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38,407 | 1,106,101,222 | Humour | [
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"plaintext": "Humour (Commonwealth English) or humor (American English) is the tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humours (Latin: humor, \"body fluid\"), controlled human health and emotion.",
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"plaintext": "People of all ages and cultures respond to humour. Most people are able to experience humour—be amused, smile or laugh at something funny (such as a pun or joke)—and thus are considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of humour would likely find the behaviour inducing it to be inexplicable, strange, or even irrational. Though ultimately decided by personal taste, the extent to which a person finds something humorous depends on a host of variables, including geographical location, culture, maturity, level of education, intelligence and context. For example, young children may favour slapstick such as Punch and Judy puppet shows or the Tom and Jerry cartoons, whose physical nature makes it accessible to them. By contrast, more sophisticated forms of humour such as satire require an understanding of its social meaning and context, and thus tend to appeal to a more mature audience.",
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"plaintext": "Many theories exist about what humour is and what social function it serves. The prevailing types of theories attempting to account for the existence of humour include psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humour-induced behaviour to be very healthy; spiritual theories, which may, for instance, consider humour to be a \"gift from God\"; and theories which consider humour to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a mystical experience.",
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"plaintext": "The benign-violation theory, endorsed by Peter McGraw, attempts to explain humour's existence. The theory says 'humour only occurs when something seems wrong, unsettling, or threatening, but simultaneously seems okay, acceptable or safe'. Humour can be used as a method to easily engage in social interaction by taking away that awkward, uncomfortable, or uneasy feeling of social interactions.",
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"plaintext": "Others believe that 'the appropriate use of humour can facilitate social interactions'.",
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"plaintext": "Some claim that humour should not be explained. Author E. B. White once said, \"Humor can be dissected as a frog can, but the thing dies in the process and the innards are discouraging to any but the pure scientific mind.\" Counter to this argument, protests against \"offensive\" cartoons invite the dissection of humour or its lack by aggrieved individuals and communities. This process of dissecting humour does not necessarily banish a sense of humour but directs attention towards its politics and assumed universality (Khanduri 2014).",
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"plaintext": "Arthur Schopenhauer lamented the misuse of humour (a German loanword from English) to mean any type of comedy. However, both humour and comic are often used when theorising about the subject. The connotations of humour as opposed to comic are said to be that of response versus stimulus. Additionally, humour was thought to include a combination of ridiculousness and wit in an individual; the paradigmatic case being Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff. The French were slow to adopt the term humour; in French, humeur and humour are still two different words, the former referring to a person's mood or to the archaic concept of the four humours.",
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"plaintext": "Non-satirical humour can be specifically termed droll humour or recreational drollery.",
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"plaintext": "As with any art form, the acceptance of a particular style or incidence of humour depends on sociological factors and varies from person to person. Throughout history, comedy has been used as a form of entertainment all over the world, whether in the courts of the Western kings or the villages of the Far East. Both a social etiquette and a certain intelligence can be displayed through forms of wit and sarcasm. Eighteenth-century German author Georg Lichtenberg said that \"the more you know humour, the more you become demanding in fineness.\"",
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"plaintext": "Western humour theory begins with Plato, who attributed to Socrates (as a semi-historical dialogue character) in the Philebus (p.49b) the view that the essence of the ridiculous is an ignorance in the weak, who are thus unable to retaliate when ridiculed. Later, in Greek philosophy, Aristotle, in the Poetics (1449a, pp.34–35), suggested that an ugliness that does not disgust is fundamental to humour.",
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"plaintext": "In ancient Sanskrit drama, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra defined humour (hāsyam) as one of the nine nava rasas, or principle rasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience by bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage.",
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"plaintext": "The terms comedy and satire became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Persian Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation, and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the \"art of reprehension\" and made no reference to light and cheerful events or troublesome beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term comedy thus gained a new meaning in Medieval literature.",
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"plaintext": "Mento star Lord Flea, stated in a 1957 interview that he thought that: \"West Indians have the best sense of humour in the world. Even in the most solemn song, like Las Kean Fine [\"Lost and Can Not Be Found\"], which tells of a boiler explosion on a sugar plantation that killed several of the workers, their natural wit and humour shine though.\"",
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"plaintext": "Confucianist Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, with its emphasis on ritual and propriety, has traditionally looked down upon humour as subversive or unseemly. Humor was perceived as irony and sarcasm. The Confucian Analects itself, however, depicts the Master as fond of humorous self-deprecation, once comparing his wanderings to the existence of a homeless dog. Early Daoist philosophical texts such as Zhuangzi pointedly make fun of Confucian seriousness and make Confucius himself a slow-witted figure of fun. Joke books containing a mix of wordplay, puns, situational humour, and play with taboo subjects like sex and scatology, remained popular over the centuries. Local performing arts, storytelling, vernacular fiction, and poetry offer a wide variety of humorous styles and sensibilities.",
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"plaintext": "Famous Chinese humorists include the ancient jesters Chunyu Kun and Dongfang Shuo; writers of the Ming and Qing dynasties such as Feng Menglong, Li Yu, and Wu Jingzi; and modern comic writers such as Lu Xun, Lin Yutang, Lao She, Qian Zhongshu, Wang Xiaobo, and Wang Shuo, and performers such as Ge You, Guo Degang, and Zhou Libo.",
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"plaintext": "Modern Chinese humor has been heavily influenced not only by indigenous traditions, but also by foreign humor, circulated via print culture, cinema, television, and the internet. During the 1930s, Lin Yutang's phono-semantic transliteration yōumò (; humour) caught on as a new term for humour, sparking a fad for humour literature, as well as impassioned debate about what type of humorous sensibility best suited China, a poor, weak country under partial foreign occupation. While some types of comedy were officially sanctioned during the rule of Mao Zedong, the Party-state's approach towards humour was generally repressive. Social liberalisation in the 1980s, commercialisation of the cultural market in the 1990s, and the advent of the internet have each—despite an invasive state-sponsored censorship apparatus—enabled new forms of humour to flourish in China in recent decades.",
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"plaintext": "The social transformation model of humour predicts that specific characteristics, such as physical attractiveness, interact with humour. This model involves linkages between the humorist, an audience, and the subject matter of the humour. The two transformations associated with this particular model involves the subject matter of the humour, and the change in the audience's perception of the humorous person, therefore establishing a relationship between the humorous speaker and the audience. The social transformation model views humour as adaptive because it communicates the present desire to be humorous as well as future intentions of being humorous. This model is used with deliberate self-deprecating humour where one is communicating with desires to be accepted into someone else's specific social group. Although self-deprecating humour communicates weakness and fallibility in the bid to gain another's affection, it can be concluded from the model that this type of humour can increase romantic attraction towards the humorist when other variables are also favourable.",
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"plaintext": "90% of men and 81% of women, all college students, report having a sense of humour is a crucial characteristic looked for in a romantic partner. Humour and honesty were ranked as the two most important attributes in a significant other. It has since been recorded that humour becomes more evident and significantly more important as the level of commitment in a romantic relationship increases. Recent research suggests expressions of humour in relation to physical attractiveness are two major factors in the desire for future interaction. Women regard physical attractiveness less highly compared to men when it came to dating, a serious relationship, and sexual intercourse. However, women rate humorous men more desirable than nonhumorous individuals for a serious relationship or marriage, but only when these men were physically attractive.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, humorous people are perceived by others to be more cheerful but less intellectual than nonhumorous people. Self-deprecating humour has been found to increase one's desirability and physical attractiveness to others for committed relationships. The results of a study conducted by McMaster University suggest humour can positively affect one's desirability for a specific relationship partner, but this effect is only most likely to occur when men use humour and are evaluated by women. No evidence was found to suggest men prefer women with a sense of humour as partners, nor women preferring other women with a sense of humour as potential partners. When women were given the forced-choice design in the study, they chose funny men as potential relationship partners even though they rated them as being less honest and intelligent. Post-Hoc analysis showed no relationship between humour quality and favourable judgments.",
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"plaintext": "It is generally known that humour contributes to higher subjective wellbeing (both physical and psychological). Previous research on humour and psychological well-being show that humour is in fact a major factor in achieving, and sustaining, higher psychological wellbeing. This hypothesis is known as general facilitative hypothesis for humour. That is, positive humour leads to positive health. Not all contemporary research, however, supports the previous assertion that humour is in fact a cause for healthier psychological wellbeing. Some of the previous researches’ limitations is that they tend to use a unidimensional approach to humour because it was always inferred that humour was deemed positive. They did not consider other types of humour, or humour styles. For example, self-defeating or aggressive humour. Research has proposed 2 types of humour that each consist of 2 styles, making 4 styles in total. The two types are adaptive versus maladaptive humour. Adaptive humour consist of facilitative and self-enhancing humour, and maladaptive is self-defeating and aggressive humour. Each of these styles can have a different impact on psychological and individuals’ overall subjective wellbeing.",
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"plaintext": " Affiliative style humour. Individuals with this dimension of humour tend to use jokes as a means of affiliating relationships, amusing others, and reducing tensions.",
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"plaintext": " Self-enhancing style humour. People that fall under this dimension of humour tend to take a humorous perspective of life. Individuals with self-enhancing humour tend to use it as a mechanism to cope with stress.",
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"plaintext": " Aggressive humour. Racist jokes, sarcasm and disparagement of individuals for the purpose of amusement. This type of humour is used by people who do not consider the consequences of their jokes, and mainly focus on the entertainment of the listeners.",
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"plaintext": " Self-defeating humour. People with this style of humour tend to amuse others by using self-disparaging jokes, and also tend to laugh along with others when being taunted. It is hypothesized that people use this style of humour as a mean of social acceptance. It is also mentioned that these people may have an implicit feeling of negativity. So they use this humour as a means of hiding that inner negative feeling.",
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"plaintext": "In the study on humour and psychological well-being, research has concluded that high levels of adaptive type humour (affiliative and self-enhancing) is associated with better self-esteem, positive affect, greater self-competency, as well as anxiety control and social interactions. All of which are constituents of psychological wellbeing. Additionally, adaptive humour styles may enable people to preserve their sense of wellbeing despite psychological problems. In contrast, maladaptive humour types (aggressive and self-defeating) are associated with poorer overall psychological wellbeing, emphasis on higher levels of anxiety and depression. Therefore, humour may have detrimental effects on psychological wellbeing, only if that humour is of negative characteristics.",
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"plaintext": "Humour is often used to make light of difficult or stressful situations and to brighten up a social atmosphere in general. It is regarded by many as an enjoyable and positive experience, so it would be reasonable to assume that it might have some positive physiological effects on the body.",
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"plaintext": "A study designed to test the positive physiological effects of humour, the relationship between being exposed to humour and pain tolerance in particular, was conducted in 1994 by Karen Zwyer, Barbara Velker, and Willibald Ruch. To test the effects of humour on pain tolerance the test subjects were first exposed to a short humorous video clip and then exposed to the cold pressor test. To identify the aspects of humour which might contribute to an increase in pain tolerance the study separated its fifty-six female participants into three groups, cheerfulness, exhilaration and humour production. The subjects were further separated into two groups, high Trait-Cheerfulness and high Trait-Seriousness according to the State-Trait-Cheerfulness-Inventory. The instructions for the three groups were as follows: the cheerfulness group were told to get excited about the movie without laughing or smiling, the exhilaration group was told to laugh and smile excessively, exaggerating their natural reactions, the humour production group was told to make humorous comments about the video clip as they watched. To ensure that the participants actually found the movie humorous and that it produced the desired effects the participants took a survey on the topic which resulted in a mean score of 3.64 out of 5. The results of the Cold Press Test showed that the participants in all three groups experienced a higher pain threshold and a higher pain tolerance than previous to the film. The results did not show a significant difference between the three groups.",
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"plaintext": "There are also potential relationships between humour and having a healthy immune system. SIgA is a type of antibody that protects the body from infections. In a method similar to the previous experiment, the participants were shown a short humorous video clip and then tested for the effects. The participants showed a significant increase in SIgA levels.",
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"plaintext": "There have been claims that laughter can be a supplement for cardiovascular exercise and might increase muscle tone. However an early study by Paskind J. showed that laughter can lead to a decrease in skeletal muscle tone because the short intense muscle contractions caused by laughter are followed by longer periods of muscle relaxation. The cardiovascular benefits of laughter also seem to be just a figment of imagination as a study that was designed to test oxygen saturation levels produced by laughter, showed that even though laughter creates sporadic episodes of deep breathing, oxygen saturation levels are not affected.",
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"plaintext": "As humour is often used to ease tension, it might make sense that the same would be true for anxiety. A study by Yovetich N, Dale A, Hudak M. was designed to test the effects humour might have on relieving anxiety. The study subject were told that they would be given to an electric shock after a certain period of time. One group was exposed to humorous content, while the other was not. The anxiety levels were measured through self-report measures as well as the heart rate. Subjects which rated high on sense of humour reported less anxiety in both groups, while subjects which rated lower on sense of humour reported less anxiety in the group which was exposed to the humorous material. However, there was not a significant difference in the heart rate between the subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Humour is a ubiquitous, highly ingrained, and largely meaningful aspect of human experience and is therefore decidedly relevant in organisational contexts, such as the workplace.",
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"plaintext": "The significant role that laughter and fun play in organisational life has been seen as a sociological phenomenon and has increasingly been recognised as also creating a sense of involvement among workers.",
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"plaintext": "Sharing humour at work not only offers a relief from boredom, but can",
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"plaintext": "also build relationships, improve camaraderie between colleagues and",
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"plaintext": "create positive affect. Humour in the workplace may also relieve tension and can be used as a coping strategy.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, one of the most agreed upon key impacts that workplace humour",
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"plaintext": "has on people's well-being, is the use of humour as a coping strategy to",
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"plaintext": "aid in dealing with daily stresses, adversity or other difficult",
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"plaintext": "situations.",
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"plaintext": "Sharing a laugh with a few colleagues may improve moods, which is",
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"plaintext": "pleasurable, and people perceive this as positively affecting their",
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"plaintext": "ability to cope.",
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"plaintext": "Fun and enjoyment are critical in people's lives and the ability for",
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"plaintext": "promotes harmony and a sense of cohesiveness.",
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"plaintext": "Humour may also be used to offset negative feelings about a",
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"plaintext": "workplace task or to mitigate the use of profanity, or other coping",
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"plaintext": "strategies, that may not be otherwise tolerated.",
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"plaintext": "Not only can humour in the workplace assist with defusing negative",
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"plaintext": "emotions, but it may also be used as an outlet to discuss personal",
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"plaintext": "painful events, in a lighter context, thus ultimately reducing anxiety and allowing more happy, positive emotions to surface.",
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"plaintext": "authoritative tone by managers when giving directives to subordinates.",
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"plaintext": "Managers may use self-deprecating humour as a way to be perceived as",
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"plaintext": "more human and \"real\" by their employees. Furthermore, ethnography studies, carried out in a variety of workplace settings, confirmed the importance of a fun space in the workplace.",
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"plaintext": "resulted in workplace management coming to recognise the potentially",
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"plaintext": "positive effects of \"workplay\" and realise that it does not necessarily",
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"plaintext": "undermine workers’ performance.",
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"plaintext": "Laughter and play can unleash creativity, thus raising morale,",
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"plaintext": "the labour process, management often ignore, tolerate and even actively",
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"plaintext": "encourage playful practices, with the purpose of furthering",
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"plaintext": "organisational goals. Essentially, fun in the workplace is no longer being seen as frivolous.",
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"plaintext": "The most current approach of managed fun and laughter in the workplace",
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"plaintext": "originated in North America, where it has taken off to such a degree,",
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"plaintext": "that it has humour consultants flourishing, as some states have",
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"plaintext": "introduced an official \"fun at work\" day. The results have carried claims of well-being benefits to workers, improved customer experiences and an increase in productivity that organisations can enjoy, as a result. Others examined results of this movement while focusing around the science of happiness—concerned with mental health, motivation,",
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"plaintext": "community building and national well-being—and drew attention to the",
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"plaintext": "ability to achieve \"flow\" through playfulness and stimulate \"outside the",
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"plaintext": "box\" thinking. Parallel to this movement is the \"positive\" scholarship that has emerged in psychology which seeks to empirically theorise the optimisation of human potential.",
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"plaintext": "This happiness movement suggests that investing in fun at the",
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"plaintext": "workplace, by allowing for laughter and play, will not only create enjoyment and a greater sense of well-being, but it will also enhance energy, performance and commitment in workers.",
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"plaintext": "One of the main focuses of modern psychological humour theory and research is to establish and clarify the correlation between humour and laughter. The major empirical findings here are that laughter and humour do not always have a one-to-one association. While most previous theories assumed the connection between the two almost to the point of them being synonymous, psychology has been able to scientifically and empirically investigate the supposed connection, its implications, and significance.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Diana Szameitat conducted a study to examine the differentiation of emotions in laughter. They hired actors and told them to laugh with one of four different emotional associations by using auto-induction, where they would focus exclusively on the internal emotion and not on the expression of laughter itself. They found an overall recognition rate of 44%, with joy correctly classified at 44%, tickle 45%, schadenfreude 37%, and taunt 50%. Their second experiment tested the behavioural recognition of laughter during an induced emotional state and they found that different laughter types did differ with respect to emotional dimensions. In addition, the four emotional states displayed a full range of high and low sender arousal and valence. This study showed that laughter can be correlated with both positive (joy and tickle) and negative (schadenfreude and taunt) emotions with varying degrees of arousal in the subject.",
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"plaintext": "This brings into question the definition of humour, then. If it is to be defined by the cognitive processes which display laughter, then humour itself can encompass a variety of negative as well as positive emotions. However, if humour is limited to positive emotions and things which cause positive affect, it must be delimited from laughter and their relationship should be further defined.",
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"plaintext": "Humour has shown to be effective for increasing resilience in dealing with distress and also effective in undoing negative affects.",
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"plaintext": "Madeljin Strick, Rob Holland, Rick van Baaren, and Ad van Knippenberg (2009) of Radboud University conducted a study that showed the distracting nature of a joke on bereaved individuals. Subjects were presented with a wide range of negative pictures and sentences. Their findings showed that humorous therapy attenuated the negative emotions elicited after negative pictures and sentences were presented. In addition, the humour therapy was more effective in reducing negative affect as the degree of affect increased in intensity. Humour was immediately effective in helping to deal with distress. The escapist nature of humour as a coping mechanism suggests that it is most useful in dealing with momentary stresses. Stronger negative stimuli requires a different therapeutic approach. ",
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"plaintext": "Humour is an underlying character trait associated with the positive emotions used in the broaden-and-build theory of cognitive development.",
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"plaintext": "Studies, such as those testing the undoing hypothesis, have shown several positive outcomes of humour as an underlying positive trait in amusement and playfulness. Several studies have shown that positive emotions can restore autonomic quiescence after negative affect. For example, Frederickson and Levinson showed that individuals who expressed Duchenne smiles during the negative arousal of a sad and troubling event recovered from the negative affect approximately 20% faster than individuals who didn't smile.",
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"plaintext": "Using humour judiciously can have a positive influence on cancer treatment. The effectiveness for humour‐based interventions in patients with schizophrenia is uncertain in a Cochrane review.",
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"plaintext": "Humour can serve as a strong distancing mechanism in coping with adversity. In 1997 Kelter and Bonanno found that Duchenne laughter correlated with reduced awareness of distress. Positive emotion is able to loosen the grip of negative emotions on peoples’ thinking. A distancing of thought leads to a distancing of the unilateral responses people often have to negative arousal. In parallel with the distancing role plays in coping with distress, it supports the broaden and build theory that positive emotions lead to increased multilateral cognitive pathway and social resource building.",
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"plaintext": "Humour has been shown to improve and help the ageing process in three areas. The areas are improving physical health, improving social communications, and helping to achieve a sense of satisfaction in life.",
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"plaintext": "Studies have shown that constant humour in the ageing process gives health benefits to individuals. Such benefits as higher self-esteem, lower levels of depression, anxiety, and perceived stress, and a more positive self-concept as well as other health benefits which have been recorded and acknowledged through various studies. Even patients with specific diseases have shown improvement with ageing using humour. Overall there is a strong correlation through constant humour in ageing and better health in the individuals.",
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"plaintext": "Another way that research indicates that humour helps with the ageing process, is through helping the individual to create and maintain strong social relationship during transitory periods in their lives. One such example is when people are moved into nursing homes or other facilities of care. With this transition certain social interactions with friend and family may be limited forcing the individual to look else where for these social interactions. Humour has been shown to make transitions easier, as humour is shown reduce stress and facilitate socialisation and serves as a social bonding function. Humour may also help the transition in helping the individual to maintain positive feelings towards those who are enforcing the changes in their lives. These new social interactions can be critical for these transitions in their lives and humour will help these new social interactions to take place making these transitions easier.",
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"plaintext": "Humour can also help ageing individuals maintain a sense of satisfaction in their lives. Through the ageing process many changes will occur, such as losing the right to drive a car. This can cause a decrease in satisfaction in the lives of the individual. Humour helps to alleviate this decrease of satisfaction by allowing the humour to release stress and anxiety caused by changes in the individuals life. Laughing and humour can be a substitute for the decrease in satisfaction by allowing individuals to feel better about their situations by alleviating the stress. This, in turn, can help them to maintain a sense of satisfaction towards their new and changing life style.",
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"plaintext": "In an article published in Nature Reviews Neuroscience, it is reported that a study's results indicate that humour is rooted in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The study states, in part:\"Humour seems to engage a core network of cortical and subcortical structures, including temporo-occipito-parietal areas involved in detecting and resolving incongruity (mismatch between expected and presented stimuli); and the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system and the amygdala, key structures for reward and salience processing.\"",
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"plaintext": "Humour can be verbal, visual, or physical. Non-verbal forms of communication–for example, music or visual art–can also be humorous.",
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"plaintext": " Being reflective of or imitative of reality",
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"plaintext": " Surprise/misdirection, contradiction/paradox, ambiguity.",
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"plaintext": " Farce",
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"plaintext": " Hyperbole",
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"plaintext": " Metaphor",
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},
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"plaintext": " Pun",
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4
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]
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"plaintext": " Reframing",
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1,
10
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},
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"plaintext": " Timing",
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"plaintext": "Rowan Atkinson explains in his lecture in the documentary Funny Business that an object or a person can become funny in three ways:",
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"plaintext": " by behaving in an unusual way,",
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},
{
"plaintext": " by being in an unusual place,",
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},
{
"plaintext": " by being the wrong size.",
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"plaintext": "Most sight gags fit into one or more of these categories.",
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"plaintext": "Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a universal comic device. It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits.",
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"plaintext": "There are many taxonomies of humor; the following is used to classify humorous tweets in (Rayz 2012).",
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"plaintext": " Anecdotes",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fantasy",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Insult",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Irony",
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},
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"plaintext": " Jokes",
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"plaintext": " Observational",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Quote",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Role play",
"section_idx": 9,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Self-deprecation",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Vulgarity",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Taxonomy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Word play",
"section_idx": 9,
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1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Other",
"section_idx": 9,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "Different cultures have different typical expectations of humour so comedy shows are not always successful when transplanted into another culture. For example, a 2004 BBC News article discusses a stereotype among British comedians that Americans and Germans do not understand irony, and therefore UK sitcoms are not appreciated by them.",
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214,
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277,
282
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301,
307
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},
{
"plaintext": " British humour",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Deadpan",
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"plaintext": " Form-versus-content humour",
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gelotology, the study of laughing and laughter",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
7936484
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Humour in translation",
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"target_page_ids": [
44089260
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Humour styles",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of humorists",
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Surreal humour",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Theories of humour",
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander, Richard (1984), Verbal humor and variation in English: Sociolinguistic notes on a variety of jokes",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Alexander, Richard (1997), Aspects of verbal humour in English",
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},
{
"plaintext": " (Abstract)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Billig, M. (2005). Laughter and ridicule: Towards a social critique of humour. London: Sage. ",
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"plaintext": " Bricker, Victoria Reifler (Winter, 1980) The Function of Humor in Zinacantan Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp.411–418",
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"plaintext": " (Abstract)",
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"plaintext": " Carrell, Amy (2000), Historical views of humour, University of Central Oklahoma. Retrieved on 2007-07-06.",
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"plaintext": " Goldstein, Jeffrey H., et al. (1976) \"Humour, Laughter, and Comedy: A Bibliography of Empirical and Nonempirical Analyses in the English Language.\" It's a Funny Thing, Humour. Ed. Antony J. Chapman and Hugh C. Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1976. 469–504.",
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"plaintext": " Hurley, Matthew M., Dennett, Daniel C., and Adams, Reginald B. Jr. (2011), Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Holland, Norman. (1982) \"Bibliography of Theories of Humor.\" Laughing; A Psychology of Humor. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 209–223.",
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"plaintext": " Martin, Rod A. (2007). The Psychology Of Humour: An Integrative Approach. London, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. ",
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"plaintext": " McGhee, Paul E. (1984) \"Current American Psychological Research on Humor.\" Jahrbuche fur Internationale Germanistik 16.2: 37–57.",
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"plaintext": " Mintz, Lawrence E., ed. (1988) Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1988. ; .",
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"plaintext": " Nilsen, Don L. F. (1992) \"Satire in American Literature.\" Humor in American Literature: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1992. 543–48.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Pogel, Nancy; and Paul P. Somers Jr. (1988) \"Literary Humor.\" Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Ed. Lawrence E. Mintz. London: Greenwood, 1988. 1–34.",
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"plaintext": " Smuts, Aaron. \"Humor\". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
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"plaintext": " (Abstract)",
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"plaintext": " International Society for Humor Studies",
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38,410 | 1,102,714,070 | Group_sex | [
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"plaintext": "Fantasies of group sex are extremely common among both men and women. Many forms of sexual behavior were reported by Kinsey's subjects, but the official Kinsey Reports website does not mention threesomes or group sex in the summary of Kinsey's findings.",
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"plaintext": "Double penetration: When a person is entered or penetrated in the vagina and/or anus by two people at the same time. This is usually when one person enters the anus while another enters the vagina; however, it also refers to two simultaneous penetrations in the same orifice.",
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"plaintext": "Spintrian: A term used by Suetonius to describe sexual group practices indulged in by the emperor Tiberius on Capri.",
