Tajikistan adopted the law that removes Russian as the lingua franca and mandated Tajik as the language to be used in official documents and education, with an exception for members Tajikistan's ethnic minority groups, who would be permitted to receive an education in the language of their choosing.",
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"plaintext": " Bukharan Jews",
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"plaintext": " Chagatai Tajiks",
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"plaintext": " Kharduri Tajiks",
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"plaintext": " Tajiks of Xinjiang",
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| [
"Ethnic_Tajik_people",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Afghanistan",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Tajikistan",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Uzbekistan",
"Iranian_ethnic_groups",
"Ethnic_groups_divided_by_international_borders"
]
| 483,505 | 23,712 | 801 | 203 | 0 | 0 | Tajiks | Iranian ethnic group native to Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan | [
"Tajaks",
"Tadzhiks",
"Sart",
"Sarts",
"Tadjiks",
"Tadjik",
"Tajik",
"Tadzhik"
]
|
37,779 | 1,095,076,103 | Luge | [
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"plaintext": "Lugers can reach speeds of 140km/h (87mph). Austrian Manuel Pfister reached a top speed of 154km/h (96mph) on a track in Whistler, Canada, prior to the 2010 Winter Olympics. Lugers compete against a timer in one of the most precisely timed sports in the world—to one thousandth of a second on artificial tracks.",
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"plaintext": "The first recorded use of the term \"luge\" dates to 1905 and derives from the Savoy/Swiss dialect of the French word luge, meaning \"small coasting sled\".",
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"plaintext": "The very practical use of sleds is ancient and widespread. The first recorded sled races took place in Norway sometime during the 15th century.",
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"plaintext": "The sport of luge, like the skeleton and the bobsleigh, originated in the health-spa town of St Moritz, Switzerland, in the mid-to-late 19th century, through the endeavours of hotel entrepreneur Caspar Badrutt. Badrutt successfully sold the idea of winter resorting, as well as rooms with food, drink, and activities. His more adventurous English guests began adapting delivery boys' sleds for recreation, which led to collisions with pedestrians as they sped down the lanes and alleys of the village.",
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"plaintext": "The first organized meeting of the sport took place in 1883 in Switzerland. In 1913, the Internationale Schlittensportverband or International Sled Sports Federation was founded in Dresden, Germany. This body governed the sport until 1935, when it was incorporated in the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT, International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation). After it had been decided that luge would replace the sport of skeleton at the Olympic Games, the first World Championships in the sport were held in 1955 in Oslo (Norway). In 1957, the Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL, International Luge Federation) was founded. Luge events were first included in the Olympic Winter Games in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "Americans were slow to adopt the sport of luge. The first luge run in North America was built at Lolo Hot Springs, Montana, in 1965. Although the United States competed in every Olympic luge event from 1964 through 1976, it was not until 1979 that the United States Luge Association was founded. The first artificial American track was completed in that year for use in the 1980 XIII Winter Olympic Games at Lake Placid, New York.",
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"plaintext": "Since that time the United States luge program has greatly improved. A second artificial track was constructed near Park City, Utah, for the 2002 XIX Olympic Winter Games at Salt Lake City.",
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"plaintext": "Caitlin Nash and Natalie Corless, both of Canada, became the first all-female team to compete in a Senior World Cup doubles race in luge in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Artificial luge tracks have specially designed and constructed banked curves plus walled-in straights. Most tracks are artificially refrigerated, but artificial tracks without artificial cooling also exist (for example, in St. Moritz). Tracks tend to be very smooth.",
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"plaintext": "The athletes ride in a flat, aerodynamic position on the sled, keeping their heads low to minimize air resistance. They steer the sled mainly with their calves by applying pressure on the runners—right calf to turn left, left calf to turn right. It takes a precise mix of shifting body weight, applying pressure with calves and rolling the shoulders. There are also handles for minor adjustments. A successful luger maintains complete concentration and relaxation on the sled while travelling at high speeds. Fastest times result from following the perfect \"line\" down the track. Any slight error, such as brushing against the wall, costs time. Track conditions are also important. Softer ice tends to slow speeds, while harder ice tends to lead to faster times. Lugers race at speeds averaging around high banked curves while experiencing a centripetal acceleration of up to 5g. Men's Singles have their start locations near where the bobsled and skeleton competitors start at most tracks, while both the Doubles and Women's Singles competition have their starthouse located farther down the track. Artificial track luge is the fastest and most agile sledding sport.",
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"plaintext": "Natural tracks are adapted from existing mountain roads and paths. Artificially banked curves are not permitted. The track's surface should be horizontal. They are naturally iced. Tracks can get rough from the braking and steering action. Athletes use a steering rein, put out their hands and use their legs in order to drive around the tight corners. Braking is often required in front of curves and is accomplished by the use of spikes built on the bottom of the shoes. Tracks have a slope of not more than 15%.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the tracks are situated in Austria and Italy, with others in Germany, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Croatia, Liechtenstein, France, Turkey, Sweden, Norway, Romania, Slovakia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The Upper Peninsula Luge Club in Negaunee, Michigan, is the only natural luge track in the United States. The over 800 meter (half-mile) track features 10 full corners along its vertical drop.",
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"plaintext": "Canada has tracks in Camrose, Hinton Luge, Alberta, Calgary and Ontario Luge Club.",
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"plaintext": "Naseby's track is the only one in the southern hemisphere. The track is 360 meters long, and is open to the public through winter.",
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"plaintext": "World championships have been held since 1979 while European championships have been held since 1970. In season 2015/16 FIL started with the Junior Worldcup.",
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"plaintext": "There are five luge disciplines.",
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"plaintext": "Men's singles",
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"plaintext": "Men’s doubles",
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"plaintext": "Women's singles",
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"plaintext": "Women’s doubles (debuts in 2026)",
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"plaintext": "Team relay",
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"plaintext": "These are further broken into several age classes - multiple youth and junior classes that cover the range of age 7–20, and general class (ages 21 and older). Older competitors may enjoy the sport in masters (age 30–50), and senior masters (age 51+) classes.",
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"plaintext": "In a team relay competition, one man, one woman, and a doubles pair form a team. A touchpad at the bottom of the run is touched by a competitor signaling a teammate at the top of the run to start.",
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"plaintext": "Rules and procedures for races are very precise:",
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"plaintext": " A drawing is held to determine start order for the race. Athletes are assigned a number which is displayed on a bib. During major national and international events, men's singles consists of four runs. Women's singles and doubles competitions consist of two runs. The cumulative time of all runs is used to determine finish order. In all three events, the start order after the first run is determined by the outcome of the previous run, with the last-place slider sliding first, the next-to-last place slider sliding second, and so forth, with the leader of the previous run sliding last.",
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"plaintext": " Physical measurements of the sled are taken, and the temperature of the sled's steel blades is checked and may not be more than 5°C (9°F) above that of a previously established control temperature. Additionally, for artificial track races, the athlete must first be weighed. This is to determine whether the athlete is entitled to carry extra weight on their body while sliding. Men may use additional weight amounting to 75% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Women may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Doubles athletes may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Additional weight is not allowed if the body weight of the front person and back person together exceeds . If one of the partners weighs more than , the weight exceeding the mark is added to the lighter partner. If there should still be a difference between the partner's weight and the mark, the difference can be compensated according to an official weight table. Between runs, athletes are randomly selected for additional weight checks. Before each run, the sled (with the athlete, for artificial track races) is weighed at the start ramp.",
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"plaintext": " Once an athlete is on their sled, they are audibly notified that the track is clear. At this point, a tone sounds and the athlete has thirty seconds to begin their run. A run becomes official when an athlete and their sled, in contact with one another, crosses the finish line. If an athlete and sled are not within contact of one another, the athlete is disqualified from further competition. Disqualifications may also take place for any violation of rules and regulations. Certain disqualifications may be appealed.",
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"plaintext": "The sport of luge requires an athlete to balance mental and physical fitness. Physically, a luger must have strong neck, upper body, abdominal, and thigh muscles. Athletes also use wind tunnels to train. Strength training is essential to withstand the extreme G-forces of tight turns at high speeds. Since lugers have very little protection other than a visor and helmet, they must be able to endure the physical pounding administered by the track when mistakes are made.",
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"plaintext": "As with many extreme sports, luging has risks. Though most injuries involve bumps, bruises, broken bones and concussions, fatalities do occasionally occur. Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili suffered a fatal crash during his final practice run for the 2010 Winter Olympics on the Whistler Sliding Centre in Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. Hours later, the International Luge Federation concluded that the accident was caused by a steering error and not a track error; nevertheless, changes to the track were made before the re-opening. Kumaritashvili was the fourth athlete to die while in preparation for a Winter Olympics competition, following speed skier Nicolas Bochatay, aged 27, who died while preparing for the Albertville 1992 games; and British luger Kazimierz Kay-Skrzypecki and skier Ross Milne, aged 19, who both died in the run-up to the Innsbruck 1964 games.",
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"plaintext": "The sport of luge is governed by the Fédération International de Luge de Course (FIL, ",
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"plaintext": "International Luge Federation). The FIL is based in Salzburg, Austria, and includes 53 member nations. It has traditionally had a dominant number of German-speaking representatives.",
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"plaintext": "The following persons have been president of the FIL:",
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"plaintext": " Bert Isatitsch, Austria (1957–1994)",
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"plaintext": " Josef Fendt, Germany (1994–present)",
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"plaintext": "up to: 2022",
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"plaintext": "up to: 2022",
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"plaintext": "up to: 2022",
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"plaintext": "up to: 2022",
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"plaintext": "up to: 2022",
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"plaintext": " including East Germany and West Germany",
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"plaintext": " including Soviet Union and Russian Olympic Committee",
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"plaintext": "World Luge Championships",
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"plaintext": "World Luge Natural Track Championships",
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"plaintext": "List of Luge World Cup champions",
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"plaintext": "Bobsleigh",
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"plaintext": "Skeleton",
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"plaintext": "Toboggan",
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"plaintext": "Street luge",
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"plaintext": "International Luge Federation",
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"plaintext": "Bob- und Schlittenverband für Deutschland/German Luge Federation",
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"plaintext": "Österreichischer Rodelverband/Austrian Luge Federation",
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"plaintext": "United States Luge Association",
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"plaintext": "Natural Track: Upper Peninsula Luge Club of Michigan, USA",
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"plaintext": "Brazilian Luge Federation",
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"plaintext": "British Luge Association",
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"plaintext": "Croatian Luge Federation",
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| [
"Luge",
"Winter_Olympic_sports",
"Racing_vehicles",
"Racing",
"Sledding",
"Winter_sports",
"Human-powered_vehicles",
"Sliding_vehicles",
"Sports_originating_in_Switzerland"
]
| 273,285 | 5,273 | 1,652 | 74 | 0 | 0 | luge | sliding sport where where an individual or a team of 2 propels a luge down a natural or artificial track | [
"artificial luge olympic luge",
"luge on natural track",
"luge on artificial track",
"natural track luge"
]
|
37,780 | 1,106,012,280 | Anglo-Saxons | [
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group who inhabited England in the Early Middle Ages. They traced their origins to settlers who came to Britain from mainland Europe in the 5th century. However, the ethnogenesis of the Anglo-Saxons happened within Britain, and the identity was not merely imported. Anglo-Saxon identity arose from interaction between incoming groups from several Germanic tribes, both amongst themselves, and with indigenous Britons. Many of the natives, over time, adopted Anglo-Saxon culture and language and were assimilated. The Anglo-Saxons established the concept, and the Kingdom, of England, and though the modern English language owes somewhat less than 26% of its words to their language, this includes the vast majority of words used in everyday speech.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the Anglo-Saxon period denotes the period in Britain between about 450 and 1066, after their initial settlement and up until the Norman Conquest.",
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"plaintext": "The early Anglo-Saxon period includes the creation of an English nation, with many of the aspects that survive today, including regional government of shires and hundreds. During this period, Christianity was established and there was a flowering of literature and language. Charters and law were also established. The term Anglo-Saxon is popularly used for the language that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons in England and southeastern Scotland from at least the mid-5th century until the mid-12th century. In scholarly use, it is more commonly called Old English.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the Anglo-Saxons is the history of a cultural identity. It developed from divergent groups in association with the people's adoption of Christianity and was integral to the founding of various kingdoms. Threatened by extended Danish Viking invasions and military occupation of eastern England, this identity was re-established; it dominated until after the Norman Conquest. Anglo-Saxon material culture can still be seen in architecture, dress styles, illuminated texts, metalwork and other art. Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves kings who developed burhs, and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as Helena Hamerow has observed, \"local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period.\" The effects persist, as a 2015 study found the genetic makeup of British populations today shows divisions of the tribal political units of the early Anglo-Saxon period.",
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"plaintext": "The term Anglo-Saxon began to be used in the 8th century (in Latin and on the continent) to distinguish \"Germanic\" groups in Britain from those on the continent (Old Saxony and ",
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"plaintext": "Anglia in Northern Germany). Catherine Hills summarised the views of many modern scholars in her observation that attitudes towards Anglo-Saxons, and hence the interpretation of their culture and history, have been \"more contingent on contemporary political and religious theology as on any kind of evidence.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Old English ethnonym Angul-Seaxan comes from the Latin Angli-Saxones and became the name of the peoples the English monk Bede called Angli around 730 and the British monk Gildas called Saxones around 530. Anglo-Saxon is a term that was rarely used by Anglo-Saxons themselves. It is likely they identified as ængli, Seaxe or, more probably, a local or tribal name such as Mierce, Cantie, Gewisse, Westseaxe, or Norþanhymbre. After the Viking Age, an Anglo-Scandinavian identity developed in the Danelaw.",
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"plaintext": "The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in mainland writing of the 8th century; Paul the Deacon uses it to distinguish the English Saxons from the mainland Saxons (Ealdseaxe, literally, 'old Saxons'). The name therefore seemed to mean \"English\" Saxons.",
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"plaintext": "The Christian church seems to have used the word Angli; for example in the story of Pope Gregory I and his remark, \"Non Angli sed angeli\" (not English but angels). The terms ænglisc (the language) and Angelcynn (the people) were also used by West Saxon King Alfred to refer to the people; in doing so he was following established practice. Bede and Alcuin used gens Anglorum to refer to all the Anglo-Saxons: Bede referred to the people of the pre-Christian period as 'Saxons', but all becoming 'Angles' after accepting Christianity (in accordance with Pope Gregory I's use of the word Anglorum for the entire mission); Alcuin contrasted 'Saxons' with 'Angles', the former referring only to continental Saxons and the latter being associated with Britain. Bede's choice of terminology contrasted with the norm among his contemporaries, both Angle and Saxon, who collectively identified as 'Saxons' and their country as Saxonia. Aethelweard also followed Bede's usage, systematically editing all mentions of the word 'Saxon' to 'English'.",
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"plaintext": "The first use of the term Anglo-Saxon amongst the insular sources is in the titles for Æthelstan around 924: Angelsaxonum Denorumque gloriosissimus rex (most glorious king of the Anglo-Saxons and of the Danes) and rex Angulsexna and Norþhymbra imperator paganorum gubernator Brittanorumque propugnator (king of the Anglo-Saxons and emperor of the Northumbrians, governor of the pagans, and defender of the Britons). At other times he uses the term rex Anglorum (king of the English), which presumably meant both Anglo-Saxons and Danes. Alfred used Anglosaxonum Rex. The term (King of the English) is used by Æthelred. Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, England, and Norway, in 1021 was the first to refer to the land and not the people with this term: (King of all England). These titles express the sense that the Anglo-Saxons were a Christian people with a king anointed by God.",
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"plaintext": "The indigenous Common Brittonic speakers referred to Anglo-Saxons as Saxones or possibly Saeson (the word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for 'English people'); the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach. Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident \"that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders\".",
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"plaintext": "The early Anglo-Saxon period covers the history of medieval Britain that starts from the end of Roman rule. It is a period widely known in European history as the Migration Period, also the Völkerwanderung (\"migration of peoples\" in German). This was a period of intensified human migration in Europe from about 375 to 800. The migrants were Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Lombards, Suebi, Frisii, and Franks; they were later pushed westwards by the Huns, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars, and Alans. The migrants to Britain might also have included the Huns and Rugini.",
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"plaintext": "Until AD 400, Roman Britain, the province of Britannia, was an integral, flourishing part of the Western Roman Empire, occasionally disturbed by internal rebellions or barbarian attacks, which were subdued or repelled by the large contingent of imperial troops stationed in the province. By 410, however, the imperial forces had been withdrawn to deal with crises in other parts of the empire, and the Romano-Britons were left to fend for themselves in what is called the post-Roman or \"sub-Roman\" period of the 5th century.",
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"plaintext": "It is now widely accepted that the Anglo-Saxons were not just transplanted Germanic invaders and settlers from the Continent, but the outcome of insular interactions and changes.",
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"plaintext": "Writing c. 540, Gildas mentions that sometime in the 5th century, a council of leaders in Britain agreed that some land in the east of southern Britain would be given to the Saxons on the basis of a treaty, a foedus, by which the Saxons would defend the Britons against attacks from the Picts and Scoti in exchange for food supplies. The most contemporaneous textual evidence is the Chronica Gallica of 452, which records for the year 441: \"The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule.\" This is an earlier date than that of 451 for the \"coming of the Saxons\" used by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, written around 731. It has been argued that Bede misinterpreted his (scanty) sources and that the chronological references in the Historia Britonnum yield a plausible date of around 428.",
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"plaintext": "Gildas recounts how a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population – historian Nick Higham calls it the \"War of the Saxon Federates\" – which ended shortly after the siege at 'Mons Badonicus'. The Saxons went back to \"their eastern home\". Gildas calls the peace a \"grievous divorce with the barbarians\". The price of peace, Higham argues, was a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain. The archaeological evidence agrees with this earlier timescale. In particular, the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede's date.",
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"plaintext": "This vision of the Anglo-Saxons exercising extensive political and military power at an early date remains contested. The most developed vision of a continuation in sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who suggests that the sub-Roman elite survived in culture, politics and military power up to . Bede, however, identifies three phases of settlement: an exploration phase, when mercenaries came to protect the resident population; a migration phase, which was substantial as implied by the statement that Anglus was deserted; and an establishment phase, in which Anglo-Saxons started to control areas, implied in Bede's statement about the origins of the tribes.",
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"plaintext": "Scholars have not reached a consensus on the number of migrants who entered Britain in this period. Härke argues that the figure is around 100,000 to 200,000. Bryan Ward-Perkins also argues for up to 200,000 incomers. Catherine Hills suggests the number is nearer to 20,000. A computer simulation showed that a migration of 250,000 people from mainland Europe could have been accomplished in as little as 38 years. Recent genetic and isotope studies have suggested that the migration, which included both men and women, continued over several centuries, possibly allowing for significantly more new arrivals than has been previously thought. By around 500, communities of Anglo-Saxons were established in southern and eastern Britain.",
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"plaintext": "Härke and Michael Wood estimate that the British population in the area that eventually became Anglo-Saxon England was around one million by the start of the fifth century; however, what happened to the Britons has been debated. The traditional explanation for their archaeological and linguistic invisibility is that the Anglo-Saxons either killed them or drove them to the mountainous fringes of Britain, a view broadly supported by the few available sources from the period. However, there is evidence of continuity in the systems of landscape and local governance, decreasing the likelihood of such a cataclysmic event, at least in parts of England. Thus, scholars have suggested other, less violent explanations by which the culture of the Anglo-Saxons, whose core area of large-scale settlement was likely restricted to what is now southeastern England, East Anglia and Lincolnshire, could have come to be ubiquitous across lowland Britain. Härke has posited a scenario in which the Anglo-Saxons, in expanding westward, outbred the Britons, eventually reaching a point where their descendants made up a larger share of the population of what was to become England. It has also been proposed that the Britons were disproportionately affected by plagues arriving through Roman trade links, which, combined with a large emigration to Armorica, could have substantially decreased their numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Even so, there is general agreement that the kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria housed significant numbers of Britons. Härke states that \"it is widely accepted that in the north of England, the native population survived to a greater extent than the south,\" and that in Bernicia, \"a small group of immigrants may have replaced the native British elite and took over the kingdom as a going concern.\" Evidence for the natives in Wessex, meanwhile, can be seen in the late seventh century laws of King Ine, which gave them fewer rights and a lower status than the Saxons. This might have provided an incentive for Britons in the kingdom to adopt Anglo-Saxon culture. Higham points out that \"in circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use and possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value.\"",
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"plaintext": "There is evidence for a British influence on the emerging Anglo-Saxon elite classes. The Wessex royal line was traditionally founded by a man named Cerdic, an undoubtedly Celtic name cognate to Ceretic (the name of two British kings, ultimately derived from *Corotīcos). This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton and that his dynasty became anglicised over time. A number of Cerdic's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the 'Bretwalda' Ceawlin. The last man in this dynasty to have a Brittonic name was King Caedwalla, who died as late as 689. In Mercia, too, several kings bear seemingly Celtic names, most notably Penda. As far east as Lindsey, the Celtic name Caedbaed appears in the list of kings.",
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"plaintext": "Recent genetic studies, based on data collected from skeletons found in Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon era burials, have concluded that the ancestry of the modern English population contains large contributions from both Anglo-Saxon migrants and Romano-British natives.",
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"plaintext": "In the last half of the 6th century, four structures contributed to the development of society; they were the position and freedoms of the ceorl, the smaller tribal areas coalescing into larger kingdoms, the elite developing from warriors to kings, and Irish monasticism developing under Finnian (who had consulted Gildas) and his pupil Columba.",
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon farms of this period are often falsely supposed to be \"peasant farms\". However, a ceorl, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo-Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms-owning male with the support of a kindred, access to law and the wergild; situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one hide of land. The farmer had freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord who provided only slight lordly input. Most of this land was common outfield arable land (of an outfield-infield system) that provided individuals with the means to build a basis of kinship and group cultural ties.",
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"plaintext": "The Tribal Hidage lists thirty-five peoples, or tribes, with assessments in hides, which may have originally been defined as the area of land sufficient to maintain one family. The assessments in the Hidage reflect the relative size of the provinces. Although varying in size, all thirty-five peoples of the Tribal Hidage were of the same status, in that they were areas which were ruled by their own elite family (or royal houses), and so were assessed independently for payment of tribute. By the end of the sixth century, larger kingdoms had become established on the south or east coasts. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have had as their initial focus a territory based on a former Roman civitas.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the sixth century, the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, though it should not be assumed that all of them were Germanic in origin. The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence of a number of early Anglo-Saxon elite families. What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda is the ability of leaders to extract tribute, overawe and/or protect the small regions, which may well have been relatively short-lived in any one instance. Ostensibly \"Anglo-Saxon\" dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites. Importantly, whatever their origin or whenever they flourished, these dynasties established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin, and possibly mythical, ties. As Helen Geake points out, \"they all just happened to be related back to Woden\".",
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"plaintext": "The process from warrior to cyning – Old English for king – is described in Beowulf:",
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"plaintext": "In 565, Columba, a monk from Ireland who studied at the monastic school of Moville under St. Finnian, reached Iona as a self-imposed exile. The influence of the monastery of Iona would grow into what Peter Brown has described as an \"unusually extensive spiritual empire,\" which \"stretched from western Scotland deep to the southwest into the heart of Ireland and, to the southeast, it reached down throughout northern Britain, through the influence of its sister monastery Lindisfarne.\"",
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"plaintext": "In June 597 Columba died. At this time, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to King Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. He had been the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead the Gregorian mission to Britain to Christianise the Kingdom of Kent from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the king of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Æthelberht was converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For the first time following the Anglo-Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign.",
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"plaintext": "In 635 Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, chose the Isle of Lindisfarne to establish a monastery which was close to King Oswald's main fortress of Bamburgh. He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent a mission to Christianise the Kingdom of Northumbria from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south-west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching. Later, Northumberland's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was an abbot of the monastery, and then Bishop of Lindisfarne. An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing, and in his memory a gospel (known as the St Cuthbert Gospel) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather bookbinding is the oldest intact European binding.",
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"plaintext": "In 664, the Synod of Whitby was convened and established Roman practice as opposed to Irish practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus \"brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture.\" The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from Lindisfarne to York. Wilfrid, chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while Colmán and the Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona.",
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"plaintext": "By 660, the political map of Lowland Britain had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, and from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked back to the original feodus. The traditional name for this period is the Heptarchy, which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the \"opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole\". Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was a period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the Thames and above the Humber.",
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"plaintext": "Middle-lowland Britain was known as the place of the Mierce, the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brittonic speaking peoples and \"Anglo-Saxon\" pioneers and their early leaders had Brittonic names, such as Penda. Although Penda does not appear in Bede's list of great overlords, it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty duces regii (royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh-century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide-ranging overlordship from their Midland base.",
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"plaintext": "Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded against not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set-piece battles, but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are a number of casual references scattered throughout the Bede's history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as Bamburgh and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement. In 676 Æthelred conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the Rochester diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds. In these accounts there is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo-Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century, other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London, Middlesex and Hertfordshire to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and the East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century. The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king Charlemagne, recognised the Mercian King Offa's power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery.",
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"plaintext": "Michael Drout calls this period the \"Golden Age\", when learning flourished with a renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo-Saxon monastic life. In 669 Theodore, a Greek-speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain to become the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury. He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin-speaking African by origin and former abbot of a monastery in Campania (near Naples). One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon \"attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning\". As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day, were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention Aldhelm in this connection; but we know from a letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students.",
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"plaintext": "Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states \"Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until John Milton). His work showed that scholars in England, at the very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe.\" During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life.",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the \"double monastery\", a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, who became some of the most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning.",
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"plaintext": "While Aldhelm was doing his work in Malmesbury, far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining a reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things).",
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"plaintext": "During the 9th century, Wessex rose in power, from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view. On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford, with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, \"and the people of Wiltshire had the victory\". In 829, Egbert went on, the chronicler reports, to conquer \"the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber\". It was at this point that the chronicler chooses to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven overlords, adding that \"he was the eighth king who was Bretwalda\". Simon Keynes suggests Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians. In 860, the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of King Æthelwulf, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler Æthelred, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people.",
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"plaintext": "The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo-Saxon society attracted the attention of people from mainland Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Because of the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name Viking – from the Old Norse víkingr meaning an expedition – which soon became used for the raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe. In 793, Lindisfarne was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. In 794, Jarrow, the monastery where Bede wrote, was attacked; in 795 Iona was attacked; and in 804 the nunnery at Lyminge Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from Portland in Wessex was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders.",
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"plaintext": "Viking raids continued until in 850, then the Chronicle says: \"The heathen for the first time remained over the winter\". The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as the Danelaw. This was the \"Great Army\", a term used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms and to appoint puppet kings, such as Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873 and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The third phase was an era of settlement; however, the \"Great Army\" went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the English Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. By this stage, the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians, they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people.",
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"plaintext": "Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879—80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force. At first, Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, \"so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs\", and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent.",
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"plaintext": "More important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Keynes suggests Alfred's work laid the foundations for what really made England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066.",
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"plaintext": "Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, King Alfred wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but the state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people. One book that was particularly valuable to him was Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis (Pastoral Care). This is a priest's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in the preface:",
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"plaintext": "What is presumed to be one of these \"æstel\" (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold, rock crystal and enamel Alfred Jewel, discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented.",
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"plaintext": "This began a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of the tenth century and did much to make the vernacular more important than Latin in Anglo-Saxon culture.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However charters, law-codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and the surviving works of Anglo-Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Keynes suggests \"it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods\".",
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"plaintext": "During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order. This process started with Edward the Elder – who with his sister, Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. David Dumville suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from the Danes and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived. When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England.",
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"plaintext": "Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son Æthelstan, who Keynes calls the \"towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century\". His victory over a coalition of his enemies – Constantine, King of the Scots; Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of the Cumbrians; and Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin – at the battle of Brunanburh, celebrated by a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England. Æthelstan's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for the law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be \"king of the English\" was by no means widely recognised. The situation was complex: the Hiberno-Norse rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the Danish kingdom of York; terms had to be made with the Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However, the major political problem for Edmund and Eadred, who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north. In 959 Edgar is said to have \"succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old\" (ASC, version 'B', 'C'), and is called \"the Peacemaker\". By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar's 'peace', it may have seemed that the kingdom of England was indeed made whole. In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses \"to be of one mind as regards monastic usage . . . lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute\".",
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"plaintext": "Athelstan's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named Dunstan and Æthelwold who were made priests, supposedly at the insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939. Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, 'imperial coronation' at Bath, and from this point England was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and Oswald, the Bishop of Worcester.",