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"plaintext": "Monogamous group sex or same room sex (a.k.a. soft swapping): Couples engaging in sexual activity in the same room but in separate pairs, without any swapping of partners or other major sexual activity between couples.",
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"plaintext": "A swinger party or partner-swapping party is a gathering at which individuals or couples in a committed relationship can engage in sexual activities with others as a recreational or social activity.",
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"plaintext": "Swinger parties may involve various group sex activities. Partners can engage in penetrative sex, known as \"full swap\", or choose to \"soft swap\" in which they engage only in non-penetrative sex. New swinging couples often choose a soft swap before they are comfortable with a full swap, although many couples stay soft swap for personal reasons. \"Soft swinging\" is when a couple engages in sexual activities with only each other while other couples perform sex acts in the immediate vicinity. Technically this is a form of exhibitionism rather than \"group sex\" per se.",
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"plaintext": "An orgy is a gathering where guests freely engage in open and unrestrained sexual activity or group sex; and a bunga bunga orgy is an orgy in which participants have sex underwater, such as in a swimming pool or a hot tub.",
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"plaintext": "A daisy chain refers to a sexual act involving three or more people, during which each person simultaneously has sex with the person beside them in the group, thus forming a chain. Some sources consider only groups of four or more people to be a daisy chain.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, in an \"erotic foursome or partie-carrée, \"two couples ... form a chain or Maltese cross carefully alternating man and woman\".",
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"plaintext": "\"The matter of ... erotic or spintrian chains ('daisy-chains')\", i.e., \"of 'spintries' or erotic human chains, ... has been taken to ... permutational development in the appendix of postures to the well-known Manual of Classical Erotology (1824) of the Fichtean philosopher, Friedrich Karl Forberg, and in a Swedish work, Ju fler vi är tillsammans ('The More the Merrier'), by a schoolteacher, Ragnar Aaslund, published in 1966 and intended frankly as a manual of group-sex.\"",
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"plaintext": "A system of initialisms has evolved to describe the variety of group sex arrangements, using the letters M (for male) and F (for female). These notations have appeared in erotic literature and film descriptions, member profiles in online communities, and personal ads.",
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"plaintext": "Adjacent letters are sometimes used to signify sexual contact between the participants represented by those letters, though this does not necessarily mean there is no contact between the other participants. For example, MMF might indicate a ménage à trois of two men and one woman in which the center male has sexual contact with the other male and the female, and in which it is not specified whether there is contact between the female and the other male. MFMF, on the other hand, implies no same-sex contact.",
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"plaintext": "As with all sexual activity, the relative risks of group sex depend on the specific activities engaged in, although having a large number of sexual partners increases one's risk of exposure to sexually transmitted infections (STIs).",
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"plaintext": "From the mid-1980s there was active lobbying against gay bathhouses, blaming them for the spread of STIs, in particular HIV, and this forced closures in some jurisdictions, particularly in the United States. Sociologist Stephen O. Murray, writes that, \"there was never any evidence presented that going to bathhouses was a risk-factor for contracting AIDS.\" In other countries, fears about the spread of STIs have prompted the closing of bathhouses—with their private rooms—in favour of sex clubs, in which all sexual activity takes place in the open, and can be observed by monitors whose job it is to enforce safer sex practices.",
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"plaintext": "Proponents point out that venues where group sex takes place often provide condoms, dental dams, latex gloves, lubricants and other items for safer sex. Bathhouses in particular are a major source of safer sex information—they provide pamphlets and post safer sex posters prominently (often on the walls of each room as well as in the common areas), provide free condoms and lubricants, and often require patrons to affirm that they will only have safer sex on the premises.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2015 US survey, a significantly larger percentage of men than women responded that they had any lifetime experience of a threesome (17.8 vs 10.3) or group sex (11.5 vs 6.3).",
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"plaintext": "The Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalized homosexual acts between two men over 21 years of age in private in England and Wales; however, the privacy restrictions of the Act meant a third person could not participate in the sex or even be present, as well as that the two men could not have sex in a hotel. These restrictions were overturned in the European Court of Human Rights in 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Section 20A of the Immorality Act, 1957, commonly known as the \"men at a party\" clause, was a South African law that criminalized all sexual acts between men that occurred in the presence of a third person. The section was enacted by the Immorality Amendment Act, 1969 and remained in force until it was found to be unconstitutional in 1998 by the Constitutional Court in the case of National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Justice.",
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"plaintext": "A 1996 sexual harassment case filed against Mitsubishi Motor Manufacturing of America by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) highlighted corporate involvement by Mitsubishi in sex parties arranged by managers and other employees.",
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"plaintext": "Group sex is illegal in China, due to Article 301 of China's 1997 Criminal Law which bans “group licentiousness”.",
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"plaintext": "Sensational media reports about the prevalence of sex parties, especially among young people, appear with some regularity. In the early 1950s, for example, it was alleged that teenage girls, mainly throughout the Southern and Midwestern United States were forming \"non-virgin clubs\", in which they organized and held sex orgies with reports of couples being paired off by drawing numbers from a hat. These claims were investigated and debunked.",
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"plaintext": "Several stories of this type arose in the US in 2003. In New York, rumors began that teens had been taking days off from school to attend \"hooky parties\" while their parents were at work. One school even suspended a group of girls for allegedly skipping school to attend such a party, refusing to let them to return to school until each had submitted to a medical examination for sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy, and school officials were allowed to examine the results. The New York Civil Liberties Union filed a federal lawsuit against the school on behalf of the girls and won a settlement which included monetary damages and a change in the school district's policy.",
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"plaintext": "A rainbow party is a baseless urban legend spread from the early 2000s. At these events, females wearing various shades of lipstick reportedly took turns fellating males in sequence, leaving multiple colours on their penises, ignoring the fact that in such a situation the colors would blend. Rainbow parties were covered on The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2003, and became the subject of a juvenile novel called Rainbow Party. On May 27, 2010, the television program The Doctors discussed the topic with dozens of teens, parents, and professionals. However, sex researchers and adolescent health care professionals have found no evidence for the existence of rainbow parties, and as such attribute the spread of the stories to a moral panic.",
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"plaintext": "Similar stories concerning teenagers using gel bracelets as coupons or signals for sex also arose at the time, with a similar lack of corroborating evidence.",
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"plaintext": " \"What Parents Don't Know About Their Teen Daughters' Sex Lives\" (part of \"The Secret Life of Teens\"). Primetime, May 18, 2006. ABC.",
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"plaintext": " Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007). A Beginner's Guide to Hellenismos. .",
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"plaintext": " Dillon, Matthew (2002). Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion. .",
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"plaintext": " Legman, Gershon (1969). Oral Techniques in Genital Excitation. New York: The Julian Press Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Maffesoli, Michel (1993). The Shadow of Dionysus: A Contribution to the Sociology of the Orgy. .",
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"plaintext": " Partridge, Burgo (1960). A History of Orgies.",
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"plaintext": " Persson, Martin (1970). The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion. .",
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"plaintext": " Talese, Gay (1980). Thy Neighbor's Wife.",
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38,411 | 1,092,790,733 | Regression_testing | [
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"plaintext": "Regression testing (rarely, non-regression testing) is re-running functional and non-functional tests to ensure that previously developed and tested software still performs after a change. If not, that would be called a regression. ",
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"plaintext": "Changes that may require regression testing include bug fixes, software enhancements, configuration changes, and even substitution of electronic components. As regression test suites tend to grow with each found defect, test automation is frequently involved. Sometimes a change impact analysis is performed to determine an appropriate subset of tests (non-regression analysis).",
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"plaintext": "As software is updated or changed, or reused on a modified target, emergence of new faults and/or re-emergence of old faults is quite common. ",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes re-emergence occurs because a fix gets lost through poor revision control practices (or simple human error in revision control). Often, a fix for a problem will be \"fragile\" in that it fixes the problem in the narrow case where it was first observed but not in more general cases which may arise over the lifetime of the software. Frequently, a fix for a problem in one area inadvertently causes a software bug in another area. ",
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"plaintext": "Finally, it may happen that, when some feature is redesigned, some of the same mistakes that were made in the original implementation of the feature are made in the redesign. Therefore, in most software development situations, it is considered good coding practice, when a bug is located and fixed, to record a test that exposes the bug and re-run that test regularly after subsequent changes to the program. ",
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"plaintext": "Although this may be done through manual testing procedures using programming techniques, it is often done using automated testing tools. Such a test suite contains software tools that allow the testing environment to execute all the regression test cases automatically; some projects even set up automated systems to re-run all regression tests at specified intervals and report any failures (which could imply a regression or an out-of-date test). ",
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"plaintext": "Common strategies are to run such a system after every successful compile (for small projects), every night, or once a week. Those strategies can be automated by an external tool.",
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"plaintext": "Regression testing is an integral part of the extreme programming software development method. In this method, design documents are replaced by extensive, repeatable, and automated testing of the entire software package throughout each stage of the software development process. Regression testing is done after functional testing has concluded, to verify that the other functionalities are working.",
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"plaintext": "In the corporate world, regression testing has traditionally been performed by a software quality assurance team after the development team has completed work. However, defects found at this stage are the most costly to fix. This problem is being addressed by the rise of unit testing. Although developers have always written test cases as part of the development cycle, these test cases have generally been either functional tests or unit tests that verify only intended outcomes. Developer testing compels a developer to focus on unit testing and to include both positive and negative test cases.",
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"plaintext": "The various regression testing techniques are:",
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"plaintext": "This technique checks all the test cases on the current program to check its integrity. Though it is expensive as it needs to re-run all the cases, it ensures that there are no errors because of the modified code.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike Retest all, this technique runs a part of the test suite (owing to the cost of retest all) if the cost of selecting the part of the test suite is less than the Retest all technique.",
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"plaintext": "Prioritize the test cases so as to increase a test suite's rate of fault detection. Test case prioritization techniques schedule test cases so that the test cases that are higher in priority are executed before the test cases that have a lower priority.",
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"plaintext": " General prioritization – Prioritize test cases that will be beneficial on subsequent versions",
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"plaintext": " Version-specific prioritization – Prioritize test cases with respect to a particular version of the software.",
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"plaintext": "This technique is a hybrid of regression test selection and test case prioritization.",
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"plaintext": "Regression testing is performed when changes are made to the existing functionality of the software or if there is a bug fix in the software. Regression testing can be achieved through multiple approaches; if a test all approach is followed, it provides certainty that the changes made to the software have not affected the existing functionalities, which are unaltered.",
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"plaintext": "In agile software development—where the software development life cycles are very short, resources are scarce, and changes to the software are very frequent—regression testing might introduce a lot of unnecessary overhead.",
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"plaintext": "In a software development environment which tends to use black box components from a third party, performing regression testing can be tricky, as any change in the third-party component may interfere with the rest of the system (and performing regression testing on a third-party component is difficult, because it is an unknown entity).",
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"plaintext": "Regression testing can be used not only for testing the correctness of a program but often also for tracking the quality of its output. For instance, in the design of a compiler, regression testing could track the code size and the time it takes to compile and execute the test suite cases.",
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"plaintext": "Regression tests can be broadly categorized as functional tests or unit tests. Functional tests exercise the complete program with various inputs. Unit tests exercise individual functions, subroutines, or object methods. Both functional testing tools and unit-testing tools tend to be automated and are often third-party products that are not part of the compiler suite. A functional test may be a scripted series of program inputs, possibly even involving an automated mechanism for controlling mouse movements and clicks. A unit test may be a set of separate functions within the code itself or a driver layer that links to the code without altering the code being tested.",
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"plaintext": " Microsoft regression testing recommendations",
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38,412 | 1,106,247,788 | Hesse | [
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"plaintext": "Hesse (, , ) or Hessia (, ; ), officially the State of Hessen (), is a state in Germany. Its capital city is Wiesbaden, and the largest urban area is Frankfurt. Two other major cities are the historic residential cities Darmstadt and Kassel. With an area of 21,000 square kilometers and a population of just over six million, it ranks seventh and fifth, respectively, among the sixteen German states. Frankfurt Rhine-Main, Germany's second-largest metropolitan area (after Rhine-Ruhr), is mainly located in Hesse.",
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"plaintext": "As a cultural region, Hesse also includes the area known as Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen) in the neighbouring state of Rhineland-Palatinate.",
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"plaintext": "The German name Hessen, like the names of other German regions (Schwaben \"Swabia\", Franken \"Franconia\", Bayern \"Bavaria\", Sachsen \"Saxony\"), derives from the dative plural form of the name of the inhabitants or eponymous tribe, the Hessians (Hessen, singular Hesse). The geographical name represents a short equivalent of the older compound name Hessenland (\"land of the Hessians\"). The Old High German form of the name is recorded as Hessun (dative plural of Hessi); in Middle Latin it appears as Hassia, Hessia, Hassonia. The name of the Hessians ultimately continues the tribal name of the Chatti.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient name Chatti by the 7th century is recorded as Chassi, and from the 8th century as Hassi or Hessi.",
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"plaintext": "An inhabitant of Hesse is called a \"Hessian\" (German: Hesse (masculine), plural Hessen, or Hessin (feminine), plural Hessinnen). ",
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"plaintext": "The American English term \"Hessian\" for 18th-century British auxiliary troops originates with Landgrave Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel hiring out regular army units to the government of Great Britain to fight in the American Revolutionary War.",
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"plaintext": "The English form Hesse was in common use by the 18th century, first in the hyphenated names of the states of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, but the latinate form Hessia remained in common English usage well into the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The European Commission uses the German form Hessen, even in English-language contexts, due to the policy of leaving regional names untranslated.",
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"plaintext": "The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the periodic table, was named after the state of Hesse in 1997, following a proposal of 1992.",
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"plaintext": "The territory of Hesse was delineated only in 1945, as Greater Hesse, under American occupation. It corresponds only loosely to the medieval Landgraviate of Hesse.",
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"plaintext": "The Züschen tomb (German: Steinkammergrab von Züschen, sometimes also Lohne-Züschen) is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a gallery grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist (hessisch-westfälische Steinkiste), it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to c. 3000 BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture.",
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"plaintext": "Hessia, from the early 7th century on, served as a buffer between areas dominated by the Saxons (to the north) and the Franks, who brought the area to the south under their control in the early sixth century and occupied Thuringia (to the east) in 531. Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse; its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar; it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the river Fulda, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel and Weser. To the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn (the latter until it turns south). It measured roughly 90 kilometers north–south, and 80 north-west.",
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"plaintext": "The area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the 1st century on. Geismar was a particular focus of such activity; it was continuously occupied from the Roman period on, with a settlement from the Roman period, which itself had a predecessor from the 5th century BC. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts. A possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron; the name \"Geismar\" (possibly \"energetic pool\") itself may be derived from that spring. ",
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"plaintext": "The village of , now a part of Gudensberg near Fritzlar and less than ten miles from Geismar, was likely an ancient religious center; the basaltic outcrop of Gudensberg is named after Wodan, and a two-meter tall quartzite megalith called the Wotanstein is at the center of the village.",
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"plaintext": "The Landgrave Frederick II (1720–1785) ruled as a benevolent despot, from 1760 to 1785. He combined Enlightenment ideas with Christian values, cameralist plans for central control of the economy, and a militaristic approach toward diplomacy. He funded the depleted treasury of the poor government by loaning 19,000 soldiers in complete military formations to Great Britain to fight in North America during the American Revolutionary War, 1776–1783. These soldiers, commonly known as Hessians, fought under the British flag. The British used the Hessians in several conflicts, including in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. For further revenue, the soldiers were loaned to other places as well. Most were conscripted, with their pay going to the Landgrave.",
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"plaintext": "The ruler of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to the status of Prince-Elector in 1803, but this remained without effect, as the Holy Roman Empire was disbanded in 1806. The territory was annexed by Napoleon to the Kingdom of Westphalia in 1806, but restored to the Elector in 1813. While other Electors had gained other titles, becoming either Kings or Grand Dukes, the Elector of Hesse-Kassel alone retained the anachronistic title. The name survived in the term Kurhessen, denoting the region around Kassel. In 1866, it was annexed by Prussia, together with the Free City of Frankfurt, the small Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, and the Duchy of Nassau, which were then combined into the province of Hesse-Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse-Darmstadt was elevated by Napoleon to the status of a Grand Duchy in 1806, becoming the Grand Duchy of Hesse. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, it fought on the side of Austria against Prussia, but retained its autonomy in defeat because a greater part of the country was situated south of the river Main and Prussia did not dare to expand beyond the Main line, as this might have provoked France. However, the parts of Hesse-Darmstadt north of the Main (the region around the town of Gießen, commonly called Oberhessen) were incorporated in the Norddeutscher Bund, a tight federation of German states, established by Prussia in 1867. In 1871, after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the rest of the Grand Duchy joined the German Empire. Around the turn of the 20th century, Darmstadt was one of the centres of the Jugendstil. Until 1907, the Grand Duchy of Hesse used the Hessian red and white lion as its coat-of-arms.",
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"plaintext": "The revolution of 1918 transformed Hesse-Darmstadt from a monarchy to a republic, which officially renamed itself \"Volksstaat Hessen\" (People's State of Hesse). The parts of Hesse-Darmstadt on the western banks of the Rhine (province Rheinhessen) were occupied by French troops until 1930 under the terms of the Versailles peace treaty that officially ended World War I in 1919. In 1929 the Principality of Waldeck was dissolved and incorporated into Hesse-Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, the Hessian territory west of the Rhine was again occupied by France, whereas the rest of the region was part of the US occupation zone. The French separated their part of Hesse from the rest of the region and incorporated it into the newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz). The United States, on the other side, proclaimed the state of Greater Hesse (Groß-Hessen) on 19 September 1945, out of Hesse-Darmstadt and most of the former Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 December 1946, Greater Hesse was officially renamed Hessen.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse in the 1940s received more than a million displaced ethnic Germans.",
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"plaintext": "Due to its proximity to the Inner German border, Hesse became an important location of NATO installations in the 1950s, especially military bases of the US V Corps and United States Army Europe. ",
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"plaintext": "The first elected minister president of Hesse was Christian Stock, followed by Georg-August Zinn (both Social Democrats). The German Social Democrats gained an absolute majority in 1962 and pursued progressive policies with the so-called Großer Hessenplan. The CDU gained a relative majority in the 1974 elections, but the Social Democrats continued to govern in a coalition with the FDP. Hesse was first governed by the CDU under Walter Wallmann during 1987–1991, replaced by a SPD-Greens coalition under Hans Eichel during 1991–1999. From 1999, Hesse was governed by the CDU under Roland Koch (retired 2010) and Volker Bouffier (incumbent as of 2020).",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt during the 1960s to 1990s developed into one of the major cities of West Germany. As of 2016, 12% of the total population of Hesse lived in the city of Frankfurt.",
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"plaintext": "Situated in west-central Germany, the state of Hesse borders the German states of Lower Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, and North Rhine-Westphalia (starting in the north and proceeding clockwise).",
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"plaintext": "Most of the population of Hesse lives in the southern part, in the Rhine Main Area. The principal cities of the area include Frankfurt am Main, Wiesbaden, Darmstadt, Offenbach, Hanau, Giessen, Wetzlar, and Limburg. Other major towns in Hesse are Fulda in the east, and Kassel and Marburg an der Lahn in the north. The densely populated Rhine-Main region is much better developed than the rural areas in the middle and northern parts of Hesse.",
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"plaintext": "The most important rivers in Hesse are the Fulda and Eder in the north, the Lahn in the central part of Hesse, and the Main and Rhine in the south. The countryside is hilly and the numerous mountain ranges include the Rhön, the Westerwald, the Taunus, the Vogelsberg, the Knüll and the Spessart.",
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"plaintext": "The Rhine borders Hesse on the southwest without running through the state. Only one oxbow lake—the so-called Stockstadt-Erfelder Altrhein—runs through Hesse. The mountain range between the rivers Main and the Neckar is called the Odenwald. The plain between the rivers Main, Rhine, and Neckar, and the Odenwald Mountains is called the Ried.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse is the greenest state in Germany, as forest covers 42% of the state.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse is a unitary state governed directly by the Hessian government in the capital city Wiesbaden, partially through regional vicarious authorities called Regierungspräsidien. Municipal parliaments are, however, elected independently from the state government by the Hessian people. Local municipalities enjoy a considerable degree of home rule.",
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"plaintext": "The state is divided into three administrative provinces (Regierungsbezirke): Kassel in the north and east, Gießen in the centre, and Darmstadt in the south, the latter being the most populous region with the Frankfurt Rhine-Main agglomeration in its central area. The administrative regions have no legislature of their own, but are executive agencies of the state government.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse is divided into 21 districts (Kreise) and five independent cities, each with their own local governments. They are, shown with abbreviations as used on vehicle number plates:",
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"plaintext": " Bergstraße (HP)",
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"plaintext": " Darmstadt-Dieburg (DA, DI)",
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"plaintext": " Groß-Gerau (GG)",
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"plaintext": " Hochtaunuskreis (HG, USI)",
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"plaintext": " Main-Kinzig-Kreis (MKK, GN, HU, SLÜ)",
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"plaintext": " Main-Taunus-Kreis (MTK)",
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"plaintext": " Odenwaldkreis (ERB)",
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"plaintext": " Offenbach (OF)",
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"plaintext": " Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis (RÜD, SWA)",
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"plaintext": " Wetteraukreis (FB, BÜD)",
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"plaintext": " Gießen (GI)",
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"plaintext": " Lahn-Dill-Kreis (LDK, DIL, WZ)",
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"plaintext": " Limburg-Weilburg (LM, WEL)",
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"plaintext": " Marburg-Biedenkopf (MR, BID)",
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"plaintext": " Vogelsbergkreis (VB)",
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"plaintext": " Fulda (FD)",
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"plaintext": " Hersfeld-Rotenburg (HEF, ROF)",
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"plaintext": " Kassel (KS, HOG, WOH)",
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"plaintext": " Schwalm-Eder-Kreis (HR, ZIG, FZ)",
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"plaintext": " Werra-Meißner-Kreis (ESW, WIZ)",
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"plaintext": " Waldeck-Frankenberg (KB, FKB, WA)",
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"plaintext": "Independent cities:",
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"plaintext": " Darmstadt (DA)",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt am Main (F)",
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"plaintext": " Kassel (KS)",
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"plaintext": " Offenbach am Main (OF)",
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"plaintext": " Wiesbaden (WI)",
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"plaintext": "The term \"Rhenish Hesse\" () refers to the part of the former Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt located west of the Rhine. It has not been part of the State of Hesse since 1946 due to divisions in the aftermath of World War II. This province is now part of the State of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is a hilly countryside largely devoted to vineyards; therefore, it is also called the \"land of the thousand hills\". Its larger towns include Mainz, Worms, Bingen, Alzey, Nieder-Olm, and Ingelheim. Many inhabitants commute to work in Mainz, Wiesbaden, or Frankfurt.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse has been a parliamentary republic since 1918, except during Nazi rule (1933–1945). The German federal system has elements of exclusive federal competences, shared competences, and exclusive competences of the states. Hesse is famous for having a rather brisk style in its politics with the ruling parties being either the center-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU) or the center-left Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Due to the Hessian electoral laws, the biggest party normally needs a smaller coalition partner.",
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"plaintext": "As Hesse is a partly sovereign federated state, its constitution combines the offices of the head of state and head of government in one office called the Minister-President (German: Ministerpräsident) which is comparable to the office of a prime minister.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2018 state elections the two leading parties, CDU and SPD, lost 11.3% (7 seats) and 10.9% (8 seats) of the vote respectively. The Green party, a member of Hesse's previous governing coalition with CDU, gained 8.7% (16 seats). The largest gains during the election were made by Alternative for Germany (AfD) at 13.1%. As AfD had not passed the 5% threshold in the 2013 state election, this marked its first entry into the Hessian parliament (Hessischer Landtag). The two other parties also made gains. The major losses of the two leading parties (whose coalition made up the federal cabinet during the election) closely mirrors the results of the 2018 state elections in Bavaria. In the current parliament the conservative CDU holds 40 seats, the centre-left SPD and the leftist Green party each hold 29 seats, the right-wing AfD holds 19 seats, the liberal FDP party holds 11 seats and the socialist party Die Linke holds 9 seats.",
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"plaintext": "As a member state of the German federation, Hesse does not have a diplomatic service of its own. However, Hesse operates representation offices in such foreign countries as the United States, China, Hungary, Cuba, Russia, Poland, and Iran. These offices are mostly used to represent Hessian interests in cultural and economic affairs. Hesse has also permanent representation offices in Berlin at the federal government of Germany and in Brussels at the institutions of the European Union.",
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"plaintext": "The flag colors of Hesse are red and white, which are printed on a Hessian sack. The Hessian coat of arms shows a lion rampant striped with red and white. The official anthem of Hesse is called \"Hessenlied\" (\"Song of Hesse\") and was written by Albrecht Brede (music) and Carl Preser (lyrics).",
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"plaintext": "Hesse has a population of over 6million, nearly 4million of which is concentrated in the Rhein-Main region (German: Rhein-Main Gebiet) in the south of the state, an area that includes the most populous city, Frankfurt am Main, the capital Wiesbaden, and Darmstadt and Offenbach. The population of Hesse is predicted to shrink by 4.3% by 2030, with the biggest falls in the north of the state, especially in the area around the city of Kassel. Frankfurt is the fastest growing city with a predicted rise in population of 4.8% by 2030. Frankfurt's growth is driven by its importance as a financial centre and it receives immigrants from all over the world: in 2015 over half of the city's population had an immigrant background.",
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"plaintext": "Source:",
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"plaintext": "Births January–March 2017 = 14,537",
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"plaintext": "Births January–March 2018 = 14,202",
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"plaintext": "Deaths January–March 2017 = 19,289",
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"plaintext": "Deaths January–March 2018 = 18,831",
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"plaintext": "Natural growth January–March 2017 = −4,752",
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"plaintext": "Natural growth January–March 2018 = −4,629",
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"plaintext": "Three different languages or dialect groups are spoken in Hesse: The Far North is part of the Low Saxon language area, divided into a tiny Eastphalian and a larger Westphalian dialect area. Most of Hesse belongs to the West Middle German dialect zone. There is some disagreement as to whether all Hessian dialects south of the Benrath line may be subsumed under one dialect group: Rhine Franconian, or whether most dialects should be regarded as a dialect group of its own: Hessian, whereas only South Hessian is part of Rhine Franconian. Hessian proper can be split into Lower Hessian in the north, East Hessian in the East around Fulda and Central Hessian, which covers the largest area of all dialects in Hesse. In the extreme Northeast, the Thuringian dialect zone extends into Hesse, whereas in the Southeast, the state border to Bavaria is not fully identical to the dialect border between East Franconian and East Hessian.",
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"plaintext": "Since approximately World War II, a spoken variety of Standard German with dialect substrate has been superseding the tradition dialects mentioned so far. This development knows a north-to-south movement, the north being early to supplant the traditional language, whereas in the south, there is still a considerable part of the population that communicates in South Hessian. In most of the areas, however, the traditional language is close to extinction, whereas until the first half of the 20th century, almost the entire population spoke dialect in almost all situations. The Upper Class started to speak Standard German already in the late 19th century, so for decades, the traditional language served as a sociolect.",
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"plaintext": "The prominent written language in Hesse has been Standard German since the 16th century. Before, the Low Saxon part used Middle Low German, the rest of the Land Early Modern German as prominent written languages. These had supplanted Latin in the High Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016 Christianity was the most widespread religion in the state (63%). 40% of Hessians belonged to the Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau or Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck (members of the Evangelical Church in Germany), 25% adhered to the Roman Catholic Church, while other Christians constituted some 3%, the third most common religion of the Hessian population is Islam with 7% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse has follow universities:",
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"plaintext": " Goethe University Frankfurt (43,972 students; Budget: € 666,4 Mio.) ",
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"plaintext": " Philipps University of Marburg (24,394 students; Budget: € 374,3 Mio.) ",