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"plaintext": "The reign of King Æthelred the Unready witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought the people to their knees in 1009–12, when a large part of the country was devastated by the army of Thorkell the Tall. It remained for Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013–14, and (after Æthelred's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015–16. The tale of these years incorporated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle must be read in its own right, and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on the conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred's reign. It is this evidence which is the basis for Keynes's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but the ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo-Saxon state, and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret the error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered.",
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"plaintext": "The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both Ælfric's and Wulfstan's works, but most notably in Wulfstan's fierce rhetoric in the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, dated to 1014. Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings as the imminent \"expectation of the apocalypse,\" and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings, which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were taken as signs of God punishing his people; Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a \"brother Edward\" to try to put an end to a \"shameful habit\" of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1016, Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor Edmund Ironside to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut's party. After the defeat of the English in the Battle of Assandun in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England.",
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"plaintext": "In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut in 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066; and the third was conducted by William of Normandy in 1066. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) moved away from the late West Saxon standard that is called \"Old English\". Yet neither are they \"Middle English\"; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three-quarters of this period, \"there is barely any 'original' writing in English at all\". These factors have led to a gap in scholarship, implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.",
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"plaintext": "At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appeared to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo-Saxon kingship. However an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures. Eric John remarks that for Cnut \"the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship\". The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut's choice of thegnly advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.",
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"plaintext": "Edward became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of Leofric of Mercia and Godwine of Wessex. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by Eustace of Boulogne to quarter his men on them by force. The support of Earl Leofric and Earl Siward enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and his sons; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including Archbishop Robert, whose archbishopric was given to Stigand; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William's cause.",
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"plaintext": "The fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred's incompetence. By the time William of Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo-Saxon England had changed, although much of the culture and society had stayed the same.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Norman conquest, many of the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or had joined the ranks of the peasantry. It has been estimated that only about 8% of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087. In 1086, only four major Anglo-Saxon landholders still held their lands. However, the survival of Anglo-Saxon heiresses was significantly greater. Many of the next generation of the nobility had English mothers and learnt to speak English at home. Some Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia. The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as it was in need of mercenaries. The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely North Germanic unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century. However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.",
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"plaintext": "The chronicler Orderic Vitalis, who was the product of an Anglo-Norman marriage, writes: \"And so the English groaned aloud for their lost liberty and plotted ceaselessly to find some way of shaking off a yoke that was so intolerable and unaccustomed\". The inhabitants of the North and Scotland never warmed to the Normans following the Harrying of the North (1069–1070), where William, according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle utterly \"ravaged and laid waste that shire\".",
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"plaintext": "Many Anglo-Saxon people needed to learn Norman French to communicate with their rulers, but it is clear that among themselves they kept speaking Old English, which meant that England was in an interesting tri-lingual situation: Anglo-Saxon for the common people, Latin for the Church, and Norman French for the administrators, the nobility, and the law courts. In this time, and because of the cultural shock of the Conquest, Anglo-Saxon began to change very rapidly, and by 1200 or so, it was no longer Anglo-Saxon English, but early Middle English. But this language had deep roots in Anglo-Saxon, which was being spoken much later than 1066. Research has shown that a form of Anglo-Saxon was still being spoken, and not merely among uneducated peasants, into the thirteenth century in the West Midlands. This was J.R.R. Tolkien's major scholarly discovery when he studied a group of texts written in early Middle English called the Katherine Group. Tolkien noticed that a subtle distinction preserved in these texts indicated that Old English had continued to be spoken far longer than anyone had supposed.",
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"plaintext": "Old English had been a central mark of the Anglo-Saxon cultural identity. With the passing of time, however, and particularly following the Norman conquest of England, this language changed significantly, and although some people (for example the scribe known as the Tremulous Hand of Worcester) could still read Old English into the thirteenth century, it fell out of use and the texts became useless. The Exeter Book, for example, seems to have been used to press gold leaf and at one point had a pot of fish-based glue sitting on top of it. For Michael Drout this symbolises the end of the Anglo-Saxons.",
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"plaintext": "The larger narrative, seen in the history of Anglo-Saxon England, is the continued mixing and integration of various disparate elements into one Anglo-Saxon people. The outcome of this mixing and integration was a continuous re-interpretation by the Anglo-Saxons of their society and worldview, which Heinreich Härke calls a \"complex and ethnically mixed society\".",
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"plaintext": "The development of Anglo-Saxon kingship is little understood, but the model proposed by York considered the development of kingdoms and writing down of the oral law-codes to be linked to a progression towards leaders providing mund and receiving recognition. These leaders who developed in the sixth century were able to seize the initiative and to establish a position of power for themselves and their successors. Anglo-Saxon leaders, unable to tax and coerce followers, extracted surplus by raiding and collecting food renders and 'prestige goods'. The later sixth century saw the end of a 'prestige goods' economy, as evidenced by the decline of accompanied burial, and the appearance of the first 'princely' graves and high-status settlements. The ship burial in mound one at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) is the most widely known example of a 'princely' burial, containing lavish metalwork and feasting equipment, and possibly representing the burial place of King Raedwald of East Anglia. These centres of trade and production reflect the increased socio-political stratification and wider territorial authority which allowed seventh-century elites to extract and redistribute surpluses with far greater effectiveness than their sixth-century predecessors would have found possible. Anglo-Saxon society, in short, looked very different in 600 than it did a hundred years earlier.",
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"plaintext": "By 600, the establishment of the first Anglo-Saxon 'emporia'(alternatively 'wics') appears to have been in process. There are only four major archaeologically attested wics in England - London, Ipswich, York, and Hamwic. These were originally interpreted by Hodges as methods of royal control over the import of prestige goods, rather than centre of actual trade-proper. Despite archaeological evidence of royal involvement, emporia are now widely understood to represent genuine trade and exchange, alongside a return to urbanism. Bede's use of the term imperium has been seen as significant in defining the status and powers of the bretwaldas, in fact it is a word Bede used regularly as an alternative to regnum; scholars believe this just meant the collection of tribute. Oswiu's extension of overlordship over the Picts and Scots is expressed in terms of making them tributary. Military overlordship could bring great short-term success and wealth, but the system had its disadvantages. Many of the overlords enjoyed their powers for a relatively short period. Foundations had to be carefully laid to turn a tribute-paying under-kingdom into a permanent acquisition, such as Bernician absorption of Deira. The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom. The Witan, also called Witenagemot, was the council of kings; its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and helped him deal with rebels and persons suspected of disaffection.",
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"plaintext": "Only five Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are known to have survived to 800, and several British kingdoms in the west of the country had disappeared as well. The major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities, and the means through which they did it and the character their kingdoms acquired as a result are one of the major themes of the Middle Saxon period. Beowulf, for all its heroic content, clearly makes the point that economic and military success were intimately linked. A 'good' king was a generous king who through his wealth won the support which would ensure his supremacy over other kingdoms. King Alfred's digressions in his translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, provided these observations about the resources which every king needed:",
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"plaintext": "This is the first written appearance of the division of society into the 'three orders'; the 'working men' provided the raw materials to support the other two classes. The advent of Christianity brought with it the introduction of new concepts of land tenure. The role of churchmen was analogous with that of the warriors waging heavenly warfare. However what Alfred was alluding to was that in order for a king to fulfil his responsibilities towards his people, particularly those concerned with defence, he had the right to make considerable exactions from the landowners and people of his kingdom. The need to endow the church resulted in the permanent alienation of stocks of land which had previously only been granted on a temporary basis and introduced the concept of a new type of hereditary land which could be freely alienated and was free of any family claims.",
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"plaintext": "The nobility under the influence of Alfred became involved with developing the cultural life of their kingdom. As the kingdom became unified, it brought the monastic and spiritual life of the kingdom under one rule and stricter control. However the Anglo-Saxons believed in 'luck' as a random element in the affairs of man and so would probably have agreed that there is a limit to the extent one can understand why one kingdom failed while another succeeded. They also believed in 'destiny' and interpreted the fate of the kingdom of England with Biblical and Carolingian ideology, with parallels, between the Israelites, the great European empires and the Anglo-Saxons. Danish and Norman conquests were just the manner in which God punished his sinful people and the fate of great empires.",
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"plaintext": "Although Christianity dominates the religious history of the Anglo-Saxons, life in the 5th and 6th centuries was dominated by pagan religious beliefs with a Scandinavian-Germanic heritage.",
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"plaintext": "Pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built temples and others that were natural geographical features such as sacred trees, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either hearg or as wēoh. Most poems from before the Norman Conquest are steeped in pagan symbolism, and their integration into the new faith goes beyond the literary sources. Thus, as Lethbridge reminds us, \"to say, 'this is a monument erected in Christian times and therefore the symbolism on it must be Christian,' is an unrealistic approach. The rites of the older faith, now regarded as superstition, are practised all over the country today. It did not mean that people were not Christian; but that they could see a lot of sense in the old beliefs also\"",
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"plaintext": "Early Anglo-Saxon society attached great significance to the horse; a horse may have been an acquaintance of the god Woden, and/or they may have been (according to Tacitus) confidants of the gods. Horses were closely associated with gods, especially Odin and Freyr. Horses played a central role in funerary practices as well as in other rituals. Horses were prominent symbols of fertility, and there were many horse fertility cults. The rituals associated with these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, and horse sacrifice. Hengist and Horsa, the mythical ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, were associated with horses, and references to horses are found throughout Anglo-Saxon literature. Actual horse burials in England are relatively rare and \"may point to influence from the continent\". A well-known Anglo-Saxon horse burial (from the sixth/seventh century) is Mound 17 at Sutton Hoo, a few yards from the more famous ship burial in Mound 1. A sixth-century grave near Lakenheath, Suffolk, yielded the body of a man next to that of a complete horse in harness, with a bucket of food by its head.",
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"plaintext": "Bede's story of Cædmon, the cowherd who became the 'Father of English Poetry,' represents the real heart of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons from paganism to Christianity. Bede writes, \"[t]here was in the Monastery of this Abbess (Streonæshalch – now known as Whitby Abbey) a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven.\" The story of Cædmon illustrates the blending of Christian and Germanic, Latin and oral tradition, monasteries and double monasteries, pre-existing customs and new learning, popular and elite, that characterizes the Conversion period of Anglo-Saxon history and culture. Cædmon does not destroy or ignore traditional Anglo-Saxon poetry. Instead, he converts it into something that helps the Church. Anglo-Saxon England finds ways to synthesize the religion of the Church with the existing \"northern\" customs and practices. Thus the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was not just their switching from one practice to another, but making something new out of their old inheritance and their new belief and learning.",
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"plaintext": "Monasticism, and not just the church, was at the centre of Anglo-Saxon Christian life. Western monasticism, as a whole, had been evolving since the time of the Desert Fathers, but in the seventh century, monasticism in England confronted a dilemma that brought to question the truest representation of the Christian faith. The two monastic traditions were the Celtic and the Roman, and a decision was made to adopt the Roman tradition. Monasteria seem to describe all religious congregations other than those of the bishop.",
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"plaintext": "In the 10th century, Dunstan brought Athelwold to Glastonbury, where the two of them set up a monastery on Benedictine lines. For many years, this was the only monastery in England that strictly followed the Benedictine Rule and observed complete monastic discipline. What Mechthild Gretsch calls an \"Aldhelm Seminar\" developed at Glastonbury, and the effects of this seminar on the curriculum of learning and study in Anglo-Saxon England were enormous. Royal power was put behind the reforming impulses of Dunstan and Athelwold, helping them to enforce their reform ideas. This happened first at the Old Minster in Winchester, before the reformers built new foundations and refoundations at Thorney, Peterborough, and Ely, among other places. Benedictine monasticism spread throughout England, and these became centers of learning again, run by people trained in Glastonbury, with one rule, the works of Aldhelm at the center of their curricula but also influenced by the vernacular efforts of Alfred. From this mixture sprung a great flowering of literary production.",
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"plaintext": "Soldiers throughout the country were summoned, for both offensive and defensive war; early armies consisted essentially of household bands, while later on men were recruited on a territorial basis. The mustering of an army, annually at times, occupied an important place in Frankish history, both military and constitutional. The English kingdoms appear to have known no institution similar to this. The earliest reference is Bede's account of the overthrow of the Northumbrian Æthelfrith by Rædwald overlord of the southern English. Rædwald raised a large army, presumably from among the kings who accepted his overlordship, and \"not giving him time to summon and assemble his whole army, Rædwald met him with a much greater force and slew him on the Mercian border on the east bank of the river Idle.\" At the Battle of Edington in 878, when the Danes made a surprise attack on Alfred at Chippenham after Twelfth Night, Alfred retreated to Athelney after Easter and then seven weeks after Easter mustered an army at \"Egbert's stone\". It is not difficult to imagine that Alfred sent out word to the ealdormen to call his men to arms. This may explain the delay, and it is probably no more than coincidence that the army mustered at the beginning of May, a time when there would have been sufficient grass for the horses. There is also information about the mustering of fleets in the eleventh century. From 992 to 1066 fleets were assembled at London, or returned to the city at the end of their service, on several occasions. Where they took up station depended on the quarter from which a threat was expected: Sandwich if invasion was expected from the north, or the Isle of Wight if it was from Normandy.",
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"plaintext": "Once they left home, these armies and fleets had to be supplied with food and clothing for the men as well as forage for the horses. Yet if armies of the seventh and eighth centuries were accompanied by servants and a supply train of lesser free men, Alfred found these arrangements insufficient to defeat the Vikings. One of his reforms was to divide his military resources into thirds. One part manned the burhs and found the permanent garrisons which would make it impossible for the Danes to overrun Wessex, although they would also take to the field when extra soldiers were needed. The remaining two would take it in turns to serve. They were allocated a fixed term of service and brought the necessary provisions with them. This arrangement did not always function well. On one occasion a division on service went home in the middle of blockading a Danish army on Thorney Island; its provisions were consumed and its term had expired before the king came to relieve them. This method of division and rotation remained in force up to 1066. In 917, when armies from Wessex and Mercia were in the field from early April until November, one division went home and another took over. Again, in 1052 when Edward's fleet was waiting at Sandwich to intercept Godwine's return, the ships returned to London to take on new earls and crews. The importance of supply, vital to military success, was appreciated even if it was taken for granted and features only incidentally in the sources.",
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"plaintext": "Military training and strategy are two important matters on which the sources are typically silent. There are no references in literature or laws to men training, and so it is necessary to fall back on inference. For the noble warrior, his childhood was of first importance in learning both individual military skills and the teamwork essential for success in battle. Perhaps the games the youthful Cuthbert played ('wrestling, jumping, running, and every other exercise') had some military significance. Turning to strategy, of the period before Alfred the evidence gives the impression that Anglo-Saxon armies fought battles frequently. Battle was risky and best avoided unless all the factors were on your side. But if you were in a position so advantageous that you were willing to take the chance, it is likely that your enemy would be in such a weak position that he would avoid battle and pay tribute. Battles put the princes' lives at risk, as is demonstrated by the Northumbrian and Mercian overlordships brought to an end by a defeat in the field. Gillingham has shown how few pitched battles Charlemagne and Richard I chose to fight.",
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"plaintext": "A defensive strategy becomes more apparent in the later part of Alfred's reign. It was built around the possession of fortified places and the close pursuit of the Danes to harass them and impede their preferred occupation of plundering. Alfred and his lieutenants were able to fight the Danes to a standstill by their repeated ability to pursue and closely besiege them in fortified camps throughout the country. The fortification of sites at Witham, Buckingham, Towcester and Colchester persuaded the Danes of the surrounding regions to submit. The key to this warfare was sieges and the control of fortified places. It is clear that the new fortresses had permanent garrisons, and that they were supported by the inhabitants of the existing burhs when danger threatened. This is brought out most clearly in the description of the campaigns of 917 in the Chronicle, but throughout the conquest of the Danelaw by Edward and Æthelflæd it is clear that a sophisticated and coordinated strategy was being applied.",
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"plaintext": "In 973, a single currency was introduced into England in order to bring about political unification, but by concentrating bullion production at many coastal mints, the new rulers of England created an obvious target which attracted a new wave of Viking invasions, which came close to breaking up the kingdom of the English. From 980 onwards, the Anglo -Saxon Chronicle records renewed raiding against England. At first, the raids were probing ventures by small numbers of ships' crews, but soon grew in size and effect, until the only way of dealing with the Vikings appeared to be to pay protection money to buy them off: \"And in that year [991] it was determined that tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they were causing along the coast. The first payment was 10,000 pounds.\"",
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"plaintext": "The payment of Danegeld had to be underwritten by a huge balance of payments surplus; this could only be achieved by stimulating exports and cutting imports, itself accomplished through currency devaluation. This affected everyone in the kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Helena Hamerow suggests that the prevailing model of working life and settlement, particularly for the early period, was one of shifting settlement and building tribal kinship. The mid-Saxon period saw diversification, the development of enclosures, the beginning of the toft system, closer management of livestock, the gradual spread of the mould-board plough, 'informally regular plots' and a greater permanence, with further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-Norman Conquest villages. The later periods saw a proliferation of service features including barns, mills and latrines, most markedly on high-status sites. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period as Hamerow suggests, \"local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production\". This is very noticeable in the early period. However, by the tenth and eleventh centuries, the rise of the manor and its significance in terms of both settlement and the management of land, which becomes very evident in the Domesday Book.",
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"plaintext": "The collection of buildings discovered at Yeavering formed part of an Anglo-Saxon royal vill or king's tun. These 'tun' consisted of a series of buildings designed to provide short-term accommodation for the king and his household. It is thought that the king would have travelled throughout his land dispensing justice and authority and collecting rents from his various estates. Such visits would be periodic, and it is likely that he would visit each royal villa only once or twice per year. The Latin term villa regia which Bede uses of the site suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the king's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food-render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around the kingdom. This territorial model, known as a multiple estate or shire, has been developed in a range of studies. Colm O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering, proposes a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope-Taylor excavated. One characteristic that the king's tun shared with some other groups of places is that it was a point of public assembly. People came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging; but they attended upon the king in order to have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard. People also assembled for other reasons, such as to hold fairs and to trade.",
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"plaintext": "The first creations of towns are linked to a system of specialism at individual settlements, which is evidenced in studying place-names. Sutterton, \"shoe-makers' tun\" (in the area of the Danelaw such places are Sutterby) was so named because local circumstances allowed the growth of a craft recognised by the people of surrounding places. Similarly with Sapperton, the \"soap-makers' tun\". While Boultham, the \"meadow with burdock plants\", may well have developed a specialism in the production of burrs for wool-carding, since meadows with burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. From places named for their services or location within a single district, a category of which the most obvious perhaps are the Eastons and Westons, it is possible to move outwards to glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. Names betray some role within a system of seasonal pasture, Winderton in Warwickshire is the winter tun and various Somertons are self-explanatory. Hardwicks are dairy farms and Swinhopes the valleys where pigs were pastured.",
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"plaintext": "Settlement patterns as well as village plans in England fall into two great categories: scattered farms and homesteads in upland and woodland Britain, nucleated villages across a swathe of central England. The chronology of nucleated villages is much debated and not yet clear. Yet there is strong evidence to support the view that nucleation occurred in the tenth century or perhaps the ninth, and was a development parallel to the growth of towns.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred's reference to 'praying men, fighting men and working men' is far from a complete description of his society.",
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"plaintext": "Women in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms appear to have enjoyed considerable independence, whether as abbesses of the great 'double monasteries' of monks and nuns founded during the seventh and eighth centuries, as major land-holders recorded in Domesday Book (1086), or as ordinary members of society. They could act as principals in legal transactions, were entitled to the same weregild as men of the same class, and were considered 'oath-worthy', with the right to defend themselves on oath against false accusations or claims. Sexual and other offences against them were penalised heavily. There is evidence that even married women could own property independently, and some surviving wills are in the joint names of husband and wife.",
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"plaintext": "Marriage comprised a contract between the woman's family and the prospective bridegroom, who was required to pay a 'bride-price' in advance of the wedding and a 'morning gift' following its consummation. The latter became the woman's personal property, but the former may have been paid to her relatives, at least during the early period. Widows were in a particularly favourable position, with inheritance rights, custody of their children and authority over dependents. However, a degree of vulnerability may be reflected in laws stating that they should not be forced into nunneries or second marriages against their will. The system of primogeniture (inheritance by the first-born male) was not introduced to England until after the Norman Conquest, so Anglo-Saxon siblings – girls as well as boys – were more equal in terms of status.",
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"plaintext": "The age of majority was usually either ten or twelve, when a child could legally take charge of inherited property, or be held responsible for a crime. It was common for children to be fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps as a means of extending the circle of protection beyond the kin group. Laws also make provision for orphaned children and foundlings.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional distinction in society, amongst free men, was expressed as eorl and ceorl ('earl and churl') though the term 'Earl' took on a more restricted meaning after the Viking period. The noble rank is designated in early centuries as gesiþas ('companions') or þegnas ('thegns'), the latter coming to predominate. After the Norman Conquest the title 'thegn' was equated to the Norman 'baron'. A certain amount of social mobility is implied by regulations detailing the conditions under which a ceorl could become a thegn. Again these would have been subject to local variation, but one text refers to the possession of five hides of land (around 600 acres), a bell and a castle-gate, a seat and a special office in the king's hall. In the context of the control of boroughs, Frank Stenton notes that according to an 11th-century source, \"a merchant who had carried out three voyages at his own charge [had also been] regarded as of thegnly status.\" Loss of status could also occur, as with penal slavery, which could be imposed not only on the perpetrator of a crime but on his wife and family.",
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"plaintext": "A further division in Anglo-Saxon society was between slave and free. Slavery was not as common as in other societies, but appears to have been present throughout the period. Both the freemen and slaves were hierarchically structured, with several classes of freemen and many types of slaves. These varied at different times and in different areas, but the most prominent ranks within free society were the king, the nobleman or thegn, and the ordinary freeman or ceorl. They were differentiated primarily by the value of their weregild or 'man price', which was not only the amount payable in compensation for homicide, but was also used as the basis for other legal formulations such as the value of the oath that they could swear in a court of law. Slaves had no weregild, as offences against them were taken to be offences against their owners, but the earliest laws set out a detailed scale of penalties depending both on the type of slave and the rank of owner. Some slaves may have been members of the native British population conquered by the Anglo-Saxons when they arrived from the continent; others may have been captured in wars between the early kingdoms, or have sold themselves for food in times of famine. However, slavery was not always permanent, and slaves who had gained their freedom would become part of an underclass of freedmen below the rank of ceorl.",
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"plaintext": "Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers, or near natural ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.",
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"plaintext": "Only ten of the hundreds of settlement sites that have been excavated in England from this period have revealed masonry domestic structures and confined to a few specific contexts. Timber was the natural building medium of the age: the Anglo-Saxon word for \"building\" is timbe. Unlike in the Carolingian world, late Anglo-Saxon royal halls continued to be of timber in the manner of Yeavering centuries before, even though the king could clearly have mustered the resources to build in stone. Their preference must have been a conscious choice, perhaps an expression of deeply–embedded Germanic identity on the part of the Anglo-Saxon royalty.",
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"plaintext": "Even the elite had simple buildings, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape; the largest homes rarely had more than one floor and one room. Buildings varied widely in size, most were square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors, with a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design has been found in towns, where the \"basement\" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor. Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.",
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"plaintext": "Stone was sometimes used to build churches. Bede makes it clear that the masonry construction of churches, including his own at Jarrow, was undertaken morem Romanorum, 'in the manner of the Romans,' in explicit contrast to existing traditions of timber construction. Even at Canterbury, Bede believed that St Augustine's first cathedral had been 'repaired' or 'recovered' (recuperavit) from an existing Roman church, when in fact it had been newly constructed from Roman materials. The belief was \"the Christian Church was Roman therefore a masonry church was a Roman building\".",
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"plaintext": "The building of churches in Anglo-Saxon England essentially began with Augustine of Canterbury in Kent following 597; for this he probably imported workmen from Frankish Gaul. The cathedral and abbey in Canterbury, together with churches in Kent at Minster in Sheppey () and Reculver (669), and in Essex at the Chapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall at Bradwell-on-Sea, define the earliest type in southeast England. A simple nave without aisles provided the setting for the main altar; east of this a chancel arch separated the apse for use by the clergy. Flanking the apse and east end of the nave were side chambers serving as sacristies; further porticus might continue along the nave to provide for burials and other purposes. In Northumbria the early development of Christianity was influenced by the Irish mission, important churches being built in timber. Masonry churches became prominent from the late 7th century with the foundations of Wilfrid at Ripon and Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. These buildings had long naves and small rectangular chancels; porticus sometimes surrounded the naves. Elaborate crypts are a feature of Wilfrid's buildings. The best preserved early Northumbrian church is Escomb Church.",
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"plaintext": "From the mid-8th century to the mid-10th century, several important buildings survive. One group comprises the first known churches utilizing aisles: Brixworth, the most ambitious Anglo-Saxon church to survive largely intact; Wareham St Mary's; Cirencester; and the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral. These buildings may be compared with churches in the Carolingian Empire. Other lesser churches may be dated to the late eighth and early ninth centuries on the basis of their elaborate sculptured decoration and have simple naves with side porticus. The tower of Barnack hearkens to the West Saxon reconquest in the early 10th century, when decorative features that were to be characteristic of Late Anglo-Saxon architecture were already developed, such as narrow raised bands of stone (pilaster strips) to surround archways and to articulate wall surfaces, as at Barton-upon-Humber and Earls Barton. In plan, however, the churches remained essentially conservative.",
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"plaintext": "From the monastic revival of the second half of the tenth century, only a few documented buildings survive or have been excavated. Examples include the abbeys of Glastonbury; Old Minster, Winchester; Romsey; Cholsey; and Peterborough Cathedral. The majority of churches that have been described as Anglo-Saxon fall into the period between the late 10th century and the early 12th century. During this period, many settlements were first provided with stone churches, but timber also continued to be used; the best wood-framed church to survive is Greensted Church in Essex, no earlier than the 9th century, and no doubt typical of many parish churches. On the continent during the eleventh century, a group of interrelated Romanesque styles developed, associated with the rebuilding of many churches on a grand scale, made possible by a general advance in architectural technology and mason-craft.",
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"plaintext": "The first fully Romanesque church in England was Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (–60, now entirely lost to later construction), while the main development of the style only followed the Norman Conquest. However, at Stow Minster the crossing piers of the early 1050s are clearly proto-Romanesque. A more decorative interpretation of Romanesque in lesser churches can be dated only somewhere between the mid and late 11th century, e.g. Hadstock (Essex), Clayton and Sompting (Sussex); this style continued towards the end of the century as at Milborne Port (Somerset). At St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury (–61) Abbot Wulfric aimed to retain the earlier churches while linking them with an octagonal rotunda, but the concept was still essentially Pre-Romanesque. Anglo-Saxon churches of all periods would have been embellished with a range of arts, including wall-paintings, some stained glass, metalwork and statues.",
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"plaintext": "Early Anglo-Saxon art is seen mostly in decorated jewellery, like brooches, buckles, beads and wrist-clasps, some of outstanding quality. Characteristic of the 5th century is the quoit brooch with motifs based on crouching animals, as seen on the silver quoit brooch from Sarre, Kent. While the origins of this style are disputed, it is either an offshoot of provincial Roman, Frankish, or Jutish art. One style flourished from the late 5th century and continued throughout the 6th and is on many square-headed brooches, it is characterised by chip-carved patterns based on animals and masks. A different style, which gradually superseded it, is dominated by serpentine beasts with interlacing bodies.",
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"plaintext": "By the later 6th century, the best works from the south-east are distinguished by greater use of expensive materials, above all gold and garnets, reflecting the growing prosperity of a more organised society which had greater access to imported precious materials, as seen in the buckle from the Taplow burial and the jewellery from Sutton Hoo, c.600 and c.625 respectively. The possible symbolism of the decorative elements like interlace and beast forms that were used in these early works remains unclear. These objects were the products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal display, who fostered craftsmen and jewellers of a high standard, and in which the possession of a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable status symbol.",
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"plaintext": "The Staffordshire Hoard is the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork . Discovered in a field near the village of Hammerwich, it consists of over 3,500 items that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses. It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths' work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that the value of such items as currency and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry.",
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"plaintext": "The Christianization of the society revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functions, and whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required images clearly representing subjects. The transition between the Christian and pagan traditions is occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle and the Canterbury pendant. In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and manuscript illumination. In these Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. The Ruthwell Cross, Bewcastle Cross and Easby Cross are leading Northumbrian examples of the Anglo-Saxon version of the Celtic high cross, generally with a slimmer shaft.",
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"plaintext": "The jamb of the doorway at Monkwearmouth, carved with a pair of lacertine beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of St Cuthbert was presumably made before 687; while his wooden inner coffin (incised with Christ and the Evangelists' symbols, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the Codex Amiatinus all date from c. 700. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom. Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria.",
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"plaintext": "Lindisfarne was an important centre of book production, along with Ripon and Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. The Lindisfarne Gospels might be the single most beautiful book produced in the Middle Ages, and the Echternach Gospels and (probably) the Book of Durrow are other products of Lindisfarne. A Latin gospel book, the Lindisfarne Gospels are richly illuminated and decorated in an Insular style that blends Irish and Western Mediterranean elements and incorporates imagery from the Eastern Mediterranean, including Coptic Christianity. The Codex Amiatinus was produced in the north of England at the same time and has been called the finest book in the world. It is certainly one of the largest, weighing 34 kilograms. It is a pandect, which was rare in the Middle Ages, and included all the books of the Bible in one volume. The Codex Amiatinus was produced at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow in 692 under the direction of Abbot Ceolfrith. Bede probably had something to do with it. The production of the Codex shows the riches of the north of England at this time. We have records of the monastery needing a new grant of land to raise 2,000 more cattle to get the calf skins to make the vellum for the manuscript. The Codex Amiatinus was meant to be a gift to the pope, and Ceolfrith was taking it to Rome when he died on the way. The copy ended up in Florence, where it still is today – a ninth-century copy of this book is in the possession of the pope.",
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"plaintext": "In the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon Christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with secular works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the Coppergate helmet. The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. The Book of Cerne is an early 9th century Insular or Anglo-Saxon Latin personal prayer book with Old English components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full-page miniatures, major and minor letters, and continuing panels. Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the Trewhiddle hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King Æthelwulf and Queen Æthelswith, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork.",
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"plaintext": "There was demonstrable continuity in the south, even though the Danish settlement represented a watershed in England's artistic tradition. Wars and pillaging removed or destroyed much Anglo-Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo-Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian monument, the 'hogback' tomb, was produced. The decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo Scandinavian styles. The Wessexan hegemony and the monastic reform movement appear to have been the catalysts for the rebirth of art in southern England from the end of the 9th century. Here artists responded primarily to continental art; foliage supplanting interlace as the preferred decorative motif. Key early works are the Alfred Jewel, which has fleshy leaves engraved on the back plate; and the stole and maniples of Bishop Frithestan of Winchester, which are ornamented with acanthus leaves, alongside figures that bear the stamp of Byzantine art. The surviving evidence points to Winchester and Canterbury as the leading centres of manuscript art in the second half of the 10th century: they developed colourful paintings with lavish foliate borders, and coloured line drawings.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 11th century, these two traditions had fused and had spread to other centres. Although manuscripts dominate the corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture, ivory carving and metalwork survives to show that the same styles were current in secular art and became widespread in the south at parochial level. The wealth of England in the later tenth and eleventh century is clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscript art as well as for vessels, textiles and statues (now known only from descriptions). Widely admired, southern English art was highly influential in Normandy, France and Flanders from c. 1000. Indeed, keen to possess it or recover its materials, the Normans appropriated it in large quantities in the wake of the Conquest. The Bayeux Tapestry, probably designed by a Canterbury artist for Bishop Odo of Bayeux, is arguably the apex of Anglo-Saxon art. Surveying nearly 600 years of continuous change, three common strands stand out: lavish colour and rich materials; an interplay between abstract ornament and representational subject matter; and a fusion of art styles reflecting English links to other parts of Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Old English (Ænglisċ, Anglisċ, Englisċ) is the earliest form of the English language. It was brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers, and was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southeastern Scotland until the mid-12th century, by which time it had evolved into Middle English. Old English was a West Germanic language, closely related to Old Frisian and Old Saxon (Old Low German). The language was fully inflected, with five grammatical cases, three grammatical numbers and three grammatical genders. Over time, Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the Humber; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, spoken in Kent; and West Saxon, spoken across the south and southwest. All of these dialects have direct descendants in modern England. Standard English developed from the Mercian dialect, as it was predominant in London.",
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"plaintext": "It is generally held that Old English received little influence from the Common Brittonic and British Latin spoken in southern Britain prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, as it took in very few loan words from these languages. Though some scholars have claimed that Brittonic could have exerted an influence on English syntax and grammar, these ideas have not become consensus views, and have been criticized by other historical linguists. Richard Coates has concluded that the strongest candidates for substratal Brittonic features in English are grammatical elements occurring in regional dialects in the north and west of England, such as the Northern Subject Rule.",
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"plaintext": "Old English was more clearly influenced by Old Norse. Scandinavian loan words in English include place names, items of basic vocabulary such as sky, leg and they, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, including the East Midlands and Northumbria south of the Tees). Old Norse was related to Old English, as both originated from Proto-Germanic, and many linguists believe that the loss of inflectional endings in Old English was accelerated by contact with Norse.",
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"plaintext": "Local and extended kin groups were a key aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture. Kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom and the relationships to an elite, that allowed the Anglo-Saxons' culture and language to flourish. The ties of loyalty to a lord were to the person of a lord and not to his station; there was no real concept of patriotism or loyalty to a cause. This explains why dynasties waxed and waned so quickly, since a kingdom was only as strong as its leader-king. There was no underlying administration or bureaucracy to maintain any gains beyond the lifetime of a leader. An example of this was the leadership of Rædwald of East Anglia and how the East Anglian primacy did not survive his death. Kings could not make new laws barring exceptional circumstances. Their role instead was to uphold and clarify previous custom and to assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws, and customs. Although the person of the king as a leader could be exalted, the office of kingship was not in any sense as powerful or as invested with authority as it was to become. One of the tools kings used was to tie themselves closely to the new Christian church, through the practice of having a church leader anoint and crown the king; God and king were then joined in peoples' minds.",
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"plaintext": "The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person were obliged to exact vengeance for his or her death. This led to bloody and extensive feuds. As a way out of this deadly and futile custom the system of weregilds was instituted. The weregild set a monetary value on each person's life according to their wealth and social status. This value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended against. Robbing a thane called for a higher penalty than robbing a ceorl. On the other hand, a thane who thieved could pay a higher fine than a ceorl who did likewise. Men were willing to die for the lord and to support their comitatus (their warrior band). Evidence of this behavior (though it may be more a literary ideal than an actual social practice) can be observed in the story, made famous in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 755, of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, in which the followers of a defeated king decided to fight to the death rather than be reconciled after the death of their lord.",
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"plaintext": "This emphasis on social standing affected all parts of the Anglo-Saxon world. The courts, for example, did not attempt to discover the facts in a case; instead, in any dispute it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case, which became known as oath-swearing. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls. It was assumed that any person of good character would be able to find enough people to swear to his innocence that his case would prosper.",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon society was also decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent, and any personal goods, including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage, her relatives were expected to look after her interests.",
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"plaintext": "The most noticeable feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo-Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, one of earliest of which is attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca.560–616. The Anglo-Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in mainland Europe where other groups of the former Roman Empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.",
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"plaintext": "Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo-Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo-Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable right. Their prevalence in the Anglo-Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo-Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.",
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"plaintext": "The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo-Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule in Anglo-Saxon times. The most important court in the later Anglo-Saxon period was the shire court. Many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo-Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England, they left the shire courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law. The shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the shire court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo-Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood, but over time suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a shire court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially, but this was not its prime function. In the shire court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.",
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"plaintext": "Below the level of the shire, each county was divided into areas known as hundreds (or wapentakes in the north of England). These were originally groups of families rather than geographical areas. The hundred court was a smaller version of the shire court, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. Little is known about hundred court business, which was likely a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period.",
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a shire court, then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision, and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath-helping or the ordeal. Oath-helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The number of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute. If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. As \"wager of law,\" it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red-hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up, and if on unbinding, it was found to be festering, the case was lost. In the ordeal by water, the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated he was guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons, the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters. They were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any",
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"plaintext": "legal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the shire court's judgment.",
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"plaintext": "Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified Roman alphabet, but Anglo-Saxon runes or futhorc are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.",
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"plaintext": "This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature was in Latin at this time, but because of Alfred's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon England ended up being converted into writing and preserved. Much of this preservation can be attributed to the monks of the tenth century, who made – at the very least – the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make. First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from another, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. Individual scribes can sometimes be identified from their handwriting, and different styles of hand were used in specific scriptoria (centres of manuscript production), so the location of the manuscript production can often be identified.",
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"plaintext": "There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or Beowulf Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor and The Ruin are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the Dream of the Rood, some of which is also carved on the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo-Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in The Battle of Maldon, recounting an action against the Vikings in 991. This is from a book that was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.",
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"plaintext": "Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo-Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds; any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo-Saxon lines are made up of two half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these are called hemistiches) divided by a breath-pause or caesura. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura.",
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"plaintext": "The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after 'hondum' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half-line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b-verse).",
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"plaintext": "There is very strong evidence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but keeping with the cultural practices seen elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning. Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, three strands can be identified: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or epic poetry, such as Beowulf, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about \"smaller\" topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), \"wisdom\" poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo-Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: Cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and \"Cynewulfian,\" named after Cynewulf, one of the only named poets in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo-Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo-Saxons. Homilies are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo-Saxon prose, Ælfric and Wulfstan, were both homilists. Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are several versions of some prose works, especially the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo-Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote – the sense is unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Symbolism was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon culture. Julian D. Richards suggests that in societies with strong oral traditions, material culture is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo-Saxons used symbolism to communicate as well as to aid their thinking about the world. Anglo-Saxons used symbols to differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.",
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"plaintext": "The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo-Saxon animal art, for example, has been seen as emphasising the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have suggested that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes—from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry—was to make artefacts 'see' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.",
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"plaintext": "Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo-Saxon graves. In Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults and 9% of all juveniles were buried with weapons. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social elite. The usual assumption is that these are 'warrior burials', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c.700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before. Heinrich Härke suggests this change was the result of the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation, implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo-Saxon settlement areas of England towards a common culture.",
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"plaintext": "The word bead comes from the Anglo-Saxon words bidden (to pray) and bede (prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo-Saxon beads, including amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal. These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types. The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo-Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen-Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession. John Hines has suggested that the over 2,000 different types of beads found at Lakenheath show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo-Saxon world.",
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"plaintext": "Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo-Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem Beowulf. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem The Dream of the Rood is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism.",
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"plaintext": "Richard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and \"the image of Christ's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree\". North suggests that the author of The Dream of the Rood \"uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition\". Furthermore, the tree's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels.",
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"plaintext": "The most distinctive feature of coinage of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.",
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"plaintext": "The food eaten by Anglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by the University of Cambridge found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarily vegetarian diet based on cereal grains as did peasants. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th Centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon is still used as a term for the original Old English-derived vocabulary within the modern English language, in contrast to vocabulary derived from Old Norse and French.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, different narratives of the people have been used to justify contemporary ideologies. In the early Middle Ages, the views of Geoffrey of Monmouth produced a personally inspired (and largely fictitious) history that was not challenged for some 500 years. In the Reformation, Christians looking to establish an independent English church reinterpreted Anglo-Saxon Christianity. In the 19th century, the term Anglo-Saxon was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present, though the term 'Old English' is more commonly used. During the Victorian era, writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley and Edward A. Freeman used the term Anglo-Saxon to justify colonialistic imperialism, claiming that Anglo-Saxon heritage was superior to those held by colonised peoples, which justified efforts to \"civilise\" them. Similar racist ideas were advocated in 19th-century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh to justify the policy of Manifest destiny. The historian Catherine Hills contends that these views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of certain people and are \"re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking.\"",
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"plaintext": "The term Anglo-Saxon is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group, but there is no universal definition for the term. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside Britain, \"Anglo-Saxon\" may be contrasted with \"Celtic\" as a socioeconomic identifier, invoking or reinforcing historical prejudices against non-English British and Irish immigrants. \"White Anglo-Saxon Protestant\" (WASP) is a term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to long-established wealthy families with mostly English ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term but rather a reference to contemporary family-based political, financial and cultural power, e.g. The Boston Brahmin.",
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"plaintext": "The term Anglo-Saxon is becoming increasingly controversial among some scholars, especially those in America, for its modern politicised nature and adoption by the far-right. In 2019, the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists changed their name to the International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England, in recognition of this controversy.",
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"plaintext": "Outside Anglophone countries, the term Anglo-Saxon and its direct translations are used to refer to the Anglophone peoples and societies of Britain, the United States, and other countries such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand – areas which are sometimes referred to as the Anglosphere. The term Anglo-Saxon can be used in a variety of contexts, often to identify the English-speaking world's distinctive language, culture, technology, wealth, markets, economy, and legal systems. Variations include the German \"Angelsachsen\", French \"Anglo-Saxon\", Spanish \"anglosajón\", Portuguese \"Anglo-saxão\", Russian \"англосаксы\", Polish \"anglosaksoński\", Italian \"anglosassone\", Catalan \"anglosaxó\" and Japanese \"Angurosakuson\".",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Frisian",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon dress",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Saxon military organization",
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"plaintext": "Burial in Anglo-Saxon England",
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"plaintext": "Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England",
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"plaintext": "Frisia",
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"plaintext": "States in Medieval Britain",
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0,
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},
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"plaintext": "Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain",
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"plaintext": "Anglo-Celtic",
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"plaintext": " Anglo-Saxon economy",
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"plaintext": " English people",
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"plaintext": " White Anglo-Saxon Protestant",
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},
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"plaintext": "Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British (2006). Constable and Robinson, London. ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Clark, David, and Nicholas Perkins, eds. Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination (2010)",
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"plaintext": "F.M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd edition, (Oxford: University Press, 1971)",
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"plaintext": "Huge Anglo-Saxon gold hoard found, BBC News, with photos.",
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"plaintext": "Fides Angliarum Regum: the faith of the English kings",
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"plaintext": "Simon Keynes' bibliography of Anglo-Saxon topics",
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37,782 | 1,105,598,794 | Edward_Teller | [
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"plaintext": "Edward Teller (; January 15, 1908 – September 9, 2003) was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist who is known colloquially as \"the father of the hydrogen bomb\" (see the Teller–Ulam design), although he did not care for the title, considering it to be in poor taste. Throughout his life, Teller was known both for his scientific ability and for his difficult interpersonal relations and volatile personality.",
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"plaintext": "Teller also made contributions to Thomas–Fermi theory, the precursor of density functional theory, a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules. In 1953, along with Nicholas Metropolis, Arianna Rosenbluth, Marshall Rosenbluth, and his wife Augusta Teller, Teller co-authored a paper that is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics and the Markov chain Monte Carlo literature in Bayesian statistics. Teller was an early member of the Manhattan Project, charged with developing the first atomic bomb. He made a serious push to develop the first fusion-based weapons as well, but these were deferred until after World War II. He co-founded the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and was both its director and associate director for many years. After his controversial negative testimony in the Oppenheimer security hearing convened against his former Los Alamos Laboratory superior, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community.",
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"plaintext": "Ede Teller was born on January 15, 1908, in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, into a Jewish family. His parents were Ilona (née Deutsch), a pianist, and Max Teller, an attorney. He was educated at the Fasori Lutheran Gymnasium, then in the Lutheran Minta (Model) Gymnasium in Budapest. Of Jewish origin, later in life Teller became an agnostic Jew. \"Religion was not an issue in my family\", he later wrote, \"indeed, it was never discussed. My only religious training came because the Minta required that all students take classes in their respective religions. My family celebrated one holiday, the Day of Atonement, when we all fasted. Yet my father said prayers for his parents on Saturdays and on all the Jewish holidays. The idea of God that I absorbed was that it would be wonderful if He existed: We needed Him desperately but had not seen Him in many thousands of years.\" Teller was a late talker and developed the ability to speak later than most children, but became very interested in numbers, and would calculate large numbers in his head for fun.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929, Teller transferred to the University of Leipzig where in 1930, he received his Ph.D. in physics under Heisenberg. Teller's dissertation dealt with one of the first accurate quantum mechanical treatments of the hydrogen molecular ion. That year, he befriended Russian physicists George Gamow and Lev Landau. Teller's lifelong friendship with a Czech physicist, George Placzek, was also very important for his scientific and philosophical development. It was Placzek who arranged a summer stay in Rome with Enrico Fermi in 1932, thus orienting Teller's scientific career in nuclear physics. Also in 1930, Teller moved to the University of Göttingen, then one of the world's great centers of physics due to the presence of Max Born and James Franck, but after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, Germany became unsafe for Jewish people, and he left through the aid of the International Rescue Committee. He went briefly to England, and moved for a year to Copenhagen, where he worked under Niels Bohr. In February 1934 he married his long-time girlfriend Augusta Maria \"Mici\" (pronounced \"Mitzi\") Harkanyi, who was the sister of a friend. Since Mici was a Calvinist Christian, Edward and her were married in a Calvinist church. He returned to England in September 1934.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, Teller was invited to be part of Robert Oppenheimer's summer planning seminar, at the University of California, Berkeley for the origins of the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to develop the first nuclear weapons. A few weeks earlier, Teller had been meeting with his friend and colleague Enrico Fermi about the prospects of atomic warfare, and Fermi had nonchalantly suggested that perhaps a weapon based on nuclear fission could be used to set off an even larger nuclear fusion reaction. Even though he initially explained to Fermi why he thought the idea would not work, Teller was fascinated by the possibility and was quickly bored with the idea of \"just\" an atomic bomb even though this was not yet anywhere near completion. At the Berkeley session, Teller diverted discussion from the fission weapon to the possibility of a fusion weapon—what he called the \"Super\", an early concept of what was later to be known as a hydrogen bomb.",
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"plaintext": "Teller made valuable contributions to bomb research, especially in the elucidation of the implosion mechanism. He was the first to propose the solid pit design that was eventually successful. This design became known as a \"Christy pit\", after the physicist Robert F. Christy who made the pit a reality. Teller was one of the few scientists to actually watch (with eye protection) the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945, rather than follow orders to lie on the ground with backs turned. He later said that the atomic flash \"was as if I had pulled open the curtain in a dark room and broad daylight streamed in\".",
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"plaintext": "In the days before and after the first demonstration of a nuclear weapon, the Trinity test in July 1945, his fellow Hungarian Leo Szilard circulated the Szilard petition, which argued that a demonstration to the Japanese of the new weapon should occur prior to actual use on Japan, and with that hopefully the weapons would never be used on people. In response to Szilard's petition, Teller consulted his friend Robert Oppenheimer. Teller believed that Oppenheimer was a natural leader and could help him with such a formidable political problem. Oppenheimer reassured Teller that the nation's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington. Bolstered by Oppenheimer's influence, he decided to not sign the petition.",
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"plaintext": "Teller therefore penned a letter in response to Szilard that read:",
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"plaintext": "On reflection on this letter years later when he was writing his memoirs, Teller wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Unknown to Teller at the time, four of his colleagues were solicited by the then secret May to June 1945 Interim Committee. It is this organization which ultimately decided on how the new weapons should initially be used. The committee's four-member Scientific Panel was led by Oppenheimer, and concluded immediate military use on Japan was the best option:",
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"plaintext": "Teller later learned of Oppenheimer's solicitation and his role in the Interim Committee's decision to drop the bombs, having secretly endorsed an immediate military use of the new weapons. This was contrary to the impression that Teller had received when he had personally asked Oppenheimer about the Szilard petition: that the nation's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington. Following Teller's discovery of this, his relationship with his advisor began to deteriorate.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, the historian Barton Bernstein argued that it is an \"unconvincing claim\" by Teller that he was a \"covert dissenter\" to the use of the bomb. In his 2001 Memoirs, Teller claims that he did lobby Oppenheimer, but that Oppenheimer had convinced him that he should take no action and that the scientists should leave military questions in the hands of the military; Teller claims he was not aware that Oppenheimer and other scientists were being consulted as to the actual use of the weapon and implies that Oppenheimer was being hypocritical.",
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"plaintext": "Despite an offer from Norris Bradbury, who had replaced Oppenheimer as the director of Los Alamos in November 1945, to become the head of the Theoretical (T) Division, Teller left Los Alamos on February 1, 1946, to return to the University of Chicago as a professor and close associate of Fermi and Goeppert-Mayer. Mayer's work on the internal structure of the elements would earn her the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963.",
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"plaintext": "On April 18–20, 1946, Teller participated in a conference at Los Alamos to review the wartime work on the Super. The properties of thermonuclear fuels such as deuterium and the possible design of a hydrogen bomb were discussed. It was concluded that Teller's assessment of a hydrogen bomb had been too favourable, and that both the quantity of deuterium needed, as well as the radiation losses during deuterium burning, would shed doubt on its workability. Addition of expensive tritium to the thermonuclear mixture would likely lower its ignition temperature, but even so, nobody knew at that time how much tritium would be needed, and whether even tritium addition would encourage heat propagation.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the conference, in spite of opposition by some members such as Robert Serber, Teller submitted an optimistic report in which he said that a hydrogen bomb was feasible, and that further work should be encouraged on its development. Fuchs also participated in this conference, and transmitted this information to Moscow. With John von Neumann, he contributed an idea of using implosion to ignite the Super. The model of Teller's \"classical Super\" was so uncertain that Oppenheimer would later say that he wished the Russians were building their own hydrogen bomb based on that design, so that it would almost certainly retard their progress on it.",
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"plaintext": "By 1949, Soviet-backed governments had already begun seizing control throughout Eastern Europe, forming such puppet states as the Hungarian People's Republic in Teller's homeland of Hungary, where much of his family still lived, on August 20, 1949. Following the Soviet Union's first test detonation of an atomic bomb on August 29, 1949, President Harry Truman announced a crash development program for a hydrogen bomb.",
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"plaintext": "Teller returned to Los Alamos in 1950 to work on the project. He insisted on involving more theorists, but many of Teller's prominent colleagues, like Fermi and Oppenheimer, were sure that the project of the H-bomb was technically infeasible and politically undesirable. None of the available designs were yet workable. However Soviet scientists who had worked on their own hydrogen bomb have claimed that they developed it independently.",
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"plaintext": "In 1950, calculations by the Polish mathematician Stanislaw Ulam and his collaborator Cornelius Everett, along with confirmations by Fermi, had shown that not only was Teller's earlier estimate of the quantity of tritium needed for the H-bomb a low one, but that even with higher amounts of tritium, the energy loss in the fusion process would be too great to enable the fusion reaction to propagate. However, in 1951 Teller and Ulam made a breakthrough, and invented a new design, proposed in a classified March 1951 paper, On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors, for a practical megaton-range H-bomb. The exact contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the Teller–Ulam design is not definitively known in the public domain, and the exact contributions of each and how the final idea was arrived upon has been a point of dispute in both public and classified discussions since the early 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "In an interview with Scientific American from 1999, Teller told the reporter:",
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"plaintext": "The issue is controversial. Bethe considered Teller's contribution to the invention of the H-bomb a true innovation as early as 1952, and referred to his work as a \"stroke of genius\" in 1954. In both cases, however, Bethe emphasized Teller's role as a way of stressing that the development of the H-bomb could not have been hastened by additional support or funding, and Teller greatly disagreed with Bethe's assessment. Other scientists (antagonistic to Teller, such as J. Carson Mark) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the assistance of Ulam and others. Ulam himself claimed that Teller only produced a \"more generalized\" version of Ulam's original design.",
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"plaintext": "The breakthrough—the details of which are still classified—was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons, and to use the X-rays produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel (by process known as \"radiation implosion\") before igniting it. Ulam's idea seems to have been to use mechanical shock from the primary to encourage fusion in the secondary, while Teller quickly realized that X-rays from the primary would do the job much more symmetrically. Some members of the laboratory (J. Carson Mark in particular) later expressed the opinion that the idea to use the X-rays would have eventually occurred to anyone working on the physical processes involved, and that the obvious reason why Teller thought of it right away was because he was already working on the \"Greenhouse\" tests for the spring of 1951, in which the effect of X-rays from a fission bomb on a mixture of deuterium and tritium was going to be investigated.",
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"plaintext": "Whatever the actual components of the so-called Teller–Ulam design and the respective contributions of those who worked on it, after it was proposed it was immediately seen by the scientists working on the project as the answer which had been so long sought. Those who previously had doubted whether a fission-fusion bomb would be feasible at all were converted into believing that it was only a matter of time before both the US and the USSR had developed multi-megaton weapons. Even Oppenheimer, who was originally opposed to the project, called the idea \"technically sweet\".",
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"plaintext": "Though he had helped to come up with the design and had been a long-time proponent of the concept, Teller was not chosen to head the development project (his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this). In 1952 he left Los Alamos and joined the newly established Livermore branch of the University of California Radiation Laboratory, which had been created largely through his urging. After the detonation of Ivy Mike, the first thermonuclear weapon to utilize the Teller–Ulam configuration, on November 1, 1952, Teller became known in the press as the \"father of the hydrogen bomb\". Teller himself refrained from attending the test—he claimed not to feel welcome at the Pacific Proving Grounds—and instead saw its results on a seismograph in the basement of a hall in Berkeley.",
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"plaintext": "There was an opinion that by analyzing the fallout from this test, the Soviets (led in their H-bomb work by Andrei Sakharov) could have deciphered the new American design. However, this was later denied by the Soviet bomb researchers. Because of official secrecy, little information about the bomb's development was released by the government, and press reports often attributed the entire weapon's design and development to Teller and his new Livermore Laboratory (when it was actually developed by Los Alamos).",
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"plaintext": "Many of Teller's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in, and in response, with encouragement from Enrico Fermi, Teller authored an article titled \"The Work of Many People\", which appeared in Science magazine in February 1955, emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon's development. He would later write in his memoirs that he had told a \"white lie\" in the 1955 article in order to \"soothe ruffled feelings\", and claimed full credit for the invention.",
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"plaintext": "Teller was known for getting engrossed in projects which were theoretically interesting but practically unfeasible (the classic \"Super\" was one such project.) About his work on the hydrogen bomb, Bethe said:",
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"plaintext": "During the Manhattan Project, Teller advocated the development of a bomb using uranium hydride, which many of his fellow theorists said would be unlikely to work. At Livermore, Teller continued work on the hydride bomb, and the result was a dud. Ulam once wrote to a colleague about an idea he had shared with Teller: \"Edward is full of enthusiasm about these possibilities; this is perhaps an indication they will not work.\" Fermi once said that Teller was the only monomaniac he knew who had several manias.",
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"plaintext": "Carey Sublette of Nuclear Weapon Archive argues that Ulam came up with the radiation implosion compression design of thermonuclear weapons, but that on the other hand Teller has gotten little credit for being the first to propose fusion boosting in 1945, which is essential for miniaturization and reliability and is used in all of today's nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Teller became controversial in 1954 when he testified against Oppenheimer at Oppenheimer's security clearance hearing. Teller had clashed with Oppenheimer many times at Los Alamos over issues relating both to fission and fusion research, and during Oppenheimer's trial he was the only member of the scientific community to state that Oppenheimer should not be granted security clearance.",
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"plaintext": "Asked at the hearing by Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) attorney Roger Robb whether he was planning \"to suggest that Dr. Oppenheimer is disloyal to the United States\", Teller replied that:I do not want to suggest anything of the kind. I know Oppenheimer as an intellectually most alert and a very complicated person, and I think it would be presumptuous and wrong on my part if I would try in any way to analyze his motives. But I have always assumed, and I now assume that he is loyal to the United States. I believe this, and I shall believe it until I see very conclusive proof to the opposite.He was immediately asked whether he believed that Oppenheimer was a \"security risk\", to which he testified:",
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"plaintext": "Teller also testified that Oppenheimer's opinion about the thermonuclear program seemed to be based more on the scientific feasibility of the weapon than anything else. He additionally testified that Oppenheimer's direction of Los Alamos was \"a very outstanding achievement\" both as a scientist and an administrator, lauding his \"very quick mind\" and that he made \"just a most wonderful and excellent director\".",
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"plaintext": "After this, however, he detailed ways in which he felt that Oppenheimer had hindered his efforts towards an active thermonuclear development program, and at length criticized Oppenheimer's decisions not to invest more work onto the question at different points in his career, saying: \"If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance.\"",
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"plaintext": "By recasting a difference of judgment over the merits of the early work on the hydrogen bomb project into a matter of a security risk, Teller effectively damned Oppenheimer in a field where security was necessarily of paramount concern. Teller's testimony thereby rendered Oppenheimer vulnerable to charges by a Congressional aide that he was a Soviet spy, which resulted in the destruction of Oppenheimer's career.",
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"plaintext": "Oppenheimer's security clearance was revoked after the hearings. Most of Teller's former colleagues disapproved of his testimony and he was ostracized by much of the scientific community. After the fact, Teller consistently denied that he was intending to damn Oppenheimer, and even claimed that he was attempting to exonerate him. However, documentary evidence has suggested that this was likely not the case. Six days before the testimony, Teller met with an AEC liaison officer and suggested \"deepening the charges\" in his testimony.",
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"plaintext": "Teller always insisted that his testimony had not significantly harmed Oppenheimer. In 2002, Teller contended that Oppenheimer was \"not destroyed\" by the security hearing but \"no longer asked to assist in policy matters\". He claimed his words were an overreaction, because he had only just learned of Oppenheimer's failure to immediately report an approach by Haakon Chevalier, who had approached Oppenheimer to help the Russians. Teller said that, in hindsight, he would have responded differently.",
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"plaintext": "Historian Richard Rhodes said that in his opinion it was already a foregone conclusion that Oppenheimer would have his security clearance revoked by then AEC chairman Lewis Strauss, regardless of Teller's testimony. However, as Teller's testimony was the most damning, he was singled out and blamed for the hearing's ruling, losing friends due to it, such as Robert Christy, who refused to shake his hand in one infamous incident. This was emblematic of his later treatment which resulted in him being forced into the role of an outcast of the physics community, thus leaving him little choice but to align himself with industrialists.",
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"plaintext": "After the Oppenheimer controversy, Teller became ostracized by much of the scientific community, but was still quite welcome in the government and military science circles. Along with his traditional advocacy for nuclear energy development, a strong nuclear arsenal, and a vigorous nuclear testing program, he had helped to develop nuclear reactor safety standards as the chair of the Reactor Safeguard Committee of the AEC in the late 1940s, and in the late 1950s headed an effort at General Atomics which designed research reactors in which a nuclear meltdown would be impossible. The TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes, General Atomic) has been built and used in hundreds of hospitals and universities worldwide for medical isotope production and research.",