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"plaintext": "No any Hesse's university belongs to German Excellence Universities.",
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"plaintext": "There are many international schools in Hesse, primarily centred in and around Frankfurt.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse is the only state in Germany where students have to study all three stanzas of the Das Deutschlandlied.",
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"plaintext": "A single existing big science facility in Hesse is GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt-Wixhausen with 1,520 employees. The second one Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research is in construction till 2025.",
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"plaintext": "In space research there are 2 European organization European Space Operations Center and European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites in Darmstadt.",
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"plaintext": " Max Planck Institue for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim",
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"plaintext": " Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt-am-Main ",
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"plaintext": " , Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Frankfurt-am-Main ",
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"plaintext": " Paul Ehrlich Institute (vaccines), Langen",
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"plaintext": " Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg",
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"plaintext": " (researh of Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus; Parasitology) with BSL4-Labor, Marburg",
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"plaintext": " Sigmund Freud Institute (psychoanalysis), Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Hessian Centre for Artificial Intelligence, HQ in Darmstadt, more locations in Hesse",
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"plaintext": " Center for Advanced Security Research Darmstadt, Darmstadt",
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"plaintext": " , Darmstadt",
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"plaintext": " , HQ in Kassel, other location in Rothwesten and Bad Hersfeld",
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"plaintext": " , Hanau",
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"plaintext": " Max-Planck-Institut für europäische Rechtsgeschichte, Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Institut für Sozialforschung at Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Leibniz-Institut für Bildungsforschung und Bildungsinformation, Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Forschungsinstitut für Deutsche Sprache – Deutscher Sprachatlas – at Philipps-Universität Marburg",
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"plaintext": " Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, * Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main",
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"plaintext": " Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Institut für sozial-ökologische Forschung, Frankfurt-am-Main",
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"plaintext": " Athene (research center), Darmstadt",
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"plaintext": "Hesse has a rich and varied cultural history, with many important cultural and historical centres and several UNESCO world-heritage sites.",
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"plaintext": "Darmstadt has a rich cultural heritage as the former seat of the Landgraves and Grand Dukes of Hesse. It is known as centre of the art nouveau Jugendstil and modern architecture and there are also several important examples of 19th century architecture influenced by British and Russian imperial architecture due to close family ties of the Grand Duke's family to the reigning dynasties in London and Saint Petersburg in the Grand Duchy period. Darmstadt is an important centre for music, home of the Darmstädter Ferienkurse for contemporary music and the Jazz Institute Darmstadt, Europe's largest public jazz archive.",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt am Main is a major international cultural centre. Over 2million people visit the city's approximately 60 exhibition centres every year. Amongst its most famous art galleries are the Schirn Kunsthalle, a major centre for international modern art, and the Städel, whose large collections include over 3000 paintings, 4000 photographs, and 100,000 drawings including works by Picasso, Monet, Rembrandt and Dürer. Goethe was born in Frankfurt and there is a museum in his birthplace. Frankfurt has many music venues, including an award-winning opera house, the Alte Oper, and the Jahrhunderthalle. Its several theatres include the English Theatre, the largest English-speaking theatre on the European continent.",
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"plaintext": "Kassel has many palaces and parks, including Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe, a Baroque landscape park and UNESCO World Heritage site. The Brothers Grimm lived and worked in Kassel for 30 years and the recently opened Grimmwelt museum explores their lives, works and influence and features their personal copies of the Children's and Household Tales, which are on the UNESCO World Heritage \"Memory of the World\" Document register. The Fridericianum, built in 1779, is one of the oldest public museums in Europe. Kassel is also home to the documenta, a large modern art exhibition that has taken place every five years since the 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "The Hessian Ministry of the Arts supports numerous independent cultural initiatives, organisations, and associations as well as artists from many fields including music, literature, theatre and dance, cinema and the new media, graphic art, and exhibitions. International cultural projects aim to further relations with European partners.",
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"plaintext": "Hesse has several UNESCO World Heritage sites. These include:",
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"plaintext": " Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel",
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"plaintext": " Kellerwald-Edersee National Park in North Hesse",
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"plaintext": " Lorsch Abbey",
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"plaintext": " The Messel Fossil Pit. Exhibits from the Messel Pit can be seen in Messel town museum, the Museum of Hessen in Darmstadt, and the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt.",
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"plaintext": " The Saalburg, part of the Roman Limes.",
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"plaintext": " Darmstadt Artists' Colony",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt hosts the following professional sports teams or clubs:",
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"plaintext": " 1. FFC Frankfurt (1998–2020), football (women)",
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"plaintext": " Eintracht Frankfurt, football (men, women)",
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"plaintext": " FSV Frankfurt, football (men)",
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"plaintext": " Rot-Weiss Frankfurt, football",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurter FC Germania 1894, football",
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"plaintext": " Skyliners Frankfurt, basketball",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt Galaxy (1991–2007), American football",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt Universe (2007–present), American football",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurter Löwen (1979–1984), American football",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt Sarsfields GAA, Gaelic football",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt Lions (until 2010), ice hockey",
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"plaintext": " Löwen Frankfurt (since 2010), ice hockey",
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"plaintext": " SC 1880 Frankfurt, rugby union",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt is host to the classic cycle race Eschborn-Frankfurt City Loop (known as Rund um den Henninger-Turm from 1961 to 2008). The city hosts also the annual Frankfurt Marathon and the Ironman Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Outside Frankfurt, notable professional sports teams include Kickers Offenbach, SV Darmstadt 98, Marburg Mercenaries, Gießen 46ers, MT Melsungen, VfB Friedberg, and the Kassel Huskies.",
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"plaintext": "The Hessian state broadcasting corporation is called HR (Hessischer Rundfunk). HR is a member of the federal ARD broadcasting association. HR provides a statewide TV channel as well as a range of regional radio stations (HR1, HR2, HR3, HR4, youfm and HRinfo). Besides the state run HR, privately run TV stations exist and are an important line of commerce. Among the commercial radio stations that are active in Hesse, Hit Radio FFH, Planet Radio, Harmony FM, Radio BOB and Antenne Frankfurt are the most popular.",
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"plaintext": "With Hesse's largest city Frankfurt am Main being home of the European Central Bank (ECB), the German Bundesbank and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, Hesse is home to the financial capital of mainland Europe. Furthermore, Hesse has always been one of the largest and healthiest economies in Germany. Its GDP in 2013 exceeded €236billion (about US$316billion). This makes Hesse itself one of the largest economies in Europe and the 38th largest in the world. According to GDP-per-capita figures, Hesse is the wealthiest state (after the city-states Hamburg and Bremen) in Germany with approx. US$52,500.",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt is crucial as a financial center, with both the European Central Bank and the Deutsche Bundesbank's headquarters located there. Numerous smaller banks and Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW Bank, Commerzbank are also headquartered in Frankfurt, with the offices of several international banks also being housed there. Frankfurt is also the location of the most important German stock exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Insurance companies have settled mostly in Wiesbaden. The city's largest private employer is the R+V Versicherung, with about 3,900 employees, other major employers are DBV-Winterthur, the SV SparkassenVersicherung and the Delta Lloyd Group.",
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"plaintext": "Merck controls ca. 60% of world's liquid crystal market.",
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"plaintext": "Very seldom special industry is metallurgy of platinum metals by Heraeus and Umicore and magnet materials by Vacuumschmelze in Hanau. Also in Hanau was located a plant to produce nuclear fuel (classical uranium, but also MOX fuel), now the production is stopped and it is in conservation. Heraeus manufactures an irradiation sources from Cobalt and Iridium, not activated.",
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"plaintext": "In the mechanical and automotive engineering field Opel in Rüsselsheim is worth mentioning. After acquisition Opel by Stellantis, it is in rapid decline of production and employment. Which has also negative effect on automotive parts supplier, Continental will close a plant in Karben and cut jobs at other location in Hesse. In northern Hesse, in Baunatal, Volkswagen AG has a large factory that manufactures spare parts, not far-away from it there is also a Daimler Truck plant, which produces an axes. ",
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"plaintext": "Alstom, after takeover of Bombardier, has a large plant that manufactures Traxx locomotives in Kassel. Industrial printers (Manroland, Gallus Holding), x-ray airport check equipment (Smiths), handling and loading equipment (Dematic), chemical equipment (Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions), vacuum pumps (Pfeiffer Vacuum), vacuum industrial furnace (ALD Vacuum Technologies), textile machines (Karl Mayer), shavers (Braun), medical (Fresenius, Sirona) and industrial (Schenck Process, Samson) apparatuses are produced in Rhine-Main Region.",
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"plaintext": "Manufacturing of heating boilers and heat pumps are typical for Hesse and represented with and Viessmann.",
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"plaintext": "Vistec produces electron-beam lithography systems for semiconductor industry in Weilburg, also there is manufacturing of inspection, testing and measurement equipment for semiconductor fabrication process from KLA-Tencor.",
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"plaintext": "Leica Microsystems manufactures different types of microscopes, inclusive they with special light microscopic optics, which are used in wafer and photo mask testing. PVA TePla from Wettenberg is specialist for crystal growing process (Si, Ge, GaAs, GaP, InP) with Czochralski Process, Float-Zone Process, High-Temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition, Vertical Gradient Freeze equipment, quality inspection apparatus, plasma and vacuum machine. ABB Robotics is in Friedberg. Satisloh is a machine manufacturer in Wetzlar for the production of lenses and components for the optical industry.",
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"plaintext": "The company operating Frankfurt Airport is one of the largest employers in Hesse with nearly 22,000 employees. Aerospace cluster contains also Rolls-Royce's aviation engine work in Oberursel and APU manufacturing plant and service center of Honeywell in Raunheim.",
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"plaintext": "Electrical transformers are produced by Hitachi ABB Power Grids in Hanau and Siemens Energy in Frankfurt-am-Main. SMA Solar Technology manufactures an inverters for photovoltaic systems. Rittal is specialized on electrical enclosure situated in Herborn and Eschenburg. Power semiconductors from IXYS in Lampertheim and UV and infrared lamps from Heraeus.",
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"plaintext": "Many IT and telecommunications companies are located in Hesse, many of them in Frankfurt and Darmstadt, like Software AG (Darmstadt), T-Systems (Frankfurt and Darmstadt), Deutsche Telekom (laboratories in Darmstadt), DB Systel (Frankfurt), Lufthansa Systems (Raunheim near Frankfurt) and DE-CIX (Frankfurt).",
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"plaintext": "Sweet making is typical, there are 2 big factories: Ferrero, Stadtallendorf and Baronie (Sarotti), Hattersheim am Main. Frankfurter Sausage is famous, but there is also other sorts like Frankfurter Rindswurst, Ahle Wurst. ",
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"plaintext": "Beverage industry is well-developed and manufactures sparkling wine (Sekt), white wine (Riesling), mineral waters (Selters), beers (Radeberger) and cider.",
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"plaintext": "In Frankfurt-Oberrad exists growing of wild herbs for green sauce and monument.",
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"plaintext": "The leather industry was predominantly based in Offenbach, but is now extinct, existing only in museums. The same happened with Frankfurt's fur industry and Hanau's jewelry industry.",
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"plaintext": "The Hochtaunuskreis has the lowest unemployment rate at 3.8% while the independent city of Kassel has the highest rate nationally at 12.1%. In October 2018 the unemployment rate stood at 4.4% and was lower than the national average.",
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"plaintext": "The region around Frankfurt has an extensive S-Bahn network, the S-Bahn Rhein-Main, which is complemented by many regional train connections. In the rest of the country, the rail network is less extensive. Since 2007, the region around Kassel has been served by the RegioTram, a tram-train-concept similar to the Karlsruhe model.",
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"plaintext": "Frankfurt Airport is by far the largest airport in Germany with more than 57million passengers each year, is and among the world's ten largest. Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport lies to the south, and is frequented by general aviation and private planes. Kassel Airport offers a few flights to holiday destinations, but has struggled to compete. There are also a number of sports airfields. Low-cost airlines, especially Ryanair, use Frankfurt-Hahn Airport as a major base, although the airport is actually located about 100km from Frankfurt in the neighbouring state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The DFS (German air traffic control) has its headquarters in Langen.",
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"plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles W. The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785 (Cambridge University Press, 2003).",
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"plaintext": " Ingrao, Charles. \"\" Barbarous Strangers\": Hessian State and Society during the American Revolution.\" American Historical Review 87.4 (1982): 954–976. online",
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"plaintext": " Wegert, Karl H. \"Contention with Civility: The State and Social Control in the German Southwest, 1760–1850.\" Historical Journal 34.2 (1991): 349–369. online",
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"plaintext": " Wilder, Colin F. \"\" THE RIGOR OF THE LAW OF EXCHANGE\": How People Changed Commercial Law and Commercial Law Changed People (Hesse-Cassel, 1654–1776).\" Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung (2015): 629–659. online",
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"plaintext": " Official government portal (English version)",
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"plaintext": " Wiki about Hesse in Hessian language",
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38,413 | 1,091,442,778 | Activation_energy | [
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"plaintext": "In chemistry and physics, activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that must be provided for compounds to result in a chemical reaction. The activation energy (Ea) of a reaction is measured in joules per mole (J/mol), kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) or kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol). Activation energy can be thought of as the magnitude of the potential barrier (sometimes called the energy barrier) separating minima of the potential energy surface pertaining to the initial and final thermodynamic state. For a chemical reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate, the temperature of the system should be high enough such that there exists an appreciable number of molecules with translational energy equal to or greater than the activation energy. The term Activation Energy was introduced in 1889 by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius.",
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"plaintext": "Although less commonly used, activation energy also applies to nuclear reactions and various other physical phenomena.",
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"plaintext": "The Arrhenius equation gives the quantitative basis of the relationship between the activation energy and the rate at which a reaction proceeds. From the equation, the activation energy can be found through the relation",
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"plaintext": "where A is the pre-exponential factor for the reaction, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature (usually in kelvins), and k is the reaction rate coefficient. Even without knowing A, Ea can be evaluated from the variation in reaction rate coefficients as a function of temperature (within the validity of the Arrhenius equation).",
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"plaintext": "At a more advanced level, the net Arrhenius activation energy term from the Arrhenius equation is best regarded as an experimentally determined parameter that indicates the sensitivity of the reaction rate to temperature. There are two objections to associating this activation energy with the threshold barrier for an elementary reaction. First, it is often unclear as to whether or not reaction does proceed in one step; threshold barriers that are averaged out over all elementary steps have little theoretical value. Second, even if the reaction being studied is elementary, a spectrum of individual collisions contributes to rate constants obtained from bulk ('bulb') experiments involving billions of molecules, with many different reactant collision geometries and angles, different translational and (possibly) vibrational energies—all of which may lead to different microscopic reaction rates.",
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"plaintext": "A substance that modifies the transition state to lower the activation energy is termed a catalyst; a catalyst composed only of protein and (if applicable) small molecule cofactors is termed an enzyme. A catalyst increases the rate of reaction without being consumed in the reaction. In addition, the catalyst lowers the activation energy, but it does not change the energies of the original reactants or products, and so does not change equilibrium. Rather, the reactant energy and the product energy remain the same and only the activation energy is altered (lowered).",
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"plaintext": "A catalyst is able to reduce the activation energy by forming a transition state in a more favorable manner. Catalysts, by nature, create a more \"comfortable\" fit for the substrate of a reaction to progress to a transition state. This is possible due to a release of energy that occurs when the substrate binds to the active site of a catalyst. This energy is known as Binding Energy. Upon binding to a catalyst, substrates partake in numerous stabilizing forces while within the active site (i.e. Hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces). Specific and favorable bonding occurs within the active site until the substrate forms to become the high-energy transition state. Forming the transition state is more favorable with the catalyst because the favorable stabilizing interactions within the active site release energy. A chemical reaction is able to manufacture a high-energy transition state molecule more readily when there is a stabilizing fit within the active site of a catalyst. The binding energy of a reaction is this energy released when favorable interactions between substrate and catalyst occur. The binding energy released assists in achieving the unstable transition state. Reactions otherwise without catalysts need a higher input of energy to achieve the transition state. Non-catalyzed reactions do not have free energy available from active site stabilizing interactions, such as catalytic enzyme reactions.",
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"plaintext": "In the Arrhenius equation, the term activation energy (Ea) is used to describe the energy required to reach the transition state, and the exponential relationship holds. In transition state theory, a more sophisticated model of the relationship between reaction rates and the transition state, a superficially similar mathematical relationship, the Eyring equation, is used to describe the rate of a reaction: . However, instead of modeling the temperature dependence of reaction rate phenomenologically, the Eyring equation models individual elementary steps of a reaction. Thus, for a multistep process, there is no straightforward relationship between the two models. Nevertheless, the functional forms of the Arrhenius and Eyring equations are similar, and for a one-step process, simple and chemically meaningful correspondences can be drawn between Arrhenius and Eyring parameters.",
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"plaintext": "Instead of also using Ea, the Eyring equation uses the concept of Gibbs energy and the symbol ΔG‡ to denote the Gibbs energy of activation to achieve the transition state. In the equation, kB and h are the Boltzmann and Planck constants, respectively. Although the equations look similar, it is important to note that the Gibbs energy contains an entropic term in addition to the enthalpic one. In the Arrhenius equation, this entropic term is accounted for by the pre-exponential factor A. More specifically, we can write the Gibbs free energy of activation in terms of enthalpy and entropy of activation: . Then, for a unimolecular, one-step reaction, the approximate relationships and hold. Note, however, that in Arrhenius theory proper, A is temperature independent, while here, there is a linear dependence on T. For a one-step unimolecular process whose half-life at room temperature is about 2 hours, ΔG‡ is approximately 23 kcal/mol. This is also the roughly the magnitude of Ea for a reaction that proceeds over several hours at room temperature. Due to the relatively small magnitude of TΔS‡ and RT at ordinary temperatures for most reactions, in sloppy discourse, Ea, ΔG‡, and ΔH‡ are often conflated and all referred to as the \"activation energy\".",
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"plaintext": "The enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs energy of activation are more correctly written as Δ‡Ho, Δ‡So and Δ‡Go respectively, where the o indicates a quantity evaluated between standard states. However, some authors omit the o in order to simplify the notation.",
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"plaintext": "The total free energy change of a reaction is independent of the activation energy however. Physical and chemical reactions can be either exergonic or endergonic, but the activation energy is not related to the spontaneity of a reaction. The overall reaction energy change is not altered by the activation energy.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases, rates of reaction decrease with increasing temperature. When following an approximately exponential relationship so the rate constant can still be fit to an Arrhenius expression, this results in a negative value of Ea.",
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"plaintext": "Elementary reactions exhibiting negative activation energies are typically barrierless reactions, in which the reaction proceeding relies on the capture of the molecules in a potential well. Increasing the temperature leads to a reduced probability of the colliding molecules capturing one another (with more glancing collisions not leading to reaction as the higher momentum carries the colliding particles out of the potential well), expressed as a reaction cross section that decreases with increasing temperature. Such a situation no longer leads itself to direct interpretations as the height of a potential barrier.",
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"plaintext": "Some multistep reactions can also have apparent negative activation energies. For example, the overall rate constant k for a two-step reaction A B, B → C is given by k = k2K1, where k2 is the rate constant of the rate-limiting slow second step and K1 is the equilibrium constant of the rapid first step. In some reactions, K1 decreases with temperature more rapidly than k2 increases, so that k actually decreases with temperature corresponding to a negative observed activation energy.",
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"plaintext": "An example is the oxidation of nitric oxide which is a termolecular reaction . The rate law is with a negative activation energy. This is explained by the two-step mechanism: and .",
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"plaintext": "Certain cationic polymerization reactions have negative activation energies so that the rate decreases with temperature. For chain-growth polymerization, the overall activation energy is , where i, p and t refer respectively to initiation, propagation and termination steps. The propagation step normally has a very small activation energy, so that the overall value is negative if the activation energy for termination is larger than that for initiation. The normal range of overall activation energies for cationic polymerization varies from =40 to +60 kJ/mol.",
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"plaintext": "Activation energy can be represented in 2D Potential Energy Surfaces (PES), where the relation between the geometry of the reactants and the energy involved is represented as a topographic map.",
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"plaintext": "In the following graphic there is a representation of a reaction between hydrogen in the gas phase and a metal: tungsten. The potential energy is obtained with PES calculations and consistent with the position of H from the NEB method calculations. A 2-dimensional interpolation with the spline method can be used to evaluate the potential energy at these positions. Products and reactants can be found in the blue surface, however the red surface corresponds to the steady-state approximation.",
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"plaintext": "The depics correspond to the trajectories. The bluer the surface, the stronger the hydrogen bonds, so blue colors represent minima energy and red colors are maxima. Tungsten’s PES is symmetric, and has a dip at the bridge site, this dip corresponds to the change of color in the center of the depic.",
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"plaintext": "The bluer the surface between the energy minima, the lower the energy barriers, and therefore the more easily hydrogen travels along the surfaces.",
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"plaintext": "As the power of the Roman empire declined, many of these tribes came to be seen collectively as Ripuarian Franks and they pushed forward along both banks of the Rhine, and by the end of the fifth century had conquered all the lands that had formerly been under Roman influence. By the eighth century, the Frankish dominion was firmly established in western Germany and northern Gaul, but at the same time, to the north, Westphalia was being taken over by Saxons pushing south.",
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"plaintext": "The Merovingian and Carolingian Franks eventually built an empire which controlled first their Ripuarian kin, and then the Saxons. On the division of the Carolingian Empire at the Treaty of Verdun, the part of the province to the east of the river fell to East Francia, while that to the west remained with the kingdom of Lotharingia.",
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"plaintext": "As the central power of the Holy Roman Emperor weakened, the Rhineland split into numerous small, independent, separate vicissitudes and special chronicles. The old Lotharingian divisions became obsolete, although the name survives for example in Lorraine in France, and throughout the Middle Ages and even into modern times, the nobility of these areas often sought to preserve the idea of a preeminent duke within Lotharingia, something claimed by the Dukes of Limburg, and the Dukes of Brabant. Such struggles as the War of the Limburg Succession therefore continued to create military and political links between what is now Rhineland-Westphalia and neighbouring Belgium and the Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "Prussia first set foot on the Rhine in 1609 by the occupation of the Duchy of Cleves and about a century later Upper Guelders and Moers also became Prussian. At the peace of Basel in 1795, the whole of the left bank of the Rhine was resigned to France, and in 1806, the Rhenish princes all joined the Confederation of the Rhine.",
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"plaintext": "After the Congress of Vienna, Prussia was awarded the entire Rhineland, which included the Grand Duchy of Berg, the ecclesiastic electorates of Trier and Cologne, the free cities of Aachen and Cologne, and nearly a hundred small lordships and abbeys. The Prussian Rhine province was formed in 1822 and Prussia had the tact to leave them in undisturbed possession of the liberal institutions to which they had become accustomed under the republican rule of the French. In 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium (see German-speaking Community of Belgium).",
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"plaintext": "Around AD1, numerous incursions occurred through Westphalia and perhaps even some permanent Roman or Romanized settlements. The Battle of Teutoburg Forest took place near Osnabrück and some of the Germanic tribes who fought at this battle came from the area of Westphalia. Charlemagne is thought to have spent considerable time in Paderborn and nearby parts. His Saxon Wars also partly took place in what is thought of as Westphalia today. Popular legends link his adversary Widukind to places near Detmold, Bielefeld, Lemgo, Osnabrück, and other places in Westphalia. Widukind was buried in Enger, which is also a subject of a legend.",
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"plaintext": "Along with Eastphalia and Engern, Westphalia (Westfalahi) was originally a district of the Duchy of Saxony. In 1180, Westphalia was elevated to the rank of a duchy by Emperor Barbarossa. The Duchy of Westphalia comprised only a small area south of the Lippe River.",
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"plaintext": "Parts of Westphalia came under Brandenburg-Prussian control during the 17th and 18th centuries, but most of it remained divided duchies and other feudal areas of power. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648, signed in Münster and Osnabrück, ended the Thirty Years' War. The concept of nation-state sovereignty resulting from the treaty became known as \"Westphalian sovereignty\".",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the Protestant Reformation, there is no dominant religion in Westphalia. Catholicism and Lutheranism are on relatively equal footing. Lutheranism is strong in the eastern and northern parts with numerous free churches. Münster and especially Paderborn are thought of as Catholic. Osnabrück is divided almost equally between Catholicism and Protestantism.",
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"plaintext": "After the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Prussia received a large amount of territory in the Westphalian region and created the province of Westphalia in 1815. The northernmost portions of the former kingdom, including the town of Osnabrück, had become part of the states of Hanover and Oldenburg.",
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"plaintext": "The flag of North Rhine-Westphalia is green-white-red with the combined coats of arms of the Rhineland (white line before green background, symbolizing the river Rhine), Westfalen (the white horse) and Lippe (the red rose). After the establishment of North Rhine-Westphalia in 1946, the tricolor was first introduced in 1948, but was not formally adopted until 1953. The plain variant of the tricolor is considered the civil flag and state ensign, while government authorities use the state flag (Landesdienstflagge) which is defaced with the state's coat of arms. The state ensign can easily be mistaken for a distressed flag of Hungary, as well as the former national flag of Iran (1964–1980).",
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"plaintext": "The same flag was used by the Rhenish Republic (1923–1924) as a symbol of independence and freedom.",
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"plaintext": "According to legend, the horse in the Westphalian coat of arms is the horse that the Saxon leader Widukind rode after his baptism. Other theories attribute the horse to Henry the Lion. Some connect it with the Germanic rulers Hengist and Horsa.",
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"plaintext": "North Rhine-Westphalia encompasses the plains of the Lower Rhine region and parts of the Central Uplands (die Mittelgebirge) up to the gorge of Porta Westfalica. The state covers an area of and shares borders with Belgium (Wallonia) in the southwest and the Netherlands (Limburg, Gelderland and Overijssel) in the west and northwest. It has borders with the German states of Lower Saxony to the north and northeast, Rhineland-Palatinate to the south and Hesse to the southeast.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately half of the state is located in the relative low-lying terrain of the Westphalian Lowland and the Rhineland, both extending broadly into the North German Plain. A few isolated hill ranges are located within these lowlands, among them the Hohe Mark, the Beckum Hills, the Baumberge and the Stemmer Berge. ",
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"plaintext": "The terrain rises towards the south and in the east of the state into parts of Germany's Central Uplands. These hill ranges are the Weser Uplands – including the Egge Hills, the Wiehen Hills, the Wesergebirge and the Teutoburg Forest in the east, the Sauerland, the Bergisches Land, the Siegerland and the Siebengebirge in the south, as well as the left-Rhenish Eifel in the southwest of the state. The Rothaargebirge in the border region with Hesse rises to height of about 800 m above sea level. The highest of these mountains are the Langenberg, at 843.2 m above sea level, the Kahler Asten (840.7 m) and the Clemensberg (839.2 m).",
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"plaintext": "The planimetrically determined centre of North Rhine-Westphalia is located in the south of Dortmund-Aplerbeck in the Aplerbecker Mark (51° 28' N, 7° 33' Ö). Its westernmost point is situated near Selfkant close to the Dutch border, the easternmost near Höxter on the Weser. The southernmost point lies near Hellenthal in the Eifel region. The northernmost point is the NRW-Nordpunkt near Rahden in the northeast of the state. The Nordpunkt has located the only 100 km to the south of the North Sea coast. The deepest natural dip is arranged in the district Zyfflich in the city of Kranenburg with 9.2 m above sea level in the northwest of the state. Though, the deepest point overground results from mining. The open-pit Hambach reaches at Niederzier a deep of 293 m below sea level. At the same time, this is the deepest man-made dip in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "The most important rivers flowing at least partially through North Rhine-Westphalia include: the Rhine, the Ruhr, the Ems, the Lippe, and the Weser. The Rhine is by far the most important river in North Rhine-Westphalia: it enters the state as Middle Rhine near Bad Honnef, where still being part of the Mittelrhein wine region. It changes into the Lower Rhine near Bad Godesberg and leaves North Rhine-Westphalia near Emmerich at a width of 730 metres. Almost immediately after entering the Netherlands, the Rhine splits into many branches.",
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"plaintext": "The Pader, which flows entirely within the city of Paderborn, is considered Germany's shortest river.",
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"plaintext": "For many, North Rhine-Westphalia is synonymous with industrial areas and urban agglomerations. However, the largest part of the state is used for agriculture (almost 52%) and forests (25%).",
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"plaintext": "The state consists of five government regions (Regierungsbezirke), divided into 31 districts (Kreise) and 23 urban districts (kreisfreie Städte). In total, North Rhine-Westphalia has 396 municipalities (1997), including the urban districts, which are municipalities by themselves. The government regions have an assembly elected by the districts and municipalities, while the Landschaftsverband has a directly elected assembly.",
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"plaintext": "The five government regions of North Rhine-Westphalia each belong to one of the two Landschaftsverbände:",
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"plaintext": "The state's area covers a maximum distance of 291km from north to south, and 266km from east to west. The total length of the state's borders is 1,645km. The following countries and states have a border with North Rhine-Westphalia:",
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"plaintext": " Belgium (99km)",
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"plaintext": " Netherlands (387km)",
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"plaintext": " Lower Saxony (583km)",
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"plaintext": " Hesse (269km)",
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"plaintext": " Rhineland-Palatinate (307km)",
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"plaintext": "North Rhine-Westphalia has a population of approximately 17.5 million inhabitants (more than the entire former East Germany, and slightly more than the Netherlands) and is centred around the polycentric Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, which includes the industrial Ruhr region with the largest city of Dortmund and the Rhenish cities of Bonn, Cologne and Düsseldorf. 30 of the 80 largest cities in Germany are located within North Rhine-Westphalia. The state's capital is Düsseldorf; the state's largest city is Cologne. In 2015, there were 160,478 births and 204,373 deaths. The TRF reached 1.52 (2015) and was highest in Lippe (1.72) and lowest in Bochum (1.29).",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the ten largest cities of North Rhine-Westphalia:",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the population of the state since 1930. The values until 1960 are the average of the yearly population, from 1965 the population at year end is used. ",
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"plaintext": "Births from January–September 2016 = 130,025",
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"plaintext": "Births from January–September 2017 = 130,088",
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"plaintext": "Deaths from January–September 2016 = 150,018",
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"plaintext": "The politics of North Rhine-Westphalia takes place within a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic. The two main parties are, as on the federal level, the centre-right Christian Democratic Union and the centre-left Social Democratic Party. From 1966 to 2005, North Rhine-Westphalia was continuously governed by the Social Democrats or SPD-led governments.",
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"plaintext": "These are the Ministers-presidents of the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia:",
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"plaintext": "CDU became the largest party, whereas the ruling SPD and Greens lost votes. The Pirates were ousted from the Landtag, whereas the AfD gained parliamentary representation. FDP got their best result in history. Die Linke narrowly failed to get parliamentary representation. Voter turnout was higher than in the previous election.",
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"plaintext": "| colspan=\"7\" | ",
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"plaintext": "!style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:center\" colspan=\"3\" |Popular vote",
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"plaintext": "!style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:center\" colspan=\"3\" |Seats",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "!style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:right\" width=60|Votes",
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"plaintext": "!style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:right\" width=50|+/–",
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"plaintext": "!style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:right\" width=30|+/–",
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"plaintext": "| || 2,796,683 || 33.0 || 6.7 || 72 || 5",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| || 2,649,205 || 31.2 || 7.9 || 69 || 30",
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"plaintext": "| || 1,065,307 || 12.6 || 4.0 || 28 || 6",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| || 626,756 || 7.4 || 7.4 || 16 || 16",
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"plaintext": "| || 539,062 || 6.4 || 4.9 || 14 || 15",
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"plaintext": "| || 415,936 || 4.9 || 2.4 || – || –",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| || 80,780 || 1.0 || 6.8 || – || 20",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:right\" colspan=\"2\" | Valid votes",
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"plaintext": "| 8,487,373",
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"plaintext": "| 99.0%",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:right\" colspan=\"2\" | Invalid votes",
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"plaintext": "| 89,808\t",
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"plaintext": "| 1.0%",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:right\" colspan=\"2\" | Totals and voter turnout",
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"plaintext": "| 8,577,221 \t",
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"plaintext": "| 65.2% ",
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"plaintext": "| 5.6%",
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"plaintext": "| 199",
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"plaintext": "| 38",
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"plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" | Electorate",
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"plaintext": "| 13,164,887",
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"plaintext": "| 100.00",
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"plaintext": "| —",
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"plaintext": "| colspan=11 style=\"text-align:left\" | Source: Die Landeswahlleiterin des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "The state has Aachen Cathedral, the Cologne Cathedral, the Zeche Zollverein in Essen, the Augustusburg Palace in Brühl and the Imperial Abbey of Corvey in Höxter which are all World Heritage Sites.",
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"plaintext": "Alt is a local beer speciality brewed in Düsseldorf and the Lower Rhine Region.",
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"plaintext": " The composer Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn in 1770.",
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"plaintext": " A regional anthem is the Lied für NRW (Song for NRW).",
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"plaintext": " in regional rail transit",
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"plaintext": " 15 RegionalExpress lines (see: List of regional railway lines in North Rhine-Westphalia)",
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"plaintext": " 19 Stadtbahn light rail lines (see: Rhine-Ruhr Stadtbahn)",
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"plaintext": " 1 Schwebebahn line (in Wuppertal)",
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"plaintext": " 2 H-Bahn peoplemover systems made up of three lines (two H-Bahn lines in Dortmund, and the Düsseldorf SkyTrain at Düsseldorf airport)",
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"plaintext": " 18 semi-fast bus lines (CityExpress, CE)",
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"plaintext": " 6 trolleybus lines (in Solingen)",
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"plaintext": " 11,500 transit stops",
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"plaintext": "In 2022 the VRS and AVV area contains ",
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"plaintext": " in regional rail transit",
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"plaintext": " 7 S-Bahn lines (with 4 being part of the Rhein-Ruhr S-Bahn)",
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"plaintext": " 18 RegionalBahn services",
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"plaintext": " in local rail transit ",
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"plaintext": " 16 Stadtbahn lines (see: Cologne Stadtbahn and Bonn Stadtbahn)",
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"plaintext": " 3 streetcar (Straßenbahn) lines within the city of Bonn",
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"plaintext": "North Rhine-Westphalia has the densest network of Autobahns in Germany and similar Schnellstraßen (expressways). The Autobahn network is built in a grid network, with five east–west (A2, A4, A40, A42, A44) and eight north–south (A1, A3, A43, A45, A52, A57, A59, A61) routes. The A1, A2, A3, A4 and A61 are mostly used by through traffic, while the other autobahns have a more regional function.",
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"plaintext": "Both the A44 and the A52 have several missing links, in various stages of planning. Some missing sections are currently in construction or planned to be constructed in the near future.",
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"plaintext": "Additional expressways serve as bypasses and local routes, especially around Dortmund and Bochum. Due to the density of the autobahns and expressways, Bundesstraßen are less important for intercity traffic. The first Autobahns in the Region opened during the mid-1930s. Due to the density of the network, and the number of alternative routes, traffic volumes are generally lower than other major metropolitan areas in Europe. Traffic congestion is an everyday occurrence, but far less so than in the Randstad in the Netherlands, another polycentric urban area. Most important Autobahns have six lanes.",
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"plaintext": "The second airport is the international airport of Germany's fourth-largest city Cologne, and also serves Bonn, former capital of West Germany. With around 12.4 million passengers passing through it in 2017, it is the seventh-largest passenger airport in Germany and the third-largest in terms of cargo operations. By traffic units, which combines cargo and passengers, the airport is in fifth position in Germany. As of March 2015, Cologne Bonn Airport had services to 115 passenger destinations in 35 countries. It is named after Konrad Adenauer, a Cologne native and the first post-war Chancellor of West Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Third airport in the region, Dortmund Airport is a minor international airport located east of Dortmund. It serves the eastern Rhine-Ruhr area, the largest urban agglomeration in Germany, and is mainly used for low-cost and leisure charter flights. In 2019 the airport served 2,719,563 passengers.",
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"plaintext": "Then the airport of Münsterland Münster Osnabrück International Airport, hosting nearly 986,260 passengers per year and Airport Weeze with 693,404 passengers.",
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"plaintext": "The Rhine flows through North Rhine-Westphalia. Its banks are usually heavily populated and industrialized, in particular the agglomerations Cologne, Düsseldorf and Ruhr area. Here the Rhine flows through the largest conurbation in Germany, the Rhine-Ruhr region. Duisburg Inner Harbour (Duisport) and Dortmund Port are large industrial inland ports and serve as hubs along the Rhine and the German inland water transport system. The country is crossed by many canals like Rhine–Herne Canal (RHK), der Wesel-Datteln-Kanal (WDK), der Datteln-Hamm-Kanal (DHK) and Dortmund-Ems-Kanal (DEK) an important role for inland navigation.",
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"plaintext": " RWTH Aachen is one of Germany's leading universities of technology and was chosen by DFG as one of the German Universities of Excellence in 2007 and again in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "North Rhine-Westphalia is home to 14 universities and over 50 partly postgraduate colleges, with a total of over 500,000 students. Largest and oldest university is the University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln), founded in 1388 AD, since 2012 also one of Germany's eleven Universities of Excellence. University of Duisburg-Essen (Universität Duisburg-Essen), is also well known and is one of the largest universities in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "NRW is home to several football clubs of the Bundesliga including Bayer 04 Leverkusen, Borussia Dortmund, Borussia Mönchengladbach, 1. FC Köln, FC Schalke 04 and VfL Bochum and the 2. Bundesliga including Fortuna Düsseldorf, Arminia Bielefeld and SC Paderborn 07. Since the formal establishment of the German Bundesliga in 1963, Borussia Dortmund and Borussia Mönchengladbach have been the most successful teams with both winning 5 titles. FC Köln won 2 titles, including the first in 1963. Before the league's establishment, North Rhine-Westfalian teams competed for the title of Deutscher Fußballmeister (German Football Champion). Here, FC Schalke 04 brought home 7 titles, while Dortmund and Köln won an additional 3 and 1 title(s), respectively. Fortuna Düsseldorf and Rot-Weiß Essen have each been German Champion once. North Rhine-Westphalia has been a very successful footballing state having a combined total of 25 championships, fewer only than Bavaria.",
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"plaintext": "Other divisions:",
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"plaintext": " Alemannia Aachen",
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"plaintext": " Fortuna Köln",
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"plaintext": " KFC Uerdingen 05",
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"plaintext": "MSV Duisburg",
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"plaintext": " Rot-Weiß Oberhausen",
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"plaintext": " Rot-Weiß Essen",
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"plaintext": " SG Wattenscheid 09",
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"plaintext": " Sportfreunde Siegen",
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"plaintext": " Wuppertaler SV",
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"plaintext": "The state is also home to several professional basketball teams that currently either compete in the Basketball Bundesliga or have competed there in the recent past. These teams include Telekom Baskets Bonn, Bayer Giants Leverkusen, Paderborn Baskets and Phoenix Hagen.",
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"plaintext": "North Rhine-Westphalia is home to DEL teams Düsseldorfer EG, Kölner Haie, Krefeld Pinguine, and Iserlohn Roosters.",
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"plaintext": " Beckrath",
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"plaintext": " Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen",
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"plaintext": " Kunststiftung NRW",
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"plaintext": " NRW Forum",
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"plaintext": " Outline of Germany",
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"plaintext": " List of rivers of North Rhine-Westphalia",
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"plaintext": " List of lakes in North Rhine-Westphalia",
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"plaintext": " Official Government Portal",
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"plaintext": " The Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia",
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"plaintext": " Holidays in NRW",
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"plaintext": " Information and resources on the history of Westphalia on the Web portal \"Westphalian History\"",
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"plaintext": " Guidelines for the integration of the Land Lippe within the territory of the federal state North-Rhine-Westphalia of 17 January 1947",
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"plaintext": " North Rhine-Westphalia images from Cologne and Duesseldorf to Paderborn and Muenster",
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38,415 | 1,094,931,722 | Electrode_potential | [
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"plaintext": "In electrochemistry, electrode potential is the electromotive force of a galvanic cell built from a standard reference electrode and another electrode to be characterized. By convention, the reference electrode is the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). It is defined to have a potential of zero volts. It may also be defined as the potential difference between the charged metallic rods and salt solution.",
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"plaintext": "The electrode potential has its origin in the potential difference developed at the interface between the electrode and the electrolyte. It is common, for instance, to speak of the electrode potential of the M+/M redox couple.",
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"plaintext": "Electrode potential appears at the interface between an electrode and electrolyte due to the transfer of charged species across the interface, specific adsorption of ions at the interface, and specific adsorption/orientation of polar molecules, including those of the solvent.",
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"plaintext": "In an electrochemical cell, the cathode and the anode have a certain electrode potential independently and the difference between them is the cell potential:",
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"plaintext": "Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode.",
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"plaintext": "The electrode potential may be either that at equilibrium at the working electrode (\"reversible potential\"), or a potential with a non-zero net reaction on the working electrode but zero net current (\"corrosion potential\", \"mixed potential\"), or a potential with a non-zero net current on the working electrode (like in galvanic corrosion or voltammetry). Reversible potentials can be sometimes converted to the standard electrode potential for a given electroactive species by extrapolation of the measured values to the standard state.",
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"plaintext": "The value of the electrode potential under non-equilibrium depends on the nature and composition of the contacting phases, and on the kinetics of electrode reactions at the interface (see Butler–Volmer equation).",
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"plaintext": "An operational assumption for determinations of the electrode potentials with the standard hydrogen electrode involves this reference electrode with hydrogen ion in an ideal solution having is \"zero potential at all temperatures\" equivalently to standard enthalpy of formation of hydrogen ion is also \"zero at all temperatures\".",
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"plaintext": " working electrode,",
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"plaintext": " counter electrode,",
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"plaintext": " reference electrode (standard hydrogen electrode or an equivalent).",
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"plaintext": "In case of non-zero net current on the electrode, it is essential to minimize the ohmic IR-drop in the electrolyte, e.g., by positioning the reference electrode near the surface of the working electrode (e.g., see Luggin capillary), or by using a supporting electrolyte of sufficiently high conductivity. The potential measurements are performed with the positive terminal of the electrometer connected to the working electrode and the negative terminal to the reference electrode.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, two conventions for sign for the electrode potential have formed:",
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"plaintext": " convention \"Nernst–Lewis–Latimer\" (sometimes referred to as \"American\"),",
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"plaintext": " convention \"Gibbs–Ostwald–Stockholm\" (sometimes referred to as \"European\").",
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"plaintext": "In 1953 in Stockholm IUPAC recognized that either of the conventions is permissible; however, it unanimously recommended that only the magnitude expressed according to the convention (2) be called \"the electrode potential\". To avoid possible ambiguities, the electrode potential thus defined can also be referred to as Gibbs–Stockholm electrode potential. In both conventions, the standard hydrogen electrode is defined to have a potential of 0 V. Both conventions also agree on the sign of E for a half-cell reaction when it is written as a reduction.",
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"plaintext": "The main difference between the two conventions is that upon reversing the direction of a half-cell reaction as written, according to the convention (1) the sign of E also switches, whereas in the convention (2) it does not. The logic behind switching the sign of E is to maintain the correct sign relationship with the Gibbs free energy change, given by Δ G = -nFE where n is the number of electrons involved and F is the Faraday constant. It is assumed that the half-reaction is balanced by the appropriate SHE half-reaction. Since Δ G switches sign when a reaction is written in reverse, so too, proponents of the convention (1) argue, should the sign of E. Proponents of the convention (2) argue that all reported electrode potentials should be consistent with the electrostatic sign of the relative potential difference. ",
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"plaintext": "ΔVcell = Ered,cathode − Ered,anode",
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"plaintext": "or, equivalently,",
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"plaintext": "ΔVcell = Ered,cathode + Eoxy,anode.",
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"plaintext": "This follows from the IUPAC definition of the electric potential difference of a galvanic cell, according to which the electric potential difference of a cell is the difference of the potentials of the electrodes on the right and the left of the galvanic cell. When ΔVcell is positive, then positive electrical charge flows through the cell from the left electrode (anode) to the right electrode (cathode).",
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38,418 | 1,061,246,416 | Erich_Hückel | [
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"plaintext": "Erich Armand Arthur Joseph Hückel (August 9, 1896, Berlin – February 16, 1980, Marburg) was a German physicist and physical chemist. He is known for two major contributions:",
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"plaintext": "According to Felix Bloch, Erich Hückel \"incited and helped\" the students at the University of Zurich to write poems about their great professors. The poem about Erwin Schrödinger went like this:",
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"plaintext": "Mit seiner Wellenfunktion.",
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"plaintext": "Nur wissen möcht' man gerne wohl",
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"plaintext": "Was man sich dabei vorstell'n soll.",
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"plaintext": "It was freely translated by Felix Bloch:",
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"plaintext": "Just what does psi really mean?",
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"plaintext": "1965 Otto Hahn Prize for Chemistry and Physics",
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"plaintext": " E. Hückel, Ein Gelehrtenleben: Ernst u. Satire (1975 ).",
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"plaintext": " A. Karachalios, Erich Hückel (1896 –1980): From Physics to Quantum Chemistry (Springer, 2010 ).",
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38,419 | 1,103,549,656 | Peleus | [
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"plaintext": "Peleus and his brother Telamon killed their half-brother Phocus, perhaps in a hunting accident and certainly in an unthinking moment, and fled Aegina to escape punishment. In Phthia, Peleus was purified by the city's ruler, Eurytion, and then married the latter's daughter, Antigone, by whom he had a daughter, Polydora. Eurytion received the barest mention among the Argonauts (both Peleus and Telamon were Argonauts themselves) \"yet not together, nor from one place, for they dwelt far apart and distant from Aigina;\" but Peleus accidentally killed Eurytion during the hunt for the Calydonian boar and fled from Phthia.",
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"plaintext": "Peleus was purified of the murder of Eurytion in Iolcus by Acastus. Acastus' wife, Astydameia, fell in love with Peleus and after he scorned her, she sent a messenger to Antigone to tell her that Peleus was to marry Acastus' daughter. As a result, Antigone hanged herself.",
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"plaintext": "Astydameia then told Acastus that Peleus had tried to rape her. Acastus took Peleus on a hunting trip atop Mount Pelion and once Peleus fell asleep, Acastus hid his sword away and abandoned him on the mountainside. Peleus woke up and as a group of centaurs was about to attack him, the wise centaur Chiron, or, according to another source, Hermes, returned his sword to him and Peleus managed to escape. He pillaged Iolcus and dismembered Astydameia, then marched his army between the rended limbs. Acastus and Astydamia were dead and the kingdom fell to Jason's son, Thessalus.",
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"plaintext": "After Antigone's death, Peleus married the sea-nymph Thetis. He was able to win her over with the aid of Proteus, who instructed Peleus to hold onto her tightly through all of her physical transformations she used to try to escape. Their wedding feast was attended by many of the Olympian gods. As wedding presents, Poseidon gave Peleus two immortal horses: Balius and Xanthus, Hephaestus gave him a knife, Aphrodite a bowl with an embossed Eros, Hera a chlamys, Athena a flute, Nereus a basket of the divine salt which has an irresistible virtue for overeating, appetite and digestion and Zeus gave Thetis, as present, the wings of Arke.",
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"plaintext": "During the feast, Eris, in revenge for not being invited, produced the Apple of Discord, which started the quarrel that led to the Judgement of Paris and eventually the Trojan War. The marriage of Peleus and Thetis produced seven sons, six of whom died in infancy. The only surviving son was Achilles.",
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"plaintext": "Thetis attempted to render her son Achilles invulnerable. In the well-known version, she dipped him in the River Styx, holding him by one heel, which remained vulnerable. In an early and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and she abandoned both father and son in a rage, leaving his heel vulnerable. A nearly identical story is told by Plutarch, in his On Isis and Osiris, of the goddess Isis burning away the mortality of Prince Maneros of Byblos, son of Queen Astarte, and being likewise interrupted before completing the process. Later on in life, Achilles is killed by Paris when he is shot in his vulnerable spot, the heel. This is where the term \"Achilles' heel\" is derived from.",
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"plaintext": "In the Iliad, Achilles uses Peleus' immortal horses and also wields his father's spear.",
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"plaintext": "Though the tomb of Aeacus remained in a shrine enclosure in the most conspicuous part of the port city, a quadrangular enclosure of white marble sculpted with bas-reliefs, in the form in which Pausanias saw it, with the tumulus of Phocus nearby, there was no temenos of Peleus at Aegina. Two versions of Peleus' fate account for this; in Euripides' Troades, Acastus, son of Pelias, has exiled him from Phthia; and subsequently he dies in exile; in another, he is reunited with Thetis and made immortal.",
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"plaintext": "In antiquity, according to a fragment of Callimachus' lost Aitia, there was a tomb of Peleus in Ikos (modern Alonissos), an island of the northern Sporades; there Peleus was venerated as \"king of the Myrmidons\" and the \"return of the hero\" was celebrated annually. And there was his tomb, according to a poem in the Greek Anthology.",
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"plaintext": "The only other reference to veneration of Peleus comes from the Christian Clement of Alexandria, in his polemical Exhortation to the Greeks. Clement attributes his source to a \"collection of marvels\" by a certain \"Monimos\" of whom nothing is known, and claims, in pursuit of his thesis that daimon-worshipers become as cruel as their gods, that in \"Pella of Thessaly human sacrifice is offered to Peleus and Cheiron, the victim being an Achaean\". Of this, the continuing association of Peleus and Chiron is the most dependable detail.",
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"plaintext": "Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.",
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"plaintext": "Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke I, ix, 16 and III, ix,2 and xii, 6- xiii,7; Epitome vi, 13.",
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"plaintext": "Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.",
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"plaintext": "Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica IV,805- 879",
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"plaintext": "In his will and in his instructions to the trustees of the university and the hospital, Hopkins requested that both institutions be built upon the vast grounds of his Baltimore estate, Clifton. When Gilman assumed the presidency, he decided that it would be best to use the university's endowment for recruiting faculty and students, deciding to, as it has been paraphrased, \"build men, not buildings.\" In his will Hopkins stipulated that none of his endowment should be used for construction; only interest on the principal could be used for this purpose. Unfortunately, stocks in The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which would have generated most of the interest, became virtually worthless soon after Hopkins's death. The university's first home was thus in Downtown Baltimore delaying plans to site the university in Clifton.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 20th century, the university outgrew its buildings and the trustees began to search for a new home. Developing Clifton for the university was too costly, and of the estate had to be sold to the city as public park. A solution was achieved by a team of prominent locals who acquired the estate in north Baltimore known as Homewood. On February 22, 1902, this land was formally transferred to the university. The flagship building, Gilman Hall, was completed in 1915. The School of Engineering relocated in Fall of 1914 and the School of Arts and Sciences followed in 1916. These decades saw the ceding of lands by the university for the public Wyman Park and Wyman Park Dell and the Baltimore Museum of Art, coalescing in the contemporary area of .",
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"plaintext": "Prior to becoming the main Johns Hopkins campus, the Homewood estate had initially been the gift of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, a Maryland planter and signer of the Declaration of Independence, to his son Charles Carroll Jr. The original structure, the 1801 Homewood House, still stands and serves as an on-campus museum. The brick and marble Federal style of Homewood House became the architectural inspiration for much of the university campus versus the Collegiate Gothic style of other historic American universities.",
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"plaintext": "The early decades of the 21st century saw expansion across the university's institutions in both physical and population sizes. Notably, a planned 88-acre expansion to the medical campus began in 2013. Completed construction on the Homewood campus has included a new biomedical engineering building in the Johns Hopkins University Department of Biomedical Engineering, a new library, a new biology wing, an extensive renovation of the flagship Gilman Hall, and the reconstruction of the main university entrance.",
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"plaintext": "These years also brought about the rapid development of the university's professional schools of education and business. From 1999 until 2007, these disciplines had been joined within the School of Professional Studies in Business and Education (SPSBE), itself a reshuffling of several earlier ventures. The 2007 split, combined with new funding and leadership initiatives, has led to the simultaneous emergence of the Johns Hopkins School of Education and the Carey Business School.",
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"plaintext": "On November 18, 2018, it was announced that Michael Bloomberg would make a donation to his alma mater of $1.8billion, marking the largest private donation in modern history to an institution of higher education and bringing Bloomberg's total contribution to the school in excess of $3.3billion. Bloomberg's $1.8billion gift allows the school to practice need-blind admission and meet the full financial need of admitted students.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2019, the university's Coronavirus Research Center began tracking worldwide cases of the COVID-19 pandemic by compiling data from hundreds of sources around the world. This led to the university becoming one of the most cited sources for data about the pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "Hopkins was a prominent abolitionist who supported Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War. After his death, reports said his conviction was a decisive factor in enrolling Hopkins's first African-American student, Kelly Miller, a graduate student in physics, astronomy and mathematics. As time passed, the university adopted a \"separate but equal\" stance more like other Baltimore institutions.",
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"plaintext": "Hopkins's most well-known battle for women's rights was the one led by daughters of trustees of the university; Mary E. Garrett, M. Carey Thomas, Mamie Gwinn, Elizabeth King, and Julia Rogers. They donated and raised the funds needed to open the medical school, and required Hopkins's officials to agree to their stipulation that women would be admitted. The nursing school opened in 1889 and accepted women and men as students. Other graduate schools were later opened to women by president Ira Remsen in 1907. Christine Ladd-Franklin was the first woman to earn a PhD at Hopkins, in mathematics in 1882. The trustees denied her the degree for decades and refused to change the policy about admitting women. In 1893, Florence Bascomb became the university's first female PhD. The decision to admit women at undergraduate level was not considered until the late 1960s and was eventually adopted in October 1969. As of 2009–2010, the undergraduate population was 47% female and 53% male. In 2020, the undergraduate population of Hopkins was 53% female.",
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"plaintext": " Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences: The Krieger School offers more than 60 undergraduate majors and minors and more than 40 graduate programs.",
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"plaintext": "The first campus was located on Howard Street. Eventually, they relocated to Homewood, in northern Baltimore, the estate of Charles Carroll, son of the oldest surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence. Carroll's Homewood House is considered one of the finest examples of Federal residential architecture. The estate then came to the Wyman family, which participated in making it the park-like main campus of the schools of arts and sciences and engineering at the start of the 20th century. Most of its architecture was modeled after the Federal style of Homewood House. Homewood House is preserved as a museum. Most undergraduate programs are on this campus.",
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"plaintext": " Bloomberg School of Public Health: The Bloomberg School was founded in 1916 and is the world's oldest and largest school of public health. It has consistently been ranked first in its field by U.S. News & World Report.",
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"plaintext": " Peabody Institute: founded in 1857, is the oldest continuously active music conservatory in the United States; it became a division of Johns Hopkins in 1977. The Conservatory retains its own student body and grants degrees in musicology and performance, though both Hopkins and Peabody students may take courses at both institutions. It is located on East Mount Vernon Place.",
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"plaintext": " Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) is located on the Washington D.C. campus near Dupont Circle. In a 2005 survey 65% of respondents ranked SAIS as the nation's top Master's Degree program in international relations.",
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"plaintext": " The Krieger School of Arts and Sciences' Advanced Academic Programs (AAP)",
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"plaintext": " Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL): The APL in Laurel, Maryland, specializes in research for the U.S. Department of Defense, NASA and other government and civilian research agencies. Among other projects, it has designed, built, and flown spacecraft for NASA to the asteroid Eros, and the planets Mercury and Pluto. It has developed more than 100 biomedical devices, many in collaboration with the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions.",
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"plaintext": " Montgomery County, Maryland Campus (Part-time programs in Biosciences, Engineering, Business & Education)",
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"plaintext": " Perdana University-Johns Hopkins (Discontinued)",
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"plaintext": "The full-time, four-year undergraduate program is \"most selective\" with low transfer-in and a high graduate co-existence. The cost of attendance per year is approximately $77,400. However, 51% of full-time undergraduates receive financial aid covering 100% of their need. The admit rate of Hopkins undergraduates to medical school is 80% and to law school is 97%, some of the highest rates in the US. The university is one of fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities (AAU); it is also a member of the Consortium on Financing Higher Education (COFHE) and the Universities Research Association (URA).",
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"plaintext": "The university's undergraduate programs are highly selective: in 2021, the Office of Admissions accepted about 4.9% of its 33,236 Regular Decision applicants and about 6.4% of its total 38,725 applicants. In 2020, 99% of admitted students graduated in the top 10% of their high school class. Over time, applications to Johns Hopkins University have risen steadily; as a result, the selectivity of Johns Hopkins University has also increased. Early Decision is an option at Johns Hopkins University for students who wish to demonstrate that the university is their first choice. These students, if admitted, are required to enroll. This application is due November 2. Most students, however, apply Regular Decision, which is a traditional non-binding round. These applications are due January 1 and students are notified in late March. In 2014, Johns Hopkins ended legacy preference in admissions. Johns Hopkins practices need-blind admission and meets the full financial need of all admitted students.",
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"plaintext": "The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of the Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and holds the distinction of being the oldest continuously running university press in the United States. To date the Press has published more than 6,000 titles and currently publishes 65 scholarly periodicals and over 200 new books each year. Since 1993, the Johns Hopkins University Press has run Project MUSE, an online collection of over 250 full-text, peer-reviewed journals in the humanities and social sciences. The Press also houses the Hopkins Fulfilment Services (HFS), which handles distribution for a number of university presses and publishers. Taken together, the three divisions of the Press—Books, Journals (including MUSE) and HFS—make it one of the largest of America's university presses.",