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"plaintext": "Teller promoted increased defense spending to counter the perceived Soviet missile threat. He was a signatory to the 1958 report by the military sub-panel of the Rockefeller Brothers funded Special Studies Project, which called for a $3billion annual increase in America's military budget.",
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"plaintext": "In 1956 he attended the Project Nobska anti-submarine warfare conference, where discussion ranged from oceanography to nuclear weapons. In the course of discussing a small nuclear warhead for the Mark 45 torpedo, he started a discussion on the possibility of developing a physically small one-megaton nuclear warhead for the Polaris missile. His counterpart in the discussion, J. Carson Mark from the Los Alamos National Laboratory, at first insisted it could not be done. However, Dr. Mark eventually stated that a half-megaton warhead of small enough size could be developed. This yield, roughly thirty times that of the Hiroshima bomb, was enough for Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke, who was present in person, and Navy strategic missile development shifted from Jupiter to Polaris by the end of the year.",
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"plaintext": "He was Director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, which he helped to found with Ernest O. Lawrence, from 1958 to 1960, and after that he continued as an Associate Director. He chaired the committee that founded the Space Sciences Laboratory at Berkeley. He also served concurrently as a Professor of Physics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was a tireless advocate of a strong nuclear program and argued for continued testing and development—in fact, he stepped down from the directorship of Livermore so that he could better lobby against the proposed test ban. He testified against the test ban both before Congress as well as on television.",
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"plaintext": "Teller established the Department of Applied Science at the University of California, Davis and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1963, which holds the Edward Teller endowed professorship in his honor. In 1975 he retired from both the lab and Berkeley, and was named Director Emeritus of the Livermore Laboratory and appointed Senior Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution. After the end of communism in Hungary in 1989, he made several visits to his country of origin, and paid careful attention to the political changes there.",
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"plaintext": "Teller was one of the first prominent people to raise the danger of climate change, driven by the burning of fossil fuels. At an address to the membership of the American Chemical Society in December 1957, Teller warned that the large amount of carbon-based fuel that had been burnt since the mid-19th century was increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would \"act in the same way as a greenhouse and will raise the temperature at the surface\", and that he had calculated that if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by 10% \"an appreciable part of the polar ice might melt\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1959, at a symposium organised by the American Petroleum Institute and the Columbia Graduate School of Business for the centennial of the American oil industry, Edward Teller warned that:",
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"plaintext": "Teller was one of the strongest and best-known advocates for investigating non-military uses of nuclear explosives, which the United States explored under Operation Plowshare. One of the most controversial projects he proposed was a plan to use a multi-megaton hydrogen bomb to dig a deep-water harbor more than a mile long and half a mile wide to use for shipment of resources from coal and oil fields through Point Hope, Alaska. The Atomic Energy Commission accepted Teller's proposal in 1958 and it was designated Project Chariot. While the AEC was scouting out the Alaskan site, and having withdrawn the land from the public domain, Teller publicly advocated the economic benefits of the plan, but was unable to convince local government leaders that the plan was financially viable.",
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"plaintext": "Other scientists criticized the project as being potentially unsafe for the local wildlife and the Inupiat people living near the designated area, who were not officially told of the plan until March 1960. Additionally, it turned out that the harbor would be ice-bound for nine months out of the year. In the end, due to the financial infeasibility of the project and the concerns over radiation-related health issues, the project was abandoned in 1962.",
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"plaintext": "A related experiment which also had Teller's endorsement was a plan to extract oil from the tar sands in northern Alberta with nuclear explosions, titled Project Oilsands. The plan actually received the endorsement of the Alberta government, but was rejected by the Government of Canada under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, who was opposed to having any nuclear weapons in Canada. After Diefenbaker was out of office, Canada went on to have nuclear weapons, from a US nuclear sharing agreement, from 1963 to 1984.",
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"plaintext": "Teller also proposed the use of nuclear bombs to prevent damage from powerful hurricanes. He argued that when conditions in the Atlantic Ocean are right for the formation of hurricanes, the heat generated by well-placed nuclear explosions could trigger several small hurricanes, rather than waiting for nature to build one large one.",
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"plaintext": "Teller's vigorous advocacy for strength through nuclear weapons, especially when so many of his wartime colleagues later expressed regret about the arms race, made him an easy target for the \"mad scientist\" stereotype. In 1991 he was awarded one of the first Ig Nobel Prizes for Peace in recognition of his \"lifelong efforts to change the meaning of peace as we know it\". He was also rumored to be one of the inspirations for the character of Dr. Strangelove in Stanley Kubrick's 1964 satirical film of the same name. In the aforementioned Scientific American interview from 1999, he was reported as having bristled at the question: \"My name is not Strangelove. I don't know about Strangelove. I'm not interested in Strangelove. What else can I say?... Look. Say it three times more, and I throw you out of this office.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, Teller became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. A wish for his 100th birthday, made around the time of his 90th, was for Lawrence Livermore's scientists to give him \"excellent predictions—calculations and experiments—about the interiors of the planets\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, he was awarded the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award. He was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1948. He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Nuclear Society, and the American Physical Society. Among the honors he received were the Albert Einstein Award in 1958, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1961, the Enrico Fermi Award in 1962, the Eringen Medal in 1980, the Harvey Prize in 1975, the National Medal of Science in 1983, the Presidential Citizens Medal in 1989, and the in 2001. He was also named as part of the group of \"U.S. Scientists\" who were Time magazine's People of the Year in 1960, and an asteroid, 5006 Teller, is named after him. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush in 2003, less than two months before his death.",
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"plaintext": " Conversations on the Dark Secrets of Physics (1991), with Wendy Teller and Wilson Talley ",
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"plaintext": " Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics (2001), with Judith Shoolery",
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"plaintext": " Russian text (free download)",
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"plaintext": " Stanley A. Blumberg and Louis G. Panos. Edward Teller : Giant of the Golden Age of Physics; a Biography (Scribner's, 1990)",
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"plaintext": " Istvan Hargittai, Judging Edward Teller: a Closer Look at One of the Most Influential Scientists of the Twentieth Century (Prometheus, 2010).",
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"plaintext": " Carl Sagan writes at length about Teller's career in chapter 16 of his book Science as a Candle in the Dark (Headline, 1996), p.268–274.",
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"plaintext": " Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Science and Technology Review contains 10 articles written primarily by Stephen B. Libby in 2007, about Edward Teller's life and contributions to science, to commemorate the 2008 centennial of his birth.",
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"plaintext": " Heisenberg Sabotaged the Atomic Bomb (Heisenberg hat die Atombombe sabotiert) an interview in German with Edward Teller in: Michael Schaaf: Heisenberg, Hitler und die Bombe. Gespräche mit Zeitzeugen Berlin 2001, .",
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"plaintext": " Szilard, Leo. (1987) Toward a Livable World: Leo Szilard and the Crusade for Nuclear Arms Control. Cambridge: MIT Press. ",
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"plaintext": " A radio interview with Edward Teller Aired on the Lewis Burke Frumkes Radio Show in January 1988.",
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"plaintext": "The Chávez government responded by making laws that would threaten the revocation or fining of media organizations, while Chávez and his officials would also combat the media by calling out reporters by name, which angered members of the media, sparking dubious reports and articles. Fears arose among the media when Chávez would call out journalists by name, with such polarization becoming so intense that eventually journalists \"were regularly attacked in the street by Chavez supporters\". In June 2001, the Chávez-filled Supreme Court ruled that the media could face consequences for \"half-truths\" and shortly after in January 2002, the headquarters of El Universal was assaulted by hundreds of Chavistas, Globovision reporters were attacked while attempting to record Aló Presidente and there was a bomb attack on newspaper Así Es la Noticia. Months later following the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt in April 2002, in which the media played a significant role, Chávez used a \"two-pronged strategy\" in which his government strengthened its own media and \"closed, browbeaten or infiltrated almost every independent outlet.\" In 2004, the Law on Social Responsibility in Radio and Television was passed, allowing the government to censor media in order to \"promote social justice and further the development of the citizenry, democracy, peace, human rights, education, culture, public health, and the nation’s social and economic development.\" The law, which was extended to the Internet and social media in 2010, requires media companies to \"establish mechanisms to restrict, without delay, the dissemination of messages.\"",
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"plaintext": "By the time of Chávez's death in 2013, he left a transformed media atmosphere in Venezuela with the media organizations that opposed him being silenced and an expanding state media as a result. Media workers face legal barriers, defamation lawsuits from Venezuelan officials or are targets of violence. Both Chávez and his successor, Nicolás Maduro, would pressure media organizations until they failed by preventing them from acquiring necessary resources. The Venezuelan government would manipulate foreign exchange rates for media organizations so that they could no longer import their resources or fine them heavily. The government would then use a front company to give the troubled organization a \"generous\" offer to purchase the company. Following the buyout, the front company would promise that the staff would not change but would slowly release them and change their coverage to be in favor of the Venezuelan government.",
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"plaintext": "Television in Venezuela began in 1952 when the dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez launched the state channel Televisora Nacional, making Venezuela the ninth country in the world to have television. By 1963 a quarter of Venezuelan households had television; a figure rising to 45% by 1969 and 85% by 1982. Even though the best known television show internationally is President Hugo Chávez' weekly talkshow Aló Presidente, there are plenty of well known telenovelas.",
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"plaintext": "The main private television networks are RCTV (launched 1953, losing its terrestrial broadcast license 2007); Venevisión (1961); Televen (1988); Globovisión (1994). State television includes Venezolana de Televisión (1964 as a private channel, nationalized in 1974), TVes (2007), ViVe (cultural network, 2003) and teleSUR (Caracas-based pan-Latin American channel sponsored by seven Latin American states, 2005). There are also local community-run television stations such as Televisora Comunitaria del Oeste de Caracas (CatiaTVe, 2001) and a range of regional networks such as Zuliana de Televisión. The Venezuelan government also provides funding to Avila TV (2006), Buena TV and Asamblea Nacional TV (ANTV, network of the National Assembly of Venezuela, 2005).",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, independent television represented 88% of the 24 national television channels while the other 12% of channels were controlled by the Venezuelan government. By 2014, there were 105 national television channels with only 48 channels, or 46%, representing independent media while the Venezuelan government and the \"communitarian channels\" it funded accounted for 54% of channels, or the 57 remaining channels.",
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"plaintext": "In an article by El Tiempo (Anzoátegui), journalists explain reasons of why they have moved from traditional media outlets such as newspapers and organizations to websites. Journalists explained how after allegations of censorship after the sale of Cadena Capriles organization and El Universal, journalists have found refuge on the Internet. Some journalists have even created their own websites, though with some difficulties. This includes a Venezuelan imitation of Naked News called Desnudando La Noticia (Stripping The News).",
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"plaintext": "The use of social media has grown to be important in Venezuela because of government censorship preventing press freedom in other forms of media. Some Venezuelans rely on social networking to purchase goods, such as medications that are vital for survival. Social media has also allowed Venezuelans to protest, though the Bolivarian government has targeted critics. A September 2018 poll by Meganalisis found that 57.7% of respondents relied on social media as their news source.",
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"plaintext": "Large newspaper organizations include El Universal (Caracas) and El Nacional (Caracas). In 2014, newspapers throughout the country have reported shortages of paper and have depleted their reserves; resulting in cuts of services for customers. Despite this, the Venezuelan government has announced the creation of two new state newspapers in September 2014. In October 2014, the Vice President of The Commission of Propaganda, Agitation and Communication of the PSUV, Ernesto Villegas also announced the Venezuelan government's acquisition of Diario Vea.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, 90 newspapers were in circulation in Venezuela. Following the election of President Nicolás Maduro, 55 newspapers in Venezuela stopped circulation due to difficulties and government censorship between 2013 and 2018. By 2019, the number of newspapers circulating in Venezuela dropped to 28.",
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"plaintext": "According to Freedom House in their Freedom of the Press 2014 report, the media in Venezuela is classified as \"not free\". Venezuela's press freedom was also ranked low, with a ranking of 171 out of 197 countries. Freedom House explained that Venezuela's freedom of press had declined during Hugo Chávez's \"15 years in power\", stating that the Venezuelan government's relation to the media \"led to sharp declines in press freedom and a vastly expanded government information apparatus\". After the Venezuelan National Telecommunications Commission (CONATEL) implemented the Resorte Law claiming that \"democratic security\" was in danger and imposed heavy fines on private media, the media responded by \"softening their coverage of national and international news\". This law also requires all media outlets to air live government broadcasts (cadenas) \"which the government issues frequently, at random, and without regard for regular programming.\"",
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"plaintext": "Hugo Chávez presidency resulted being a continuous war against conservative news outlets. He blamed many of them for supporting an attempted coup against him in 2002, which they actually did on air. He made changes in the broadcast side through regulations and new ownership. Maduro continued his predecessor steps by making drastic changes in the print outlets. Thus causing news media friends to start turning against his government. Journalists complain and express their frustration, as they are no longer able to report freely to the news outlet. In addition, many have turned and are making use of new platforms such as internet websites and applications.",
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"plaintext": "In the Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2013, the Organization of American States' Inter-American Commission on Human Rights stated that \"the Penal Code of Venezuela, the Organic Code of Military Justice, and the Law on Social Responsibility in Radio, Television and Electronic Media (Resorte Law) all have sections that are not compatible with Inter-American standards on freedom of expression\". They also reported that the media had been attacked by government authorities. There are reports of authorities destroying work and equipment belonging to the media, arrests and interrogations of media correspondents, reporters being held in prison being \"civil rebellion\" after expressing an opinion, journalists being accused of being spies and multiple reports of arrests of journalists after reporting on alleged election irregularities. Media workers have also been physically and verbally assaulted by government authorities, had received death threats against them and their families and had been intimidated by both government supporters and authorities following the death of Hugo Chávez. Cartoonists, journalists, writers and artists were sent death threats through \"phone calls, text messages to their mobile telephones, and through social network Twitter\". During a radio interview, Nicolas Maduro blamed Televen for violence occurring in the country after the election and accused Globovision of being \"fascist\". The Venezuelan government has also been accused of not allowing public media outlets to attend official events and places such as the National Assembly, where only government-run media outlets are allowed to participate.",
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"plaintext": "In the World Report 2014 by Human Rights Watch, the Venezuelan government \"has expanded and abused its powers to regulate media\". The report says that \"sharp criticism of the government is still common in several newspapers and some radio stations, fear of government reprisals has made self-censorship a serious problem\". The report also criticized the amended telecommunications law where the government could take away concessions to private media outlets if it is \"convenient for the interests of the nation\".",
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"plaintext": "In a 2015 report by the Institute for Press and Society (IPYS), over 25 media organizations had changed in ownership between 2010 and 2015 with the new owners having \"a direct relationship\" to local governments and the national government that was linked to Chavismo.",
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"plaintext": "In the Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2013, the Organization of American States' Inter-American Commission on Human Rights said that it had received information about \"persistent use of stigmatizing declarations by public officials to discredit journalists, communicators, and members of the opposition who express ideas, opinions or disseminate information contrary to the interests of the Venezuelan Government\". President Maduro has frequently accused the media of \"psychological war\", \"media terrorism\", being \"ultra-rightwing\" and \"ignorant, perverse and manipulators\". President Maduro had also called the newspaper El Nacional, \"El Nazi–onal\" and said that \"[b]uying El Nacional is like buying muriatic acid and breakfasting on muriatic acid every day. That’s right, it’s poison! I don’t buy it, I don’t recommend that anyone buy it either, really; not even the people of the opposition because if they do they will make a bad impression.\" The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights stressed how important it was for \"creating a climate of respect and tolerance for all ideas and opinions\" in Venezuela.",
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"plaintext": "Employees of Globovision filed complaints to the Public Prosecutor about \"supposed threats by representatives of the Executive Branch against the media\" and that \"[s]tatements by senior officials constitute an official discourse that incites physical and verbal attacks on the employees of Globovisión, and guarantees impunity for the aggressors\". Nicolas Maduro used harsh accusations on media organizations who were reporting on the health of Hugo Chávez calling them \"ultra-rightwing\", saying that they \"have an absolutely wretched soul, absolutely wretched, and answer to anti-patriotic plans\" and that they are \"a very venomous minority of that ultra-right that never stops in its attack against President Chávez\". President Maduro also accused the newspapers El Universal and El Nacional of \"media terrorism\" and a \"psychological war\". Diosdado Cabello, The President of the National Assembly, said that the private media are \"the enemies of the homeland, of the people, of the Revolution, of the Constitution\" and that \"encouraging activities of this type because it might backfire […] and in the face of these media who are going with the ruin of the peace in this country, with the destruction of the peace of this country, I’m going to tell them: the day that something happens here, the people know what they are going to grab on to – and I’m almost certain that the rightwing media are not going to go without visits from the people. And this is not threats, I am just trying to interpret the reality of a people that is tired, that is sick and tired of being subjected and harassed, every day, to a thousand pressures by the rightwing media with their lies\".",
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"plaintext": "President Maduro said that the time had come for media organizations to show \"who they are with […] with the homeland, with peace, with the people, or are they going to be on the side of fascism once again\". President Maduro also made several verbal attacks at the time against the media saying they \"are sadists of journalism and communication\" and that \"they celebrate [with] the feast of death\".",
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"plaintext": "After the government had already announced the plans of searching a jail in Uribana, Minister of Popular Power for Penitentiary Services, Iris Varela, blamed Globovisión and El Impulso for attacks on authorities. She said, \"[W]e were surprised at the announcement of the search by the privately held Globovisión network, the social networks and the webpage of newspaper El Impulso, which undoubtedly constituted a detonator for the violence, as shown by the beginning of a mutiny within the Penitentiary Center hours later, during which the gang leaders attacked members of the National Guard, resulting in an unfortunate number of casualties\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Diario Las Americas reported that the Venezuelan news website Noticias24 had sent messages to current and formal members of the Venezuelan intelligence agency SEBIN, releasing \"personal records of citizens who frequent the forums portal journalistic institution with critical views about government performance Nicolas Maduro\". The director of Noticias24, Frank Prada, sent screenshots of the critical comments to SEBIN and to former director and now Minister of Interior and Justice, Miguel Rodríguez Torres. It was alleged by Diario Las Americas that since the Venezuelan government knew the users IP address, they would be able to block future critical comments in the future with the \"state-owned CANTV\" and know the location of the user.",
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"plaintext": "The Venezuelan internet freedom declined in 2017. The country is moving towards the increase of internet censorship and the increase of online surveillance. Social media is the route protesters are taking in order to raise their concerns. This has led to the implementation of content filtering and online surveillance by the government of the country. The government justifies that the internet is used to promote hate speech.",
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"plaintext": "According to media protection organizations, Venezuelans \"have been forced to find alternatives as newspapers and broadcasters struggle with state efforts to control coverage\", with a growing trend of Venezuelans using online news media to bypass government censors. websites such as Informe21, El Diario de Caracas, La Patilla Agencia Carabobeña de Noticias and Efecto Cocuyo have emerged to counter the censorship.",
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"plaintext": "Journalists and press-freedom advocates state that news websites like La Patilla \"have helped fill a gap\" since individuals linked to the Venezuelan government had purchased media organizations in Venezuela, such as El Universal, Globovisión and Ultimas Noticias. In an article by The Wall Street Journal discussing the rising popularity of news websites in Venezuela, La Patilla CEO Alberto Federico Ravell stated that \"The editorial line of La Patilla is to call it like it is ... We don't need paper. We don't need a broadcasting license. There's little they can do to squeeze us.\"",
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"plaintext": "The search for an alternate way of expressing their views is not lost on the new generation. According to an article published by Reuters, a group of young Venezuelan activists took it upon themselves to ride bus lines that pass through the poorest neighborhoods of Caracas and do their own kind of \"news broadcasting\". Claudia Lizardo, a 29-year-old creative director, formed a small team composed by four friends and began broadcasting under the name of \"Bus TV\" with nothing more than a cardboard frame and their voices. The group claims that the goal to be producing fact-based news media rather to seek confrontation with anybody. Laura Castillo, one member of the team, stated that \"We want this to survive, that’s why we have a respectful approach that doesn’t look for confrontation with anybody.\"",
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"plaintext": " List of newspapers in Venezuela",
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"plaintext": " List of Venezuelan television channels",
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"plaintext": " List of radio stations in Venezuela",
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"plaintext": " Bolivarian propaganda",
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"plaintext": " Media representation of Hugo Chávez",
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"plaintext": " 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt",
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"plaintext": " Venesat-1",
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"plaintext": " Dinges, John. Columbia Journalism Review (July 2005). \"Soul Search\", Vol. 44 Issue 2, July–August 2005, pp52–8",
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"plaintext": " Andrew Kennis, Media Accuracy on Latin America, 15 July 2008, What is the Venezuelan news media actually like?. ",
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"plaintext": " \"Ley Resorte\" (2005 media law)",
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"plaintext": " \"Venezuela's Ongoing Media War\". Venezuela | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 14 May 2017, www.aljazeera.com/programmes/listeningpost/2017/05/venezuela-ongoing-media-war-170513114624033.html. ",
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"plaintext": " Gonzales, Richard. \"Venezuela Constituent Assembly Cracks Down on Media\". NPR, NPR, 9 Nov. 2017, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/11/08/562954354/venezuela-constituent-assembly-cracks-down-on-media.",
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"plaintext": " McCarthy, K. (n.d.). Venezuela increases internet censorship and surveillance in crisis. Retrieved 4 April 2018, from ",
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"plaintext": " Fossett, Katelyn. \"How the Venezuelan Government Made the Media into Its Most Powerful Ally\". Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 11 Mar. 2014, foreignpolicy.com/2014/03/11/how-the-venezuelan-government-made-the-media-into-its-most-powerful-ally/.",
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| [
"Mass_media_in_Venezuela",
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| 3,332,540 | 175 | 17 | 104 | 0 | 0 | media of Venezuela | []
|
|
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"plaintext": "The 11th and 12th centuries were the abbey's golden age. It acquired a large secular territory around Monte Cassino, the so-called Terra Sancti Benedicti (\"Land of Saint Benedict\"), which it heavily fortified with castles. It maintained good relations with the Eastern Church, even receiving patronage from Byzantine emperors. It encouraged fine art and craftsmanship by employing Byzantine and even Arab artisans. In 1057, Pope Victor II recognised the abbot of Monte Cassino as having precedence over all other abbots. Many monks rose to become bishops and cardinals, and three popes were drawn from the abbey: Stephen IX (1057–58), Victor III (1086–87) and Gelasius II (1118–19). During this period the monastery's chronicle was written by two of its own, Cardinal Leo of Ostia and Peter the Deacon (who also compiled the cartulary).",
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"plaintext": "By the 13th century, the monastery's decline had set in. In 1239, the Emperor Frederick II garrisoned troops in it during his war with the Papacy. In 1322, Pope John XXII elevated the abbey into a bishopric but this was suppressed in 1367. The buildings were destroyed by an earthquake in 1349, and in 1369 Pope Urban V demanded a contribution from all Benedictine monasteries to fund the rebuilding. In 1454 the abbey was placed in commendam and in 1504 was made subject to the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua.",
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"plaintext": "In 1799, Monte Cassino was sacked again by French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars. The abbey was dissolved by the Italian government in 1866. The building became a national monument with the monks as custodians of its treasures. In 1944 during World War II it was the site of the Battle of Monte Cassino and the building was destroyed by Allied bombing. It was rebuilt after the war.",
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"plaintext": "After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council the monastery was one of the few remaining territorial abbeys within the Catholic Church. On 23 October 2014, Pope Francis applied the norms of the motu proprio Ecclesia Catholica of Paul VI (1976) to the abbey, removing from its jurisdiction all 53 parishes and reducing its spiritual jurisdiction to the abbey itself – while retaining its status as a territorial abbey. The former territory of the Abbey, except the land on which the abbey church and monastery sit, was transferred to the diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo. Pope Francis at the same time appointed Father Donato Ogliari as the new Abbot who will serve as the 192nd successor of Saint Benedict. As of 2015, the monastic community consists of thirteen monks.",
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"plaintext": "The history of Monte Cassino is linked to the nearby town of Cassino which was first settled in the fifth century B.C. by the Volsci people who held much of central Italy. It was the Volsci who first built a citadel on the summit of Monte Cassino. The Volsci in the area were defeated by the Romans in 312 B.C. The Romans renamed the settlement Casinum and built a temple to Apollo at the citadel. Modern excavations have found no remains of the temple, but ruins of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and a mausoleum indicate the lasting presence the Romans had there.",
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"plaintext": "Generations after the Roman Empire adopted Christianity the town became the seat of a bishopric in the fifth century A.D. Lacking strong defences the area was subject to barbarian attack and became abandoned and neglected with only a few struggling inhabitants holding out.",
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"plaintext": "According to Gregory the Great's hagiography, Benedict, Life of Saint Benedict of Nursia, the monastery was constructed on an older pagan site, a temple of Apollo that crowned the hill. The biography records that the area was still largely pagan at the time; Benedict's first act was to smash the sculpture of Apollo and destroy the altar. He then reused the temple, dedicating it to Saint Martin, and built another chapel on the site of the altar dedicated to Saint John the Baptist.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict's seizure of Monte Cassino:",
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"plaintext": "Now the citadel called Casinum is located on the side of a high mountain. The mountain shelters this citadel on a broad bench. Then it rises three miles above it as if its peak tended toward heaven. There was an ancient temple there in which Apollo used to be worshipped according to the old pagan rite by the foolish local farmers. Around it had grown up a grove dedicated to demon worship, where even at that time a wild crowd still devoted themselves to unholy sacrifices. When [Benedict] the man of God arrived, he smashed the idol, overturned the altar and cut down the grove of trees. He built a chapel dedicated to St. Martin in the temple of Apollo and another to St. John where the altar of Apollo had stood. And he summoned the people of the district to the faith by his unceasing preaching.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict claims that Satan opposed the monks repurposing the site. In one story, Satan invisibly sits on a rock making it too heavy to remove until Benedict drives him off. In another story, Satan taunts Benedict and then collapses a wall on a young monk, who is brought back to life by Benedict. Pope Gregory also relays that the monks found a pagan idol of bronze when digging at the site (which when thrown into the kitchen gave the illusion of a fire until dispelled by Benedict).",
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"plaintext": "Archaeologist Neil Christie notes that it was common in such hagiographies for the protagonist to encounter areas of strong paganism. Benedict scholar Terrence Kardong examines why Benedict did not face stiffer opposition in his seizure of the site from the local pagans. He contrasts this with the 25-year struggle faced by St. Martin of Tours in western Gaul by pagans angry at his attacks on their shrines: \"By the time of Benedict, paganism was in a weaker condition in western Europe than it had been in Martin's time. And, of course, it must be remembered that Martin as a bishop was a much more prominent churchman than Benedict. This was an isolated and unusual episode in Benedict's monastic career. Martin, however, was thrust out of his monastery into the role of a missionary bishop in the fourth century.\"",
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"plaintext": "Benedict scholars (such as Adalbert de Vogüé and Terrence Kardong) note the heavy influence of Sulpicius Severus' Life of Martin on Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict, including the account of his seizure of Monte Cassino. Benedict's violence against a pagan holy place recalls both Martin's assault against pagan shrines generations before and the Biblical story of conquering Israel entering the Holy Land (see Exodus 34:12–14). De Vogue writes \"this mountain had to be conquered from an idolatrous people and purified from its devilish horrors. And like conquering Israel, Benedict came precisely to carry out this purification. No doubt Gregory had this biblical model uppermost in his mind, as is clear from the terms he uses to describe the work of destruction. At the same time, neither Gregory nor Benedict could have forgotten the similar line of action taken by St. Martin against the pagan shrines of Gaul.\"",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict at Monte Cassino is seen by scholars as the final setting for an epic set in motion at Subiaco. In his earlier setting Benedict \"had twice shown complete mastery over his aggressiveness, Benedict is now allowed to use it without restraint in the service of God.\" Scholars note that this striking contrast is not stressed by Gregory but rather both settings are portrayed as part of a single battle account against the same demonic enemy. Where Satan concealed himself behind underlings at Subiaco, at Monte Cassino he drops the masks to enter into a desperate attempt to prevent an abbey from being built, and \"that the sole cause of this eruption of satanic action is the suppression of pagan worship on the high places.\"",
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"plaintext": "While scholars see some similarities between the story of Benedict's encountering demonic phenomena and diabolic apparitions at Monte Cassino with the story of Saint Anthony the Great's temptation in the desert, the influence of the story of St. Martin is dominant – with the resistance of Satan substituting for Martin's outraged pagan populace. Unlike the stories that may have influenced Pope Gregory's structure of the biography, Benedict's victories are practical, preventing Satan from stopping work on the abbey at Monte Cassino. Benedict's prayers are portrayed as the driving force behind the building of the abbey and the triumphs over Satan, through prayer: \"Benedict the monk wrests from the devil a well-determined base which he never leaves.\" After the completion of the abbey, Satan's appearances in the story diminish back to the same level as Subiaco, \"Only after the saint's death and by God's permission would other enemies, the Lombards, succeed in sacking it.\"Once established at Monte Cassino, Benedict never left. He wrote the Benedictine Rule that became the founding principle for Western monasticism, received a visit from Totila, king of the Ostrogoths (perhaps in 543, the only remotely secure historical date for Benedict), and died there. According to accounts, \"Benedict died in the oratory of St. Martin, and was buried in the oratory of St. John.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Rule of St. Benedict mandated the moral obligations to care for the sick. So in Monte Cassino St. Benedict founded a hospital that is considered today to have been the first in Europe of the new era. Benedictine monks took care of the sick and wounded there according to Benedict's Rule. The monastic routine called for hard work. The care of the sick was such an important duty that those caring for them were enjoined to act as if they served Christ directly. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at nearby Subiaco (about 64km to the east of Rome), where hospitals were settled, too, as adjuncts to the monasteries to provide charity. Soon many monasteries were founded throughout Europe, and everywhere there were hospitals like those in Monte Cassino.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict's construction was confirmed by archaeological discoveries made after the destruction of 1944. Adalbert de Vogüé recounts that \"Traces have been found of the oratories of St. Martin and of St. John the Baptist, with additions from the eighth and eleventh centuries, together with their pre-Christian cellars. The first one which Benedict built in the temple itself was only twelve meters long and eight wide. From this, we can infer a fairly small community. The second oratory, on the mountain-top, where the pagan altar had stood in the open air, was of the same width but somewhat longer (15.25 meters).\"",
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"plaintext": "Monte Cassino became a model for future developments. Its prominent site has always made it an object of strategic importance. It was sacked or destroyed a number of times. \"The first to demolish it were Lombards on foot in 580; the last were Allied bombers in 1944.\" In 581, during the abbacy of Bonitus, the Lombards sacked the abbey, and the surviving monks fled to Rome, where they remained for more than a century. During this time the body of St Benedict was transferred to Fleury, the modern Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire near Orleans, France.",
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"plaintext": "A flourishing period of Monte Cassino followed its re-establishment in 718 by Abbot Petronax, when among the monks were Carloman, son of Charles Martel; Ratchis, predecessor of the Lombard King Aistulf; and Paul the Deacon, the historian of the Lombards.",
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"plaintext": "In 744, a donation of Gisulf II of Benevento created the Terra Sancti Benedicti, the secular lands of the abbacy, which were subject to the abbot and nobody else save the pope. Thus, the monastery became the capital of a state comprising a compact and strategic region between the Lombard principality of Benevento and the Byzantine city-states of the coast (Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi).",
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"plaintext": "In 884 Saracens sacked and then burned it down, and Abbot Bertharius was killed during the attack. Among the great historians who worked at the monastery, in this period there is Erchempert, whose Historia Langobardorum Beneventanorum is a fundamental chronicle of the ninth-century Mezzogiorno.",
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"plaintext": "Monte Cassino was rebuilt and reached the apex of its fame in the 11th century under the abbot Desiderius (abbot 1058–1087), who later became Pope Victor III. Monks caring for the patients in Monte Cassino constantly needed new medical knowledge. So they began to buy and collect medical and other books by Greek, Roman, Islamic, Egyptian, European, Jewish, and Oriental authors. As Naples is situated on the crossroad of many seaways of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, soon the monastery library was one of the richest in Europe. All the knowledge of the civilizations of all the times and nations was accumulated in the Abbey of that time. The Benedictines translated into Latin and transcribed precious manuscripts. The number of monks rose to over two hundred, and the library, the manuscripts produced in the scriptorium and the school of manuscript illuminators became famous throughout the West. The unique Beneventan script flourished there during Desiderius' abbacy.",
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"plaintext": "Monks reading and copying the medical texts learned a lot about human anatomy and methods of treatment, and then put their theoretic skills into practice at monastery hospital. By the 10–11th centuries Monte Cassino became the most famous cultural, educational, and medical center of Europe with a great library in Medicine and other sciences. Many physicians came there for medical and other knowledge. That is why the first High Medical School in the world was soon opened in nearby Salerno which is considered today to have been the earliest Institution of Higher Education in Western Europe. This school found its original base in the Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino still in the 9th century and later settled down in Salerno. So, Montecassino and Benedictines played a great role in the progress of medicine and science in the Middle Ages, and with his life and work St. Benedict himself exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture and helped Europe to emerge from the \"dark night of history\" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.",
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"plaintext": "The buildings of the monastery were reconstructed in the 11th century on a scale of great magnificence, artists being brought from Amalfi, Lombardy, and even Constantinople to supervise the various works. The abbey church, rebuilt and decorated with the utmost splendor, was consecrated in 1071 by Pope Alexander II. A detailed account of the abbey at this date exists in the Chronica monasterii Cassinensis by Leo of Ostia and Amatus of Monte Cassino gives us our best source on the early Normans in the south.",
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"plaintext": "Abbot Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler Leo of Ostia the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). \"The abbot in his wisdom decided that a great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts\" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Architectural historian Kenneth John Conant believed that Desiderius' rebuilding included pointed arches, and served as a major influence in the nascent development of Gothic architecture. Abbot Hugh of Cluny visited Monte Cassino in 1083, and five years later he began to build the third church at Cluny Abbey, which then included pointed arches and became a major turning point in medieval architecture.",
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"plaintext": "An earthquake damaged the Abbey in 1349, and although the site was rebuilt it marked the beginning of a long period of decline. In 1321, Pope John XXII made the church of Monte Cassino a cathedral, and the carefully preserved independence of the monastery from episcopal interference was at an end. That situation was reversed by Pope Urban V, a Benedictine, in 1367. In 1505 the monastery was joined with that of St. Justina of Padua.",
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"plaintext": "The site was sacked by Napoleon's troops in 1799. From the dissolution of the Italian monasteries in 1866, Monte Cassino became a national monument.",
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"plaintext": "During the Battle of Monte Cassino in the Italian Campaign of World War II (January–May 1944) the Abbey was heavily damaged. The German military forces had established the 161-kilometre (100-mile) Gustav Line, in order to prevent Allied troops from advancing northwards. The abbey itself however, was not initially utilised by the German troops as part of their fortifications, owing to General Kesselring's regard for the historical monument. The Gustav Line stretched from the Tyrrhenian to the Adriatic coast in the east, with Monte Cassino itself overlooking Highway 6 and blocking the path to Rome. On 15 February 1944 the abbey was almost completely destroyed in a series of heavy, American-led air raids. The Commander-in-Chief of Allied Armies in Italy, General Sir Harold Alexander of the British army, ordered the bombing. The bombing was conducted because many reports from the British commanders of the Indian troops on the ground suggested that Germans were occupying the monastery, and it was considered a key observation post by all those who were fighting in the field. However, during the bombing no Germans were present in the abbey. Subsequent investigations found that the only people killed in the monastery by the bombing were 230 Italian civilians seeking refuge there. Following the bombing the ruins of the monastery were occupied by German Fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) of the 1st Parachute Division, because the ruins provided excellent defensive cover.",
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"plaintext": "The Abbey was rebuilt after the war. In the early 1950s, President of the Italian Republic Luigi Einaudi gave considerable support to the rebuilding. Pope Paul VI consecrated the rebuilt Basilica on 24 October 1964. During reconstruction, the abbey library was housed at the Pontifical Abbey of St Jerome-in-the-City. Until his resignation was accepted by Pope Francis on 12 June 2013, the Territorial Abbot of Monte Cassino was Pietro Vittorelli. The Vatican daily bulletin of 23 October 2014 announced that with the appointment of his successor Donato Ogliari, the territory of the abbey outside the immediate monastery grounds had been transferred to the Diocese of Sora-Aquino-Pontecorvo, now renamed Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1943, some 1,400 irreplaceable manuscript codices, chiefly patristic and historical, in addition to a vast number of documents relating to the history of the abbey and the collections of the Keats-Shelley Memorial House in Rome, had been sent to the abbey archives for safekeeping. German officers Lt. Col. Julius Schlegel (a Roman Catholic) and Capt. Maximilian Becker (a Protestant), both from the Panzer-Division Hermann Göring, had them transferred to the Vatican at the beginning of the battle.",
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"plaintext": "Another account, however, from revisionist author Franz Kurowski's The History of the Fallschirmpanzerkorps Hermann Göring: Soldiers of the Reichsmarschall, notes that 120 trucks were loaded with monastic assets and art which had been stored there for safekeeping. Robert Edsel (2006) is more to the point about German looting. The trucks were loaded and left in October 1943, and only \"strenuous\" protests resulted in their delivery to the Vatican, minus the 15 cases which contained the property of the Capodimonte Museum in Naples. Edsel goes on to note that these cases had been delivered to Göring in December 1943, for \"his birthday\".",
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"plaintext": "Saint Apollinaris, abbot of Montecassino, feast day on 27 November",
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| [
"Abbey_of_Monte_Cassino",
"Hills_of_Italy",
"Mountains_of_Lazio",
"Benedictine_monasteries_in_Italy",
"Christian_monasteries_established_in_the_6th_century",
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"Burial_sites_of_the_Carolingian_dynasty",
"Buildings_and_structures_in_the_Province_of_Frosinone",
"Churches_in_the_province_of_Frosinone"
]
| 154,372 | 12,927 | 718 | 144 | 0 | 0 | Monte Cassino | rocky hill with monastery, southeast of Rome, Italy | []
|
37,787 | 1,106,597,462 | Augsburg | [
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"plaintext": "Augsburg (; , , ) is a city in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany, around west of Bavarian capital Munich. It is a university town and regional seat of the Regierungsbezirk Schwaben with an impressive Altstadt (historical city centre). Augsburg is an urban district and home to the institutions of the Landkreis Augsburg. It is the third-largest city in Bavaria (after Munich and Nuremberg) with a population of 300,000 inhabitants, with 885,000 in its metropolitan area.",
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"plaintext": "After Neuss, Trier, Cologne and Xanten, Augsburg is one of Germany's oldest cities, founded in 15 BC by the Romans as Augusta Vindelicorum, named after the Roman emperor Augustus. It was a Free Imperial City from 1276 to 1803 and the home of the patrician Fugger and Welser families that dominated European banking in the 16th century. According to Behringer, in the sixteenth century, it became \"the dominant centre of early capitalism\", having benefitted from being part of the Kaiserliche Reichspost system as \"the location of the most important post office within the Holy Roman Empire\" and the city's close connection to Maximilian I. The city played a leading role in the Reformation as the site of the 1530 Augsburg Confession and 1555 Peace of Augsburg. The Fuggerei, the oldest social housing complex in the world, was founded in 1513 by Jakob Fugger.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, UNESCO recognized the Water Management System of Augsburg as a World Heritage Site.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg lies at the convergence of the Alpine rivers Lech and Wertach and on the Singold. The oldest part of the city and the southern quarters are on the northern foothills of a high terrace, which has emerged between the steep rim of the hills of Friedberg in the east and the high hills of the west. In the south extends the Lechfeld, an outwash plain of the post ice age between the rivers Lech and Wertach, where rare primeval landscapes were preserved. The Augsburg city forest and the Lech valley heaths today rank among the most species-rich middle European habitats.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg borders on the nature park Augsburg Western Woods - a large forestland. The city itself is also heavily verdant. As a result, in 1997 Augsburg was the first German city to win the Europe-wide contest Entente Florale for Europe's greenest and most livable city.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Augsburg was founded in 15 BC on the orders of Emperor Augustus. Emperor Augustus conducted extensive military campaigns and established administrative settlements. The settlement that became Augsburg was known as Augusta Vindelicorum, meaning \"the Augustan city of the Vindelici\". The settlement was established at the convergence of the Alpine rivers Lech and Wertach. In 120 AD Augsburg became the administrative capital of the Roman province Raetia. Augsburg was sacked by the Huns in the 5th century AD, by Charlemagne in the 8th century, and by Welf I, Duke of Bavaria in the 11th century.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg was granted the status of a Free Imperial City on 9 March 1276 and from then until 1803, it was independent of its former overlord, the Prince-Bishop of Augsburg. Frictions between the city-state and the prince-bishops were to remain frequent however, particularly after Augsburg became Protestant and curtailed the rights and freedoms of Catholics. With its strategic location at an intersection of trade routes to Italy, the Free Imperial City of Augsburg became a major trading center.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg produced large quantities of woven goods, cloth and textiles. Augsburg became the base of two banking families that rose to great prominence, the Fuggers and the Welsers. The Fugger family donated the Fuggerei part of the city devoted to housing for needy citizens in 1516, which remains in use today.",
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"plaintext": "In 1530, the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Holy Roman Emperor at the Diet of Augsburg. Following the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, after which the rights of religious minorities in imperial cities were to be legally protected, a mixed Catholic–Protestant city council presided over a majority Protestant population; see Paritätische Reichsstadt.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg's economic boom years occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries thanks to the bank and metal businesses of the merchant families Fugger, Welser and Hochstetter. These families held a near total monopoly in important industries. Monopolies were considered criminal in contemporary laws and these families' practices were criticized by Martin Luther himself, but as Emperor Charles V needed their financial assistance, he cancelled the charged in the 1530s. In the 16th century Augsburg became one of Germany's largest cities. Augsburg was a major manufacturing center for textiles, armor, scientific instruments, as well as gold- and silver-smithing. The prolific printers of Augsburg also made the city the largest producer of German-language books in the Holy Roman Empire. Like other free imperial cities, Augsburg was an independent entity, and had authority over its tax policies.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg's wealth attracted artists seeking patrons. The city rapidly became a creative centre for sculptors and musicians. Augsburg became the base of the Holbein family, starting with Hans Holbein the Elder. The composer Leopold Mozart was born and educated in Augsburg. Rococo became so prevalent that it became known as \"Augsburg style\" throughout Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Religious peace in the city was largely maintained despite increasing tensions until the Thirty Years' War, which started 1618 and lasted until 1648. In 1629 the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution, which restored the legal situation of 1552. The inequality of the Edict of Restitution was revoked when in April 1632, when Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden occupied Augsburg.",
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"plaintext": "In 1634 the Swedish army was defeated at the nearby Battle of Nördlingen. By October 1634, Catholic troops had surrounded Augsburg. The Swedish army refused to surrender and a siege ensued through the winter of 1634/35 and thousands died from hunger and disease. During the Swedish occupation and the siege by Catholic troops the population of the city was reduced from about 70,000 to about 16,000. Diseases such as typhus and the Black Death ravaged the city.",
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"plaintext": "In the first half of the 17th century Augsburg was pivotal in the European network of goldsmiths. Augsburg attracted goldsmith journeymen from all over Europe and in the 18th century a large number of silversmiths and goldsmiths became master craftsman in Augsburg.",
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"plaintext": "In 1686 the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formed the League of Augsburg, also known as the \"Grand Alliance\" after England joined in 1689. The coalition consisted at various times of Austria, Bavaria, Brandenburg, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Electorate of the Palatinate, Portugal, Savoy, Saxony, Spain, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic. The coalition was formed to defend the Electorate of the Palatinate and fought against France in the Nine Years' War.",
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"plaintext": "The Reichsdeputationshauptschluss or Final Recess of 1803 saw the annexation of nearly all of the 51 Free Imperial Cities, excepting Augsburg and five others. However, when the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, Napoleon encouraged his German allies to mediatize their smaller neighbours, and Augsburg lost its independence. It was annexed to the Kingdom of Bavaria. In 1817, the city became an administrative capital of the Oberdonaukreis, then administrative capital in 1837 for the district Swabia and Neuburg.",
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"plaintext": "During the German re-armament before the Second World War, the Wehrmacht enlarged Augsburg's one original Kaserne (barracks) to three: Somme Kaserne (housing Wehrmacht Artillerie-Regiment 27); Arras Kaserne (housing Wehrmacht Infanterie Regiment 27) and Panzerjäger Kaserne (housing Panzerabwehr-Abteilung 27 (later Panzerjäger-Abteilung 27)). Wehrmacht Panzerjäger-Abteilung 27 was later moved to Füssen.",
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"plaintext": "The MAN factory at Augsburg was the largest German manufacturer of engines for U-boats in World War II and became the target of the Augsburg Raid. When the Avro Lancaster bomber was new in service, the RAF sent 12 at low level to bomb the factory in daylight, on 17 April 1942. The bombers were intercepted en-route and only five returned, all damaged. The factory was damaged but production continued; the factory was repeatedly bombed later. A subcamp of the Dachau concentration camp outside Augsburg supplied approximately 1,300 forced labourers to local military-related industry, especially the Messerschmitt AG military aircraft firm, headquartered in Augsburg.",
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"plaintext": "In 1941, Rudolf Hess, without Adolf Hitler's permission, secretly took off from a local Augsburg airport and flew to Scotland, crashing in Eaglesham. His objective was to meet the Duke of Hamilton in an attempt to mediate the end of the European front of World War II and join sides for the upcoming Russian Campaign.",
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"plaintext": "Following the war, the three Kaserne would change hands confusingly between the American and Germans, finally ending up in US hands for the duration of the Cold War. They became the three main US barracks in Augsburg: Reese, Sheridan and FLAK. US Base FLAK had been an anti-aircraft barracks since 1936 and US Base Sheridan \"united\" the former infantry barracks with a smaller Kaserne for former Luftwaffe communications units.",
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{
"plaintext": "| colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey| ",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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{
"plaintext": "| ",
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"plaintext": "| align=left| Political Voters' Association/Democracy in Motion (Polit-WG/DiB)",
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"plaintext": "| 29,149",
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{
"plaintext": "| 0.6",
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{
"plaintext": "| 2.5",
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{
"plaintext": "| 0",
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{
"plaintext": "| 1",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Total",
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{
"plaintext": "! 5,127,607",
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{
"plaintext": "! 100.0",
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{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
"section_idx": 3,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 3,
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{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Invalid votes",
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{
"plaintext": "! 2,079",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! 2.1",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Politics",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Politics",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
"section_idx": 3,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Politics",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Total",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! 97,013",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! 100.0",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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{
"plaintext": "! 60",
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{
"plaintext": "! ±0",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout",
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"plaintext": "! 214,110",
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{
"plaintext": "! 45.3",
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"plaintext": "! 4.1",
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"plaintext": "! ",
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{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| colspan=7| Source: City of Augsburg",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg is located in the Wahlkreis 253 Augsburg-Stadt constituency, which includes Königsbrunn and parts of the District of Augsburg (Landkreis Augsburg).",
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"plaintext": "St. Mary's Syriac Orthodox Church on the Zusamstraße in Lechhausen, built 1998 by Suryoye (Assyrians)",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg textile and industry museum-or just tim, organises it displays under headings Mensch-Maschine-Muster-Mode.",
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"plaintext": "St. Ulrich and St. Afra—one church is Roman Catholic, the other Lutheran, the duality being a result of the Peace of Augsburg concluded in 1555 between Catholics and Protestants",
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"plaintext": "Mozart Haus Augsburg (where composer's father Leopold Mozart was born and Mozart visited it several times)",
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"plaintext": "Luther Stiege, museum located in a church, that shows Martin Luthers life and different rooms. (free admission)",
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"plaintext": "Eiskanal, the world's first artificial whitewater course (venue for the whitewater events of the 1972 Munich Olympics)",
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"plaintext": "Childhood home of Bertolt Brecht",
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"plaintext": "The Augsburg Botanical Gardens (Botanischer Garten Augsburg)",
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"plaintext": "Bahnpark Augsburg home of 29 historic locomotives, blacksmith, historic roundhouse",
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"plaintext": "3 magnificent renaissance fountains, the Augustus Fountain, Mercury Fountain and Hercules Fountain from the 15th century, build for the 1500th anniversary of city foundation",
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"plaintext": "Walter Art Museum at the Glas Palast (\"Glas-Palace\")",
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"plaintext": "Roman Museum located in the former Monastery of St. Margaret (closed at the moment due to risk of collapsing). Renovation is taking place and the museum is expected to reopen in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Medieval canals, used to run numerous industries, medieval arms production, silver art, sanitation and water pumping ",
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"plaintext": "Kulturhaus Abraxas",
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"plaintext": "The pagan goddess Cisa has been linked to the civic emblem of Augsburg, known as Stadtpir. Cisa and the Stadtpir came to represent the prosperity of the city. The Stadtpir was stamped on cloth that was approved by the town cloth inspector. Metalworks produced in the city were also stamped with the Stadtpir. The Stadtpir adorns the 17th century town hall.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Stoinerne Ma\" (\"Stony Man\") is a life-size stone figure on the eastern Augsburg city wall in the area of the so-called \"Sweden staircase\", which is located in the immediate vicinity of the Galluskirche and St. Stephan convent (on the outside of the city wall). It is probably a one-armed baker with a loaf of bread and a shield. In the area of the feet there is a helically twisted pedestal.",
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"plaintext": "According to the legend, it is the baker \"Konrad Hackher\" who, during a long siege of the city, baked bread from sawdust and threw it into the ditch clearly visible for the besiegers over the city wall. The impression that Augsburg would still have so much bread that one could throw it over the wall is said to have demoralized the besiegers so much that they fired at him with a crossbow out of anger. A hit struck off his arm, and soon afterwards the siege was broken off. Historically, the event belongs to the Thirty Years' War, more precisely to the siege of Augsburg during the years 1634/35, when Catholic Bavarian troops under Field Marshal von Wahl wanted to recapture the city occupied by the Protestant Swedes. The baker's deed is not reliably proven.",
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"plaintext": "The statue is often visited by walkers strolling along the city wall. As it is said to be a fortunate thing to touch the stone figure's iron nose. This custom is particularly popular with lovers.",
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"plaintext": "In the wall of the property Bei den Sieben Kindeln 3 (\"At the seven infants 3\") there is a recessed stone relief from the Roman period. Legend says that the commemorative plaque was commissioned by a Roman officer to commemorate the drowning of one of his children (therefore it is said to be \"seven\" children, although the plaque represents only six: the seventh child is drowned and lies in the coffin). According to current knowledge, the plate once formed the long side of a Sarcophagus.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Augsburg had two civic plague houses. The two civic plague houses, called Lazarethe, were established when the black death first appeared in Augsburg in 1349. Thereafter they were opened whenever a plague epidemic occurred in the city. As soon as a medical practitioner, such as a barber surgeon, diagnosed the plague the patients were transferred to the plague houses by order of the city council. The transfer to the plague houses was publicly announced, so as to prevent panic and the breakdown of economic life. In the second half of the 18th century, the plague houses were used to treat other diseases, such as smallpox and scurvy.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Inverness, Scotland, UK (1956)",
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"plaintext": " Amagasaki, Japan (1959)",
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"plaintext": " Nagahama, Japan (1959)",
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"plaintext": " Bourges, France (1963)",
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"plaintext": " Dayton, United States (1964)",
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"plaintext": " Liberec, Czech Republic (2001)",
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"plaintext": " Jinan, China (2004)",
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"plaintext": " Délegyháza, Hungary (2022)",
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"plaintext": "The main road link is autobahn A 8 between Munich and Stuttgart.",
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"plaintext": "Public transport is very well catered for. It is controlled by the Augsburger Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund (Augsburg transport and tariff association, AVV) extended over central Swabia. There are seven rail Regionalbahn lines, five tram lines, 27 city bus lines and six night bus lines, as well as several taxi companies.",
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"plaintext": "The Augsburg tramway network is now 35.5km-long after the opening of new lines to the university in 1996, the northern city boundary in 2001 and to the Klinikum Augsburg (Augsburg hospital) in 2002. Tram line 6, which runs 5.2km from Friedberg West to Hauptbahnhof (Central Station), opened in December 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Until 2005 Augsburg was served by nearby Augsburg Airport (AGB). In that year all air passenger transport was relocated to Munich Airport. Since then, the airport is used almost entirely by business airplanes.",
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"plaintext": "NCR",
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"plaintext": "Osram",
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"plaintext": "Premium AEROTEC",
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"plaintext": "Siemens",
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"plaintext": "UPM-Kymmene (former Haindl)",
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"plaintext": "Synlab Group",
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"plaintext": "Cancom",
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"plaintext": "Check24",
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"plaintext": "Amazon",
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"plaintext": "Patrizia Immobilien",
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"plaintext": "The water systems of Augsburg were built between the 14th century and today. A network of canals, water towers, pumping equipment and hydroelectric power stations have provided drinking water and power for the city for centuries.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 July 2019, the Water Management System of Augsburg was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.",
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"plaintext": "Augsburg is home to the following universities and colleges:",
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"plaintext": "Hochschule Augsburg (University of Applied Sciences, formerly Fachhochschule Augsburg)",
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"plaintext": "The local newspaper is the Augsburger Allgemeine first published in 1807.",
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"plaintext": "Saint Afra, died 304 ",
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"plaintext": "Simpert, died 807",
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"plaintext": "Jakob Fugger the Elder (1398–1469)",
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"plaintext": "Erhard Ratdolt (1442–1528), Printer, famous for having produced the first known printers type specimen book",
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"plaintext": "Jakob Fugger (1459–1525), Noted banker and financial broker. An area within the city, called the Fuggerei was set aside for the poor and needy. Founded in 1519",
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"plaintext": "Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543), portrait and religious painter",
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"plaintext": "Matthäus Schwarz (1497–c. 1574), accountant and author",
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"plaintext": "Paulus Hector Mair (1517–1579), martial artist",
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},
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"plaintext": "Elias Holl (1573–1646), architect",
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},
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"plaintext": "Philipp Hainhofer (1578–1647), merchant, banker, diplomat and art collector",
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},
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"plaintext": "Julius Schiller (1580–1627), lawyer and astronomer",
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},
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"plaintext": "Johann Georg Wirsung (1589–1643), anatomist",
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},
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"plaintext": "Andreas Christoph Graf (1701–1776), German teacher, author and poet",
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"plaintext": "Johann Jakob Haid (1704–1767), engraver",
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"plaintext": "Leopold Mozart (1719–1787), violinist-composer and father of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart",
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"plaintext": "Christoph Christian Sturm (1740–1786), preacher and author",
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},
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"plaintext": "Eduard Bayer (1822–1908), composer and classical guitarist",
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},
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"plaintext": "Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913), inventor of the diesel engine",
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},
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"plaintext": "Albert Rehm (1871–1949), philologist who first understood the significance of the Antikythera mechanism",
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"plaintext": "Hans von Euler-Chelpin (1873–1964), co-recipient of 1929 Nobel Prize in Chemistry",
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"plaintext": "Karl Haberstock (1878–1956), Art dealer to the Nazis",
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"plaintext": "Artur Lauinger (1879–1961), German journalist",
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"plaintext": "Julius Streicher (1885–1946), prominent Nazi prior to World War II, founder and publisher of anti-Semitic Der Stürmer newspaper, executed for war crimes",
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"plaintext": "Hans Loritz (1895–1946), Nazi SS concentration camp commandant",
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"plaintext": "Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956), writer and theater director",
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"plaintext": "August Schmidhuber (1901–1947), Nazi SS officer executed for war crimes",
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"plaintext": "Wilhelm Gerstenmeier (1908–1944), SS concentration camp officer executed for war crimes",
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"plaintext": "Josef Priller (1915–1961), Luftwaffe ace",
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"plaintext": "Mietek Pemper (1920–2011), Polish-born Jew compiled and typed Oskar Schindler's list, which saved 1,200 Jewish prisoners from the Holocaust.",
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"plaintext": "Günther Schneider-Siemssen (1926–2015), scenic designer",
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"plaintext": "Ulrich Biesinger (1933–2011), former German footballer, part of the team that won the 1954 FIFA World Cup",
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"plaintext": "Helmut Haller (1939–2012), footballer who represented West Germany at three World Cups",
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"plaintext": "Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematoceran flies: the Culicidae (from the Latin , genitive , meaning \"midge\" or \"gnat\"). Superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies (family Tipulidae) and chironomid flies (family Chironomidae).",
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"plaintext": " Aedeomyia",
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"plaintext": " Aedes",
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"plaintext": " Johnbelkinia",
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{
"plaintext": " Lutzia",
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{
"plaintext": " Malaya",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mansonia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Maorigoeldia",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mimomyia",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Onirion",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Opifex",
"section_idx": 2,
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{
"plaintext": " Orthopodomyia",
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{
"plaintext": " Psorophora",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Runchomyia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sabethes",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shannoniana",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Topomyia",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Toxorhynchites",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Trichoprosopon",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tripteroides",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Udaya",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Uranotaenia",
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{
"plaintext": " Verrallina",
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{
"plaintext": " Wyeomyia",
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"plaintext": "Over 3,500 species of mosquitoes have thus far been described in the scientific literature.",
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"plaintext": "An analysis by Matthews et al 2018 suggests mosquito species all carry a large and diverse number of transposable elements.",
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"plaintext": "As true flies, mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow, as are their long, thin legs. They have slender and dainty bodies of length typically 3–6mm, with dark grey to black coloring. Some species harbor specific morphological patterns. When at rest they tend to hold their first pair of legs outward. They are similar in appearance to midges (Chironomidae), another ancient family of flies. Tokunagayusurika akamusi, for example, is a midge fly that looks very much like mosquitoes in that they also have slender and dainty bodies of similar colors, though larger in size. They also have only one pair of wings, but without scales on the surface. Another distinct feature to tell the two families of flies apart is the way they hold their first pair of legs – mosquitoes hold them outward, while midges hold them forward.",
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"plaintext": "Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles: egg, larva, pupa, and adult or imago. The first three stages—egg, larva, and pupa—are largely aquatic. Each of the stages typically lasts 5 to 14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature, but there are important exceptions. Mosquitoes living in regions where some seasons are freezing or waterless spend part of the year in diapause; they delay their development, typically for months, and carry on with life only when there is enough water or warmth for their needs. For instance, Wyeomyia larvae typically get frozen into solid lumps of ice during winter and only complete their development in spring. The eggs of some species of Aedes remain unharmed in diapause if they dry out, and hatch later when they are covered by water.",
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"plaintext": "Eggs hatch to become larvae, which grow until they are able to change into pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Bloodsucking mosquitoes, depending on species, sex, and weather conditions, have potential adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to as long as several months. Some species can overwinter as adults in diapause.",
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"plaintext": "In most species, adult females lay their eggs in stagnant water: some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. Each species selects the situation of the water into which it lays its eggs and does so according to its own ecological adaptations. Some breed in lakes, some in temporary puddles. Some breed in marshes, some in salt-marshes. Among those that breed in salt water (such as Opifex fuscus), some are equally at home in fresh and salt water up to about one-third the concentration of seawater, whereas others must acclimatize themselves to the salinity. Such differences are important because certain ecological preferences keep mosquitoes away from most humans, whereas other preferences bring them right into houses at night.",
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"plaintext": "Some species of mosquitoes prefer to breed in phytotelmata (natural reservoirs on plants), such as rainwater accumulated in holes in tree trunks, or in the leaf-axils of bromeliads. Some specialize in the liquid in pitchers of particular species of pitcher plants, their larvae feeding on decaying insects that had drowned there or on the associated bacteria; the genus Wyeomyia provides such examples — the harmless Wyeomyia smithii breeds only in the pitchers of Sarracenia purpurea.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the species of mosquitoes that are adapted to breeding in phytotelmata are dangerous disease vectors. In nature, they might occupy anything from a hollow tree trunk to a cupped leaf. Such species typically take readily to breeding in artificial water containers. Such casual puddles are important breeding places for some of the most serious disease vectors, such as species of Aedes that transmit dengue and yellow fever. Some with such breeding habits are disproportionately important vectors because they are well-placed to pick up pathogens from humans and pass them on. In contrast, no matter how voracious, mosquitoes that breed and feed mainly in remote wetlands and salt marshes may well remain uninfected, and if they do happen to become infected with a relevant pathogen, might seldom encounter humans to infect, in turn.",
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"plaintext": "Mosquito habits of oviposition, the ways in which they lay their eggs, vary considerably between species, and the morphologies of the eggs vary accordingly. The simplest procedure is that followed by many species of Anopheles; like many other gracile species of aquatic insects, females just fly over the water, bobbing up and down to the water surface and dropping eggs more or less singly. The bobbing behavior occurs among some other aquatic insects as well, for example mayflies and dragonflies; it is sometimes called \"dapping\". The eggs of Anopheles species are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. Females of many common species can lay 100–200 eggs during the course of the adult phase of their life cycles. Even with high egg and intergenerational mortality, over a period of several weeks, a single successful breeding pair can create a population of thousands.",
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"plaintext": "Some other species, for example members of the genus Mansonia, lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads. Their close relatives, the genus Coquillettidia, lay their eggs similarly, but not attached to plants. Instead, the eggs form layers called \"rafts\" that float on the water. This is a common mode of oviposition, and most species of Culex are known for the habit, which also occurs in some other genera, such as Culiseta and Uranotaenia. Anopheles eggs may on occasion cluster together on the water, too, but the clusters do not generally look much like compactly glued rafts of eggs.",
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"plaintext": "In species that lay their eggs in rafts, rafts do not form adventitiously; the female Culex settles carefully on still water with its hind legs crossed, and as it lays the eggs one by one, it twitches to arrange them into a head-down array that sticks together to form the raft.",
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"plaintext": "Aedes females generally drop their eggs singly, much as Anopheles do, but not as a rule into water. Instead, they lay their eggs on damp mud or other surfaces near the water's edge. Such an oviposition site commonly is the wall of a cavity such as a hollow stump or a container such as a bucket or a discarded vehicle tire. The eggs generally do not hatch until they are flooded, and they may have to withstand considerable desiccation before that happens. They are not resistant to desiccation straight after oviposition, but must develop to a suitable degree first. After that, they can enter diapause for several months if they dry out. Clutches of eggs of the majority of mosquito species hatch as soon as possible, and all the eggs in the clutch hatch at much the same time. In contrast, a batch of Aedes eggs in diapause tends to hatch irregularly over an extended period of time. This makes it much more difficult to control such species than those mosquitoes whose larvae can be killed all together as they hatch. Some Anopheles species do also behave in such a manner, though not to the same degree of sophistication.",
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"plaintext": "The mosquito larva has a well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen.",
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"plaintext": "Larvae breathe through spiracles located on their eighth abdominal segments, or through a siphon, so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microbes in the surface microlayer.",
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"plaintext": "Mosquito larvae have been investigated as prey of other Dipteran flies. Species such as Bezzia nobilis within the family Ceratopogonidae have been observed in experiments to prey upon mosquito larvae.",
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"plaintext": "They dive below the surface when disturbed. Larvae swim either through propulsion with their mouth brushes, or by jerky movements of their entire bodies, giving them the common name of \"wigglers\" or \"wrigglers\".",
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"plaintext": "Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their skins to allow for further growth.",
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"plaintext": "As seen in its lateral aspect, the mosquito pupa is comma-shaped. The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax, with the abdomen curving around underneath. The pupa can swim actively by flipping its abdomen, and it is commonly called a \"tumbler\" because of its swimming action. As with the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed during this stage; typically they pass their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, say by a passing shadow, they nimbly swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae do. If undisturbed, they soon float up again.",
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"plaintext": "After a few days or longer, depending on the temperature and other circumstances, the dorsal surface of its cephalothorax splits, and the adult mosquito emerges. The pupa is less active than the larva because it does not feed, whereas the larva feeds constantly.",
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"plaintext": "The period of development from egg to adult varies among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Some species of mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as few as five days, but a more typical period of development in tropical conditions would be some 40 days or more for most species. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water.",
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"plaintext": "Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.",
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"plaintext": "Males typically live for about 5–7 days, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes two to three days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking.",
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"plaintext": "The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses and predators.",
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"plaintext": "The length of the adult is typically between 3mm and 6mm. The smallest known mosquitoes are around , and the largest around . Mosquitoes typically weigh around 5mg. All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three segments: a head, a thorax and an abdomen.",
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"plaintext": "The head is specialized for receiving sensory information and for feeding. It has eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors, as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the females.",
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"plaintext": "The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit-eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head. New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye. During the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.",