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"plaintext": "The Johns Hopkins University also offers the \"Center for Talented Youth\" program—a nonprofit organization dedicated to identifying and developing the talents of the most promising K-12 grade students worldwide. As part of the Johns Hopkins University, the \"Center for Talented Youth\" or CTY helps fulfill the university's mission of preparing students to make significant future contributions to the world. The Johns Hopkins Digital Media Center (DMC) is a multimedia lab space as well as an equipment, technology and knowledge resource for students interested in exploring creative uses of emerging media and use of technology.",
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"plaintext": "In FY 2000, Johns Hopkins received $95.4million in research grants from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), making it the leading recipient of NASA research and development funding. In FY 2002, Hopkins became the first university to cross the $1billion threshold on either list, recording $1.14billion in total research and $1.023billion in federally sponsored research. In FY 2008, Johns Hopkins University performed $1.68billion in science, medical and engineering research, making it the leading U.S. academic institution in total R&D spending for the 30th year in a row, according to a National Science Foundation (NSF) ranking. These totals include grants and expenditures of JHU's Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Village, the region of North Baltimore surrounding the university, has undergone several restoration projects, and the university has gradually bought the property around the school for additional student housing and dormitories. The Charles Village Project, completed in 2008, brought new commercial spaces to the neighborhood. The project included Charles Commons, a new, modern residence hall that includes popular retail franchises. In 2015, the university began development of new commercial properties, including a modern upperclassmen apartment complex, restaurants and eateries, and a CVS retail store.",
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"plaintext": "Hopkins invested in improving campus life with an arts complex in 2001, the Mattin Center, and a three-story sports facility, the O'Connor Recreation Center. The large on-campus dining facilities at Homewood were renovated in the summer of 2006. The Mattin Center was demolished in 2021 to make room for the new Student Center scheduled to open in the fall of 2024.",
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"plaintext": "Quality of life is enriched by the proximity of neighboring academic institutions, including Loyola College, Maryland Institute College of Art (MICA), UMBC, Goucher College, and Towson University, as well as the nearby neighborhoods of Hampden, the Inner Harbor, Fells Point, and Mount Vernon.",
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"plaintext": "Students and alumni are active on and off campus. Johns Hopkins has been home to several secret societies, many of which are now defunct. Blue Jay Supper Society is the only active secret society with open applications. Membership is open to undergraduate and graduate students as well as alumni.",
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"plaintext": "Fraternity and sorority life came to Hopkins in 1876 with the chartering of Beta Theta Pi fraternity, which still exists on campus today. Since, Johns Hopkins has become home to nine sororities and 11 fraternities. Of the nine sororities, five belong to the National Panhellenic Conference and four to the Multicultural Greek Council Sororities. Of the fraternities, all 11 belong to the Inter-Fraternity Council. Over 1,000 students participate in Fraternity and Sorority Life, with 23% of women and 20% of men taking part. Fraternity and Sorority Life has expanded its reach at Hopkins in recent decades, as only 15% of the student body participated in 1989. Alpha Phi Alpha, a historically black fraternity, was founded in 1991, Lambda Phi Epsilon, an Asian-interest fraternity, was founded in 1994, and Lambda Upsilon Lambda, a Latino-interest fraternity, was founded in 1995. Rush for all students occurs in the spring. Most fraternities keep houses in Charles Village while sororities do not.",
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"plaintext": "Spring Fair has been a Johns Hopkins tradition since 1972 and has since grown to be the largest student-run festival in the country. Popular among Hopkins students and Baltimore inhabitants alike, Spring Fair features carnival rides, vendors, food and a beer garden. Since its beginning, Spring Fair has decreased in size, both in regard to attendance and utilization of space. While one point, the Fair attracted upwards of 100,000 people, it became unruly and, for a variety of reasons including safety concerns and a campus beautification project in the early 2000s, had to be scaled back.",
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"plaintext": "While it has been speculated that Johns Hopkins has relatively few traditions for a school of its age and that many past traditions have been forgotten, a handful of myths and customs are ubiquitous knowledge among the community. One such long-standing myth surrounds the university seal that is embedded into the floor of the Gilman Hall foyer. The myth holds that any current student to step on the seal will never graduate. In reverence for this tradition, the seal has been fenced off from the rest of the room.",
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"plaintext": "An annual event is the Lighting of the Quads, a ceremony each winter during which the campus is lit up in holiday lights. Recent years have included singing and fireworks.",
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"plaintext": "Living on campus is typically required for first- and second-year undergraduates. Freshman housing is centered around Freshman Quad, which consists of three residence hall complexes: The two Alumni Memorial Residences (AMR I and AMR II) plus Buildings A and B. The AMR dormitories are each divided into houses, subunits named for figures from the university's early history. Freshmen are also housed in Wolman Hall and in certain wings of McCoy Hall, both located slightly outside the campus. Dorms at Hopkins are generally co-ed with same-gender rooms, though a new policy has allowed students to live in mixed-gender rooms since Fall 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Students determine where they will live during sophomore year through a housing lottery. Most juniors and seniors move into nearby apartments or row-houses. Non-freshmen in university housing occupy one of four buildings: McCoy Hall, the Bradford Apartments, the Homewood Apartments, and Charles Commons. All are located in Charles Village within a block from the Homewood campus. Forty-five percent of the student body lives off-campus while 55% lives on campus.",
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"plaintext": "Athletic teams are called Blue Jays. Even though sable and gold are used for academic robes, the university's athletic colors are Columbia blue (PMS 284) and black. Hopkins celebrates Homecoming in the spring to coincide with the height of the lacrosse season. The men's and women's lacrosse teams are in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and are affiliate members of the Big Ten Conference. Other teams are in Division III and participate in the Centennial Conference. JHU is also home to the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame, maintained by US Lacrosse.",
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"plaintext": "The school's most prominent team is its men's lacrosse team. The team has won 44 national titles – nine Division I (2007, 2005, 1987, 1985, 1984, 1980, 1979, 1978, 1974), 29 United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA), and six Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (ILA) titles. Hopkins's primary national rivals are Princeton University, Syracuse University, and the University of Virginia; its primary intrastate rivals are Loyola University Maryland (competing in what is called the \"Charles Street Massacre\"), Towson University, the United States Naval Academy, and the University of Maryland. The rivalry with Maryland is the oldest. The schools have met 111 times since 1899, three times in playoff matches.",
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"plaintext": "On June 3, 2013, it was announced that the Blue Jays would join the Big Ten Conference for men's lacrosse when that league begins sponsoring the sport in the 2015 season (2014–15 school year).",
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"plaintext": "The women's team is a member of the Big Ten Conference and a former member of the American Lacrosse Conference (ALC). The Lady Blue Jays were ranked number 18 in the 2015 Inside Lacrosse Women's DI Media Poll. They ranked number 8 in the 2007 Intercollegiate Women's Lacrosse Coaches Association (IWLCA) Poll Division I. The team finished the 2012 season with a 9–9 record and finished the 2013 season with a 10–7 record. They finished the 2014 season 15–5. On June 17, 2015, it was announced that the Blue Jays would join the Big Ten Conference for women's lacrosse in the 2017 season (2016–17 school year).",
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"plaintext": "Hopkins has notable Division III Athletic teams. JHU Men's Swimming won three consecutive NCAA Championships in 1977, 1978, and 1979. In 2009–2010, Hopkins won 8 Centennial Conference titles in Women's Cross Country, Women's Track & Field, Baseball, Men's and Women's Soccer, Football, and Men's and Women's Tennis. The Women's Cross Country team became the first women's team at Hopkins to achieve a #1 National ranking. In 2006–2007 teams won Centennial Conference titles in Baseball, Men's and Women's Soccer, Men's and Women's Tennis and Men's Basketball. Women's soccer won their Centennial Conference title for 7 consecutive years from 2005 to 2011. In the 2013–2014 school year, Hopkins earned 12 Centennial Conference titles, most notably from the cross country and track & field teams, which accounted for six.",
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"plaintext": "Hopkins has an acclaimed fencing team, which ranked in the top three Division III teams in the past few years and in both 2008 and 2007 defeated the University of North Carolina, a Division I team. In 2008, they defeated UNC and won the MACFA championship.",
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"plaintext": "The men's swimming team has ranked highly in NCAA Division III for the last 20 years, most recently placing second at DIII Nationals in 2008 and 2022. The water polo team was number one in Division III for several of the past years, playing a full schedule against Division I opponents. Hopkins also has a century-old rivalry with McDaniel College (formerly Western Maryland College), playing the Green Terrors 83 times in football since the first game in 1894. In 2009 the football team reached the quarterfinals of the NCAA Division III tournament, with three tournament appearances since 2005. In 2008, the baseball team ranked second, losing in the final game of the DIII College World Series to Trinity College.",
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"plaintext": "The Johns Hopkins squash team plays in the College Squash Association as a club team along with Division I and III varsity programs. In 2011–12 the squash team finished 30th in the ranking.",
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"plaintext": ", there have been 39 Nobel Laureates who either attended the university as undergraduate or graduate students, or were faculty members. Woodrow Wilson, who received his PhD from Johns Hopkins in 1886, was Hopkins's first affiliated laureate, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919. Twenty-three laureates were faculty members, five earned PhDs, eight earned M.D.s, and Francis Peyton Rous and Martin Rodbell earned undergraduate degrees.",
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"plaintext": "As of October 2019, eighteen Johns Hopkins laureates have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Four Nobel Prizes were shared by Johns Hopkins laureates: George Minot and George Whipple won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.",
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"plaintext": "Four Johns Hopkins laureates won Nobel Prizes in Physics, including Riccardo Giacconi in 2002 and Bloomberg Distinguished Professor Adam Riess in 2011. Bloomberg Distinguished Professor Peter Agre was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (which he shared with Roderick MacKinnon) for his discovery of aquaporins. Bloomberg Distinguished Professor Carol Greider was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with Blackburn and Jack W. Szostak, for their discovery that telomeres are protected from progressive shortening by the enzyme telomerase.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol-Myers Squibb, Johns Hopkins University and the Rockefeller Foundation are currently the subject of a $1billion lawsuit from Guatemala for \"roles in a 1940s U.S. government experiment that infected hundreds of Guatemalans with syphilis. A previous suit against the United States government was dismissed in 2011 for the Guatemala syphilis experiments when a judge determined that the U.S. government could not be held liable for actions committed outside of the U.S.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus (; , Plōtînos) (204 or 205–270 CE) was a neoplatonic philosopher likely to have been born in Lycopolis (modern day Asyut), Roman Egypt, and is regarded by contemporary scholarship as the founder of neoplatonism. His name is of Roman origin and he was from a Greek, Roman or a Hellenized Egyptian family.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus established the first neoplatonic school in Rome in 245 CE after having been taught in Alexandria for about 10 or 11 years by the self-taught philosopher Ammonius Saccas, who belonged to the Platonic tradition. All of the reliable information about Plotinus' life comes from a biography written by his student Porphyry as an introduction to Plotinus' work called the Enneads.",
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"plaintext": "In the Enneads, Plotinus first describes human virtues and the physical world, then proceeds to describe three immaterial grades of reality (known as hypostases, or metaphysical orders) in ascending order: Soul (ψυχή) the third hypostasis, Intellect (νοῦς) the second hypostasis; and finally the One (τὸ ἕν) the first hypostasis.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus' Enneads contain a unified synthesis of nearly eight centuries of Greek philosophy, and explicitly mentions the philosophers: Pherecydes, Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Epicurus. The Enneads passed on the Platonic tradition to centuries of Christian, Jewish, and Islamic philosophy and religion, as well as early-modern philosophy and had an enormous influence on art, poetry and the nonacademic esoteric tradition.",
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"plaintext": "The neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry, a student and associate of Plotinus in the last six or eight years of his life, and his eventual biographer, says in his biographical work Life of Plotinus (Vita Plotini, which is the most reliable authority for the life of Plotinus) that Plotinus never talked about his family or his country to him; and so what we know of Plotinus' birthplace and nationality of his family is uncertain. In Life of Plotinus, Porphyry also reports that Plotinus did not reveal his birth date or birth month, but he knew Plotinus died in the 66th year of his life (i.e. after he was 65 and before he was 66 years old) at the end of the second year of the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius II in 270 CE, hence giving us the year of Plotinus' birth as 204 or 205 CE.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 5th century historian Eunapius, in his work Lives of Philosophers and Sophists, Plotinus was born in 'a place called Lyco'; however, that work was written in 455 CE, nearly two centuries after Plotinus died, and we do not know where Eunapius got his information from, as many possible sources have been lost, or if his information is reliable. Also in the 5th century, the neoplatonic philosopher Proclus calls Plotinus 'The Egyptian' in his work Platonic Theology (I.1). The Suidias, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, calls Plotinus 'a Lycopolitan', and the 11th century Byzantine empress Eudocia says, in what may be her work Bed of Violets, that 'some say he [Plotinus] was born at Lyco, a nome of Lycopolis in Egypt'. The ancient city of Lycopolis referred to by those reports is usually taken by scholars to be the modern day city Asyut (Assiout, ancient Egyptian: Zawty) which was the capital of the 13th nome of Upper Egypt situated between Akhmim and Hermopolis, and infrequently taken by scholars to be its colony Lycopolis in the Delta.",
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"plaintext": "All those reports have led to speculations that Plotinus could have been a native Egyptian, a Hellenized Egyptian, a Greek born in Egypt or a Roman. The speculation that Plotinus was Roman comes from the conjecture that the name 'Plotinus' is the male version of the name inherited from the 2nd century Roman empress Plotina, whose husband was the Roman emperor Trajan. Some late 19th century scholarship added to that speculation by saying that Plotinus may have been a Copt, descended from a freedman of the empress Plotina. 21st century scholarship has also noted that some of Plotinus' linguistic peculiarities suggest a Coptic upbringing. Professor Lloyd P. Gerson, an eminent 21st century American-Canadian Plotinian scholar says, in his introduction to a 2010 publication, that Plotinus was 'likely a Greek born in Egypt', but he also says, in the following sentence, that it is possible that Plotinus 'came from a Hellenized Egyptian or Roman family'.",
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"plaintext": "Despite his reluctance to talk about his own life, Plotinus did relate some details of his early life to Porphyry. In 211 CE, when he was about six or seven years old, he was already under the instruction of a grammarian. There is then a period of about 20 years, of which we know nothing, and our information about him continues from 231 CE, when he was about 27 years old, at which time he felt the impulse to study philosophy and was recommended to teachers of philosophy in Alexandria, who at that time were held in high esteem.",
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"plaintext": "In Alexandria, Plotinus attended philosophical lectures (one of his lecturers was named Alexandriens), but came away from those lectures sad and discouraged, and told a close friend, who understood his troubles and suggested that he attend a lecture by the Platonist philosopher Ammonius Saccas. Ammonius is only partly known to us through the information in Porphyry's biography of Plotinus, and at the time was teaching or had already taught Antoninus; Erennius (Herennius); Longinus; Olympius; Origen, (who may have been another Origen known as Origen the Platonist); and Theodosius.",
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"plaintext": "In 231 or 232 CE, after hearing a lecture by Ammonius, Plotinus declared to his close friend: 'this is the man I was looking for', and after that day began studying under Ammonius, and remained his close associate for 11 years, by which time he was 38 years old. Ammonius' attitude to communication was Pythagorean, which meant that practically nothing is known about his school, he wrote nothing, and students were told to keep his doctrines secret. However, we do know that Ammonius attempted to reconcile the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.",
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"plaintext": "In his biography of Plotinus, Porphyry reveals that Erennius, Origen and Plotinus had made an agreement to keep Ammonius' doctrines secret. That agreement was first broken in a written work by Erennius and then by Origen, however, Plotinus kept the agreement for a long time as: he wrote nothing for about 10 years after his school opened; his early lectures in Rome may not have revealed Ammonius' teachings, and his later written lectures were at first only given to the most important students in his inner circle, Amelius, Eustochius, and Porphyry.",
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"plaintext": "After living about 11 years in Alexandria, and having made much progress in his study of philosophy, Plotinus decided to investigate the philosophical teachings of the Persian and Indian philosophers, (apparently the Brahmans). In the pursuit of that endeavor, he left Alexandria and joined the army of the 18 year-old Roman emperor Gordian III in 242 or 243 CE, as a philosopher and not a soldier. The army was headed to march against the great Shahanshah (king of kings) King Sapor (Shapur I) of Sassanid Persia. The Sassanian Empire, founded in 224 CE, was particularly unreceptive to Graeco-Roman influences and held onto a rigid Zoroastrian orthodoxy. It is conjectured that the religious teacher Mani was in the Persian army headed by King Shapur I.",
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"plaintext": "Some scholars argue that Plotinus had connections with the Roman emperor Gordian III in order for him to be part of the expedition, however, other scholars think that Plotinus, with no definable rank or function in the expedition, had only to turn up at the reception camp in Syria, and from there he could have simply followed the imperial army on its expedition to the East.",
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"plaintext": "Gordian's expedition didn't reach very far east, as the campaign failed when Gordian III was killed in battle in early 244 CE (maybe assassinated by his own troops) at a camp about 30km south of Circesium in a region named Zaitha (now the village al-Mar-wâniyya) in Mesopotamia. Following those events, Plotinus with great difficulty found his way back to safety in Antioch (today the Turkish coast close to the Syrian border), and soon afterwards moved to Rome.",
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"plaintext": "There had been a passionate attraction to the East among Greeks, with the idea of it being a source of great wisdom, since the age of Pythagoras, Herodotus, Democritus, and Eudoxus. The Eastern philosophies were also a great source of interest to Posidonius, Plutarch, Julian the Chaldaean and his son, Julian the Theurgist, Elchasai, Bardaisan, and many others. Hence it was not surprising that Plotinus was enthusiastic in his endeavours to travel to the East and learn about their philosophies.",
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"plaintext": "At the age of 40, between 244 and 245 CE, Plotinus settled in Rome during the reign of emperor Philip, and stayed there until 269 CE, when due to an illness, and in what was to be the last months of his life, he moved to Campania, and there succumbed to his illness in 270 CE.",
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"plaintext": "The move to Rome by Plotinus is surprising because, compared to Alexandria and Athens of the times, there was no important philosophical trend in that city. Theories for Plotinus' move to Rome, substantially related by the 21st century Professor Emeritus Paul Kalligas, are that: (a) perhaps Plotinus' former teacher Ammonius had died in Alexandria in the meantime and Plotinus did not want to be the student of a different teacher; (b) Plotinus did not have a good relationship with the type of academicism in Athens, where at the time Longinus was the head of the Platonic Academy; and (c) Plotinus had important acquaintances in Rome who could provide him with a place to live and study in security and peace as well as provide him with financial and political support, and who perhaps could also introduce him to the Roman elite. Further, whilst at the time Rome may not have been a distinguished centre of philosophy, its public possessed culture, insight and strong religious beliefs that had previously attracted Valentinus, Numenius, and Alexander of Aphrodisias.",
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"plaintext": "In c. 245 CE, shortly after he had settled in Rome, Plotinus established the first neoplatonic school. His school was open to everybody, and attracted people who just wanted to hear his lectures or attend meetings or seminars or participate in open philosophical discussions, whilst others came to seek a philosophical way of life, and others attended because they wanted to become philosophers. Plotinus did not impose a rigid curriculum at his school, he himself did not write anything in his first 10 years in Rome, but rather based his seminars on Ammonius Saccas' method of teaching and encouraged students to ask questions and discuss subjects. Subjects of study at Plotinus' school included works by Plato and Aristotle and commentaries on Plato and Aristotle by the Middle Platonists, Pythagoreans and Aristotelians. In his biography of Plotinus, Porphyry does not say his listing of subjects studied at the school is exhaustive, and so there may have been other philosophical works that were read in Plotinus' school.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus' students included philosophers, students of philosophy, local aristocracy, doctors, Roman senators, poets and orators. His innermost circle of students were:",
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"plaintext": " Amelius Gentilianus of Tuscany who joined Plotinus' school between 246 and 247 CE and stayed for over 20 years until 268 or 269 CE. The industrious organization of Amelius contributed greatly to the success and longevity of Plotinus' school. Amelius was Plotinus' most important student, as he organized the school, wrote works and commentaries that analyzed Plotinus' philosophy, and defended Plotinus against critics and opponents. Amelius also thought highly of the philosopher Numenius, whose works were read in Plotinus' circle, and eventually went to live in a city substantively associated with Numenius, the Syrian city of Apamea, shortly before Plotinus died. When Plotinus was accused of appropriating Numenius' ideas, it was Amelius who wrote a book in Plotinus' defense called On the Difference between the Doctrines of Plotinus and Numenius.",
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"plaintext": " Eustochius of Alexandria, a doctor who lived in Puteoli (modern day Pozzuoli, 40 miles outside Naples), was a close friend of Plotinus who came to the school near the end of Plotinus' life, devoted himself to learning from Plotinus and attended him on his deathbed. After Plotinus' death, his uncorrected manuscripts belonged to Eustochius. Porphyry thought highly of Eustochius, who seems to have edited and published an edition of some of Plotinus' treatises, that were quoted by Eusebius in Praeparatio Evangelica, but are now lost. Eustochius' edition of Plotinus' treatise was published before Porphyry edited and published the Enneads about 30 years after Plotinus died.",
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"plaintext": " Porphyry, a student and associate of Plotinus from 262 or 263 CE until he left the school in 268 CE. He was Plotinus' most brilliant student, a close friend, his biographer, and who Plotinus asked to edit his writings, and eventually was the first editor of the Enneads, which was first published between 301 and 305 CE. The neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry was amongst the first serious students of the Bible, and wrote on astrology, religion, and philosophy, where he was a critic of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and the school of his student, the neoplatonic philosopher Iamblichus. Porphyry also wrote on a important passage in Homer's Odyssey in his work On the Cave of the Nymphs, and he wrote on Pythagorean musical theory.",
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"plaintext": " Amphiclea, who was well versed in philosophy, and whose husband was Ariston, who may have been the son of the neoplatonic philosopher Iamblichus.",
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"plaintext": " Chione, who lived in Gemina's house and may have employed the servants. Porphyry mentions that Plotinus once helped in identifying the servant who had stolen a valuable necklace from Chione.",
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"plaintext": " Gemina, who was also well versed in philosophy, and in whose spacious house Plotinus lived while he was in Rome. Her house was also home to the children of dying or deceased high-ranking people to whom Plotinus was an honorary guardian, one that supervised the actions of each guardian. One of his duties he undertook as an honorary guardian was to take meticulous care of the children's financial matters. He believed that until the children chose to become philosophers and renounce their wealth, their property and revenue should be kept intact and secure. Gemina's house was also home to Chione and her children, and is likely to have been the venue for Plotinus' school. There has been a suggestion by the 20th and 21st century French Professor H-D. Saffrey, in a 1992 publication, that Gemina was the widow of the Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus, whose full name was Afinia M. F. Gemina Baebiana. If that suggestion is true, it would indicate Plotinus' connection to the elite of Roman society.",
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"plaintext": "20th and 21st century scholars have debated, and are still debating whether the 'Sarcophagus of Plotinus', dated c. 270 CE, depicts the younger Gemina and the elder Gemina at either side of a philosopher, where that philosopher maybe a depiction of Plotinus. The sarcophagus also depicts another philosopher, that may be a depiction of Porphyry, looking over Plotinus' right shoulder. The 'Sarcophagus of Plotinus' is located in the Gregorian Museum, one of the Vatican Museums.",
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"plaintext": " Paulinus, a doctor from Scythopolis (a city also known as Bethshan, or Beth Shean on the West bank of the Jordan River), who died shortly before Plotinus. 19th century scholarship conjectures that he was Rabbi Mar Samuel (c. 180–257 CE), whom the Talmud relates had meetings and conversations with a famous non-Jewish teacher called Paltia (Plotinus?). Porphyry relates that Paulinus was not the brightest of students.",
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"plaintext": " Castricius Firmus, an influential person with a significant fortune, who may or may not have been a Roman senator, and who supplied some of Plotinus' needs while he was gravely ill.",
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"plaintext": " Marcellus Orrontius, who diligently applied himself to the study of philosophy. He was probably from near the Orontes River, and may have been the Marcellus whom Longinus addressed in a preface to a book that replied to the philosophies of Plotinus and Amelius.",
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"plaintext": " Rogantianus, who gave up all his possessions and the management of his house, dismissed his slaves, resigned his position, only ate every other day, which Porphyry says cured him from his debilitating gout, slept at various houses of his friends, and eventually became a member of Plotinus' inner circle of philosophers, and was praised publicly by Plotinus as a model to all others who wanted to become philosophers. Before studying with Plotinus, Rogantianus may have been appointed praefect of the army on the Rhine in 241 CE and proconsul for Asia in 254 CE.",
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"plaintext": " Sabinillus, who also diligently applied himself to the study of philosophy. Sabinillus may have been made an ordinary Roman consul together with emperor Gallienus in 266 CE. The 21st century Professor Emeritus Paul Kalligas thinks it is possible that Sabinillus was buried in a sarcophagus now located in the Naples Museum that came from Potuoli, which is in the region of Campania.",
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"plaintext": "Other listeners to Plotinus' seminars mentioned by Porphyry include:",
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"plaintext": " Carterius, who was persuaded by Amelius to attend a seminar and secretly draw or paint a portrait of Plotinus without his knowledge. He was a famous painter according to Porphyry, of whom nothing else is known apart from Porphyry's brief anecdote.",
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"plaintext": " Origen, who at one time came to a seminar by Plotinus, however, after Plotinus saw Origen in the audience, Porphyry says Plotinus soon left the seminar saying something along the lines 'that it was only natural for lecturers to cease talking when they were aware of the presence, in the audience, of people who already knew what was to be said'.",
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"plaintext": " Serapion of Alexander, who started as an orator, then turned to the study of philosophy, but did not stay long at the school as he was too interested in financial matters and money-lending. Other than the information in Porphyry's Life of Plotinus, nothing else is known about Serapion.",
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"plaintext": " Zoticus, a critic and poet, who Porphyry says wrote a beautiful poem about Atlantis and also edited a work by Antimachus. His eyesight failed and he died shortly before Plotinus.",
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"plaintext": "Porphyry also reports that he had correspondences with Longinus, who at the time was the head of the Platonic Academy in Athens, discussing Plotinus' philosophy. Longinus wrote back to Porphyry saying he was very impressed by Plotinus' writings and wanted Porphyry to send him more works of Plotinus exactly transcribed. However, Plotinus was not very impressed by Longinus as a philosopher, as after he had heard a reading of Longinus' work On First Principles, he remarked:\"Longinus is a literary man, but not a philosopher.\"—Plotinus",
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"plaintext": "While in Rome, Plotinus became a close friend of the mid 3rd century CE Roman emperor Gallienus and his wife, the Roman empress Salonina. Although Plotinus' writings show no indication of activity or interest in political affairs, Porphyry reports that he nearly swayed emperor Gallienus, perhaps between 267 and 268 CE, to construct a city of philosophers in Campania, to be called Platonopolis, which was to be governed according to the doctrines in Plato's work Laws. Most likely the planned city was to be in the Campanian provinces where Plotinus' friends already had estates, and realistically, Platonopolis was not only to be a city of philosophers, but a city that included all ranks of society. Nothing came of the project, most likely due to the emperor's poor relationship with the Senate, despite some members of that body being supporters of Plotinus.",
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"plaintext": "Late 20th and 21st century scholarship suggest there may be a possibility that Gemina, at whose house Plotinus stayed the entire time he was in Rome and whose house is likely to have been the venue for Plotinus' school, was the widow of the Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus, whose full name was Afinia M. F. Gemina Baebiana, and who was the Roman emperor between 251 and 253 CE. Emperor Trebonianus Gallus was an almost immediate predecessor to emperor Valerian, Roman emperor from 253 to 260 CE, and Valerian's son, Gallienus, the Roman co-emperor with Valerian from 253 to 260 CE, and sole Roman emperor from 260 CE until 268 CE.",
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"plaintext": "Hence, it is suggested by some 21st century scholarship that Gemina, having close connections with both the Roman emperors Valerian and Gallienus, introduced Plotinus to emperor Gallienus and his wife, the empress Iulia Cornelia Salonina, who may have belonged to a Greek family from Bithynia. According to Porphyry, both the emperor Gallus and the empress Salonina honoured and revered Plotinus, visited Plotinus' school, and probably participated in his classes at least once.",
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"plaintext": "Some 21st century scholarship argues that Plotinus was from a wealthy and cultivated family, likely high civil servants, who had strong connections with the Roman imperial court. These arguments are to some degree based on the observations by mid-20th century scholarship on Plotinus' later wealthy life in Rome, which were elaborated in detail during the 1980s by the French Professor Emeritus Lucien Jerphagnon. One such Indication of that wealth was that children of wealthy families were often handed over to a nursemaid from their birth, and this was the case with Plotinus, as reported by Porphyry in his biography. Another indication of his family's wealth was that by the time Plotinus was eight years old he was already under the instruction of a grammarian, as rhetoric was part of the normal curriculum for the educated elite. It is also clear that Plotinus' early teaching was in Greek, and he also wrote in Greek, a language, which since the time of Cicero, was taught from a young age to the highest and best-educated Roman class.",
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"plaintext": "Given that Plotinus was himself not wealthy, other indications of Plotinus' family's wealth and strong connections with the Roman elite are that while Plotinus was in Rome he was a very upper-class citizen; he also had close affiliations with prominent citizens, Roman senators and the Roman emperor Gallienus and the empress Salonina. Other signs of Plotinus' connections with the Roman elite can be seen through Eustochius (his student, friend and doctor) who was summoned from Puteoli (modern day Pozzuoli), a bayside resort for the Roman elite, to Plotinus' deathbed in the villa of a wealthy estate formerly owned by Zethus, a prosperous doctor and Plotinus' former student. Zethus' estate was in Campania, a region where the Roman senatorial elite owned villas and townhouses, and it is probably where Plotinus spent his summer vacations.",
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"plaintext": "Other indications of Plotinus' elite Roman connections are that upon arriving in Rome he was soon lodging in Gemina's estate, who must have been a relatively wealthy woman of the Roman aristocracy, whether or not she was a former empress. Further, dying Roman nobles let their children be raised in Gemina's house, where Plotinus looked after their welfare, education, finances, and property, which implies that Plotinus was a very creditable person within the highest circles of Rome. It seems that such a wealthy and honoured status afforded to Plotinus in Rome would be unlikely if his family was not in possession of wealth and honour beforehand.",
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"plaintext": "When Plotinus eventually wrote down his thoughts, beginning from 254 CE, he would make sure the problems concerned were thoroughly debated beforehand in the school, and would not only take into consideration the opinions of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics, but also consider the opinions of recent commentators and his students, before formulating his own opinion. On the manner in which Plotinus wrote, Porphyry says that Plotinus would work out a train of thought from beginning to end, and then would write continuously and without hesitation, as if 'copying from a book', without worrying about his spelling or the beauty of his individual letters, as he was only concerned with ideas, which gives another reason as to why Plotinus' language is not easy to read.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the difficulty of his writing style, Plotinus is regarded by scholarship as having written some charming and beautiful passages, and writes in a way that is agreeably personal and unaffected. From his writings it is evident that he deeply cared and thought deeply about the issues on which he was writing, and it is easy to believe that his thoughts are being recorded as they occurred in his mind, unembellished and unedited, which leads too the conclusion that Plotinus' mind must have been quite orderly.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus began writing philosophical treatises from 254 CE for a period of about 17 years until shortly before his death in 270 CE. Porphyry, about 30 years after Plotinus died, edited and arranged Plotinus' treatises into 54 treatises, or six Enneads [from the Greek word (ennea), meaning nine]. Porphyry also gave each treatise a title, still in use today, and wrote an introduction to the Enneads that was a biography of Plotinus' life called Life of Plotinus (). To Porphyry, the number 54 was significant for Pythagorean numerological reasons (33 × 2, or 6 × 32) and he had to split certain treatises to arrive at that number. Plotinus had already written 21 treatises, beginning in 254 CE, before Porphyry arrived at his school in 263 CE. He wrote a further 24 treatises while Porphyry was at his school, and wrote nine more after Porphyry left his school in 268 CE.",