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"plaintext": "The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting, stinger-like proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscises, whereas the females’ maxillary palps are much shorter. In typical bloodsucking species, the female has an elongated proboscis.",
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"plaintext": "The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at , traveling up to in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second.",
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"plaintext": "The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development; the abdomen of a mosquito can hold three times its own weight in blood. This segment expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar, aphid honeydew, and plant juices, but in many species the mouthparts of the females are adapted for piercing the skin of animal hosts and sucking their blood as ectoparasites. In many species, the female needs to obtain nutrients from a blood meal before it can produce eggs, whereas in many other species, obtaining nutrients from a blood meal enables the mosquito to lay more eggs. A mosquito has a variety of ways of finding nectar or its prey, including chemical, visual, and heat sensors. Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars, and blood also supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids, but the most important function of blood meals is to obtain proteins as materials for egg production.",
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"plaintext": "When a female reproduces without such parasitic meals, it is said to practice autogenous reproduction, as in Toxorhynchites; otherwise, the reproduction may be termed anautogenous, as occurs in mosquito species that serve as disease vectors, particularly Anopheles and some of the most important disease vectors in the genus Aedes. In contrast, some mosquitoes, for example, many Culex, are partially anautogenous: they do not need a blood meal for their first cycle of egg production, which they produce autogenously; subsequent clutches of eggs are produced anautogenously, at which point their disease vectoring activity becomes operative.",
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"plaintext": "Among humans, the feeding preferences of mosquitoes typically include: those with type O blood, heavy breathers, an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women. Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes also has a heritable, genetically-controlled component.",
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"plaintext": "Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting organic substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom alcohol, found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition. Mosquitoes prefer some people over others. The preferred victim's sweat smells more attractive than others' because of the proportions of the carbon dioxide, octenol, and other compounds that make up body odor. The most powerful semiochemical that triggers the keen sense of smell of Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal. Another compound identified in human blood that attracts mosquitoes is sulcatone or 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, especially for Aedes aegypti mosquitoes with the odor receptor gene Or4. A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration. In Aedes, the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito exhibits a nonspecific searching behavior until the perception of a host's stimulants, then it follows a targeted approach.",
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"plaintext": "Most mosquito species are crepuscular (dawn or dusk) feeders. During the heat of the day, most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for the evenings, although they may still bite if disturbed. Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito, are known to fly and feed during daytime.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to and during blood feeding, blood-sucking mosquitoes inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. This saliva serves as an anticoagulant; without it the female mosquito's proboscis might become clogged with blood clots. The saliva also is the main route by which mosquito physiology offers passenger pathogens access to the hosts' bloodstream. The salivary glands are a major target to most pathogens, whence they find their way into the host via the saliva.",
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"plaintext": "A mosquito bite often leaves an itchy weal, a raised bump, on the victim's skin, which is caused by histamines trying to fight off the protein left by the attacking insect.",
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"plaintext": "Mosquitoes of the genus Toxorhynchites never drink blood. This genus includes the largest extant mosquitoes, the larvae of which prey on the larvae of other mosquitoes. These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents, with varying success.",
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"plaintext": "Many, if not all, blood-sucking species of mosquitoes are fairly selective feeders that specialise in particular host species, though they often relax their selectivity when they experience severe competition for food, defensive activity on the part of the hosts, or starvation. Some species feed selectively on monkeys, while others prefer particular kinds of birds, but they become less selective as conditions become more difficult. For example, Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds for preference, and such birds are typically the main reservoir of the Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America. Early in the season while mosquito numbers are low, they concentrate on passerine hosts, but as mosquito numbers rise and the birds are forced to defend themselves more vigorously, the mosquitoes become less selective of hosts. Soon the mosquitoes begin attacking mammals more readily, thereby becoming the major vector of the virus, and causing epidemics of the disease, most conspicuously in humans and horses. Multiple mosquitoes' withdrawal of blood from a host can add up to a large volume. In rare cases, heavy mosquito densities have directly killed livestock as large as cattle and horses.",
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"plaintext": "Even more dramatically, in most of its range in North America, the main vector for the Western equine encephalitis virus is Culex tarsalis, because it is known to feed variously on mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Even fish may be attacked by some mosquito species if they expose themselves above water level, as mudskippers do.",
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"plaintext": "In 1969 it was reported that some species of anautogenous mosquitoes would feed on the haemolymph of caterpillars although its nutritional value is questionable. Other observations include mosquitoes feeding on cicadas and mantids. In 2014, it was shown that malaria-transmitting mosquitoes actively seek out some species of caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, and do so to the caterpillar's apparent physical detriment.",
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"plaintext": "Mosquito mouthparts are very specialized, particularly those of the females, which in most species are adapted to piercing skin and then sucking blood. Apart from bloodsucking, the females generally also drink assorted fluids rich in dissolved sugar, such as nectar and honeydew, to obtain the energy they need. For this, their blood-sucking mouthparts are perfectly adequate. In contrast, male mosquitoes are not bloodsuckers; they only drink sugary fluids. Accordingly, their mouthparts do not require the same degree of specialization as those of females.",
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"plaintext": "Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis. More specifically, the visible part of the proboscis is the labium, which forms the sheath enclosing the rest of the mouthparts. When the mosquito first lands on a potential host, its mouthparts are enclosed entirely in this sheath, and it will touch the tip of the labium to the skin in various places. Sometimes, it will begin to bite almost straight away, while other times, it will prod around, apparently looking for a suitable place. Occasionally, it will wander for a considerable time, and eventually fly away without biting. Presumably, this probing is a search for a place with easily accessible blood vessels, but the exact mechanism is not known. It is known that there are two taste receptors at the tip of the labium which may well play a role.",
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"plaintext": "The female mosquito does not insert its labium into the skin; it bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite. The tip of the labium remains in contact with the skin of the host, acting as a guide for the other mouthparts. In total, there are six mouthparts besides the labium: two mandibles, two maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labrum.",
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"plaintext": "The mandibles and the maxillae are used for piercing the skin. The mandibles are pointed, while the maxillae end in flat, toothed \"blades\". To force these into the skin, the mosquito moves its head backwards and forwards. On one movement, the maxillae are moved as far forward as possible. On the opposite movement, the mandibles are pushed deeper into the skin by levering against the maxillae. The maxillae do not slip back because the toothed blades grip the skin.",
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"plaintext": "The hypopharynx and the labrum are both hollow. Saliva with anticoagulant is pumped down the hypopharynx to prevent clotting, and blood is drawn up the labrum.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "To understand the mosquito mouthparts, it is helpful to draw a comparison with an insect that chews food, such as a dragonfly. A dragonfly has two mandibles, which are used for chewing, and two maxillae, which are used to hold the food in place as it is chewed. The labium forms the floor of the dragonfly's mouth, the labrum forms the top, while the hypopharynx is inside the mouth and is used in swallowing. Conceptually, then, the mosquito's proboscis is an adaptation of the mouthparts that occur in other insects. The labium still lies beneath the other mouthparts, but also enfolds them, and it has been extended into a proboscis. The maxillae still \"grip\" the \"food\" while the mandibles \"bite\" it. The top of the mouth, the labrum, has developed into a channeled blade the length of the proboscis, with a cross-section like an inverted \"U\". Finally, the hypopharynx has extended into a tube that can deliver saliva at the end of the proboscis. Its upper surface is somewhat flattened so, when the lower part of the hypopharynx is pressed against it, the labrum forms a closed tube for conveying blood from the host.",
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"plaintext": "For the mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent the vertebrate's physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding arthropods, has mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva, which contains a mixture of secreted proteins. Saglin is a protein produced by the salivary glands of mosquitoes. Mosquito saliva acts to reduce vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, angiogenesis and immunity, and creates inflammation. Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anti-clotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding, and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple, as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins. , scientists still were unable to ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva. One promising application of components of mosquito saliva is the development of anti-clotting drugs, such as clotting inhibitors and capillary dilators, that could be useful for managing cardiovascular disease.",
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"plaintext": "It is now well recognized that feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes, have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) on which they feed. The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory/immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data have become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF-α release, but not antigen-induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells. Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of Ae. aegypti mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production, while the cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 are unaffected. Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with mosquito salivary gland extract. Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either Ae. aegypti or Cx. pipiens mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production. Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.",
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"plaintext": "T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing increased mortality and decreased division rates. Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T and B cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7 of the saliva in a single mosquito. Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression.",
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"plaintext": "A 2006 study suggests mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection. The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated in vivo by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN inducers or IFN itself, and different research suggests mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection, as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses.",
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"plaintext": "Studies in humanized mice bearing a reconstituted human immune system have suggested potential impact of mosquito saliva in humans. Work published in 2018 from the Baylor College of Medicine using such humanized mice came to several conclusions, among them being that mosquito saliva led to an increase in natural killer T cells in peripheral blood; to an overall decrease in ex vivo cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs); changes to proportions of subsets of PBMCs; changes in the prevalence of T cell subtypes across organs; and changes to circulating levels of cytokines.",
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"plaintext": "Most species of mosquito require a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. Females with poor larval nutrition may need to ingest sugar or a preliminary blood meal before their ovarian follicles can reach their resting stage. Once the follicles have reached the resting stage, digestion of a sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development. Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws her proboscis, and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This membrane keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like many Hemiptera and other insects that survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes must excrete unwanted aqueous fractions even as they feed. (See the photograph of a feeding Anopheles stephensi: Note that the excreted droplet patently is not whole blood, being far more dilute). As long as they are not disturbed, this permits mosquitoes to continue feeding until they have accumulated a full meal of nutrient solids. As a result, a mosquito replete with blood can continue to absorb sugar, even as the blood meal is slowly digested over a period of several days. Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut of the female synthesizes proteolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids. These are used as building blocks for the synthesis of vitellogenin, which are the precursors for egg yolk protein.",
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"plaintext": "In the mosquito Anopheles stephensi, trypsin activity is restricted entirely to the posterior midgut lumen. No trypsin activity occurs before the blood meal, but activity increases continuously up to 30 hours after feeding, and subsequently returns to baseline levels by 60 hours. Aminopeptidase is active in the anterior and posterior midgut regions before and after feeding. In the whole midgut, activity rises from a baseline of approximately three enzyme units (EU) per midgut to a maximum of 12 EU at 30 hours after the blood meal, subsequently falling to baseline levels by 60 hours. A similar cycle of activity occurs in the posterior midgut and posterior midgut lumen, whereas aminopeptidase in the posterior midgut epithelium decreases in activity during digestion. Aminopeptidase in the anterior midgut is maintained at a constant, low level, showing no significant variation with time after feeding. Alpha-glucosidase is active in anterior and posterior midguts before and at all times after feeding. In whole midgut homogenates, alpha-glucosidase activity increases slowly up to 18 hours after the blood meal, then rises rapidly to a maximum at 30 hours after the blood meal, whereas the subsequent decline in activity is less predictable. All posterior midgut activity is restricted to the posterior midgut lumen. Depending on the time after feeding, greater than 25% of the total midgut activity of alpha-glucosidase is located in the anterior midgut. After blood meal ingestion, proteases are active only in the posterior midgut. Trypsin is the major primary hydrolytic protease and is secreted into the posterior midgut lumen without activation in the posterior midgut epithelium. Aminopeptidase activity is also luminal in the posterior midgut, but cellular aminopeptidases are required for peptide processing in both anterior and posterior midguts. Alpha-glucosidase activity is elevated in the posterior midgut after feeding in response to the blood meal, whereas activity in the anterior midgut is consistent with a nectar-processing role for this midgut region.",
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{
"plaintext": "Mosquitoes are cosmopolitan (world-wide): they are in every land region except Antarctica and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates. Iceland is such an island, being essentially free of mosquitoes.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
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"plaintext": "The absence of mosquitoes in Iceland and similar regions is probably because of quirks of their climate, which differs in some respects from mainland regions. At the start of the uninterrupted continental winter of Greenland and the northern regions of Eurasia and America, the pupa enters diapause under the ice that covers sufficiently deep water. The imago emerges only after the ice breaks in late spring. In Iceland, the weather is less predictable. In mid-winter it frequently warms up suddenly, causing the ice to break, but then to freeze again after a few days. By that time the mosquitoes will have emerged from their pupae, but the new freeze sets in before they can complete their life cycle. Any anautogenous adult mosquito would need a host to supply a blood meal before it could lay viable eggs; it would need time to mate, mature the eggs and oviposit in suitable wetlands. These requirements would not be realistic in Iceland and in fact the absence of mosquitoes from such subpolar islands is in line with the islands' low insect biodiversity; Iceland has fewer than 1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.",
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{
"plaintext": "Some other aquatic Diptera, such as Simuliidae, do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally not adapted to running water.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Eggs of species of mosquitoes from the temperate zones are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many even tolerate subzero temperatures. In addition, adults of some species can survive the winter by taking shelter in suitable microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
50051
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Several flowers are pollinated by mosquitoes, including some members of the Asteraceae, Roseaceae and Orchidaceae.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "Worldwide introduction of various mosquito species over large distances into regions where they are not indigenous has occurred through human agencies, primarily on sea routes, in which the eggs, larvae, and pupae inhabiting water-filled used tires and cut flowers are transported. They have also been carried by personal vehicles, delivery trucks, trains, and aircraft. Man-made areas such as storm water retention basins, or storm drains also provide sprawling sanctuaries. Sufficient quarantine measures have proven difficult to implement. In addition, outdoor pool areas make a perfect place for them to grow.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": "In order for a mosquito to transmit a disease to the host there must be favorable conditions, referred to as transmission seasonality. Seasonal factors that impact the prevalence of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases are primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation. A positive correlation between malaria outbreaks and these climatic variables has been demonstrated in China; and El Niño has been shown to impact the location and number of outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases observed in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India. Climate change impacts each of these seasonal factors and in turn impacts the dispersal of mosquitoes.",
"section_idx": 7,
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{
"plaintext": "Climatology and the study of mosquito-borne disease have been developed only over the past 100 years. Historical records of weather patterns and distinct symptoms associated with mosquito-borne diseases can be utilized to trace the prevalence of these diseases in relation to the climate over longer time periods. Further, statistical models are being created to predict the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases using these past records, and these models can be utilized in the field of public health in order to create interventions to reduce the impact of these predicted outcomes.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": "Two types of models are used to predict mosquito-borne disease spread in relation to climate: correlative models and mechanistic models. Correlative models focus primarily on vector distribution, and generally function in 3 steps. First, data is collected regarding geographical location of a target mosquito species. Next, a multivariate regression model establishes the conditions under which the target species can survive. Finally, the model determines the likelihood of the mosquito species to become established in a new location based on similar living conditions. The model can further predict future distributions based on environmental emissions data. Mechanistic models tend to be broader and include the pathogens and hosts in the analysis. These models have been used to recreate past outbreaks as well as predict the potential risk of a vector-borne disease based on an areas forecasted climate.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": "Mosquito-borne diseases are currently most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and India. An emergence in Europe was recently observed. A weighted risk analysis demonstrated associations to climate for 49% of infectious diseases in Europe including all transmission routes. One statistical model predicts by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be climatically suitable for malaria transmission Plasmodium vivax for 2 months of the year. By 2080 it is predicted that the same will be true for southern Scotland.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Ecology",
"target_page_ids": [
14533,
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mosquitoes can act as vectors for many disease-causing viruses and parasites. Infected mosquitoes carry these organisms from person to person without exhibiting symptoms themselves. Mosquito-borne diseases include:",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Vectors of disease",
"target_page_ids": [
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43937
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"anchor_spans": [
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22,
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{
"plaintext": " Viral diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever, and chikungunya, transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever is the most common cause of fever in travelers returning from the Caribbean, Central America, South America, and South Central Asia. This disease is spread through the bites of infected mosquitoes and cannot be spread person to person. Severe dengue can be fatal, but with good treatment, fewer than 1% of patients die from dengue. Work published in 2012 from Baylor College of Medicine suggested that for some diseases, such as dengue fever, which can be transmitted via mosquitoes and by other means, the severity of the mosquito-transmitted disease could be greater.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Vectors of disease",
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39,
51
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105
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},
{
"plaintext": " The parasitic diseases collectively called malaria, caused by various species of Plasmodium, carried by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Vectors of disease",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lymphatic filariasis (the main cause of elephantiasis) which can be spread by a wide variety of mosquito species.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Vectors of disease",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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{
"plaintext": " West Nile virus is a significant concern in the United States but there are no reliable statistics on worldwide cases.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Vectors of disease",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Dengue viruses are a significant health risk globally. Severe cases of dengue often require hospitalization and can be life-threatening shortly after infection. Symptoms include a high fever, aches and pains, vomiting, and rashes. Warning signs of severe dengue infection include vomiting blood, bleeding from the gums or nose, and stomach tenderness/pain.",
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"plaintext": " Equine encephalitis viruses, such as Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, can be spread by mosquito vectors such as Aedes taeniorhynchus.",
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"plaintext": " Tularemia, a bacterial disease caused by Francisella tularensis, is variously transmitted, including by biting flies. Culex and Culiseta are vectors of tularemia, as well as arbovirus infections such as West Nile virus.",
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"plaintext": " Zika, recently notorious, though rarely deadly, causes fever, joint pain, rashes and conjunctivitis. The most serious consequence appears when the infected person is a pregnant woman, since during pregnancy this virus can originate a birth defect called microcephaly.",
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"plaintext": "St. Louis Encephalitis, a mosquito-borne disease that is characterized by fever and headaches upon initial onset of infection, arises from mosquitoes who feed on birds who are infected with the illness, and can result in death. The most common vector of this disease is Culex pipiens, also known as the common house mosquito.",
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"plaintext": "Heartworm disease, a parasitic roundworm infection that affects dogs and other canids. Mosquitoes transmit larvae to the definitive host through bites. Adult heart worms infest the right heart and pulmonary artery, where they can cause serious complications including congestive heart failure.",
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"plaintext": "Potential transmission of HIV was originally a public health concern, but practical considerations and detailed studies of epidemiological patterns suggest that any transmission of the HIV virus by mosquitoes is at worst extremely unlikely.",
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"plaintext": "Various species of mosquitoes are estimated to transmit various types of disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico, Russia, and much of Asia, with millions of resultant deaths. At least two million people annually die of these diseases, and the morbidity rates are many times higher still.",
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"plaintext": "Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where disease is endemic, include:",
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"plaintext": " Vector control aimed at mosquito control or eradication",
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"plaintext": " Disease prevention, using prophylactic drugs and developing vaccines",
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"plaintext": " Prevention of mosquito bites, with insecticides, nets, and repellents",
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"plaintext": "Since most such diseases are carried by \"elderly\" female mosquitoes, some scientists have suggested focusing on these to avoid the evolution of resistance.",
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"plaintext": "Many measures have been tried for mosquito control, including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets, biological control with parasites such as fungi and nematodes, or predators such as fish, copepods, dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko. Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males. Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored.",
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"plaintext": "According to an article in Nature discussing the idea of totally eradicating mosquitoes, \"Ultimately, there seem to be few things that mosquitoes do that other organisms can’t do just as well—except perhaps for one. They are lethally efficient at sucking blood from one individual and mainlining it into another, providing an ideal route for the spread of pathogenic microbes.\" The control of disease-carrying mosquitoes may in the future be possible using gene drives.",
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"plaintext": "Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects. Some CDC-recommended repellents are picaridin, eucalyptus oil (PMD), and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum) has been reviewed favorably in research published in 2021. Others are indalone, dimethyl phthalate, dimethyl carbate, and ethyl hexanediol.",
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"plaintext": "Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent a human from being bitten by a mosquito.",
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"plaintext": "Mosquito bites lead to a variety of mild, occasionally serious, and, rarely, life-threatening allergic reactions. These include ordinary wheal and flare reactions and mosquito bite allergies (MBA). The MBA, also termed hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB), are excessive reactions to mosquito bites that are not caused by any toxin or pathogen in the saliva injected by a mosquito at the time it takes its blood-meal. Rather, they are allergic hypersensitivity reactions caused by the non-toxic allergenic proteins contained in the mosquito's saliva. Studies have shown or suggest that numerous species of mosquitoes can trigger ordinary reactions as well as MBA. These include Aedes aegypti, Aedes vexans, Aedes albopictus, Anopheles sinensis, Culex pipiens, Aedes communis, Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus, Ochlerotatus triseriatus, and Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Furthermore, there is considerable cross-reactivity between the salivary proteins of mosquitoes in the same family and, to a lesser extent, different families. It is therefore assumed that these allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species (or other biting insect).",
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"plaintext": "The mosquito bite allergies are informally classified as 1) the Skeeter syndrome, i.e. severe local skin reactions sometimes associated with low-grade fever; 2) systemic reactions that range from high-grade fever, lymphadenopathy, abdominal pain, and/or diarrhea to, very rarely, life-threatening symptoms of anaphylaxis; and 3) severe and often systemic reactions occurring in individuals that have an Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease, Epstein-Barr virus-negative lymphoid malignancy, or another predisposing condition such as Eosinophilic cellulitis or chronic lymphocytic leukemia.",
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"plaintext": "Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito's saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (type IV) to mosquito bites. Both reactions result in itching, redness and swelling. Immediate reactions develop within a few minutes of the bite and last for a few hours. Delayed reactions take around a day to develop, and last for up to a week.",
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"plaintext": "Several anti-itch medications are commercially available, including those taken orally, such as diphenhydramine, or topically applied antihistamines and, for more severe cases, corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone. Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) has also been shown to provide relief.",
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"plaintext": "Both topical heat and cool may be useful to treat mosquito bites.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek beast fables including \"The Elephant and the Mosquito\" and \"The Bull and the Mosquito\", with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia.",
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"plaintext": "The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito. One Ostiak myth tells of a man-eating giant, Punegusse, who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind.",
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"plaintext": "Other myths from the Yakuts, Goldes (Nanai people), and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. The Tatars of the Altai had a similar myth, thought to be of Native North American origin, involving the fragments of the dead giant, Andalma-Muus, becoming mosquitoes and other insects.",
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"plaintext": "Winsor McCay's 1912 film How a Mosquito Operates was one of the earliest works of animation, which has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality. It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man.",
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"plaintext": "The de Havilland Mosquito was a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.",
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"plaintext": " Jarvis, Brooke, \"Buzz Off: They've ravaged humanity and derailed history. And mosquitoes aren't finished yet\", The New Yorker, 5 & 12 August 2019, pp.69–71. \"[H]istorian Timothy C. Winegard... estimates that mosquitoes have killed more people than any other single cause – fifty-two billion of us, nearly half of all humans who have ever lived.... Globalization is helping to spread a new generation of mosquito-borne illnesses once confined to the tropics, such as dengue... chikungunya and Zika... Meanwhile, climate change is... expanding the ranges in which mosquitoes and the diseases they carry can thrive.\" (pp.70–71.) ",
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"plaintext": " Mosquito Information Website",
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"plaintext": " Mosquitoes chapter in United States Environmental Protection Agency National Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual",
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"plaintext": " Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance Wikibooks",
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| [
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"Insect_vectors_of_human_pathogens",
"Articles_containing_video_clips",
"Ectoparasites",
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"Hematophages",
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| 7,367 | 80,153 | 1,745 | 367 | 0 | 0 | Culicidae | family of nematoceran flies | [
"the mosquito family",
"mosquitoes",
"mosquito"
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|
37,794 | 1,107,712,498 | Felix_Dzerzhinsky | [
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"plaintext": "Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky ( ; ; – 20 July 1926), nicknamed \"Iron Felix\", was a Bolshevik revolutionary and official, born into Polish nobility. From 1917 until his death in 1926, Dzerzhinsky led the first two Soviet state-security organizations, the Cheka and the OGPU, establishing a secret police for the post-revolutionary Soviet regime. He was one of the architects of the Red Terror and decossackization.",
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"plaintext": "Felix Dzerzhinsky was born on 11 September 1877 to ethnically Polish parents of noble descent, at the Dzerzhinovo family estate, about from the small town of Ivyanets in the Minsk Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Belarus). In the Russian Empire, his family was of a type known as \"column-listed nobility\" (, stolbovoe dvorianstvo), whose nobility was formally acknowledged, but so old that they did not enjoy the privileges of the new nobility. His sister Wanda died at the age of 12, when she was accidentally shot with a hunting rifle on the family estate by one of her brothers. At the time of the incident, there were conflicting claims as to whether Felix or his brother Stanisław was responsible for the accident.",
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"plaintext": "His father, Edmund-Rufin Dzierżyński graduated from the Saint Petersburg Imperial University in 1863 and moved to Vilnius, where he worked as a home teacher for a professor of Saint Petersburg University named Januszewski and eventually married Januszewski's daughter Helena Ignatievna, who also was of Polish origin. In 1868, after a short period in Kherson gymnasium, he worked as a gymnasium teacher of physics and mathematics at the gymnasiums of Taganrog in the Don Host Province, Russia, particularly the Chekhov Gymnasium. In 1875, Edmund Dzierżyński retired due to health conditions and moved with his family to his estate near Ivyanets and Rakaŭ, Russian Empire. In 1882, Felix's father died from tuberculosis.",
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"plaintext": "As a youngster Dzerzhinsky became fluent in four languages: Polish, Russian, Yiddish, and Latin. He attended the Vilnius Gymnasium from 1887 to 1895. One of the older students at this gymnasium was his future arch-enemy, Józef Piłsudski. Years later, as Marshal of Poland, Piłsudski recalled that Dzerzhinsky \"distinguished himself as a student with delicacy and modesty. He was rather tall, thin and demure, making the impression of an ascetic with the face of an icon... Tormented or not, this is an issue history will clarify; in any case this person did not know how to lie.\" School documents show that Dzerzhinsky attended his first year in school twice, while his eighth year he was not able to finish. Dzerzhinsky received a school diploma which stated: \"Dzerzhinsky Feliks, who is 18 years of age, of Catholic faith, along with a satisfactory attention and satisfactory diligence showed the following successes in sciences, namely: Divine law—\"good\"; Logic, Latin, Algebra, Geometry, Mathematical geography, Physics, History (of Russia), French—\"satisfactory\"; Russian and Greek—\"unsatisfactory\".",
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"plaintext": "Two months before he expected to graduate, the gymnasium expelled Dzerzhinsky for \"revolutionary activity\" and for posting signs with communist slogans at the school. He had joined a Marxist group, the Union of Workers (Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego \"SDKP\"), in 1895. In late April 1896 he was one of 15 delegates at the first congress of the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party (LSDP). In 1897 he attended the second congress of the LSDP, where it rejected independence in favor of national autonomy. On 18 March 1897 he was sent to Kaunas to take advantage of the arrest of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) branch. He worked in a book-binding factory and set up an illegal press. As an organizer of a shoemakers' strike, Dzerzhinsky was arrested for \"criminal agitation among the Kaunas workers\"; the police files from this time state: \"Felix Dzerzhinsky, considering his views, convictions and personal character, will be very dangerous in the future, capable of any crime.\" Dzerzhinsky envisioned merging the LSDP with the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) and was a follower of Rosa Luxemburg on a national issue.",
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"plaintext": "He was arrested on a denunciation for his revolutionary activities for the first time in 1897, after which he served almost a year in the Kaunas prison. In 1898 Dzerzhinsky was exiled for three years to the Vyatka Governorate (city of Nolinsk) where he worked at a local tobacco factory. There Dzerzhinsky was arrested for agitating for revolutionary activities and was sent north to the village of . In August 1899 he returned to Vilnius. Dzerzhinsky subsequently became one of the founders of Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (, SDKPiL) in 1899. In February 1900 he was arrested again and served his time at first in the Alexander Citadel in Warsaw and later at the Siedlce prison. In 1902 Dzerzhinsky was sent deep into Siberia for the next five years to the remote town of Vilyuysk, while en route being temporarily held at the Alexandrovsk Transitional Prison near Irkutsk. While in exile he escaped on a boat and later emigrated from the country. He traveled to Berlin, where at the SDKPiL conference Dzerzhinsky was elected a secretary of its party committee abroad (, KZ) and met with several prominent leaders of the Polish Social Democratic movement, including Rosa Luxemburg and Leo Jogiches. They gained control of the party organization through the creation of a committee called the Komitet Zagraniczny (KZ), which dealt with the party's foreign relations. As secretary of the KZ, Dzerzhinsky was able to dominate the SDKPiL. In Berlin, he organized publication of the newspaper Czerwony Sztandar (\"Red Banner\"), and transportation of illegal literature from Kraków into Congress Poland. Being a delegate to the IV Congress of SDKPiL in 1903 Dzerzhinsky was elected as a member of its General Board.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky visited Switzerland, where his fiancée Julia Goldman, the sister of Boris Gorev, was undergoing treatment for tuberculosis. She died in his arms on 4 June 1904. Her illness and death depressed him - in letters to his sister, Dzerzhinsky explained that he no longer saw any meaning for his life. That changed with the Russian Revolution of 1905, as Dzerzhinsky became involved with work again. After the revolution failed he was again jailed in July 1905, this time by the Okhrana. In October he was released on amnesty. As a delegate to the 4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in Stockholm, Dzerzhinsky entered the central body of the party. From July through September 1906, he lived in Saint Petersburg and then returned to Warsaw, where he was arrested again in December of the same year. In June 1907 Dzerzhinsky was released on bail. At the 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, in London in May–June 1907, he was elected in absentia as a member of the Central Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party. In April 1908 Dzerzhinsky was arrested once again in Warsaw and again exiled to Siberia (Yeniseysk Governorate) in 1909. As before, Dzerzhinsky managed to escape (by November 1909). In 1910 he reached Italy, where he met Maxim Gorky on Capri; he then returned to Poland.",