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"plaintext": "Porphyry had a very difficult task in editing and arranging Plotinus' treatises into the Enneads, as Plotinus, due to his failing eyesight, disliked writing and did not correct his works, which at times were composed in a hurry and amid constant interruptions. However, Porphyry reports that Plotinus was capable of recording the orderly conceptions in his mind through his writings even when interrupted, as after the interruption he would resume his train of thought. To add to the difficulty of Porphyry's editorial work, Plotinus' writing style, although being usually very structured, is also very concise and requires constant effort from a reader, with introductory and bridging remarks used sparingly.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus' writings in the Enneads approach questions, and arguments for specific claims, from different angles and sometimes venture into related topics. His powerful arguments are very concisely stated and are not spelled out with explicit premises, inferences and conclusions. One of the major reasons why the Enneads is difficult to read is because it was not intended for publication, but was intended for circulation in Plotinus' school, and hence presupposed familiarity with subjects discussed in the school, and another reason is that Plotinus never attempts to explain his philosophy in a systematic manner. ",
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"plaintext": "Besides Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, in his work Enneads (which contains everything he wrote), was influenced by the philosophical works of: Pherecydes, Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus; the middle Platonists of the 2nd century CE: Severus, Gaius, Atticus and Cronius (a neopythagorean middle Platonist of the 2nd to 3rd century CE); and he was also influenced by the works of Numenius.",
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"plaintext": "Due to his illness, Plotinus moved from Rome and spent his final days, between 269 to 270 CE, in Campania at the estate of the deceased Zethus, an Arabian doctor and an old friend and former student. There his needs were supplied partly from Zethus' estate and partly from an estate at Minturnae, owned by Castricius Firmus, a friend of Plotinus' student Amelius, and also Plotinus' student. According to the account of Eustochius, a doctor and Plotinus' student, (who was delayed in his journey from Puteoli to the estate of Zethus) and the only person to attend Plotinus on his deathbed, Plotinus' last words were: \"I have been waiting for you; I am trying to unite what is divine in us to that which is divine in the universe.\"—Plotinus (last words)Eustochius records that at the moment Plotinus died, a snake slid under the bed where Plotinus lay, and disappeared into a hole in the wall. It seems that this event was related to the Alexandrian doctor's belief, wide-spread at the time, of the snake-shaped Egyptian god Agathodaimon or the newer Ptolemaic symbolism of the setting of a star; where both were signs to Eustochius of Plotinus' heroic destiny. On the day Plotinus died, Porphyry was in Lilybaeum, Sicily; Amelius was in Apamea, Syria; and Castricius was in Rome. Eustochius told Porphyry the details of Plotinus' last moments when they later met in Rome. ",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus, like many future neoplatonists, had a distrust of the evidence of senses, a suspicion of the mortal body, believed the immortal soul had a direct knowledge of intelligible truths and that the sensible world was patterned on unchanging immaterial forms. Hence it was not surprising that he would not allow artists to perpetuate his physical body in a painting or a statue, saying:\"Is it not enough for me to have to carry around this image, in which nature has enclosed us? Must I besides transmit to posterity the image of this image as worthy of attention?\"—PlotinusAt one time however, his student Amelius succeeded in persuading his friend Carterius, a famous painter of the times, to attend one of Plotinus' lectures, commit Plotinus' features to memory, and subsequently draw or paint, with Amelius' suggestions towards bringing out resemblances, a lifelike portrait of Plotinus without his knowledge. Due to his beliefs, Plotinus never spoke of his ancestry, his parentage or his birthplace, never took medicaments derived from animals, stayed away from the baths, but late in his life did for a time consent to being massaged daily, until such time as some of his masseurs died from a terrible epidemic, which soon afterwards afflicted him and probably contributed to a sickness that led to his death. Plotinus was a vegetarian, and although he did not celebrate his birthday, he did sacrifice and entertain his friends with a banquet on the birthdays of Socrates and Plato. ",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus was a shy man, who showed signs of nervousness when he lectured, had austerely simple habits, was patient of interruption, and did not cut short objectors who came up with difficulties. His modesty sometimes masked his own originality, and on the very rare occasions where he believed he experienced a beatific vision, he believed it to be a privilege, and that they were to be waited for, not sought. Plotinus did not try to throw himself into an ecstatic state, never claimed any mysteries were revealed to him while in a state of trance, and there is not the slightest trace of hysterical emotion in Plotinus' writings.",
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"plaintext": "Authentic human happiness for Plotinus consists of the true human identifying with that which is the best in the universe. Because happiness is beyond anything physical, Plotinus stresses the point that worldly fortune does not control true human happiness, and thus “… there exists no single human being that does not either potentially or effectively possess this thing we hold to constitute happiness.” (Enneads I.4.4) The issue of happiness is one of Plotinus’ greatest imprints on Western thought, as he is one of the first to introduce the idea that eudaimonia (happiness) is attainable only within consciousness.",
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"plaintext": "The true human is an incorporeal contemplative capacity of the soul, and superior to all things corporeal. It then follows that real human happiness is independent of the physical world. Real happiness is, instead, dependent on the metaphysical and authentic human being found in this highest capacity of Reason. “For man, and especially the Proficient, is not the Couplement of Soul and body: the proof is that man can be disengaged from the body and disdain its nominal goods.” (Enneads I.4.14) The human who has achieved happiness will not be bothered by sickness, discomfort, etc., as his focus is on the greatest things. Authentic human happiness is the utilization of the most authentically human capacity of contemplation. Even in daily, physical action, the flourishing human’s “… Act is determined by the higher phase of the Soul.” (Enneads III.4.6) Even in the most dramatic arguments Plotinus considers (if the Proficient is subject to extreme physical torture, for example), he concludes this only strengthens his claim of true happiness being metaphysical, as the truly happy human being would understand that which is being tortured is merely a body, not the conscious self, and happiness could persist.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus offers a comprehensive description of his conception of a person who has achieved eudaimonia. “The perfect life” involves a man who commands reason and contemplation. (Enneads I.4.4) A happy person will not sway between happy and sad, as many of Plotinus' contemporaries believed. Stoics, for example, question the ability of someone to be happy (presupposing happiness is contemplation) if they are mentally incapacitated or even asleep. Plotinus disregards this claim, as the soul and true human do not sleep or even exist in time, nor will a living human who has achieved eudaimonia suddenly stop using its greatest, most authentic capacity just because of the body’s discomfort in the physical realm. “… The Proficient’s will is set always and only inward.” (Enneads I.4.11)",
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"plaintext": "Overall, happiness for Plotinus is \"... a flight from this world's ways and things.\" (Theaet. 176) and a focus on the highest, i.e. Forms and the One.",
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"plaintext": "Henosis is the word for mystical \"oneness\", \"union\", or \"unity\" in classical Greek. In Platonism, and especially neoplatonism, the goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality: the One (τὸ Ἕν), the Source, or Monad.",
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"plaintext": "As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on henology, one can reach a state of tabula rasa, a blank state where the individual may grasp or merge with The One (Ennead 6.9.7 and 6.9.11). This absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Here within the Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge. The Monad or dunamis (force) is of one singular expression (the will or the one which is the good); all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all (pantheism). All division is reconciled in the one; the final stage before reaching singularity, called duality (dyad), is completely reconciled in the Monad, Source or One (see monism). As the one source or substance of all things, the Monad is all encompassing. As infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus. It is the demiurge (creator, action, energy) or nous that \"perceives\" and therefore causes the force (potential or One) to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being; being and perception (intellect) manifest what is called soul (World Soul).",
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"plaintext": "Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation (in the Western mind to uncontemplate) toward no thought (Nous or demiurge) and no division (dyad) within the individual (being). Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus' works have an ascetic character in that they reject matter as an illusion (non-existent). Matter was strictly treated as immanent, with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia (οὐσία). This approach is called philosophical Idealism.",
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"plaintext": "At least two modern conferences within Hellenic philosophy fields of study have been held in order to address what Plotinus stated in his tract Against the Gnostics and to whom he was addressing it, in order to separate and clarify the events and persons involved in the origin of the term \"Gnostic\". From the dialogue, it appears that the word had an origin in the Platonic and Hellenistic tradition long before the group calling themselves \"Gnostics\"—or the group covered under the modern term \"Gnosticism\"—ever appeared. It would seem that this shift from Platonic to Gnostic usage has led many people to confusion. The strategy of sectarians taking Greek terms from philosophical contexts and re-applying them to religious contexts was popular in Christianity, the Cult of Isis and other ancient religious contexts including Hermetic ones (see Alexander of Abonutichus for an example).",
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"plaintext": "According to A. H. Armstrong, Plotinus and the neoplatonists viewed Gnosticism as a form of heresy or sectarianism to the Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy of the Mediterranean and Middle East. Also according to Armstrong, Plotinus accused them of using senseless jargon and being overly dramatic and insolent in their distortion of Plato's ontology. Armstrong argues that Plotinus attacks his opponents as untraditional, irrational and immoral and arrogant. Armstrong believed that Plotinus also attacks them as elitist and blasphemous to Plato for the Gnostics despising the material world and its maker.",
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"plaintext": "For decades, Armstrong's was the only translation available of Plotinus. For this reason, his claims were authoritative. However, a modern translation by Lloyd P. Gerson doesn't necessarily support all of Armstrong's views. Unlike Armstrong, Gerson didn't find Plotinus to be so vitriolic against the Gnostics.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus seems to direct his attacks at a very specific sect of Gnostics, most notably a sect of Christian Gnostics that held anti-polytheistic and anti-daemon views, and that preached salvation was possible without struggle. At one point, Plotinus makes clear that his major grudge is the way Gnostics 'misused' Plato's teachings, and not their own teachings themselves.",
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"plaintext": "The neoplatonic movement (though Plotinus would have simply referred to himself as a philosopher of Plato) seems to be motivated by the desire of Plotinus to revive the pagan philosophical tradition. Plotinus was not claiming to innovate with the Enneads, but to clarify aspects of the works of Plato that he considered misrepresented or misunderstood. Plotinus does not claim to be an innovator, but rather a communicator of a tradition. Plotinus referred to tradition as a way to interpret Plato's intentions. Because the teachings of Plato were for members of the academy rather than the general public, it was easy for outsiders to misunderstand Plato's meaning. However, Plotinus attempted to clarify how the philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same conclusions (such as misotheism or dystheism of the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil) as the targets of his criticism.",
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"plaintext": "The emperor Julian the Apostate was deeply influenced by neoplatonism, as was Hypatia of Alexandria. Neoplatonism influenced many Christians as well, including Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. St. Augustine, though often referred to as a \"Platonist,\" acquired his Platonist philosophy through the mediation of the Neoplatonist teachings of Plotinus.",
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"plaintext": "Plotinus' philosophy had an influence on the development of Christian theology. The Eastern Orthodox position on energy, for example, is often contrasted with the position of the Roman Catholic Church, and in part this is attributed to varying interpretations of Aristotle and Plotinus, either through Thomas Aquinas for the Roman Catholics or Gregory Palamas for the Orthodox Christians.",
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"plaintext": "Neoplatonism and the ideas of Plotinus greatly influenced Islam, since Mutazilite Abbasids such as the Arab philosophers Ibn Rushd and Al-Kindi incorporated Greco-Egyptian concepts into state-sponsored texts, their neoplatonic ideas found great popularity amongst Ismaili Shia such as the Iranian philosophers Abu Abdallah Muhammad al-Nasafi and Abu Yaqub Sijistani. By the 11th century, neoplatonism was adopted by the Fatimid state of Egypt, and taught by their da'i. Neoplatonism was brought to the Fatimid court by Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani, although his teachings differed from Nasafi and Sijistani, who were more aligned with the original teachings of Plotinus. The teachings of Kirmani in turn influenced philosophers such as Nasir Khusraw of Persia. This went on to influence prominent Jafari Shia neoplatonists as well, such as Mulla Sadra, Mir Damad and Haydar Amuli among others.",
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"plaintext": "As with Islam and Christianity, neoplatonism in general and Plotinus in particular influenced speculative thought. Notable thinkers expressing neoplatonist themes are Solomon ibn Gabirol (Latin: Avicebron) and Moses ben Maimon (Latin: Maimonides). As with Islam and Christianity, apophatic theology and the privative nature of evil are two prominent themes that such thinkers picked up from either Plotinus or his successors.",
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"plaintext": "In the Renaissance the philosopher Marsilio Ficino set up an Academy under the patronage of Cosimo de Medici in Florence, mirroring that of Plato. His work was of great importance in reconciling the philosophy of Plato directly with Christianity. One of his most distinguished pupils was Pico della Mirandola, author of An Oration On the Dignity of Man.",
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"plaintext": "In Great Britain, Plotinus was the cardinal influence on the 17th-century school of the Cambridge Platonists, and on numerous writers from Samuel Taylor Coleridge to W. B. Yeats and Kathleen Raine.",
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"plaintext": "Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Ananda Coomaraswamy used the writing of Plotinus in their own texts as a superlative elaboration upon Indian monism, specifically Upanishadic and Advaita Vedantic thought. Coomaraswamy has compared Plotinus' teachings to the Hindu school of Advaita Vedanta (advaita meaning \"not two\" or \"non-dual\"). M. Vasudevacharya says “Though Plotinus never managed to reach India, his method shows an affinity to the “method of negation” as taught in some of the Upanishads, such as the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, and also to the practice of yoga.",
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"plaintext": "Advaita Vedanta and neoplatonism have been compared by J. F. Staal, Frederick Copleston, Aldo Magris and Mario Piantelli, Radhakrishnan, Gwen Griffith-Dickson, and John Y. Fenton.",
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"plaintext": "The joint influence of Advaitin and neoplatonic ideas on Ralph Waldo Emerson was considered by Dale Riepe in 1967.",
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"plaintext": "For several centuries after the Protestant Reformation, neoplatonism was condemned as a decadent and 'oriental' distortion of Platonism. In a 1929 essay, E. R. Dodds showed that key conceptions of neoplatonism could be traced from their origin in Plato's dialogues, through his immediate followers (e.g., Speusippus) and the neopythagoreans, to Plotinus and the neoplatonists. Thus Plotinus' philosophy was, he argued, 'not the starting-point of neoplatonism but its intellectual culmination.' Further research reinforced this view and by 1954 Merlan could say 'The present tendency is toward bridging rather than widening the gap separating Platonism from neoplatonism.'",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1950s, the Tübingen School of Plato interpretation has argued that the so-called 'unwritten doctrines' of Plato debated by Aristotle and the Old Academy strongly resemble Plotinus's metaphysics. In this case, the neoplatonic reading of Plato would be, at least in this central area, historically justified. This implies that neoplatonism is less of an innovation than it appears without the recognition of Plato's unwritten doctrines. Advocates of the Tübingen School emphasize this advantage of their interpretation. They see Plotinus as advancing a tradition of thought begun by Plato himself. Plotinus's metaphysics, at least in broad outline, was therefore already familiar to the first generation of Plato's students. This confirms Plotinus' own view, for he considered himself not the inventor of a system but the faithful interpreter of Plato's doctrines.",
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"plaintext": " Antiochus of Ascalon",
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"plaintext": " Disciples of Plotinus",
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"plaintext": " Ecstasy in philosophy",
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"plaintext": " Emanationism",
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"plaintext": " Form of the Good",
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"plaintext": " Allegorical interpretations of Plato",
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"plaintext": " The One in Neoplatonism",
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"plaintext": " Pantaenus",
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"plaintext": " Platonic Academy",
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"plaintext": " Plato's unwritten doctrines",
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"plaintext": " Plutarch of Chaeronea",
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"plaintext": " The Theology of Aristotle",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Taylor",
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"plaintext": "Critical editions of the Greek text",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Émile Bréhier, Plotin: Ennéades (with French translation), Collection Budé, 1924–1938.",
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"plaintext": " Paul Henry and Hans-Rudolf Schwyzer (eds.), Editio maior (3 volumes), Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, 1951–1973.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Paul Henry and Hans-Rudolf Schwyzer (eds.), Editio minor, Oxford, Oxford Classical Text, 1964–1982.",
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{
"plaintext": "Complete English translation",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Taylor, Collected Writings of Plotinus, Frome, Prometheus Trust, 1994. (contains approximately half of the Enneads)",
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{
"plaintext": " Plotinus. The Enneads (translated by Stephen MacKenna), London, Medici Society, 1917–1930 (an online version is available at Sacred Texts); 2nd edition, B. S. Page (ed.), 1956. ",
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"plaintext": " A. H. Armstrong, Plotinus. Enneads (with Greek text), Loeb Classical Library, 7 vol., 1966–1988.",
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"plaintext": " Lloyd P. Gerson (ed.), George Boys-Stones, John M. Dillon, Lloyd P. Gerson, R.A. King, Andrew Smith and James Wilberding (trs.). The Enneads. Cambridge University Press, 2018.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
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{
"plaintext": "Lexica",
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"plaintext": " J. H. Sleeman and G. Pollet, Lexicon Plotinianum, Leiden, 1980.",
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"plaintext": " Roberto Radice (ed.), Lexicon II: Plotinus, Milan, Biblia, 2004. (Electronic edition by Roberto Bombacigno)",
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"plaintext": "The Life of Plotinus by Porphyry",
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{
"plaintext": " Porphyry, \"On the Life of Plotinus and the Arrangement of his Works\" in Mark Edwards (ed.), Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by their Students, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2000.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": "Anthologies of texts in translation, with annotations",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Kevin Corrigan, Reading Plotinus: A Practical Introduction to Neoplatonism, West Lafayette, Purdue University Press, 2005.",
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"plaintext": " John M. Dillon and Lloyd P. Gerson, Neoplatonic Philosophy: Introductory Readings, Hackett, 2004.",
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"plaintext": "Introductory works",
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"plaintext": " Erik Emilsson, Plotinus, New York: Routledge, 2017.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kevin Corrigan, Reading Plotinus. A Practical Introduction to Neoplatonism, Purdue University Press, 1995.",
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"plaintext": " Lloyd P. Gerson, Plotinus, New York, Routledge, 1994.",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Lloyd P. Gerson (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plotinus, Cambridge, 1996.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Dominic J. O'Meara, Plotinus. An Introduction to the Enneads, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1993. (Reprinted 2005)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " John M. Rist, Plotinus. The Road to Reality, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1967.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Major commentaries in English",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cinzia Arruzza, Plotinus: Ennead II.5, On What Is Potentially and What Actually, The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2015, ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Atkinson, Plotinus: Ennead V.1, On the Three Principal Hypostases, Oxford, 1983.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
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{
"plaintext": " Kevin Corrigan, Plotinus' Theory of Matter-Evil: Plato, Aristotle, and Alexander of Aphrodisias (II.4, II.5, III.6, I.8), Leiden, 1996.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
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{
"plaintext": " John N. Deck, Nature, Contemplation and the One: A Study in the Philosophy of Plotinus, University of Toronto Press, 1967; Paul Brunton Philosophical Foundation, 1991.",
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"plaintext": " John M. Dillon, H.J. Blumenthal, Plotinus: Ennead IV.3-4.29, \"Problems Concerning the Soul\", The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2015, ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Eyjólfur K. Emilsson, Steven K. Strange, Plotinus: Ennead VI.4 & VI.5: On the Presence of Being, One and the Same, Everywhere as a Whole, The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2015, ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Barrie Fleet, Plotinus: Ennead III.6, On the Impassivity of the Bodiless, Oxford, 1995.",
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"plaintext": " Barrie Fleet, Plotinus: Ennead IV.8, On the Descent of the Soul into Bodies, The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2012. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography of publications",
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"plaintext": " Lloyd P. Gerson, Plotinus: Ennead V.5, That the Intelligibles are not External to the Intellect, and on the Good, The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2013, ",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Sebastian R. P. Gertz, Plotinus: Ennead II.9, Against the Gnostics, The Enneads of Plotinus Series edited by John M. Dillon and Andrew Smith, Parmenides Publishing, 2017, ",
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"plaintext": " H. Oosthout, Modes of Knowledge and the Transcendental: An Introduction to Plotinus Ennead V.3, Amsterdam, 1991.",
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"plaintext": " J. Wilberding, Plotinus' Cosmology. A study of Ennead II. 1 (40), Oxford, 2006.",
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"plaintext": " A. M. Wolters, Plotinus on Eros: A Detailed Exegetical Study of Enneads III, 5, Amsterdam, 1972.",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Taylor, The fragments that remain of the lost writings of Proclus, surnamed the Platonic successor, London, 1825. (Selene Books reprint edition, 1987. )",
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"plaintext": " R. B. Harris (ed.), Neoplatonism and Indian Thought, Albany, 1982.",
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"plaintext": " Giannis Stamatellos, Plotinus and the Presocratics. A Philosophical Study of Presocratic Influences in Plotinus' Enneads, Albany, 2008.",
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"plaintext": " N. Joseph Torchia, Plotinus, Tolma, and the Descent of Being, New York, Peter Lang, 1993. ",
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"plaintext": " Antonia Tripolitis, The Doctrine of the Soul in the thought of Plotinus and Origen, Libra Publishers, 1978.",
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38,424 | 1,073,402,603 | Bikram_Yoga | [
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38,428 | 1,107,098,132 | Deer | [
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"plaintext": "For many types of deer in modern English usage, the male is a buck and the female a doe, but the terms vary with dialect, and according to the size of the species. The male red deer is a stag, while for other large species the male is a bull, the female a cow, as in cattle. In older usage, the male of any species is a hart, especially if over five years old, and the female is a hind, especially if three or more years old. The young of small species is a fawn and of large species a calf; a very small young may be a kid. A castrated male is a havier. A group of any species is a herd. The adjective of relation is cervine; like the family name Cervidae, this is from , meaning stag or deer.",
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"plaintext": "Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest. While often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest, and savanna habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to eat. Access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. Adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow and thrive.",
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"plaintext": "Deer are widely distributed, with indigenous representatives in all continents except Antarctica and Australia, though Africa has only one native deer, the Barbary stag, a subspecies of red deer that is confined to the Atlas Mountains in the northwest of the continent. Another extinct species of deer, Megaceroides algericus, was present in North Africa until 6000 years ago. Fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. Small species of brocket deer and pudús of Central and South America, and muntjacs of Asia generally occupy dense forests and are less often seen in open spaces, with the possible exception of the Indian muntjac. There are also several species of deer that are highly specialized and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps, and \"wet\" savannas, or riparian corridors surrounded by deserts. Some deer have a circumpolar distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga (boreal forests) and moose that inhabit taiga and adjacent areas. Huemul deer (taruca and Chilean huemul) of South America's Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids.",
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"plaintext": "The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate North America lies in the Canadian Rocky Mountain and Columbia Mountain regions between Alberta and British Columbia where all five North American deer species (white-tailed deer, mule deer, caribou, elk, and moose) can be found. This region has several clusters of national parks including Mount Revelstoke National Park, Glacier National Park (Canada), Yoho National Park, and Kootenay National Park on the British Columbia side, and Banff National Park, Jasper National Park, and Glacier National Park (U.S.) on the Alberta and Montana sides. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry subalpine/pine forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain ranges provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at higher altitudes in the subalpine meadows and alpine tundra areas of some of the mountain ranges. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region. Elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. The White-tailed deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills and river valley bottoms of the Canadian Rockies owing to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests allowing more deciduous vegetation to grow up the mountain slopes. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, where they share habitat with the moose. The adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn.",
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"plaintext": "The Eurasian Continent (including the Indian Subcontinent) boasts the most species of deer in the world, with most species being found in Asia. Europe, in comparison, has lower diversity in plant and animal species. Many national parks and protected reserves in Europe have populations of red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer. These species have long been associated with the continent of Europe, but also inhabit Asia Minor, the Caucasus Mountains, and Northwestern Iran. \"European\" fallow deer historically lived over much of Europe during the Ice Ages, but afterwards became restricted primarily to the Anatolian Peninsula, in present-day Turkey.",
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"plaintext": "Present-day fallow deer populations in Europe are a result of historic man-made introductions of this species, first to the Mediterranean regions of Europe, then eventually to the rest of Europe. They were initially park animals that later escaped and reestablished themselves in the wild. Historically, Europe's deer species shared their deciduous forest habitat with other herbivores, such as the extinct tarpan (forest horse), extinct aurochs (forest ox), and the endangered wisent (European bison). Good places to see deer in Europe include the Scottish Highlands, the Austrian Alps, the wetlands between Austria, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, and some National Parks, including Doñana National Park in Spain, the Veluwe in the Netherlands, the Ardennes in Belgium, and Białowieża National Park in Poland. Spain, Eastern Europe, and the Caucasus Mountains have forest areas that are not only home to sizable deer populations but also other animals that were once abundant such as the wisent, Eurasian lynx, Iberian lynx, wolves, and brown bears.",
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"plaintext": "The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are among some of the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the world where one can find Siberian roe deer, sika deer, elk, and moose. Asian caribou occupy the northern fringes of this region along the Sino-Russian border.",
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"plaintext": "Deer such as the sika deer, Thorold's deer, Central Asian red deer, and elk have historically been farmed for their antlers by Han Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Like the Sami people of Finland and Scandinavia, the Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia, and the Ussuri Region have also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of Asian caribou.",
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"plaintext": "The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern Asia in India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and Nepal's Terai Region. These fertile plains consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home to chital, hog deer, barasingha, Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Grazing species such as the endangered barasingha and very common chital are gregarious and live in large herds. Indian sambar can be gregarious but are usually solitary or live in smaller herds. Hog deer are solitary and have lower densities than Indian muntjac. Deer can be seen in several national parks in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka of which Kanha National Park, Dudhwa National Park, and Chitwan National Park are most famous. Sri Lanka's Wilpattu National Park and Yala National Park have large herds of Indian sambar and chital. The Indian sambar are more gregarious in Sri Lanka than other parts of their range and tend to form larger herds than elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical seasonal moist deciduous forest and wet savanna that hosted populations of hog deer, the now-extinct Schomburgk's deer, Eld's deer, Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Both the hog deer and Eld's deer are rare, whereas Indian sambar and Indian muntjac thrive in protected national parks, such as Khao Yai. Many of these South Asian and Southeast Asian deer species also share their habitat with other herbivores, such as Asian elephants, the various Asian rhinoceros species, various antelope species (such as nilgai, four-horned antelope, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle in India), and wild oxen (such as wild Asian water buffalo, gaur, banteng, and kouprey). One way that different herbivores can survive together in a given area is for each species to have different food preferences, although there may be some overlap.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of acclimatisation society releases in the 19th century, Australia has six introduced species of deer that have established sustainable wild populations. They are fallow deer, red deer, sambar, hog deer, rusa, and chital. Red deer were introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and Scottish stock. Many have been domesticated in deer farms since the late 1960s and are common farm animals there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand but none are as widespread as red deer.",
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"plaintext": "Deer constitute the second most diverse family of artiodactyla after bovids. Though of a similar build, deer are strongly distinguished from antelopes by their antlers, which are temporary and regularly regrown unlike the permanent horns of bovids. Characteristics typical of deer include long, powerful legs, a diminutive tail and long ears. Deer exhibit a broad variation in physical proportions. The largest extant deer is the moose, which is nearly tall and weighs up to . The elk stands at the shoulder and weighs . The northern pudu is the smallest deer in the world; it reaches merely at the shoulder and weighs . The southern pudu is only slightly taller and heavier. Sexual dimorphism is quite pronounced – in most species males tend to be larger than females, and, except for the reindeer, only males possess antlers.",
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"plaintext": "Coat colour generally varies between red and brown, though it can be as dark as chocolate brown in the tufted deer or have a grayish tinge as in elk. Different species of brocket deer vary from gray to reddish brown in coat colour. Several species such as the chital, the fallow deer and the sika deer feature white spots on a brown coat. Coat of reindeer shows notable geographical variation. Deer undergo two moults in a year; for instance, in red deer the red, thin-haired summer coat is gradually replaced by the dense, greyish brown winter coat in autumn, which in turn gives way to the summer coat in the following spring. Moulting is affected by the photoperiod.",
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"plaintext": "Deer are also excellent jumpers and swimmers. Deer are ruminants, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. Some deer, such as those on the island of Rùm, do consume meat when it is available.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented pheromone, used to mark its home range. Bucks of a wide range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have a liver without a gallbladder. Deer also have a tapetum lucidum, which gives them sufficiently good night vision.",
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"plaintext": "All male deer possess antlers, with the exception of the water deer, in which males have long tusk-like canines that reach below the lower jaw. Females generally lack antlers, though female reindeer bear antlers smaller and less branched than those of the males. Occasionally females in other species may develop antlers, especially in telemetacarpal deer such as European roe deer, red deer, white-tailed deer and mule deer and less often in plesiometacarpal deer. A study of antlered female white-tailed deer noted that antlers tend to be small and malformed, and are shed frequently around the time of parturition.",
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"plaintext": "The fallow deer and the various subspecies of the reindeer have the largest as well as the heaviest antlers, both in absolute terms as well as in proportion to body mass (an average of eight grams per kilogram of body mass); the tufted deer, on the other hand, has the smallest antlers of all deer, while the pudú has the lightest antlers with respect to body mass (0.6g per kilogram of body mass). The structure of antlers show considerable variation; while fallow deer and elk antlers are palmate (with a broad central portion), white-tailed deer antlers include a series of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam, and those of the pudú are mere spikes. Antler development begins from the pedicel, a bony structure that appears on the top of the skull by the time the animal is a year old. The pedicel gives rise to a spiky antler the following year, that is replaced by a branched antler in the third year. This process of losing a set of antlers to develop a larger and more branched set continues for the rest of the life. The antlers emerge as soft tissues (known as velvet antlers) and progressively harden into bony structures (known as hard antlers), following mineralisation and blockage of blood vessels in the tissue, from the tip to the base.Antlers might be one of the most exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics, and are intended primarily for reproductive success through sexual selection and for combat. The tines (forks) on the antlers create grooves that allow another male's antlers to lock into place. This allows the males to wrestle without risking injury to the face. Antlers are correlated to an individual's position in the social hierarchy and its behaviour. For instance, the heavier the antlers, the higher the individual's status in the social hierarchy, and the greater the delay in shedding the antlers; males with larger antlers tend to be more aggressive and dominant over others. Antlers can be an honest signal of genetic quality; males with larger antlers relative to body size tend to have increased resistance to pathogens and higher reproductive capacity.",
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"plaintext": "In elk in Yellowstone National Park, antlers also provide protection against predation by wolves.",
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"plaintext": "Homology of tines, that is, the branching structure of antlers among species, have been discussed before the 1900s. Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers and determining homology of tines was developed.",
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"plaintext": "Most deer bear 32 teeth; the corresponding dental formula is: . The elk and the reindeer may be exceptions, as they may retain their upper canines and thus have 34 teeth (dental formula: ). The Chinese water deer, tufted deer, and muntjac have enlarged upper canine teeth forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation. The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper incisors, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw.",
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"plaintext": "Deer are browsers, and feed primarily on foliage of grasses, sedges, forbs, shrubs and trees, secondarily on lichens in northern latitudes during winter. They have small, unspecialized stomachs by ruminant standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than eating and digesting vast quantities of low-grade fibrous food as, for example, sheep and cattle do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit, fungi, and lichens. The low-fibered food, after minimal fermentation and shredding, passes rapidly through the alimentary canal. The deer require a large amount of minerals such as calcium and phosphate in order to support antler growth, and this further necessitates a nutrient-rich diet. There are some reports of deer engaging in carnivorous activity, such as eating dead alewives along lakeshores or depredating the nests of northern bobwhites.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all cervids are so-called uniparental species: the fawns are only cared for by the mother, known as a doe. A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). Mating season typically begins in later August and lasts until December. Some species mate until early March. The gestation period is anywhere up to ten months for the European roe deer. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose these spots by the end of their first winter. In the first twenty minutes of a fawn's life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost free of scent, so predators will not find it. Its mother leaves often to graze, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its mother must gently push it down with her foot. The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one week until it is strong enough to walk with its mother. The fawn and its mother stay together for about one year. A male usually leaves and never sees his mother again, but females sometimes come back with their own fawns and form small herds.",
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"plaintext": "In some areas of the UK, deer (especially fallow deer due to their gregarious behaviour) have been implicated as a possible reservoir for transmission of bovine tuberculosis, a disease which in the UK in 2005 cost £90million in attempts to eradicate. In New Zealand, deer are thought to be important as vectors picking up M. bovis in areas where brushtail possums Trichosurus vulpecula are infected, and transferring it to previously uninfected possums when their carcasses are scavenged elsewhere. The white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus has been confirmed as the sole maintenance host in the Michigan outbreak of bovine tuberculosis which remains a significant barrier to the US nationwide eradication of the disease in livestock. Moose and deer can carry rabies.",
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"plaintext": "Docile moose may suffer from brain worm, a helminth which drills holes through the brain in its search for a suitable place to lay its eggs. A government biologist states that \"They move around looking for the right spot and never really find it.\" Deer appear to be immune to this parasite; it passes through the digestive system and is excreted in the feces. The parasite is not screened by the moose intestine, and passes into the brain where damage is done that is externally apparent, both in behaviour and in gait.",
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"plaintext": "Deer, elk and moose in North America may suffer from chronic wasting disease, which was identified at a Colorado laboratory in the 1960s and is believed to be a prion disease. Out of an abundance of caution hunters are advised to avoid contact with specified risk material (SRM) such as the brain, spinal column or lymph nodes. Deboning the meat when butchering and sanitizing the knives and other tools used to butcher are amongst other government recommendations.",
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"plaintext": "Deer are believed to have evolved from antlerless, tusked ancestors that resembled modern duikers and diminutive deer in the early Eocene, and gradually developed into the first antlered cervoids (the superfamily of cervids and related extinct families) in the Miocene. Eventually, with the development of antlers, the tusks as well as the upper incisors disappeared. Thus, evolution of deer took nearly 30 million years. Biologist Valerius Geist suggests evolution to have occurred in stages. There are not many prominent fossils to trace this evolution, but only fragments of skeletons and antlers that might be easily confused with false antlers of non-cervid species.",
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"plaintext": "The ruminants, ancestors of the Cervidae, are believed to have evolved from Diacodexis, the earliest known artiodactyl (even-toed ungulate), 50–55 Mya in the Eocene. Diacodexis, nearly the size of a rabbit, featured the talus bone characteristic of all modern even-toed ungulates. This ancestor and its relatives occurred throughout North America and Eurasia, but were on the decline by at least 46 Mya. Analysis of a nearly complete skeleton of Diacodexis discovered in 1982 gave rise to speculation that this ancestor could be closer to the non-ruminants than the ruminants. Andromeryx is another prominent prehistoric ruminant, but appears to be closer to the tragulids.",
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"plaintext": "The formation of the Himalayas and the Alps brought about significant geographic changes. This was the chief reason behind the extensive diversification of deer-like forms and the emergence of cervids from the Oligocene to the early Pliocene. The latter half of the Oligocene (28–34 Mya) saw the appearance of the European Eumeryx and the North American Leptomeryx. The latter resembled modern-day bovids and cervids in dental morphology (for instance, it had brachyodont molars), while the former was more advanced. Other deer-like forms included the North American Blastomeryx and the European Dremotherium; these sabre-toothed animals are believed to have been the direct ancestors of all modern antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers. Another contemporaneous form was the four-horned protoceratid Protoceras, that was replaced by Syndyoceras in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose. Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 million years ago, which were found in North America, show that Syndyoceras had bony skull outgrowths that resembled non-deciduous antlers.",
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"plaintext": "Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene. Dicrocerus, Euprox and Heteroprox were probably the first antlered cervids. Dicrocerus featured single-forked antlers that were shed regularly. Stephanocemas had more developed and diffuse (\"crowned\") antlers. Procervulus (Palaeomerycidae) also possessed antlers that were not shed. Contemporary forms such as the merycodontines eventually gave rise to the modern pronghorn.",
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"plaintext": "The Cervinae emerged as the first group of extant cervids around 7–9 Mya, during the late Miocene in central Asia. The tribe Muntiacini made its appearance as † Muntiacus leilaoensis around 7–8 Mya; The early muntjacs varied in size–as small as hares or as large as fallow deer. They had tusks for fighting and antlers for defence. Capreolinae followed soon after; Alceini appeared 6.4–8.4 Mya. Around this period, the Tethys Ocean disappeared to give way to vast stretches of grassland; these provided the deer with abundant protein-rich vegetation that led to the development of ornamental antlers and allowed populations to flourish and colonise areas. As antlers had become pronounced, the canines were either lost or became poorly represented (as in elk), probably because diet was no longer browse-dominated and antlers were better display organs. In muntjac and tufted deer, the antlers as well as the canines are small. The tragulids possess long canines to this day.",
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"plaintext": "With the onset of the Pliocene, the global climate became cooler. A fall in the sea-level led to massive glaciation; consequently, grasslands abounded in nutritious forage. Thus a new spurt in deer populations ensued. The oldest member of Cervini, † Cervocerus novorossiae, appeared around the transition from Miocene to Pliocene (4.2–6 Mya) in Eurasia; cervine fossils from early Pliocene to as late as the Pleistocene have been excavated in China and the Himalayas. While Cervus and Dama appeared nearly 3 Mya, Axis emerged during the late Pliocene–Pleistocene. The tribes Capreolini and Rangiferini appeared around 4–7 Mya.",
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"plaintext": "Around 5 Mya, the rangiferina † Bretzia and † Eocoileus were the first cervids to reach North America. This implies the Bering Strait could be crossed during the late Miocene–Pliocene; this appears highly probable as the camelids migrated into Asia from North America around the same time. Deer invaded South America in the late Pliocene (2.5–3 Mya) as part of the Great American Interchange, thanks to the recently formed Isthmus of Panama, and emerged successful due to the small number of competing ruminants in the continent.",
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"plaintext": "Large deer with impressive antlers evolved during the early Pleistocene, probably as a result of abundant resources to drive evolution. The early Pleistocene cervid † Eucladoceros was comparable in size to the modern elk. † Megaloceros (Pliocene–Pleistocene) featured the Irish elk (M. giganteus), one of the largest known cervids. The Irish elk reached at the shoulder and had heavy antlers that spanned from tip to tip. These large animals are thought to have faced extinction due to conflict between sexual selection for large antlers and body and natural selection for a smaller form. Meanwhile, the moose and reindeer radiated into North America from Siberia.",
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"plaintext": "Deer constitute the artiodactyl family Cervidae. This family was first described by German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss in Handbuch der Zoologie (1820). Three subfamilies are recognised: Capreolinae (first described by the English zoologist Joshua Brookes in 1828), Cervinae (described by Goldfuss) and Hydropotinae (first described by French zoologist Édouard Louis Trouessart in 1898).",
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"plaintext": "Other attempts at the classification of deer have been based on morphological and genetic differences. The Anglo-Irish naturalist Victor Brooke suggested in 1878 that deer could be bifurcated into two classes on the according to the features of the second and fifth metacarpal bones of their forelimbs: Plesiometacarpalia (most Old World deer) and Telemetacarpalia (most New World deer). He treated the musk deer as a cervid, placing it under Telemetacarpalia. While the telemetacarpal deer showed only those elements located far from the joint, the plesiometacarpal deer retained the elements closer to the joint as well. Differentiation on the basis of diploid number of chromosomes in the late 20th century has been flawed by several inconsistencies.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, the zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identified three subfamilies: Cervinae, Hydropotinae and Odocoileinae; they noted that the hydropotines lack antlers, and the other two subfamilies differ in their skeletal morphology. They reverted from this classification in 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Molecular phylogenetic analyses since the latter half of the 2000s all show that hydropotes is a sister taxon of Capreolus, and “Hydropotinae” became outdated subfamily.",
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"plaintext": "Until 2003, it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae. Then a phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae. According to the study, Cervidae diverged from the Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago. The following cladogram is based on the 2003 study.",
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"plaintext": "A 2006 phylogenetic study of the internal relationships in Cervidae by Clément Gilbert and colleagues divided the family into two major clades: Capreolinae (telemetacarpal or New World deer) and Cervinae (plesiometacarpal or Old World deer). Studies in the late 20th century suggested a similar bifurcation in the family. This as well as previous studies support monophyly in Cervinae, while Capreolinae appears paraphyletic. The 2006 study identified two lineages in Cervinae, Cervini (comprising the genera Axis, Cervus, Dama and Rucervus) and Muntiacini (Muntiacus and Elaphodus). Capreolinae featured three lineages, Alceini (Alces species), Capreolini (Capreolus and the subfamily Hydropotinae) and Rangiferini (Blastocerus, Hippocamelus, Mazama, Odocoileus, Pudu and Rangifer species). The following cladogram is based on the 2006 study.",
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"plaintext": "Deer were an important source of food for early hominids. In China, Homo erectus fed upon the sika deer, while the red deer was hunted in Germany. In the Upper Palaeolithic, the reindeer was the staple food for Cro-Magnon people, while the cave paintings at Lascaux in southwestern France include some 90 images of stags. In China, deer continued to be a main source of food for millennia even after people began farming, and it is possible that sika and other deer benefited from the frequently abandoned field sites.",
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"plaintext": "Deer had a central role in the ancient art, culture and mythology of the Hittites, the ancient Egyptians, the Celts, the ancient Greeks, the Asians and several others. For instance, the Stag Hunt Mosaic of ancient Pella, under the Kingdom of Macedonia (4th century BC), possibly depicts Alexander the Great hunting a deer with Hephaestion. In Japanese Shintoism, the sika deer is believed to be a messenger to the gods. In China, deer are associated with great medicinal significance; deer penis is thought by some in China to have aphrodisiac properties. Spotted deer are believed in China to accompany the god of longevity. Deer was the principal sacrificial animal for the Huichal Indians of Mexico. In medieval Europe, deer appeared in hunting scenes and coats-of-arms. Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes.",
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"plaintext": "The common male first name Oscar is taken from the Irish Language, where it is derived from two elements: the first, os, means \"deer\"; the second element, cara, means \"friend\". The name is borne by a famous hero of Irish mythology—Oscar, grandson of Fionn Mac Cumhail. The name was popularised in the 18th century by James Macpherson, creator of 'Ossianic poetry'.",
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"plaintext": "Deer have been an integral part of fables and other literary works since the inception of writing. Stags were used as symbols in the latter Sumerian writings. For instance, the boat of Sumerian god Enki is named the Stag of Azbu. There are several mentions of the animal in the Rigveda as well as the Bible. In the Indian epic Ramayana, Sita is lured by a golden deer which Rama tries to catch. In the absence of both Rama and Lakshman, Ravana kidnaps Sita. Many of the allegorical Aesop's fables, such as \"The Stag at the Pool\", \"The One-Eyed Doe\" and \"The Stag and a Lion\", personify deer to give moral lessons. For instance, \"The Sick Stag\" gives the message that uncaring friends can do more harm than good. The Yaqui deer song accompanies the deer dance which is performed by a pascola [from the Spanish 'pascua', Easter] dancer (also known as a deer dancer). Pascolas would perform at religious and social functions many times of the year, especially during Lent and Easter.",
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"plaintext": "In one of Rudolf Erich Raspe's 1785 stories of Baron Munchausen's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia, the baron encounters a stag while eating cherries and, without ammunition, fires the cherry-pits at the stag with his musket, but it escapes. The next year, the baron encounters a stag with a cherry tree growing from its head; presumably this is the animal he had shot at the previous year. In Christmas lore (such as in the narrative poem \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\"), reindeer are often depicted pulling the sleigh of Santa Claus. Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings's Pulitzer Prize-winning 1938 novel The Yearling was about a boy's relationship with a baby deer. The fiction book Fire Bringer is about a young fawn who goes on a quest to save the Herla, the deer kind. In the 1942 Walt Disney Pictures film, Bambi is a white-tailed deer, while in Felix Salten's original 1923 book Bambi, a Life in the Woods, he is a roe deer. In C. S. Lewis's 1950 fantasy novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe the adult Pevensies, now kings and queens of Narnia, chase the White Stag on a hunt, as the Stag is said to grant its captor a wish. The hunt is key in returning the Pevensies to their home in England. In the 1979 book The Animals of Farthing Wood, The Great White Stag is the leader of all the animals.",
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"plaintext": "Deer of various types appear frequently in European heraldry. In the British armory, the term \"stag\" is typically used to refer to antlered male red deer, while \"buck\" indicates an antlered male fallow deer. Stags and bucks appear in a number of attitudes, referred to as \"lodged\" when the deer is lying down, \"trippant\" when it has one leg raised, \"courant\" when it is running, \"springing\" when in the act of leaping, \"statant\" when it is standing with all hooves on the ground and looking ahead, and \"at gaze\" when otherwise statant but looking at the viewer. Stags' heads are also frequently used; these are typically portrayed without an attached neck and as facing the viewer, in which case they are termed \"caboshed\".",
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"plaintext": "Examples of deer in coats of arms can be found in the arms of Hertfordshire, England, and its county town of Hertford; both are examples of canting arms. A deer appears on the arms of the Israeli Postal Authority. Coats of arms featuring deer include those of Dotternhausen, Thierachern, Friolzheim, Bauen, Albstadt, and Dassel in Germany; of the Earls Bathurst in England; of Balakhna, Russia; of Åland, Finland; of Gjemnes, Hitra, Hjartdal, Rendalen and Voss in Norway; of Jelenia Góra, Poland; of Umeå, Sweden; of Queensland, Australia; of Cervera, Catalonia; of Northern Ireland; and of Chile. ",
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"plaintext": "Other types of deer used in heraldry include the hind, portrayed much like the stag or buck but without antlers, as well as the reindeer and winged stags. Winged stags are used as supporters in the arms of the de Carteret family. The sea-stag, possessing the antlers, head, forelegs and upper body of a stag and the tail of a mermaid, is often found in German heraldry.",
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"plaintext": "Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, known as venison, is highly nutritious. Due to the inherently wild nature and diet of deer, venison is most often obtained through deer hunting. In the United States, it is produced in small amounts compared to beef, but still represents a significant trade. Deer hunting is a popular activity in the U.S. that can provide the hunter's family with high quality meat and generates revenue for states and the federal government from the sales of licenses, permits and tags. The 2006 survey by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that license sales generate approximately $700 million annually. This revenue generally goes to support conservation efforts in the states where the licenses are purchased. Overall, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that big game hunting for deer and elk generates approximately $11.8 billion annually in hunting-related travel, equipment and related expenditures. Conservation laws prevent the sale of unlicensed wild game meat, although it may be donated.",
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"plaintext": "Deer have often been bred in captivity as ornaments for parks, but only in the case of reindeer has thorough domestication succeeded. By 2012, some 25,000 tons of red deer were raised on farms in North America. The Sami of Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern Asia use reindeer for food, clothing, and transport. Others are bred for hunting are selected based on the size of the antlers. The major deer-producing countries are New Zealand, the market leader, with Ireland, Great Britain and Germany. The trade earns over $100 million annually for these countries.",
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"plaintext": "Automobile collisions with deer can impose a significant cost on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5million deer-vehicle collisions occur each year, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Those accidents cause about 150 human deaths and $1.1billion in property damage annually. In Scotland, several roads including the A82, the A87 and the A835 have had significant enough problems with deer vehicle collisions (DVCs) that sets of vehicle activated automatic warning signs have been installed along these roads.",
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"plaintext": "The skins make a peculiarly strong, soft leather, known as buckskin. There is nothing special about skins with the fur still on since the hair is brittle and soon falls off. The hoofs and horns are used for ornamental purposes, especially the antlers of the roe deer, which are utilized for making umbrella handles, and for similar purposes; elk horn is often employed in making knife handles. Among the Inuit, the traditional ulu women's knife was made with an antler, horn, or ivory handle. In China, a medicine is made from stag horn, and the antlers of certain species are eaten when \"in the velvet\". Velvet antlers in medicine have been shown to have health benefits including an enhanced immune system and athletic performance, as well as being effective treatment for arthritis. Antlers can also be boiled down to release the protein gelatin, which is used as a topical treatment for skin irritation and is also used in cooking.",
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"plaintext": "Since the early 20th century, deer have become commonly thought of as pests in New Zealand due to a lack of predators on the island causing population numbers to increase and begin encroaching on more populated areas. They compete with livestock for resources, as well as cause excess erosion and wreak havoc on wild plant species and agriculture alike. They can also have an effect on the conservation efforts of other plant and animal species, as they can critically offset the balance within an environment by drastically depleting diversity within forests.",
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"plaintext": " Deer management",
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"plaintext": " Australian Deer Association",
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"plaintext": " Deer forest",
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"plaintext": " Reindeer hunting in Greenland",
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"plaintext": " Largest cervids",
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"plaintext": " Deerland: America's Hunt for Ecological Balance and the Essence of Wildness by Al Cambronne, Lyons Press (2013), ",
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"plaintext": " Family Cervidae at the Animal Diversity Web",
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"plaintext": " Chronic Wasting Disease Information",
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"plaintext": "World of Deer Museum ",
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"plaintext": " Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Deer",
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38,431 | 1,104,231,631 | Wool | [
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"plaintext": "Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool.",
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"plaintext": "As an animal fibre, wool consists of protein together with a small percentage of lipids. This makes it chemically quite distinct from cotton and other plant fibres, which are mainly cellulose.",
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"plaintext": "Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber: kemp, medullated fibers, and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. ",
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"plaintext": "Wool's crimp refers to the strong natural wave present in each wool fibre as it in presented on the animal. Wool's crimp, and to a lesser degree scales, make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific thermal resistance, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation.",
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"plaintext": "Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. Felting generally comes under two main areas, dry felting or wet felting. Wet felting occurs when water and a lubricant (especially an alkali such as soap) are applied to the wool which is then agitated until the fibers mix and bond together. Temperature shock while damp or wet accentuates the felting process. Some natural felting can occur on the animals back.",
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"plaintext": "Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. ",
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"plaintext": "The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 40 crimps per centimetre (100 crimps per inch), while coarser wool like karakul may have less than one (one or two crimps per inch). In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland.",
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"plaintext": "Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water.",
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"plaintext": "Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.",
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"plaintext": "Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip; it forms a char that is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.",
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"plaintext": "Wool causes an allergic reaction in some people.",
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"plaintext": "Sheep shearing is the process in which a worker (a shearer) cuts off the woolen fleece of a sheep. After shearing, wool-classers separate the wool into four main categories:",
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"plaintext": " fleece (which makes up the vast bulk)",
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"plaintext": " broken",
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"plaintext": " bellies",
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"plaintext": " locks",
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"plaintext": "The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person, called a wool classer, groups wools of similar grading together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia, before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for average diameter (micron), yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.",
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"plaintext": "Wool straight off a sheep is known as \"raw wool”, “greasy wool\" or \"wool in the grease\". This wool contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as the sheep's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali in specialized equipment.",
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"plaintext": "In north west England, special potash pits were constructed to produce potash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool.",
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"plaintext": "Vegetable matter in commercial wool is often removed by chemical carbonization.",
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"plaintext": "In less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams.",
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"plaintext": "Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheep's body yields many types of wool with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into 'top'. 'Worsted top' requires strong straight and parallel fibres.",
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"plaintext": "The quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.",
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"plaintext": "Merino wool is typically in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns). The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically coarser, and has fibers in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.",
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"plaintext": "Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:",
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"plaintext": "Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling.",
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"plaintext": "The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939. Wool is \"the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so-called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product\". \"Virgin wool\" and \"new wool\" are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories of recycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). \"Reprocessed wool\" identifies \"wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer\". \"Reused wool\" refers to such wool that has been used by the ultimate consumer.",
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"plaintext": "Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000BC, with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later. Woolly sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog. Prior to invention of shears—probably in the Iron Age—the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along the Silk Road from China, were extravagant luxury goods. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care.",
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"plaintext": "In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant the woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople. The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated. The Florentine wool guild, Arte della Lana, sent the imported English wool to the San Martino convent for processing. Italian wool from Abruzzo and Spanish merino wools were processed at Garbo workshops. Abruzzo wool had once been the most accessible for the Florentine guild, until improved relations with merchants in Iberia made merino wool more available. By the 16th century Italian wool exports to the Levant had declined, eventually replaced by silk production.",
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"plaintext": "Both industries, based on the export of English raw wool, were rivaled only by the 15th-century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the \"Great Custom\". The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the \"Woolsack\", a chair stuffed with wool.",
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"plaintext": "Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10% of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.",
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"plaintext": "A great deal of the value of woolen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the \"putting-out\" system, or \"cottage industry\", and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275. The system effectively bypassed the guilds' restrictions.",
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"plaintext": "Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the \"merchant of Prato\", established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile were controlled by the Mesta union of sheep owners.",
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"plaintext": "They shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market – based on sheep of Spanish origin – did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. The Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production.",
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"plaintext": "Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.",
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"plaintext": "Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the \"scales\" from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2004, a bale of the then world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU$3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne, Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was A$279,000 for the bale.",
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"plaintext": "The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU$2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers.",
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"plaintext": "Global wool production is about per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3% of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dyeing and other modifications of the material. Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight. New Zealand (2016) is the third-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Drysdale, and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand-spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. ",
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"plaintext": "Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2020",
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"plaintext": ": 19% of global wool-clip ( greasy, 2020)",
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"plaintext": ": 16%",
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"plaintext": ": 8%",
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"plaintext": ": 4%",
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"plaintext": ": 4%",
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"plaintext": ": 3%",
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"plaintext": ": 3%",
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"plaintext": ": 3%",
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"plaintext": ": 3%",
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"plaintext": ": 3%",
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"plaintext": "Organic wool has gained in popularity. This wool is limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia. Organic wool has become easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues.",
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"plaintext": "Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing.",
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"plaintext": "About 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction. ",
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"plaintext": "The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.",
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"plaintext": "Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.",
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"plaintext": "United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.",
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"plaintext": "Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers. As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years.",
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"plaintext": "Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface.",
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"plaintext": "Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting. In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.",
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"plaintext": "Wool as well as cotton has also been traditionally used for cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.",
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"plaintext": "Initial studies of woolen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers.",
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"plaintext": "As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and Kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28–30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone.",
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"plaintext": "A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of \"Superfine skirted Merino fleece\". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country. In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, an ultrafine, 10-micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale.",
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"plaintext": "The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more.",
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"plaintext": "In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales fleeces.",
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"plaintext": "Timeline of clothing and textiles technology",
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"plaintext": "Lambswool",
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"plaintext": "Canvas work",
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "Shahtoosh",
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{
"plaintext": "Tibetan fur",
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11
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] | [
"Wool",
"Animal_hair",
"Polyamides"
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38,432 | 1,107,794,564 | 1103 | [
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"plaintext": " Wivina, French Benedictine abbess (d. 1168)",
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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},
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{
"plaintext": " Isaac Alfasi, Algerian Talmudist and posek (b. 1013)",