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"plaintext": "Back in Kraków in 1910, Dzerzhinsky married RSDLP party member Zofia Muszkat, who was already pregnant. A month later she was arrested; she gave birth to their son Janek in Pawiak prison. In 1911 Zofia was sentenced to permanent Siberian exile, and she left the child with her father. Dzerzhinsky saw his son for the first time in March 1912 in Warsaw. In attending the welfare of his child, Dzerzhinsky repeatedly exposed himself to the danger of arrest. On one occasion, Dzerzhinsky narrowly escaped an ambush that the police had prepared at the apartment of his father-in-law.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky continued to direct the Social Democratic Party (SDKPiL), while considering his continued freedom \"only a game of the Okhrana\". The Okhrana, however, was not playing a game; Dzerzhinsky simply was a master of conspiratorial techniques and was therefore extremely difficult to find. A police file from this time says: \"Dzerzhinsky continued to lead the Social Democratic party and at the same time he directed party work in Warsaw, led strikes, published appeals to workers, and traveled on party matters to Łódź and Kraków.\" The police were unable to arrest Dzerzhinsky until the end of 1912, when they found the apartment where he lived in the name of Władysław Ptasiński.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky spent the next four-and-a-half years in tsarist prisons, first at the notorious Tenth Pavilion of the Warsaw Citadel. When World War I began in 1914, all political prisoners were relocated from Warsaw into Russia itself. Dzerzhinsky was taken to Oryol Prison. He was very concerned about the fate of his wife and son, with whom he did not have any communication. Moreover, Dzerzhinsky was beaten frequently by the Russian prison guards, which caused permanent disfigurement of his jaw and mouth. In 1916, Dzerzhinsky was moved to the Moscow Butyrka prison, where he was soon hospitalized because the chains that he was forced to wear had caused severe cramps in his legs. Despite the prospects of amputation, Dzerzhinsky recovered and was put to labor sewing military uniforms.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky was freed from Butyrka after the February Revolution of 1917. Soon after his release, Dzerzhinsky's goal was to organize Polish refugees in Russia and then go back to Poland and fight for the revolution there, writing to his wife that \"together with these masses we will return to Poland after the war and become one whole with the SDKPiL.\" He remained in Moscow where he joined the Bolshevik party, writing to his comrades that \"the Bolshevik party organization is the only Social Democratic organization of the proletariat, and if we were to stay outside of it, then we would find ourselves outside of the proletarian revolutionary struggle.\" Already in April, he entered the Moscow Committee of the Bolsheviks and soon thereafter was elected to the Executive Committee of the Moscow Soviet. Dzerzhinsky endorsed Lenin's \"April Theses\", demanding uncompromising opposition to the Russian Provisional Government, the transfer of all political authority to the Soviets, and the immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war. Dzerzhinsky's brother Stanisław was murdered on the Dzerzhinsky estate by deserting Russian soldiers that same year.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky was elected subsequently to the Bolshevik Central Committee at the Sixth Party Congress in late July. He then moved from Moscow to Petrograd to begin his new responsibilities. In Petrograd, Dzerzhinsky participated in the crucial session of the Central Committee in October and he strongly endorsed Lenin's demands for the immediate preparation of a rebellion, after which Felix Dzerzhinsky had an active role with the Military Revolutionary Committee during the October Revolution. With the acquisition of power by the Bolsheviks, Dzerzhinsky eagerly assumed responsibility for making security arrangements at the Smolny Institute where the Bolsheviks had their headquarters.",
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"plaintext": "Lenin regarded Felix Dzerzhinsky as a revolutionary hero and appointed him to organize a force to combat internal threats. On 20 December 1917, the Council of People's Commissars officially established the All-Russia Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-revolution and Sabotage—usually known as the Cheka (based on the Russian acronym ВЧК). Dzerzhinsky became its director. The Cheka received extensive resources, and became known for ruthlessly pursuing any perceived counterrevolutionary elements. As the Russian Civil War expanded, Dzerzhinsky also began organizing internal security troops to enforce the Cheka's authority.",
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"plaintext": "The Cheka became notorious for mass summary executions, performed especially during the Red Terror and the Russian Civil War. The Cheka undertook drastic measures as thousands of political opponents and saboteurs were shot without trial in the basements of prisons and in public places. Dzerzhinsky said: \"We represent in ourselves organized terror—this must be said very clearly,\" and \"[The Red Terror involves] the terrorization, arrests and extermination of enemies of the revolution on the basis of their class affiliation or of their pre-revolutionary roles.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1922, at the end of the Civil War, the Cheka was dissolved and reorganized as the State Political Directorate (Gosudarstvennoe Politicheskoe Upravlenie, or GPU), a section of the NKVD. With the formation of the Soviet Union later that year, the GPU was again reorganized as the Joint State Political Directorate (Obyedinyonnoye gosudarstvennoye politicheskoye upravleniye, or OGPU), directly under the Council of People's Commissars. These changes did not diminish Dzerzhinsky's power; he was Minister of the Interior, director of the Cheka/GPU/OGPU, Minister for Communications, and director of the Vesenkha (Supreme Council of National Economy) 1921–24. Indeed, while the (O)GPU was theoretically supposed to act with more restraint than the Cheka, in time its de facto powers grew even greater than those of the Cheka.",
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"plaintext": "At his office in Lubyanka, Dzerzhinsky kept a portrait of fellow Polish revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg on the wall.",
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"plaintext": "Besides his leadership of the secret police, Dzerzhinsky also took on a number of other roles; he led the fight against typhus in 1918, was chair of the Commissariat for Internal Affairs from 1919 to 1923, initiated a vast orphanage construction program, chaired the Transport Commissariat, organised the embalming of Lenin's body in 1924 and chaired the Society of Friends of Soviet Cinema.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky became a Bolshevik as late as 1917. Therefore, it was wrong to assert (as official Soviet historians did subsequently) that Dzerzhinsky had been one of Lenin's oldest and most reliable comrades, or that Lenin had exercised some sort of spellbinding influence on Dzerzhinsky and the SDKPiL. Lenin and Dzerzhinsky frequently had opposing opinions about many important ideological and political issues of the pre-revolutionary period, and also after the October Revolution. After 1917, Dzerzhinsky would oppose Lenin on such crucial issues as the Brest-Litovsk peace, the trade unions, and Soviet nationality policy. During the April 1917 Party Conference when Lenin accused Dzerzhinsky of Great-Russian chauvinism he replied: \"I can reproach him (Lenin) with standing at the point of view of the Polish, Ukrainian and other chauvinists.\"",
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"plaintext": "From 1917 to his death in 1926, Dzerzhinsky was first and foremost a Russian Communist, and Dzerzhinsky's involvement in the affairs of the Polish Communist Party (which was founded in 1918) was minimal. The energy and dedication that had previously been responsible for the building of the SDKPiL would henceforth be devoted to the priorities of the struggle for Bolshevik power in Russia, to the defense of the revolution during the civil war, and eventually, to the tasks of socialist construction.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky died of a heart attack on 20 July 1926 in Moscow, immediately after a two-hour speech to the Bolshevik Central Committee during which, visibly quite ill, he violently denounced the United Opposition directed by Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev. Upon hearing of his death, Joseph Stalin eulogized Dzerzhinsky as \"a devout knight of the proletariat\". Dzerzhinsky was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Today his grave is one of the twelve individual tombs located between the Lenin Mausoleum and the Kremlin wall.",
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"plaintext": "Dzerzhinsky was succeeded as chairman of the OGPU by Vyacheslav Menzhinsky.",
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"plaintext": "Dzierżyńszczyzna, one of the two Polish Autonomous Districts in the Soviet Union, was named to commemorate Dzerzhinsky. Located in Belarus, near Minsk and close to the Soviet-Polish border of the time, it was created on 15 March 1932, with the capital at Dzyarzhynsk (In Russian Dzerzhynsk, formerly known as Kojdanów), not far from the family estate. (The Dzerzhinsky estate itself remained inside Poland from 1921 to 1939.) The district was disbanded in 1935 at the onset of the Great Purge, and most of its administration was executed.",
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"plaintext": "Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (the highest point in Belarus), located near Dzyarzhynsk was named after Dzerzhinsky in 1958.",
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"plaintext": "His name and image were used widely throughout the KGB and the Soviet Union and other socialist countries; there were several places named after him. In Russia, there is the city of Dzerzhinsk, a village of Dzerzhinsk, and three other cities called Dzerzhinskiy; in other former Soviet republics, there is a city named for him in Armenia and the aforementioned Dzyarzhynsk in Belarus. To comply with decommunization laws the Ukrainian cities Dzerzhynsk and Dniprodzerzhynsk were renamed Toretsk and Kamianske in February and May 2016. A Ukrainian village in the Zhytomyr Oblast was also named Dzerzhinsk until 2005, when it was renamed to Romaniv. The Dzerzhinskiy Tractor Works in Stalingrad were named in his honor and became a scene of bitter fighting during the Second World War. The FED camera, produced from 1934 to around 1996, is named for him, as was the FD class steam locomotive.",
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"plaintext": "A 15-ton iron monument of Dzerzhinsky, which once dominated the Lubyanka Square in Moscow, near the KGB headquarters, also became known as \"Iron Felix\" ( - Zheleznyj Feliks). Sculpted in 1958 by Yevgeny Vuchetich, it served as a Moscow landmark during late Soviet times. Symbolically, the Memorial society erected the Solovetsky Stone, a memorial to the victims of the Gulag (using a simple stone from Solovki in the White Sea) beside the Iron Felix statue on 30 October 1990. The Moscow Soviet (Mossovet) had the Dzerzhinsky statue removed to the Fallen Monument Park and laid on its side in August 1991, after the failed coup d'état attempt by hard-line Communist members of the government. A mock-up of the removal of Dzerzhinsky's statue can be found in the entrance hall of the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C.",
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"plaintext": "The figure of Dzerzhinsky remains controversial in Russian society. Between 1999 and 2013, six proposals called for the return of the statue to its plinth. The Monument Art Commission of the Moscow City Duma rejected the proposals due to concerns that the proposed return would cause \"unnecessary tension\" in society. According to a December 2013 VTsIOM poll, 46% of Russians favor the restoration of the statue to the Lubyanka Square, with 17% opposing it. The statue remained in a yard for old Soviet memorials at the Central House of Artists.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2012, the Moscow authorities stated that they would renovate the \"Iron Felix\" monument in full and put the statue on a list of monuments to be renovated, as well as officially designating it an object of cultural heritage.",
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"plaintext": "On April 26, 2021, it was announced by the prosecutor office of Moscow that the removal of the statue had no legal basis and was therefore illegal.",
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"plaintext": "A smaller bust of Dzerzhinsky in the courtyard of the Moscow police headquarters at Petrovka 38 was restored in November 2005 (police officers had removed this bust on 22 August 1991).",
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"plaintext": "As it symbolised the Soviet Union and the Soviet influence over Poland, Dzerzhinsky's monument in Dzerzhinsky Square () in the center of Warsaw was toppled in 1989 as the Polish United Workers' Party lost power in the course of the revolutions of 1989. The name of the square soon changed to its pre–Second World War name \"Bank Square\" ().",
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"plaintext": "A 10-foot bronze replica of the original Iron Felix statue was placed on the grounds of the military academy in Minsk, Belarus, in May 2006.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017 on the 140th anniversary of Dzerzhinsky's birth, a monument to Dzerzhinsky was erected in the city of Ryazan, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "On January 20, 2017, the People's Public Security Academy in Hanoi, Vietnam inaugurated a Dzerzhinsky statue.",
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"plaintext": "In 1943, the manor house of Dzerzhinovo, where Dzerzhinsky was born, was destroyed and family members (including Dzerzhinsky's brother Kazimierz) were killed by the Germans, because of their support for the Polish Home Army. In 2005, the Government of Belarus rebuilt the house and established a museum. The graduating class of the KGB academy holds its annual swearing-in at the manor.",
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"plaintext": " Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies",
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"plaintext": " Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment now defunct military unit of the East German Ministry for State Security (commonly known as the Stasi)",
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"plaintext": " Monument to F. E. Dzerzhinsky in Taganrog",
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"plaintext": " Kang Sheng",
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"plaintext": " Blobaum, Robert. Felix Dzerzhinsky and the SDKPiL: A study of the origins of Polish Communism. 1984. .",
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"plaintext": " Debo, Richard K. \"Lockhart Plot or Dzerhinskii Plot?.\" Journal of Modern History 43.3 (1971): 413–439.",
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{
"plaintext": " Picture of the Felix calculator",
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"plaintext": " FED history",
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| [
"1877_births",
"1926_deaths",
"People_from_Valozhyn_District",
"People_from_Minsky_Uyezd",
"Belarusian_people_of_Polish_descent",
"People_of_the_Russian_Empire_of_Polish_descent",
"Soviet_people_of_Polish_descent",
"Polish_nobility",
"Polish_atheists",
"Former_Roman_Catholics",
"Social_Democracy_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_Lithuania_politicians",
"Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_members",
"Old_Bolsheviks",
"Cheka_officers",
"Politburo_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_candidate_members",
"People's_commissars_and_ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union",
"Cheka_chairmen",
"Russian_Constituent_Assembly_members",
"People_of_the_Russian_Revolution",
"People_of_the_Russian_Civil_War",
"Regicides_of_Nicholas_II",
"Politicide_perpetrators",
"Burials_at_the_Kremlin_Wall_Necropolis"
]
| 188,570 | 17,896 | 368 | 169 | 0 | 0 | Felix Dzerzhinsky | Bolshevik revolutionary and founder of the first Soviet secret police organs (1877-1926) | [
"Iron Felix",
"Feliks Dzierzynski",
"Feliks Dzierżyński",
"Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky",
"FD"
]
|
37,796 | 1,094,774,538 | West_Nile_fever | [
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"plaintext": "West Nile fever is an infection by the West Nile virus, which is typically spread by mosquitoes. In about 80% of infections people have few or no symptoms. About 20% of people develop a fever, headache, vomiting, or a rash. In less than 1% of people, encephalitis or meningitis occurs, with associated neck stiffness, confusion, or seizures. Recovery may take weeks to months. The risk of death among those in whom the nervous system is affected is about 10 percent.",
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"plaintext": "West Nile virus (WNV) is usually spread by mosquitoes that become infected when they feed on infected birds, which often carry the disease. Rarely the virus is spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding, but it otherwise does not spread directly between people. Risks for severe disease include being over 60 years old and having other health problems. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms and blood tests.",
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"plaintext": "There is no human vaccine. The best way to reduce the risk of infection is to avoid mosquito bites. Mosquito populations may be reduced by eliminating standing pools of water, such as in old tires, buckets, gutters, and swimming pools. When mosquitoes cannot be avoided, mosquito repellent, window screens, and mosquito nets reduce the likelihood of being bitten. There is no specific treatment for the disease; pain medications may reduce symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "The virus was discovered in Uganda in 1937, and was first detected in North America in 1999. WNV has occurred in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America. In the United States thousands of cases are reported a year, with most occurring in August and September. It can occur in outbreaks of disease. Severe disease may also occur in horses, for which a vaccine is available. A surveillance system in birds is useful for early detection of a potential human outbreak.",
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"plaintext": "About 80% of those infected with West Nile virus (WNV) show no symptoms and go unreported. About 20% of infected people develop symptoms. These vary in severity, and begin 3 to 14 days after being bitten. Most people with mild symptoms of WNV recover completely, though fatigue and weakness may last for weeks or months. Symptoms may range from mild, such as fever, to severe, such as paralysis and meningitis. A severe infection can last weeks and can, rarely, cause permanent brain damage. Death may ensue if the central nervous system is affected. Medical conditions such as cancer and diabetes, and age over 60 years, increase the risk of developing severe symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "Headache can be a prominent symptom of WNV fever, meningitis, encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, and it may or may not be present in poliomyelitis-like syndrome. Thus, headache is not a useful indicator of neuroinvasive disease.",
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"plaintext": " West Nile fever (WNF), which occurs in 20 percent of cases, is a febrile syndrome that causes flu-like symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Olejnik E |title=Infectious adenitis transmitted by Culex molestus |journal=Bull Res Counc Isr |volume=2 |pages=210–1 |year=1952}}</ref> Most characterizations of WNF describe it as a mild, acute syndrome lasting 3 to 6 days after symptom onset. Systematic follow-up studies of patients with WNF have not been done, so this information is largely anecdotal. Possible symptoms include high fever, headache, chills, excessive sweating, weakness, fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, drowsiness, pain in the joints and flu-like symptoms. There may be gastrointestinal symptoms including nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. Fewer than one-third of patients develop a rash.",
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"plaintext": " West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND), which occurs in less than 1 percent of cases, is when the virus infects the central nervous system resulting in meningitis, encephalitis, meningoencephalitis or a poliomyelitis-like syndrome. Many patients with WNND have normal neuroimaging studies, although abnormalities may be present in various cerebral areas including the basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, and brainstem.",
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"plaintext": " West Nile virus encephalitis (WNE) is the most common neuroinvasive manifestation of WNND. WNE presents with similar symptoms to other viral encephalitis with fever, headaches, and altered mental status. A prominent finding in WNE is muscular weakness (30 to 50 percent of patients with encephalitis), often with lower motor neuron symptoms, flaccid paralysis, and hyporeflexia with no sensory abnormalities.",
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"plaintext": " West Nile meningitis (WNM) usually involves fever, headache, stiff neck and pleocytosis, an increase of white blood cells in cerebrospinal fluid. Changes in consciousness are not usually seen and are mild when present.",
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"plaintext": " West Nile meningoencephalitis is inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and meninges (meningitis).",
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"plaintext": " West Nile poliomyelitis (WNP), an acute flaccid paralysis syndrome associated with WNV infection, is less common than WNM or WNE. This syndrome is generally characterized by the acute onset of asymmetric limb weakness or paralysis in the absence of sensory loss. Pain sometimes precedes the paralysis. The paralysis can occur in the absence of fever, headache, or other common symptoms associated with WNV infection. Involvement of respiratory muscles, leading to acute respiratory failure, sometimes occurs.",
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"plaintext": " West-Nile reversible paralysis, Like WNP, the weakness or paralysis is asymmetric. Reported cases have been noted to have an initial preservation of deep tendon reflexes, which is not expected for a pure anterior horn involvement. Disconnect of upper motor neuron influences on the anterior horn cells possibly by myelitis or glutamate excitotoxicity have been suggested as mechanisms. The prognosis for recovery is excellent.",
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"plaintext": " Nonneurologic complications of WNV infection that may rarely occur include fulminant hepatitis, pancreatitis, myocarditis, rhabdomyolysis, orchitis, nephritis, optic neuritis and cardiac dysrhythmias and hemorrhagic fever with coagulopathy. Chorioretinitis may also be more common than previously thought.",
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"plaintext": " Skin manifestations, specifically rashes, are common; however, there are few detailed descriptions in case reports, and few images are available. Punctate erythematous, macular, and papular eruptions, most pronounced on the extremities have been observed in WNV cases and in some cases histopathologic findings have shown a sparse superficial perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate, a manifestation commonly seen in viral exanthems. A literature review provides support that this punctate rash is a common cutaneous presentation of WNV infection.",
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"plaintext": "WNV is one of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic serocomplex of viruses.",
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"plaintext": "Image reconstructions and cryoelectron microscopy reveal a 45–50nm virion covered with a relatively smooth protein surface. This structure is similar to the dengue fever virus; both belong to the genus Flavivirus within the family Flaviviridae. The genetic material of WNV is a positive-sense, single strand of RNA, which is between 11,000 and 12,000 nucleotides long; these genes encode seven nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins. The RNA strand is held within a nucleocapsid formed from 12-kDa protein blocks; the capsid is contained within a host-derived membrane altered by two viral membrane proteins.",
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"plaintext": "West Nile virus has been seen to replicate faster and spread more easily to birds at higher temperatures; one of several ways climate change could impact the epidemiology of this disease.",
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"plaintext": "The prime method of spread of the West Nile virus (WNV) is the female mosquito. In Europe, cats were identified as being hosts for West Nile virus.",
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"plaintext": "The important mosquito vectors vary according to area; in the United States, Culex pipiens (Eastern United States, and urban and residential areas of the United States north of 36–39°N), Culex tarsalis (Midwest and West), and Culex quinquefasciatus (Southeast) are the main vector species.",
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"plaintext": "The mosquito species that are most frequently infected with WNV feed primarily on birds. Different species of mosquitos take a blood meal from different types of vertebrate hosts, Mosquitoes show further selectivity, exhibiting preference for different species of birds. In the United States, WNV mosquito vectors feed preferentially on members of the Corvidae and thrush family. Among the preferred species within these families are the American crow, a corvid, and the American robin (Turdus migratorius).",
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"plaintext": "Some species of birds develop sufficient viral levels (>~104.2 log PFU/ml;) after being infected to transmit the infection to biting mosquitoes that in turn go on to infect other birds. In birds that die from WNV, death usually occurs after 4 to 6 days. In mammals and several species of birds, the virus does not multiply as readily and so does not develop high viremia during infection. Mosquitoes biting such hosts are not believed to ingest sufficient virus to become infected, making them so-called dead-end hosts. As a result of the differential infectiousness of hosts, the feeding patterns of mosquitoes play an important role in WNV transmission, and they are partly genetically controlled, even within a species.",
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"plaintext": "Direct human-to-human transmission initially was believed to be caused only by occupational exposure, such as in a laboratory setting, or conjunctival exposure to infected blood. The US outbreak identified additional transmission methods through blood transfusion, organ transplant, intrauterine exposure, and breast feeding. Since 2003, blood banks in the United States routinely screen for the virus among their donors. As a precautionary measure, the UK's National Blood Service initially ran a test for this disease in donors who donate within 28 days of a visit to the United States, Canada, or the northeastern provinces of Italy, and the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service asks prospective donors to wait 28 days after returning from North America or the northeastern provinces of Italy before donating. There also have been reports of possible transmission of the virus from mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding or exposure to the virus in a lab, but these are rare cases and not conclusively confirmed.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, the potential for mosquito saliva to affect the course of WNV disease was demonstrated. Mosquitoes inoculate their saliva into the skin while obtaining blood. Mosquito saliva is a pharmacological cocktail of secreted molecules, principally proteins, that can affect vascular constriction, blood coagulation, platelet aggregation, inflammation, and immunity. It clearly alters the immune response in a manner that may be advantageous to a virus. Studies have shown it can specifically modulate the immune response during early virus infection, and mosquito feeding can exacerbate WNV infection, leading to higher viremia and more severe forms of disease.",
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"plaintext": "Vertical transmission, the transmission of a viral or bacterial disease from the female of the species to her offspring, has been observed in various West Nile virus studies, amongst different species of mosquitoes in both the laboratory and in nature. Mosquito progeny infected vertically in autumn may potentially serve as a mechanism for WNV to overwinter and initiate enzootic horizontal transmission the following spring, although it likely plays little role in transmission in the summer and fall.",
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"plaintext": "Risk factors independently associated with developing a clinical infection with WNV include a suppressed immune system and a patient history of organ transplantation. For neuroinvasive disease the additional risk factors include older age (>50+), male sex, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus.",
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"plaintext": "A genetic factor also appears to increase susceptibility to West Nile disease. A mutation of the gene CCR5 gives some protection against HIV but leads to more serious complications of WNV infection. Carriers of two mutated copies of CCR5 made up 4.0 to 4.5% of a sample of people with West Nile disease, while the incidence of the gene in the general population is only 1.0%.",
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"plaintext": "The most at risk occupations in the U.S. are outdoor workers, for example farmers, loggers, landscapers/groundskeepers, construction workers, painters, summer camp workers and pavers. Two reports of accidental exposure by laboratory personnel working with infected fluids or tissues have been received. While this appears to be a rare occurrence, it highlights the need for proper handling of infected materials. The World Health Organization states that there are no known cases of health care workers acquiring the virus from infected patients when the appropriate infection control precautions are observed.",
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"plaintext": "Preliminary diagnosis is often based on the patient's clinical symptoms, places and dates of travel (if patient is from a nonendemic country or area), activities, and epidemiologic history of the location where infection occurred. A recent history of mosquito bites and an acute febrile illness associated with neurologic signs and symptoms should cause clinical suspicion of WNV.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of West Nile virus infections is generally accomplished by serologic testing of blood serum or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is obtained via a lumbar puncture. Initial screening could be done using the ELISA technique detecting immunoglobulins in the sera of the tested individuals.",
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"plaintext": "Typical findings of WNV infection include lymphocytic pleocytosis, elevated protein level, reference glucose and lactic acid levels, and no erythrocytes.",
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"plaintext": "Definitive diagnosis of WNV is obtained through detection of virus-specific antibody IgM and neutralizing antibodies. Cases of West Nile virus meningitis and encephalitis that have been serologically confirmed produce similar degrees of CSF pleocytosis and are often associated with substantial CSF neutrophilia.",
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"plaintext": "Specimens collected within eight days following onset of illness may not test positive for West Nile IgM, and testing should be repeated. A positive test for West Nile IgG in the absence of a positive West Nile IgM is indicative of a previous flavivirus infection and is not by itself evidence of an acute West Nile virus infection.",
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"plaintext": "If cases of suspected West Nile virus infection, sera should be collected on both the acute and",
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"plaintext": "convalescent phases of the illness. Convalescent specimens should be collected 2–3 weeks after acute specimens.",
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"plaintext": "It is common in serologic testing for cross-reactions to occur among flaviviruses such as dengue virus (DENV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus; this necessitates caution when evaluating serologic results of flaviviral infections.",
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"plaintext": "Four FDA-cleared WNV IgM ELISA kits are commercially available from different manufacturers in the U.S., each of these kits is indicated for use on serum to aid in the presumptive laboratory diagnosis of WNV infection in patients with clinical symptoms of meningitis or encephalitis. Positive WNV test results obtained via use of these kits should be confirmed by additional testing at a state health department laboratory or CDC.",
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"plaintext": "In fatal cases, nucleic acid amplification, histopathology with immunohistochemistry, and virus culture of autopsy tissues can also be useful. Only a few state laboratories or other specialized laboratories, including those at CDC, are capable of doing this specialized testing.",
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"plaintext": "A number of various diseases may present with symptoms similar to those caused by a clinical West Nile virus infection. Those causing neuroinvasive disease symptoms include the enterovirus infection and bacterial meningitis. Accounting for differential diagnoses is a crucial step in the definitive diagnosis of WNV infection. Consideration of a differential diagnosis is required when a patient presents with unexplained febrile illness, extreme headache, encephalitis or meningitis. Diagnostic and serologic laboratory testing using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and viral culture of CSF to identify the specific pathogen causing the symptoms, is the only currently available means of differentiating between causes of encephalitis and meningitis.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the guidelines for preventing occupational West Nile virus exposure are common to all mosquito-borne diseases.",
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"plaintext": "Public health measures include taking steps to reduce mosquito populations. Personal recommendations are to reduce the likelihood of being bitten. General measures to avoid bites include:",
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"plaintext": " Using insect repellent on exposed skin to repel mosquitoes. Repellents include products containing DEET and picaridin. DEET concentrations of 30% to 50% are effective for several hours. Picaridin, available at 7% and 15% concentrations, needs more frequent application. DEET formulations as high as 30% are recommended for children over two months of age. The CDC also recommends the use of: IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus, para-menthane-diol, or 2-undecanone. Protect infants less than two months of age by using a carrier draped with mosquito netting with an elastic edge for a tight fit.",
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"plaintext": " When using sunscreen, apply sunscreen first and then repellent. Repellent should be washed off at the end of the day before going to bed.",
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"plaintext": " Wear long-sleeve shirts, which should be tucked in, long trousers, socks, and hats to cover exposed skin (although most fabrics do not totally protect against bites). Insect repellents should be applied over top of protective clothing for greater protection. Do not apply insect repellents underneath clothing.",
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"plaintext": " Repellents containing permethrin (e.g., Permanone) or other insect repellents may be applied to clothing, shoes, tents, mosquito nets, and other gear. (Permethrin is not suitable for use directly on skin.) Most repellent is generally removed from clothing and gear by a single washing, but permethrin-treated clothing is effective for up to five washings.",
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"plaintext": " Most mosquitoes that transmit disease are most active at dawn and in the evening dusk. A notable exception is the Asian tiger mosquito, which is a daytime feeder and is more apt to be found in, or on the periphery of, shaded areas with heavy vegetation. They are now widespread in the United States, and in Florida they have been found in all 67 counties.",
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"plaintext": " In an at-risk area, staying in air-conditioned or well-screened room, or sleeping under an insecticide-treated bed net is recommended. Bed nets should be tucked under mattresses, and can be sprayed with a repellent if not already treated with an insecticide.",
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"plaintext": "West Nile virus can be sampled from the environment by the pooling of trapped mosquitoes via ovitraps, carbon dioxide-baited light traps, and gravid traps, testing blood samples drawn from wild birds, dogs, and sentinel monkeys, and testing brains of dead birds found by various animal control agencies and the public.",
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"plaintext": "Testing of the mosquito samples requires the use of reverse-transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) to directly amplify and show the presence of virus in the submitted samples. When using the blood sera of wild birds and sentinel chickens, samples must be tested for the presence of WNV antibodies by use of immunohistochemistry (IHC) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).",
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"plaintext": "Dead birds, after necropsy, or their oral swab samples collected on specific RNA-preserving filter paper card, can have their virus presence tested by either RT-PCR or IHC, where virus shows up as brown-stained tissue because of a substrate-enzyme reaction.",
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"plaintext": "West Nile control is achieved through mosquito control, by elimination of mosquito breeding sites such as abandoned pools, applying larvacide to active breeding areas, and targeting the adult population via lethal ovitraps and aerial spraying of pesticides.",
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"plaintext": "Environmentalists have condemned attempts to control the transmitting mosquitoes by spraying pesticide, saying the detrimental health effects of spraying outweigh the relatively few lives that may be saved, and more environmentally friendly ways of controlling mosquitoes are available. They also question the effectiveness of insecticide spraying, as they believe mosquitoes that are resting or flying above the level of spraying will not be killed; the most common vector in the northeastern United States, Culex pipiens'', is a canopy feeder.",
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"plaintext": "No specific treatment is available for WNV infection. Most people recover without treatment. In mild cases, over-the-counter pain relievers can help ease mild headaches and muscle aches in adults. In severe cases supportive care is provided, often in hospital, with intravenous fluids, pain medication, respiratory support, and prevention of secondary infections.",
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"plaintext": "While the general prognosis is favorable, current studies indicate that West Nile Fever can often be more severe than previously recognized, with studies of various recent outbreaks indicating that it may take as long as 60 to 90 days to recover. Patients with milder WNF are just as likely as those with more severe manifestations of neuroinvasive disease to experience multiple somatic complaints such as tremor, and dysfunction in motor skills and executive functions for over a year. People with milder symptoms are just as likely as people with more severe symptoms to experience adverse outcomes. Recovery is marked by a long convalescence with fatigue. One study found that neuroinvasive WNV infection was associated with an increased risk for subsequent kidney disease.",
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"plaintext": "WNV was first isolated from a feverish 37-year-old woman at Omogo in the West Nile District of Uganda in 1937 during research on yellow fever virus. A series of serosurveys in 1939 in central Africa found anti-WNV positive results ranging from 1.4% (Congo) to 46.4% (White Nile region, Sudan). It was subsequently identified in Egypt (1942) and India (1953), a 1950 serosurvey in Egypt found 90% of those over 40 years in age had WNV antibodies. The ecology was characterized in 1953 with studies in Egypt and Israel. The virus became recognized as a cause of severe human meningoencephalitis in elderly patients during an outbreak in Israel in 1957. The disease was first noted in horses in Egypt and France in the early 1960s and found to be widespread in southern Europe, southwest Asia and Australia.",
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"plaintext": "The first appearance of WNV in the Western Hemisphere was in 1999 with encephalitis reported in humans, dogs, cats, and horses, and the subsequent spread in the United States may be an important milestone in the evolving history of this virus. The American outbreak began in College Point, Queens in New York City and was later spread to the neighboring states of New Jersey and Connecticut. The virus is believed to have entered in an infected bird or mosquito, although there is no clear evidence. West Nile virus is now endemic in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, west and central Asia, Oceania (subtype Kunjin), and most recently, North America and is spreading into Central and South America.",
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"plaintext": "Outbreaks of West Nile virus encephalitis in humans have occurred in Algeria (1994), Romania (1996 to 1997), the Czech Republic (1997), Congo (1998), Russia (1999), the United States (1999 to 2009), Canada (1999–2007), Israel (2000) and Greece (2010).",
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"plaintext": "Epizootics of disease in horses occurred in Morocco (1996), Italy (1998), the United States (1999 to 2001), and France (2000), Mexico (2003) and Sardinia (2011).",
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"plaintext": "Outdoor workers (including biological fieldworkers, construction workers, farmers, landscapers, and painters), healthcare personnel, and laboratory personnel who perform necropsies on animals are at risk of contracting WNV.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, the US experienced one of its worst epidemics in which 286 people died, with the state of Texas being hard hit by this virus.",
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"plaintext": "Drought has been associated with a higher number of West Nile virus cases in the following year. As drought can decrease fish and other populations that eat mosquito eggs, higher numbers of mosquitoes can result. Higher temperatures are linked to decreased time for replication and increased viral load in birds and mosquitoes.",
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"plaintext": "A vaccine for horses (ATCvet code: ) based on killed viruses exists; some zoos have given this vaccine to their birds, although its effectiveness is unknown. Dogs and cats show few if any signs of infection. There have been no known cases of direct canine-human or feline-human transmission; although these pets can become infected, it is unlikely they are, in turn, capable of infecting native mosquitoes and thus continuing the disease cycle. AMD3100, which had been proposed as an antiretroviral drug for HIV, has shown promise against West Nile encephalitis. Morpholino antisense oligos conjugated to cell penetrating peptides have been shown to partially protect mice from WNV disease. There have also been attempts to treat infections using ribavirin, intravenous immunoglobulin, or alpha interferon. GenoMed, a U.S. biotech company, has found that blocking angiotensin II can treat the \"cytokine storm\" of West Nile virus encephalitis as well as other viruses.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2019, six vaccines had progressed to human trials but none had been licensed in the United States. Only the two live attenuated vaccines produced strong immunity after a single dose.",
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"plaintext": " CDC—West Nile Virus—NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic",
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"plaintext": " West Nile Virus Resource Guide—National Pesticide Information Center",
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"plaintext": " Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Flaviviridae",
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"plaintext": " Species Profile – West Nile Virus (Flavivirus), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for West Nile Virus.",
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"plaintext": "Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel (colloquial: Infinite Hotel Paradox or Hilbert's Hotel) is a thought experiment which illustrates a counterintuitive property of infinite sets. It is demonstrated that a fully occupied hotel with infinitely many rooms may still accommodate additional guests, even infinitely many of them, and this process may be repeated infinitely often. The idea was introduced by David Hilbert in a 1924 lecture \"Über das Unendliche\", reprinted in , and was popularized through George Gamow's 1947 book One Two Three... Infinity.",
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"plaintext": "Consider a hypothetical hotel with a countably infinite number of rooms, all of which are occupied. One might be tempted to think that the hotel would not be able to accommodate any newly arriving guests, as would be the case with a finite number of rooms, where the pigeonhole principle would apply.",
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"plaintext": "Suppose a new guest arrives and wishes to be accommodated in the hotel. We can (simultaneously) move the guest currently in room 1 to room 2, the guest currently in room 2 to room 3, and so on, moving every guest from their current room n to room n+1. After this, room 1 is empty and the new guest can be moved into that room. By repeating this procedure, it is possible to make room for any finite number of new guests. In general, assume that k guests seek a room. We can apply the same procedure and move every guest from room n to room n + k. In a similar manner, if k guests wished to leave the hotel, every guest moves from room n to room n − k.",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible to accommodate a countably infinite number of new guests: just move the person occupying room 1 to room 2, the guest occupying room 2 to room 4, and, in general, the guest occupying room n to room 2n (2 times n), and all the odd-numbered rooms (which are countably infinite) will be free for the new guests.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible to accommodate countably infinitely many coachloads of countably infinite passengers each, by several different methods. Most methods depend on the seats in the coaches being already numbered (or use the axiom of countable choice). In general any pairing function can be used to solve this problem. For each of these methods, consider a passenger's seat number on a coach to be , and their coach number to be , and the numbers and are then fed into the two arguments of the pairing function.",
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"plaintext": "Send the guest in room to room , then put the first coach's load in rooms , the second coach's load in rooms ; for coach number we use the rooms where is the th odd prime number. This solution leaves certain rooms empty (which may or may not be useful to the hotel); specifically, all numbers that are not prime powers, such as 15 or 847, will no longer be occupied. (So, strictly speaking, this shows that the number of arrivals is less than or equal to the number of vacancies created. It is easier to show, by an independent means, that the number of arrivals is also greater than or equal to the number of vacancies, and thus that they are equal, than to modify the algorithm to an exact fit.) (The algorithm works equally well if one interchanges and , but whichever choice is made, it must be applied uniformly throughout.)",
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"plaintext": "Each person of a certain seat and coach can be put into room (presuming c=0 for the people already in the hotel, 1 for the first coach, etc.). Because every number has a unique prime factorization, it is easy to see all people will have a room, while no two people will end up in the same room. For example, the person in room 2592 () was sitting in on the 4th coach, on the 5th seat. Like the prime powers method, this solution leaves certain rooms empty.",
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"plaintext": "This method can also easily be expanded for infinite nights, infinite entrances, etc. ( )",
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"plaintext": "For each passenger, compare the lengths of and as written in any positional numeral system, such as decimal. (Treat each hotel resident as being in coach #0.) If either number is shorter, add leading zeroes to it until both values have the same number of digits. Interleave the digits to produce a room number: its digits will be [first digit of coach number]-[first digit of seat number]-[second digit of coach number]-[second digit of seat number]-etc. The hotel (coach #0) guest in room number 1729 moves to room 01070209 (i.e., room 1,070,209). The passenger on seat 1234 of coach 789 goes to room 01728394 (i.e., room 1,728,394).",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the prime powers solution, this one fills the hotel completely, and we can reconstruct a guest's original coach and seat by reversing the interleaving process. First add a leading zero if the room has an odd number of digits. Then de-interleave the number into two numbers: the coach number consists of the odd-numbered digits and the seat number is the even-numbered ones. Of course, the original encoding is arbitrary, and the roles of the two numbers can be reversed (seat-odd and coach-even), so long as it is applied consistently.",
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"plaintext": "Those already in the hotel will be moved to room , or the th triangular number. Those in a coach will be in room , or the triangular number plus . In this way all the rooms will be filled by one, and only one, guest.",
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"plaintext": "This pairing function can be demonstrated visually by structuring the hotel as a one-room-deep, infinitely tall pyramid. The pyramid's topmost row is a single room: room 1; its second row is rooms 2 and 3; and so on. The column formed by the set of rightmost rooms will correspond to the triangular numbers. Once they are filled (by the hotel's redistributed occupants), the remaining empty rooms form the shape of a pyramid exactly identical to the original shape. Thus, the process can be repeated for each infinite set. Doing this one at a time for each coach would require an infinite number of steps, but by using the prior formulas, a guest can determine what his room \"will be\" once his coach has been reached in the process, and can simply go there immediately.",
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"plaintext": "Let . is countable since is countable, hence we may enumerate its elements . Now if , assign the th guest of the th coach to the th room (consider the guests already in the hotel as guests of the th coach). Thus we have a function assigning each person to a room; furthermore, this assignment does not skip over any rooms.",
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"plaintext": "Suppose the hotel is next to an ocean, and an infinite number of car ferries arrive, each bearing an infinite number of coaches, each with an infinite number of passengers. This is a situation involving three \"levels\" of infinity, and it can be solved by extensions of any of the previous solutions.",
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"plaintext": "The prime factorization method can be applied by adding a new prime number for every additional layer of infinity ( , with the ferry).",
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"plaintext": "The prime power solution can be applied with further exponentiation of prime numbers, resulting in very large room numbers even given small inputs. For example, the passenger in the second seat of the third bus on the second ferry (address 2-3-2) would raise the 2nd odd prime (5) to 49, which is the result of the 3rd odd prime (7) being raised to the power of his seat number (2). This room number would have over thirty decimal digits.",
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"plaintext": "The interleaving method can be used with three interleaved \"strands\" instead of two. The passenger with the address 2-3-2 would go to room 232, while the one with the address 4935-198-82217 would go to room #008,402,912,391,587 (the leading zeroes can be removed).",
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"plaintext": "Anticipating the possibility of any number of layers of infinite guests, the hotel may wish to assign rooms such that no guest will need to move, no matter how many guests arrive afterward. One solution is to convert each arrival's address into a binary number in which ones are used as separators at the start of each layer, while a number within a given layer (such as a guest's coach number) is represented with that many zeroes. Thus, a guest with the prior address 2-5-1-3-1 (five infinite layers) would go to room 10010000010100010 (decimal 295458).",
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"plaintext": "As an added step in this process, one zero can be removed from each section of the number; in this example, the guest's new room is 101000011001 (decimal 2585). This ensures that every room could be filled by a hypothetical guest. If no infinite sets of guests arrive, then only rooms that are a power of two will be occupied.",
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"plaintext": "Although a room can be found for any finite number of nested infinities of people, the same is not always true for an infinite number of layers, even if a finite number of elements exists at each layer.",
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"plaintext": "Hilbert's paradox is a veridical paradox: it leads to a counter-intuitive result that is provably true. The statements \"there is a guest to every room\" and \"no more guests can be accommodated\" are not equivalent when there are infinitely many rooms.",
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"plaintext": "Initially, this state of affairs might seem to be counter-intuitive. The properties of infinite collections of things are quite different from those of finite collections of things. The paradox of Hilbert's Grand Hotel can be understood by using Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers. Thus, in an ordinary (finite) hotel with more than one room, the number of odd-numbered rooms is obviously smaller than the total number of rooms. However, in Hilbert's aptly named Grand Hotel, the quantity of odd-numbered rooms is not smaller than the total \"number\" of rooms. In mathematical terms, the cardinality of the subset containing the odd-numbered rooms is the same as the cardinality of the set of all rooms. Indeed, infinite sets are characterized as sets that have proper subsets of the same cardinality. For countable sets (sets with the same cardinality as the natural numbers) this cardinality is .",
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"plaintext": "Rephrased, for any countably infinite set, there exists a bijective function which maps the countably infinite set to the set of natural numbers, even if the countably infinite set contains the natural numbers. For example, the set of rational numbers—those numbers which can be written as a quotient of integers—contains the natural numbers as a subset, but is no bigger than the set of natural numbers since the rationals are countable: there is a bijection from the naturals to the rationals.",
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"plaintext": " BBC Learning Zone repeatedly screened a 1996 one-off educational docudrama Hotel Hilbert set in the hotel as seen through the eyes of a young female guest Fiona Knight, her name a pun on finite. The programme was designed to educate viewers about the concept of infinity.",
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"plaintext": " The novel White Light by mathematician/science fiction writer Rudy Rucker includes a hotel based on Hilbert's paradox, and where the protagonist of the story meets Georg Cantor.",
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"plaintext": " Stephen Baxter's science fiction novel Transcendent has a brief discussion on the nature of infinity, with an explanation based on the paradox, modified to use soldiers rather than hotels.",
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"plaintext": " Geoffrey A. Landis' Nebula Award-winning short story \"Ripples in the Dirac Sea\" uses the Hilbert hotel as an explanation of why an infinitely-full Dirac sea can nevertheless still accept particles.",
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"plaintext": " In Peter Høeg's novel Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow, the titular heroine reflects that it is admirable for the hotel's manager and guests to go to all that trouble so that the latecomer can have his own room and some privacy.",
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"plaintext": " In Ivar Ekeland's novel for children, The Cat in Numberland, a \"Mr. Hilbert\" and his wife run an infinite hotel for all the integers. The story progresses through the triangular method for the rationals.",
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"plaintext": " In Will Wiles's novel The Way Inn, about an infinitely large motel, the villain's name is Hilbert.",
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"plaintext": " In Reginald Hill's novel \"The Stranger House\" the character Sam refers to the Hilbert Hotel paradox.",
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"plaintext": " The short story by Naum Ya. Vilenkin The Extraordinary Hotel (often erroneously attributed to Stanislaw Lem) shows the way in which Hilbert's Grand Hotel may be reshuffled when infinite new hosts arrive.",
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"plaintext": " The comic book saga The Tempest from the League of Extraordinary Gentlemen series by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill shows a villain called Infinity. In the story it is suggested that the villain goes to the hotel based on Hilbert's paradox. Georg Cantor is mentioned as well.",
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"plaintext": " Hilbert infinite hotel. M. Hazewinkel. Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer. Accessed May 25, 2007.",
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"plaintext": " Nancy Casey, Welcome to the Hotel Infinity!— The paradox told as a humorous narrative, featuring a hotel owner and a building contractor based on the feuding 19th-century mathematicians Georg Cantor and Leopold Kronecker",
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"plaintext": " Steven Strogatz, The Hilbert Hotel, NY Times, May 9, 2010",
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"plaintext": " Hilbert's Infinite Hotel, h2g2",
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"plaintext": " \"Beyond the Finite\"",
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"plaintext": " The Infinite Hotel Paradox - Jeff Dekofsky - TED-Ed Lessons",
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| 828,646 | 14,053 | 24 | 61 | 0 | 0 | Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel | paradox | []
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"plaintext": "In May 2011, the Thor Heyerdahl Archives were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register. At the time, this list included 238 collections from all over the world. The Heyerdahl Archives span the years 1937 to 2002 and include his photographic collection, diaries, private letters, expedition plans, articles, newspaper clippings, and original book and article manuscripts. The Heyerdahl Archives are administered by the Kon-Tiki Museum and the National Library of Norway in Oslo.",
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"plaintext": "After seven terms and consultations with experts in Berlin, a project was developed and sponsored by Heyerdahl's zoology professors, Kristine Bonnevie and Hjalmar Broch. He was to visit some isolated Pacific island groups and study how the local animals had found their way there.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Heyerdahl married Jacqueline Beer (born 1932) as his third wife. They lived in Tenerife, Canary Islands, and were very actively involved with archaeological projects, especially in Túcume, Peru, and Azov until his death in 2002. He had still been hoping to undertake an archaeological project in Samoa before he died.",
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"plaintext": "They arrived at Fatu Hiva in 1937, in the valley of Omo‘a, and decided to cross over the island's mountainous interior to settle in one of the small, nearly abandoned, valleys on the eastern side of the island. There, they made their thatch-covered stilted home in the valley of Uia.",
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"plaintext": "The events surrounding his stay on the Marquesas, most of the time on Fatu Hiva, were told first in his book På Jakt etter Paradiset (Hunt for Paradise) (1938), which was published in Norway but, following the outbreak of World War II, was never translated and remained largely forgotten. Many years later, having achieved notability with other adventures and books on other subjects, Heyerdahl published a new account of this voyage under the title Fatu Hiva (London: Allen & Unwin, 1974). The story of his time on Fatu Hiva and his side trip to Hivaoa and Mohotani is also related in Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day (Random House, 1996).",
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"plaintext": "Anthropologists continue to believe that Polynesia was settled from west to east, based on linguistic, physical, and genetic evidence, migration having begun from the Asian mainland. There are controversial indications, though, of some sort of South American/Polynesian contact, most notably in the fact that the South American sweet potato is served as a dietary staple throughout much of Polynesia. Blood samples taken in 1971 and 2008 from Easter Islanders without any European or other external descent were analysed in a 2011 study, which concluded that the evidence supported some aspects of Heyerdahl's hypothesis. This result has been questioned because of the possibility of contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. However, more recent DNA work (after Heyerdahl's death) contradicts the post-European-contact contamination hypothesis, finding the South American DNA sequences to be far older than that. Heyerdahl had attempted to counter the linguistic argument with the analogy that he would prefer to believe that African-Americans came from Africa, judging from their skin colour, and not from England, judging from their speech.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl claimed that in Incan legend there was a sun-god named Con-Tici Viracocha who was the supreme head of the mythical fair-skinned people in Peru. The original name for Viracocha was Kon-Tiki or Illa-Tiki, which means Sun-Tiki or Fire-Tiki.",
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"plaintext": "Kon-Tiki was high priest and sun-king of these legendary \"white men\" who left enormous ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca. The legend continues with the mysterious bearded white men being attacked by a chief named Cari, who came from the Coquimbo Valley. They had a battle on an island in Lake Titicaca, and the fair race was massacred. However, Kon-Tiki and his closest companions managed to escape and later arrived on the Pacific coast. The legend ends with Kon-Tiki and his companions disappearing westward out to sea.",
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"plaintext": "When the Spaniards came to Peru, Heyerdahl asserted, the Incas told them that the colossal monuments that stood deserted about the landscape were erected by a race of white gods who had lived there before the Incas themselves became rulers. The Incas described these \"white gods\" as wise, peaceful instructors who had originally come from the north in the \"morning of time\" and taught the Incas' primitive forebears architecture as well as manners and customs. They were unlike other Native Americans in that they had \"white skins and long beards\" and were taller than the Incas. The Incas said that the \"white gods\" had then left as suddenly as they had come and fled westward across the Pacific. After they had left, the Incas themselves took over power in the country.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl said that when the Europeans first came to the Pacific islands, they were astonished that they found some of the natives to have relatively light skins and beards. There were whole families that had pale skin, hair varying in colour from reddish to blonde. In contrast, most of the Polynesians had golden-brown skin, raven-black hair, and rather flat noses. Heyerdahl claimed that when Jacob Roggeveen discovered Easter Island in 1722, he supposedly noticed that many of the natives were white-skinned. Heyerdahl claimed that these people could count their ancestors who were \"white-skinned\" right back to the time of Tiki and Hotu Matua, when they first came sailing across the sea \"from a mountainous land in the east which was scorched by the sun\". The ethnographic evidence for these claims is outlined in Heyerdahl's book The Secret of Easter Island.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl proposed that Tiki's neolithic people colonised the then uninhabited Polynesian islands as far north as Hawaii, as far south as New Zealand, as far east as Easter Island, and as far west as Samoa and Tonga around 500 AD. They supposedly sailed from Peru to the Polynesian islands on pae-paes—large rafts built from balsa logs, complete with sails and each with a small cottage. They built enormous stone statues carved in the image of human beings on Pitcairn, the Marquesas, and Easter Island that resembled those in Peru. They also built huge pyramids on Tahiti and Samoa with steps like those in Peru.",
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"plaintext": "But all over Polynesia, Heyerdahl found indications that Tiki's peaceable race had not been able to hold the islands alone for long. He found evidence that suggested that seagoing war canoes as large as Viking ships and lashed together two and two had brought Stone Age Northwest American Indians to Polynesia around 1100 , and they mingled with Tiki's people. The oral history of the people of Easter Island, at least as it was documented by Heyerdahl, is completely consistent with this theory, as is the archaeological record he examined (Heyerdahl 1958).",
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"plaintext": "In particular, Heyerdahl obtained a radiocarbon date of 400 for a charcoal fire located in the pit that was held by the people of Easter Island to have been used as an \"oven\" by the \"Long Ears\", which Heyerdahl's Rapa Nui sources, reciting oral tradition, identified as a white race that had ruled the island in the past (Heyerdahl 1958).",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl further argued in his book American Indians in the Pacific that the current inhabitants of Polynesia migrated from an Asian source, but via an alternative route. He proposes that Polynesians travelled with the wind along the North Pacific current. These migrants then arrived in British Columbia. Heyerdahl called contemporary tribes of British Columbia, such as the Tlingit and Haida, descendants of these migrants. Heyerdahl claimed that cultural and physical similarities existed between these British Columbian tribes, Polynesians, and the Old World source.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl's theory of Polynesian origins has not gained acceptance among anthropologists. Physical and cultural evidence had long suggested that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland, not South America. In the late 1990s, genetic testing found that the mitochondrial DNA of the Polynesians is more similar to people from south-east Asia than to people from South America, showing that their ancestors most likely came from Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Anthropologist Robert Carl Suggs included a chapter titled \"The Kon-Tiki Myth\" in his 1960 book on Polynesia, concluding that \"The Kon-Tiki theory is about as plausible as the tales of Atlantis, Mu, and 'Children of the Sun.' Like most such theories, it makes exciting light reading, but as an example of scientific method it fares quite poorly.\"",
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"plaintext": "Anthropologist and National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Wade Davis also criticised Heyerdahl's theory in his 2009 book The Wayfinders, which explores the history of Polynesia. Davis says that Heyerdahl \"ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 2009 study by the Norwegian researcher Erik Thorsby suggested that there was some merit to Heyerdahl's ideas and that, while Polynesia was colonised from Asia, some contact with South America also existed. Some critics suggest, however, that Thorsby's research is inconclusive because his data may have been influenced by recent population contact.",
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"plaintext": "However, a 2014 research indicates that the South American component of Easter Island people's genomes pre-dates European contact: a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapanui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 per cent Polynesian, 8 per cent Native American and 16 per cent European. Analysis showed that: \"although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was 'discovered' in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first colonised by Polynesians in around 1200.\" Together with ancient skulls found in Brazil– with solely Polynesian DNA– this does suggest some pre-European-contact travel to and from South America from Polynesia.",
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"plaintext": "A study based on wider genome analysis published in Nature in July 2020 is suggestive of a contact event, around 1200 AD, between Polynesian individuals and a Native American group most closely related to the indigenous inhabitants of present-day Colombia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1955–1956, Heyerdahl organised the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island. The expedition's scientific staff included Arne Skjølsvold, Carlyle Smith, Edwin Ferdon, Gonzalo Figueroa and William Mulloy. Heyerdahl and the professional archaeologists who travelled with him spent several months on Easter Island investigating several important archaeological sites. Highlights of the project include experiments in the carving, transport and erection of the notable moai, as well as excavations at such prominent sites as Orongo and Poike. The expedition published two large volumes of scientific reports (Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific) and Heyerdahl later added a third (The Art of Easter Island). Heyerdahl's popular book on the subject, Aku-Aku was another international best-seller.",
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"plaintext": "In Easter Island: The Mystery Solved (Random House, 1989), Heyerdahl offered a more detailed theory of the island's history. Based on native testimony and archaeological research, he claimed the island was originally colonised by Hanau eepe (\"Long Ears\"), from South America, and that Polynesian Hanau momoko (\"Short Ears\") arrived only in the mid-16th century; they may have come independently or perhaps were imported as workers. According to Heyerdahl, something happened between Admiral Roggeveen's discovery of the island in 1722 and James Cook's visit in 1774; while Roggeveen encountered white, Indian, and Polynesian people living in relative harmony and prosperity, Cook encountered a much smaller population consisting mainly of Polynesians and living in privation.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl notes the oral tradition of an uprising of \"Short Ears\" against the ruling \"Long Ears\". The \"Long Ears\" dug a defensive moat on the eastern end of the island and filled it with kindling. During the uprising, Heyerdahl claimed, the \"Long Ears\" ignited their moat and retreated behind it, but the \"Short Ears\" found a way around it, came up from behind, and pushed all but two of the \"Long Ears\" into the fire. This moat was found by the Norwegian expedition and it was partly cut down into the rock. Layers of fire were revealed but no fragments of bodies.",
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"plaintext": "As for the origin of the people of Easter Island, DNA tests have shown a connection to South America, critics conjecture that this was a result of recent events, but whether this is inherited from a person coming in later times is hard to know. If the story that almost all Long Ears were killed in a civil war is true, as the islanders' story goes, it would be expected that the statue-building South American bloodline would have been nearly utterly destroyed, leaving for the most part the invading Polynesian bloodline.",
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"plaintext": "In 1969 and 1970, Heyerdahl built two boats from papyrus and attempted to cross the Atlantic Ocean from Morocco in Africa. Based on drawings and models from ancient Egypt, the first boat, named Ra (after the Egyptian Sun god), was constructed by boat builders from Lake Chad using papyrus reed obtained from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and launched into the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Morocco. The Ra crew included Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (US), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Santiago Genovés (Mexico), Georges Sourial (Egypt) and Abdullah Djibrine (Chad). Only Heyerdahl and Baker had sailing and navigation experience.",
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"plaintext": "After a number of weeks, Ra took on water. The crew discovered that a key element of the Egyptian boatbuilding method had been neglected, a tether that acted like a spring to keep the stern high in the water while allowing for flexibility. Water and storms eventually caused it to sag and break apart after sailing more than 6,400km (4,000 miles). The crew was forced to abandon Ra, some hundred miles (160km) before the Caribbean islands, and was saved by a yacht.",
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"plaintext": "The following year, 1970, a similar vessel, Ra II, was built by Demetrio, Juan and José Limachi of papyrus from Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and likewise set sail across the Atlantic from Morocco, this time with great success. The crew was mostly the same; though Djibrine had been replaced by Kei Ohara from Japan and Madani Ait Ouhanni from Morocco. The boat became lost and was the subject of a United Nations search and rescue mission. The search included international assistance including people as far afield as Loo-Chi Hu of New Zealand. The boat reached Barbados, thus demonstrating that mariners could have dealt with trans-Atlantic voyages by sailing with the Canary Current. The Ra II is now in the Kon-Tiki Museum in Oslo, Norway.",
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"plaintext": "The book The Ra Expeditions and the film documentary Ra (1972) were made about the voyages. Apart from the primary aspects of the expedition, Heyerdahl deliberately selected a crew representing a great diversity in race, nationality, religion and political viewpoint in order to demonstrate that at least on their own little floating island, people could co-operate and live peacefully. Additionally, the expedition took samples of marine pollution and presented their report to the United Nations.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl built yet another reed boat in 1977, Tigris, which was intended to demonstrate that trade and migration could have linked Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley civilization in what is now Pakistan and western India. Tigris was built in Al Qurnah Iraq and sailed with its international crew through the Persian Gulf to Pakistan and made its way into the Red Sea.",
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"plaintext": "After about five months at sea and still remaining seaworthy, the Tigris was deliberately burnt in Djibouti on 3 April 1978 as a protest against the wars raging on every side in the Red Sea and Horn of Africa. In his Open Letter to the UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, Heyerdahl explained his reasons:",
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"plaintext": "Today we burn our proud ship... to protest against inhuman elements in the world of 1978... Now we are forced to stop at the entrance to the Red Sea. Surrounded by military airplanes and warships from the world's most civilised and developed nations, we have been denied permission by friendly governments, for reasons of security, to land anywhere, but in the tiny, and still neutral, Republic of Djibouti. Elsewhere around us, brothers and neighbours are engaged in homicide with means made available to them by those who lead humanity on our joint road into the third millennium.",
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"plaintext": "To the innocent masses in all industrialised countries, we direct our appeal. We must wake up to the insane reality of our time... We are all irresponsible, unless we demand from the responsible decision makers that modern armaments must no longer be made available to people whose former battle axes and swords our ancestors condemned.",
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"plaintext": "Our planet is bigger than the reed bundles that have carried us across the seas, and yet small enough to run the same risks unless those of us still alive open our eyes and minds to the desperate need of intelligent collaboration to save ourselves and our common civilisation from what we are about to convert into a sinking ship.",
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"plaintext": "In the years that followed, Heyerdahl was often outspoken on issues of international peace and the environment.",
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"plaintext": "The Tigris had an 11-man crew: Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (US), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Germán Carrasco (Mexico), Hans Petter Bohn (Norway), Rashad Nazar Salim (Iraq), Norris Brock (US), Toru Suzuki (Japan), Detlef Soitzek (Germany), and Asbjørn Damhus (Denmark).",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl made four visits to Azerbaijan in 1981, 1994, 1999 and 2000. Heyerdahl had long been fascinated with the rock carvings that date back to about at Gobustan (about 30 miles/48km west of Baku). He was convinced that their artistic style closely resembled the carvings found in his native Norway. The ship designs, in particular, were regarded by Heyerdahl as similar and drawn with a simple sickle-shaped line, representing the base of the boat, with vertical lines on deck, illustrating crew or, perhaps, raised oars.",
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"plaintext": "Based on this and other published documentation, Heyerdahl proposed that Azerbaijan was the site of an ancient advanced civilisation. He believed that natives migrated north through waterways to present-day Scandinavia using ingeniously constructed vessels made of skins that could be folded like cloth. When voyagers travelled upstream, they conveniently folded their skin boats and transported them on pack animals.",
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"plaintext": "On Heyerdahl's visit to Baku in 1999, he lectured at the Academy of Sciences about the history of ancient Nordic Kings. He spoke of a notation made by Snorri Sturluson, a 13th-century historian-mythographer in Ynglinga Saga, which relates that \"Odin (a Scandinavian god who was one of the kings) came to the North with his people from a country called Aser.\" (see also House of Ynglings and Mythological kings of Sweden). Heyerdahl accepted Snorri's story as literal truth, and believed that a chieftain led his people in a migration from the east, westward and northward through Saxony, to Fyn in Denmark, and eventually settling in Sweden. Heyerdahl claimed that the geographic location of the mythic Aser or Æsir matched the region of contemporary Azerbaijan– \"east of the Caucasus mountains and the Black Sea\". \"We are no longer talking about mythology,\" Heyerdahl said, \"but of the realities of geography and history. Azerbaijanis should be proud of their ancient culture. It is just as rich and ancient as that of China and Mesopotamia.\"",
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"plaintext": "In September 2000 Heyerdahl returned to Baku for the fourth time and visited the archaeological dig in the area of the Church of Kish.",
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"plaintext": "One of the last projects of his life, Jakten på Odin, 'The Search for Odin', was a sudden revision of his Odin hypothesis, in furtherance of which he initiated 2001–2002 excavations in Azov, Russia, near the Sea of Azov at the northeast of the Black Sea. He searched for the remains of a civilisation to match the account of Odin in Snorri Sturlusson, significantly further north of his original target of Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea only two years earlier. This project generated harsh criticism and accusations of pseudoscience from historians, archaeologists and linguists in Norway, who accused Heyerdahl of selective use of sources, and a basic lack of scientific methodology in his work.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl also investigated the mounds found on the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean. There, he found sun-orientated foundations and courtyards, as well as statues with elongated earlobes. Heyerdahl believed that these finds fit with his theory of a seafaring civilisation which originated in what is now Sri Lanka, colonised the Maldives, and influenced or founded the cultures of ancient South America and Easter Island. His discoveries are detailed in his book The Maldive Mystery.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991 he studied the Pyramids of Güímar on Tenerife and declared that they were not random stone heaps but pyramids. Based on the discovery made by the astrophysicists Aparicio, Belmonte and Esteban, from the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias that the \"pyramids\" were astronomically orientated and being convinced that they were of ancient origin, he claimed that the ancient people who built them were most likely sun worshippers. Heyerdahl advanced a theory according to which the Canaries had been bases of ancient shipping between America and the Mediterranean.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl was also an active figure in Green politics. He was the recipient of numerous medals and awards. He also received 11 honorary doctorates from universities in the Americas and Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In subsequent years, Heyerdahl was involved with many other expeditions and archaeological projects. He remained best known for his boatbuilding, and for his emphasis on cultural diffusionism.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl died on 18 April 2002 in Colla Micheri, Liguria, Italy, where he had gone to spend the Easter holidays with some of his closest family members. He died, aged 87, from a brain tumour. After receiving the diagnosis, he prepared for death, by refusing to eat or take medication.",
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"plaintext": "The Norwegian government honored him with a state funeral in the Oslo Cathedral on 26 April 2002. He is buried in the garden of the family home in Colla Micheri. He was an atheist.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the fact that, for many years, much of his work was not accepted by the scientific community, Heyerdahl, nonetheless, increased public interest in ancient history and anthropology. He also showed that long-distance ocean voyages were possible with ancient designs. As such, he was a major practitioner of experimental archaeology. The Kon-Tiki Museum on the Bygdøy peninsula in Oslo, Norway houses vessels and maps from the Kon-Tiki expedition, as well as a library with about 8,000 books.",
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"plaintext": "The Thor Heyerdahl Institute was established in 2000. Heyerdahl himself agreed to the founding of the institute and it aims to promote and continue to develop Heyerdahl's ideas and principles. The institute is located in Heyerdahl's birth town of Larvik, Norway. In Larvik, the birthplace of Heyerdahl, the municipality began a project in 2007 to attract more visitors. Since then, they have purchased and renovated Heyerdahl's childhood home, arranged a yearly raft regatta in his honour at the end of summer and begun to develop a Heyerdahl centre.",
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"plaintext": "Heyerdahl's grandson, Olav Heyerdahl, retraced his grandfather's Kon-Tiki voyage in 2006 as part of a six-member crew. The voyage, organised by Torgeir Higraff and called the Tangaroa Expedition, was intended as a tribute to Heyerdahl, an effort to better understand navigation via centreboards (\"guara\") as well as a means to monitor the Pacific Ocean's environment.",
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"plaintext": "A book about the Tangaroa Expedition by Torgeir Higraff was published in 2007. The book has numerous photos from the Kon-Tiki voyage 60 years earlier and is illustrated with photographs by Tangaroa crew member Anders Berg (Oslo: Bazar Forlag, 2007). \"Tangaroa Expedition\" has also been produced as a documentary DVD in English, Norwegian, Swedish and Spanish.",
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"plaintext": "Paul Theroux, in his book The Happy Isles of Oceania, criticises Heyerdahl for trying to link the culture of Polynesian islands with the Peruvian culture. However, recent scientific investigation that compares the DNA of some of the Polynesian islands with natives from Peru suggests that there is some merit to Heyerdahl's ideas and that while Polynesia was colonised from Asia, some contact with South America also existed; several papers have in the last few years confirmed with genetic data some form of contacts with Easter Island.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, some researchers published research confirming a wider impact on genetic and cultural elements in Polynesia due to South American contacts.",
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"plaintext": "Asteroid 2473 Heyerdahl is named after him, as are HNoMS Thor Heyerdahl, a Norwegian Nansen class frigate, along with MS Thor Heyerdahl (now renamed MS Vana Tallinn), and Thor Heyerdahl, a German three-masted sail training vessel originally owned by a participant of the Tigris expedition. Heyerdahl Vallis, a valley on Pluto, and Thor Heyerdahl Upper Secondary School in Larvik, the town of his birth, are also named after him. Google honoured Heyerdahl on his 100th birthday by making a Google Doodle.",
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"plaintext": " Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav (1987) (Commander with Star: 1970; Commander: 1951)",
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"plaintext": " Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (21 June 1965)",
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"plaintext": " Knight in the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem",
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"plaintext": " Knight of the Order of Merit, Egypt (1971)",
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"plaintext": " Grand Officer of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco; 1971)",
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"plaintext": " Officer, Order of the Sun (Peru) (1975) and Knight Grand Cross",
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"plaintext": " International Pahlavi Environment Prize, United Nations (1978)",
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{
"plaintext": " Knight of the Order of the Golden Ark, Netherlands (1980)",
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"plaintext": " Commander, American Knights of Malta (1970)",
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"plaintext": " Civitan International World Citizenship Award",
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"plaintext": " Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2000)",
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"plaintext": " St. Hallvard's Medal",
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"plaintext": " Retzius Medal, Royal Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (1950)",
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"plaintext": " Mungo Park Medal, Royal Scottish Society for Geography (1951)",
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"plaintext": " Bonaparte-Wyse Gold Medal, Société de Géographie de Paris (1951)",
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"plaintext": " Elisha Kent Kane Gold Medal, Geographical Society of Philadelphia (1952)",
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"plaintext": " Honorary Member, Geographical Societies of Norway (1953), Peru (1953), Brazil (1954)",
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"plaintext": " Elected Member Norwegian Academy of Sciences (1958)",
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"plaintext": " Vega Gold Medal, Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (1962)",
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"plaintext": " Lomonosov Medal, Moscow State University (1962)",
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"plaintext": " Gold Medal, Royal Geographical Society, London (1964)",
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"plaintext": " Kiril i Metodi Award, Geographical Society, Bulgaria (1972)",
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"plaintext": " Honorary Professor, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico (1972)",
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"plaintext": " Bradford Washburn Award, Museum of Science, Boston, US, (1982)",
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"plaintext": " Honorary Professorship, Western University, Baku, Azerbaijan (1999)",
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"plaintext": " Doctor Honoris Causa, USSR Academy of Science (1980)",
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"plaintext": " Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Havana, Cuba (1992)",
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"plaintext": " American Indians in the Pacific: The Theory Behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1952), 821 pages.",
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"plaintext": " The Ra Expeditions .",
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"plaintext": " The Tigris Expedition: In Search of Our Beginnings",
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"plaintext": " Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day: Memories and Journeys of a Lifetime",
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"plaintext": " Skjebnemote vest for havet [Fate Meets West of the Ocean], 1992 (in Norwegian and German only) the Native Americans tell their story, white and bearded Gods, infrastructure was not built by the Inkas but their more advanced predecessors.",
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"plaintext": " Thor Heyerdahl in Baku Azerbaijan International, Vol. 7:3 (Autumn 1999), pp.96–97.",
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"plaintext": " The 'Tigris' expedition, with Heyerdahl's war protest Azerbaijan International, Vol. 11:1 (Spring 2003), pp.20–21.",
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"plaintext": " Bjornar Storfjell's account: A reference to his last project Jakten på Odin Azerbaijan International, Vol. 10:2 (Summer 2002).",
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"plaintext": " Forskning.no Biography from the official Norwegian scientific webportal (in Norwegian)",
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| 133,622 | 20,285 | 352 | 270 | 0 | 0 | Thor Heyerdahl | Norwegian anthropologist and adventurer (1914-2002) | [
"Dr Thor Heyerdahl",
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