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"1103"
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38,433 | 1,092,885,800 | Emperor_Toba | [
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"plaintext": " Sanjō-no-Tsubone (三条局; d.1138), Fujiwara no Iemasa’s daughter",
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"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Daughter: Imperial Princess Kenshi (妍子内親王; d.1161) Yoshida saigū (Imperial Princess serving at Ise Shrine)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [
579053
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96,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kasuga-no-Tsubone (春日局), Tokudaiji Saneyosi‘s daughter",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess Shōshi/Nobuko (頌子内親王; 1145–1208)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujitsubo-Nyogo (藤壺女御), Tachibana Toshitsuna‘s daughter",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Shin-yo? (真誉) – Buddhist nun",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tosa-no-Tsubone (土佐局), Minamoto no Mitsuyasu‘s daughter",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Sanehira‘s Daughter",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Daughter: Princess Takamatsu (高松宮) (apparently no connection with Arisugawa-no-miya, which was originally named Takamatsu-no-miya)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Unknown",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Imperial Prince Priest Saichū (最忠法親王)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Imperial Prince Dōka? (道果親王)",
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"section_name": "Genealogy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "When his mother died, his grandfather, former-Emperor Shirakawa, took him under his care and raised him.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 9, 1107 (Kajō 2, 19th day of the 7th month): In the 21st year of Emperor Horikawa's reign (堀河天皇21年), the emperor (\"tennō\") died at the age of 29; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his only son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Toba is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).",
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"plaintext": "During the initial years of Toba's reign, the actual power was held by his grandfather, the \"retired\" Emperor Shirakawa, in a process known as cloistered rule.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1110 (Ten'ei 3, 6th month): The Miidera-ji burned down. This was the second time the temple was destroyed by fire, the first time being in 1081.",
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{
"plaintext": " February 25, 1123 (Hōan 4, 28th day of the 1st month): In the 17th year of Emperor Toba's reign (鳥羽天皇17年), Toba was forced to abdicate by his grandfather, retired-Emperor Shirakawa. Toba gave up the throne in favor of his son Akihito, who would become Emperor Sutoku. Toba was only 20 years old when he renounced his title; and he had already reigned for 16 years: two in the nengō Tennin, three in Ten'ei, five in the nengō Eikyū, two in Gen'ei, and four in the nengō Hōan. At this time, Toba took the title Daijō-tennō. The succession (senso) was received by his son.",
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{
"plaintext": " 1123 (Hōan 4, 2nd month): Emperor Sutoku is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1129 (Daiji 4): \"retired\" Emperor Shirakawa died; and Toba himself began to rule as cloistered emperor. Toba continued to hold power through the reigns of three emperors, Emperor Sutoku, Emperor Konoe, and Emperor Go-Shirakawa.",
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208,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " 1134 (Chōshō 3): The former-Emperor Toba made a pilgrimage to the Kumano Shrines. He was accompanied by sadaijin Hanazono no Arahito and udaijin Naka-no-in Munetada. The excursion was enjoyed by all, and great quantities of sake were consumed.",
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{
"plaintext": "Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.",
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},
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"plaintext": "In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Toba's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sesshō, Fujiwara Tadazane, 1078–1162.",
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],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kampaku, Fujiwara Tadazane.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kampaku, Fujiwara Tadamichi, 1097–1164.",
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"target_page_ids": [
347618
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara Tadazane.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Fujiwara Tadamichi.",
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Hanazono no Arahito.",
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Udaijin, Naka-no-in Munetada.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Naidaijin",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dainagon",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The years of Toba's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.",
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"section_name": "Eras of Toba's reign",
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192415,
192415
],
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76,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kajō (1106–1108)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Toba's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tennin (1108–1110)",
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"target_page_ids": [
13606253
],
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ten-ei (1110–1113)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eikyū (1113–1118)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Toba's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
13638398
],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gen'ei (1118–1120)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Toba's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
13638485
],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hōan (1120–1124)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emperor of Japan",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10110
],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of Emperors of Japan",
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"section_name": "See also",
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224374
],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Imperial cult",
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"section_name": "See also",
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188280
],
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emperor Go-Toba",
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"section_name": "See also",
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195040
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Burce T. Tsuchida, ed. (1975). The Tale of the Heike. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. OCLC 164803926",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
21403242
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
10425711,
11667315
],
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1,
17
],
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26,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
22456890
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] | [
"Japanese_emperors",
"1103_births",
"1156_deaths",
"12th-century_Japanese_monarchs",
"People_of_Heian-period_Japan",
"Heian_period_Buddhist_clergy",
"Japanese_Buddhist_monarchs",
"Japanese_retired_emperors"
] | 349,284 | 1,491 | 113 | 61 | 0 | 0 | Toba | Emperor of Japan | [
"Toba-tennō",
"Emperor Toba"
] |
38,434 | 1,092,885,840 | Emperor_Sutoku | [
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"plaintext": " was the 75th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.",
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"plaintext": "Sutoku's reign spanned the years from 1123 through 1142.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Akihito (顕仁). Sutoku was the eldest son of Emperor Toba. Some old texts say he was instead the son of Toba's grandfather, Emperor Shirakawa.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Chūgū: Fujiwara no Kiyoko (藤原 聖子) later Kōkamon'in (皇嘉門院), Fujiwara no Tadamichi’s daughter",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hyounosuke-no-Tsubone (兵衛佐局), Minamoto no Masamune's adopted daughter",
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},
{
"plaintext": " First son: Imperial (1140–1162).",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mikawa-dono (三河), Minamoto no Morotsune's daughter",
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"section_name": "Genealogy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fifth Son: Kakue (覚恵; 1151-1184)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Genealogy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Karasuma-no-Tsubone (烏丸局)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 25, 1123 (Hōan 4, 28th day of the 1st month): In the 16th year of Emperor Toba's reign (鳥羽天皇二十五年), he abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his son, aged 3.",
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"plaintext": " Hōan 4, in the 2nd month (1123): Emperor Sutoku is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).",
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"plaintext": " 1124 (Tenji 1, 2nd month): Former-Emperor Shirakawa and former-Emperor Toba went in carriages to outside the city where they could all together enjoy contemplating the flowers. Taiken-mon'in (? – August 26, 1145) (formerly Fujiwara no Shōshi), who was Toba's empress and Sutoku's mother, joined the procession along with many other women of the court. Their cortege was brilliant and colorful. A great many men of the court in hunting clothes followed the ladies in this parade. Fujiwara no Tadamichi then followed in a carriage, accompanied by bands of musicians and women who were to sing for the emperors.",
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"plaintext": " 1124 (Tenji 1, 10th month): Shirakawa visited Mount Kōya.",
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"plaintext": " 1125 (Tenji 2, 10th month): The emperor visited Iwashimizu Shrine and the Kamo Shrines; and afterwards, he also visited the shrines Hirano, Ōharano, Mutsunoo, Kitano, Gion and several others.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1128 (Daiji 3, 3rd month): Taiken-mon'in ordered the construction of Enshō-ji in fulfillment of a sacred vow. This was one in a series of \"sacred vow temples\" (gogan-ji) built by imperial command following a precedent established by Emperor Shirakawa's Hosshō-ji.",
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"plaintext": " 1128 (Daiji 3, 6th month): Fujiwara no Tadamichi is relieved of his responsibilities and duties as sesshō (regent); and simultaneously, Tadamichi is named kampaku.",
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"plaintext": " August 17, 1135 (Hōen 1, 7th day of the 7th month): Former-Emperor Shirakawa died at the age of 77.",
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"plaintext": " 1141 (Eiji 1, 3rd month): The former emperor Toba accepted the tonsure in becoming a monk at the age of 39.",
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"plaintext": "In 1151, Sutoko ordered Waka imperial anthology Shika Wakashū.",
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"plaintext": "In 1156, after failing to put down the Hōgen Rebellion, he was exiled to Sanuki Province (modern-day Kagawa prefecture on the island of Shikoku).",
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"plaintext": "Emperor Sutoku's reign lasted for 19 years: 2 years in the nengō Tenji, 5 years in Daiji, 1 year in 'Tenshō, 3 years in Chōshō, 6 years in Hōen, and 1 year in Eiji.",
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"plaintext": "The site of Sutoku's grave is settled. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) in Sakaide, Kagawa. He was also enshrined (or sealed away ... ) in Shiramine shrine (Shiramine-jingū), Kyoto and Kotohira-gū in Kagawa Prefecture. The former is also associated with the god of football, worshipped by Kuge clan Asukai in times of yore, while the latter enshrined Ō-mono-nushi-no-mikoto, a god known to have restored harmony in Yamato (or blackmailed Emperor Sujin ... ) in exchange for worship and nepotism.",
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122,
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222,
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[
232,
243
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[
485,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Sutoku's mausoleum. It is formally named Shiramine no misasagi.",
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"plaintext": "Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.",
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"plaintext": "In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Sutoku's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: ",
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"plaintext": " Sesshō, Fujiwara no Tadamichi, 1097–1164.",
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{
"plaintext": " Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Tadamichi.",
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{
"plaintext": " Sadaijin",
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{
"plaintext": " Udaijin",
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{
"plaintext": " Nadaijin, Fujiwara no Yorinaga, 1120–1156.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dainagon",
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"target_page_ids": [
5595557
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},
{
"plaintext": "The years of Sutoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.",
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"section_name": "Eras of Sutoku's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
192415,
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{
"plaintext": " Hōan (1120–1124)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": " Tenji (1124–1126)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Daiji (1126–1131)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tenshō (1131–1132)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Sutoku's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chōshō (1132–1135)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Sutoku's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
13185426
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hōen (1135–1141)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Sutoku's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
1045670
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eiji (1141–1142)",
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"section_name": "Eras of Sutoku's reign",
"target_page_ids": [
13628464
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "After Sutoku's abdication and exile, he devoted himself to monastic life. He copied numerous scriptures and offered them to the court. Fearing that the scriptures were cursed, the court refused to accept them. Snubbed, Sutoku was said to have resented the court and, upon his death, became an onryō. Everything from the subsequent fall in fortune of the Imperial court, the rise of the samurai powers, droughts and internal unrests were blamed on his haunting.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Legends",
"target_page_ids": [
1573719
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Along with Sugawara no Michizane and Taira no Masakado, he is often called one of the “.”.",
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"section_name": "Legends",
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1606407,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shin Heike Monogatari, (Taiga Drama), Masakazu Tamura played Emperor Sutoku.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Emperor of Japan",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10110
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of Emperors of Japan",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
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224374
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},
{
"plaintext": " Imperial cult",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
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188280
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},
{
"plaintext": " Goryō",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6731546
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
21403242
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
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39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " _____________. (1963). Vicissitudes of Shinto. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 36655",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
10425711,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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26,
44
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},
{
"plaintext": " Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
22456890
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"Hyakunin_Isshu_poets",
"Deified_Japanese_people",
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38,435 | 1,103,403,269 | 1164 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1164 (MCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " July 16 Frederick V, son of Frederick I (Barbarossa)",
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"plaintext": " December 28 Rokujō, emperor of Japan (d. 1176)",
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"plaintext": " Fulk of Pavia, Italian prelate and bishop (d. 1229)",
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"plaintext": " Hatakeyama Shigetada, Japanese samurai (d. 1205)",
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"plaintext": " Ibn Tumlus, Moorish scholar and physician (d. 1223)",
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"plaintext": " Isabel de Bolebec, English noblewoman (d. 1245)",
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"plaintext": " Shi Miyuan, Chinese official and politician (d. 1233)",
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"plaintext": " January 30 William of Anjou, viscount of Dieppe (b. 1136)",
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"plaintext": " March 13 Fujiwara no Tadamichi, Japanese regent (b. 1097)",
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"plaintext": " April 20 Victor IV, antipope of Rome (b. 1095)",
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"plaintext": " May 16 Héloïse, French scholar and abbess",
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"plaintext": " May 19 Bashnouna, Egyptian monk and martyr",
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"plaintext": " June 18 Elisabeth of Schönau, German abbess",
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"plaintext": " September 4 Henry II, prince-bishop of Liège",
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"plaintext": " September 14 Sutoku, emperor of Japan (b. 1119)",
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"plaintext": " November 11 Hugh of Amiens, French archbishop",
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"plaintext": " December 23 Hartmann of Brixen, German bishop (b. 1090)",
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"plaintext": " December 31 Ottokar III, margrave of Styria (b. 1124)",
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"plaintext": " Herbert of Selkirk, Scottish bishop and chancellor",
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"plaintext": " Hodierna of Jerusalem, countess of Tripoli (b. 1110)",
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"plaintext": " Ortlieb of Zwiefalten, German Benedictine abbot",
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"plaintext": " Zhang Jun, Chinese grand chancellor (b. 1097)",
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38,436 | 1,049,139,981 | Half-reaction | [
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"plaintext": "A half reaction (or half-cell reaction) is either the oxidation or reduction reaction component of a redox reaction. A half reaction is obtained by considering the change in oxidation states of individual substances involved in the redox reaction.",
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"plaintext": "Often, the concept of half reactions is used to describe what occurs in an electrochemical cell, such as a Galvanic cell battery. Half reactions can be written to describe both the metal undergoing oxidation (known as the anode) and the metal undergoing reduction (known as the cathode).",
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"plaintext": "Half reactions are often used as a method of balancing redox reactions. For oxidation-reduction reactions in acidic conditions, after balancing the atoms and oxidation numbers, one will need to add H+ ions to balance the hydrogen ions in the half reaction. For oxidation-reduction reactions in basic conditions, after balancing the atoms and oxidation numbers, first treat it as an acidic solution and then add OH− ions to balance the H+ ions in the half reactions (which would give H2O).",
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"plaintext": "Consider the Galvanic cell shown in the adjacent image: it is constructed with a piece of zinc (Zn) submerged in a solution of zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) and a piece of copper (Cu) submerged in a solution of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4). The overall reaction is:",
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"plaintext": "Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)",
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"section_name": "Example: Zn and Cu Galvanic cell",
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},
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"plaintext": "At the Zn anode, oxidation takes place (the metal loses electrons). This is represented in the following oxidation half reaction (note that the electrons are on the products side):",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Example: Zn and Cu Galvanic cell",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": "Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e−",
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"plaintext": "At the Cu cathode, reduction takes place (electrons are accepted). This is represented in the following reduction half reaction (note that the electrons are on the reactants side):",
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"plaintext": "Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu(s)",
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"plaintext": "Consider the example burning of magnesium ribbon (Mg). When magnesium burns, it combines with oxygen (O2) from the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO) according to the following equation:",
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"plaintext": "2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium oxide is an ionic compound containing Mg2+ and O2− ions whereas Mg(s) and O2(g) are elements with no charges. ",
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"plaintext": "The Mg(s) with zero charge gains a +2 charge going from the reactant side to product side, and the O2(g) with zero charge gains a -2 charge. This is because when Mg(s) becomes Mg2+, it loses 2 electrons. Since there are 2 Mg on left side, a total of 4 electrons are lost according to the following oxidation half reaction:",
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"section_name": "Example: oxidation of magnesium",
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"plaintext": "2Mg(s) → 2Mg2+ + 4e−",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, O2 was reduced: its oxidation state goes from 0 to -2. Thus, a reduction half reaction can be written for the O2 as it gains 4 electrons:",
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"plaintext": "O2(g) + 4e− → 2O2−",
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},
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"plaintext": "The overall reaction is the sum of both half reactions:",
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"plaintext": "2Mg(s) + O2(g) + 4e− →2Mg2+ + 2O2− + 4e−",
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"plaintext": "When chemical reaction, especially, redox reaction takes place, we do not see the electrons as they appear and disappear during the course of the reaction. What we see is the reactants (starting material) and end products. Due to this, electrons appearing on both sides of the equation are canceled. After canceling, the equation is re-written as",
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"section_name": "Example: oxidation of magnesium",
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"plaintext": "2Mg(s) + O2(g) →2Mg2+ + 2O2−",
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"plaintext": "Two ions, positive (Mg2+) and negative (O2−) exist on product side and they combine immediately to form a compound magnesium oxide (MgO) due to their opposite charges (electrostatic attraction). In any given oxidation-reduction reaction, there are two half reactions—oxidation half reaction and reduction half reaction. The sum of these two half reactions is the oxidation–reduction reaction.",
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"plaintext": "Consider the reaction below:",
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"plaintext": "Cl2 + 2Fe2+ → 2Cl− + 2Fe3+",
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"plaintext": "The two elements involved, iron and chlorine, each change oxidation state; iron from +2 to +3, chlorine from 0 to 1. There are then effectively two half reactions occurring. These changes can be represented in formulas by inserting appropriate electrons into each half reaction:",
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"plaintext": "Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−",
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"plaintext": "Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl−",
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"plaintext": "Given two half reactions it is possible, with knowledge of appropriate electrode potentials, to arrive at the complete (original) reaction the same way. The decomposition of a reaction into half reactions is key to understanding a variety of chemical processes. For example, in the above reaction, it can be shown that this is a redox reaction in which Fe is oxidised, and Cl is reduced. Note the transfer of electrons from Fe to Cl. Decomposition is also a way to simplify the balancing of a chemical equation. A chemist can atom balance and charge balance one piece of an equation at a time.",
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"plaintext": "For example:",
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"plaintext": " Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e− becomes 2Fe2+ → 2Fe3+ + 2e−",
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"plaintext": " is added to Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl−",
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"plaintext": " and finally becomes Cl2 + 2Fe2+ → 2Cl− + 2Fe3+",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible and sometimes necessary to consider a half reaction in either basic or acidic conditions, as there may be an acidic or basic electrolyte in the redox reaction. Due to this electrolyte it may be more difficult to satisfy the balance of both the atoms and charges. This is done by adding H2O, OH−, e−, and or H+ to either side of the reaction until both atoms and charges are balanced.",
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"plaintext": "Consider the half reaction below:",
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"plaintext": " PbO2 → PbO",
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"plaintext": "OH−, H2O, and e− can be used to balance the charges and atoms in basic conditions, as long as it is assumed that the reaction is in water.",
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"plaintext": " 2e− + H2O + PbO2 → PbO + 2OH−",
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"plaintext": "Again Consider the half reaction below:",
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"plaintext": " PbO2 → PbO",
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"plaintext": "H+, H2O, and e− can be used to balance the charges and atoms in acidic conditions, as long as it is assumed that the reaction is in water.",
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"plaintext": " 2e− + 2H+ + PbO2 → PbO + H2O",
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"plaintext": "Notice that both sides are both charge balanced and atom balanced.",
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"plaintext": "Often there will be both H+ and OH− present in acidic and basic conditions but that the resulting reaction of the two ions will yield water H2O (shown below):",
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"plaintext": " H+ + OH− → H2O",
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"plaintext": "Electrode potential",
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"plaintext": "Standard electrode potential (data page)",
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] | 2,272,343 | 1,021 | 51 | 18 | 0 | 0 | Half-reaction | redox reaction component | [] |
38,441 | 1,096,834,616 | Type_XXI_submarine | [
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"plaintext": "Type XXI submarines were a class of German diesel–electric Elektroboot (German: \"electric boat\") submarines designed during the Second World War. One hundred and eighteen were completed, with four being combat-ready. During the war only two were put into active service and went on patrols, but these were not used in combat.",
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"plaintext": "They were the first submarines designed to operate primarily submerged, rather than spending most of their time as surface ships that could submerge for brief periods as a means of escaping detection. They incorporated many batteries to increase the time they could spend submerged, to as much as several days, and they only needed to surface to periscope depth for recharging via a snorkel. The design included many general improvements as well: much greater underwater speed by an improved hull design, greatly improved diving times, power-assisted torpedo reloading and greatly improved crew accommodations. However, the design was also flawed in many ways, with the submarines being mechanically unreliable and vulnerable to combat damage. The Type XXI submarines were also rushed into production before design work was complete, and the inexperienced facilities which constructed the boats were unable to meet necessary quality standards.",
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"plaintext": "After the war, several navies obtained Type XXIs and operated them for decades in various roles, while large navies introduced new submarine designs based on them. These include the Soviet , American , British Porpoise, and Swedish classes, all based on the Type XXI design to some extent.",
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"plaintext": "The main features of the Type XXI were the hydrodynamically streamlined hull and conning tower and the large number of battery cells, roughly triple that of the German Type VII submarine. This gave these boats great underwater range and dramatically reduced the time spent on or near the surface. They could travel submerged at about for about 75 hours before recharging batteries, which took less than five hours using the snorkel. Being designed primarily for submerged use, the Type XXI's maximum surface speed (15.6 knots) was slightly lower than that of the Type IX (18.2 knots) but its submerged speed was twice that of the Type IX's (17.2 knots versus 7.7 knots), thanks to new turbo-supercharged diesel engines and the more hydrodynamically streamlined hull.",
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"plaintext": "The Type XXI was also much quieter than the VIIC, making it more difficult to detect when submerged and the design eliminated protruding components that created drag with earlier models. The new, streamlined hull design allowed submerged speed of , versus for the Type VIIC. The ability to outrun many surface ships while submerged, combined with improved dive times (also a product of the new hull form), made the Type XXI much more difficult to pursue and destroy. It also provided a 'sprint ability' when positioning itself for an attack. Older boats had to surface to sprint into position. This often revealed a boat's location, especially after aircraft became available for convoy escort. The Type XXI was also equipped with a creep motor for occasions when silent running was necessary.",
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"plaintext": "The Type XXI was equipped with six bow torpedo tubes (instead of the more common four in German submarines) and carried 23 torpedoes. ",
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"plaintext": "It featured an electric torpedo-reloading system that allowed all six bow torpedo tubes to be reloaded faster than a Type VIIC could reload one tube. The Type XXI could fire 18 torpedoes in less than 20 minutes. The class also featured a very sensitive passive sonar for the time, housed in the \"chin\" of the hull.",
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"plaintext": "The Type XXIs also had better facilities than previous U-boat classes, with much roomier crew berths, and a freezer to prevent food spoilage. The increased capacity allowed for a crew of 57.",
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"plaintext": "A post-war assessment of the Type XXI by the United States Navy concluded that while the design had some admirable features, it was seriously flawed. The submarines' engines were underpowered, which limited the surface speed and increased the time required to charge the batteries. The hydraulic system was unduly complex, and its main elements were located outside the pressure hull. This made the system highly vulnerable to corrosion and damage. The snorkel was also badly designed, and difficult to use in practice.",
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"plaintext": "This was the first U-boat to be constructed of modular components to allow for the manufacture of the various components in different factories and subsequent assembly at the shipyard.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1943 and 1945, 118 boats were assembled by Blohm & Voss of Hamburg, AG Weser of Bremen and Schichau-Werke of Danzig. Each hull was constructed from nine prefabricated sections with final assembly at the shipyards. This new method allowed for a hypothetical construction time of less than six months per vessel, but in practice all the assembled U-boats were plagued with severe quality problems that required extensive post-production work and time to rectify. One of the reasons for these shortcomings was that sections were made by companies having little experience with shipbuilding, after a decision by Albert Speer. As a result, of 118 Type XXIs constructed, only four were fit for combat before the Second World War ended in Europe. Of these, only two conducted combat patrols and neither sank any Allied ships. Post-war assessments by the US Navy and British Royal Navy also found that the completed submarines had poor structural integrity due to the manufacturing problems. This rendered the submarines highly vulnerable to depth charges, and gave them a lesser maximum diving depth than earlier U-boat designs.",
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"plaintext": "It was planned that final assembly of Type XXI boats would eventually be carried out in the Valentin submarine pens, a massive, bomb–hardened concrete bunker built at the small port of Farge, near Bremen. The pens were constructed between 1943 and 1945, using about 10,000 concentration camp prisoners and prisoners of war as forced labour. The facility was 90% completed when, during March 1945, it was heavily damaged by Allied bombing with Grand Slam \"earthquake\" bombs and abandoned. A few weeks later the area was captured by the British Army.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the combination of design and construction problems, historian Clay Blair judged that \"the XXI could not have made a big difference in the Battle of the Atlantic.",
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"plaintext": "The FuMB Ant 3 Bali radar detector and antenna was located on top of the snorkel head.",
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"plaintext": "The Type XXI boats were fitted with the FuMO 65 Hohentwiel U1 with the Type F432 D2 radar transmitter.",
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"plaintext": " and were the only Type XXIs used for war patrols, and neither sank any ships. The commander of U-2511 claimed the U-boat had a British cruiser in her sights on 4 May when news of the German cease-fire was received. He further claimed she made a practice attack before leaving the scene undetected.",
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"plaintext": "During 1957, , which had been scuttled at the end of the war, was raised and refitted as research vessel Wilhelm Bauer of the Bundesmarine. It was operated by both military and civilian crews for research purposes until 1982. During 1984, it was made available for display to the public by the Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum (German Maritime Museum) in Bremerhaven, Germany.",
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"plaintext": " became . It was used for active service during the Suez Crisis in 1956, and remained in commission until 1967. It was scrapped in 1969.",
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"plaintext": "Four Type XXI boats were assigned to the USSR by the Potsdam Agreement; these were , , , and , which were commissioned into the Soviet Navy as , , B-29, and (later B-100) respectively. However, Western intelligence believed the Soviets had acquired several more Type XXI boats; a review by the U.S. Joint Intelligence Committee for the Joint Chiefs of Staff during January 1948 estimated the Soviet Navy then had 15 Type XXIs operational, could complete construction of 6 more within 2 months, and could build another 39 within a year and a half from prefabricated sections, since several factories producing Type XXI components and the assembly yard at Danzig had been captured by the Soviets at the end of World War II. U-3538 — U-3557 (respectively TS-5 – TS-19 and TS-32 – TS-38) remained incomplete at Danzig and were scrapped or sunk during 1947. The four boats assigned by Potsdam were used in trials and tests until 1955, then scuttled or used for weapon testing between 1958 and 1973. The Type XXI design formed the basis for several Soviet design projects, Projects 611, 613, 614, 633, and 644. These became the submarine classes known by their NATO codes as , and submarine classes.",
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"plaintext": " was commissioned into the Royal Navy as . It was used for tests until being scrapped during November 1949.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Navy acquired and , operating them both in the Atlantic Ocean. During November 1946 President Harry S. Truman visited U-2513; the submarine dived to with the President aboard. U-2513 was sunk as a target on 7 October 1951; U-3008 was sold for scrap on 15 September 1955.",
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"plaintext": "The only boat to survive intact is (ex-U-2540), at the German Maritime Museum in Bremerhaven. Records indicate that this sub was scuttled by its crew in 1945, salvaged in 1957 and refurbished for use by the West German Bundesmarine until retirement in 1982. It was then modified to appear in wartime configuration for exhibition purposes.",
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"plaintext": "The wrecks of several Type XXI boats are known to exist. During 1985, it was discovered that the partially scrapped remains of , , and were still in the partially demolished \"Elbe II\" U-boat bunker in Hamburg. The bunker has since been filled in with gravel, although even that did not initially deter many souvenir hunters who measured the position of open hatches and dug down to them to allow the removal of artifacts. The wrecks now lie beneath a car park (parking lot), making them inaccessible.",
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"plaintext": " lies in of water west of Key West, Florida. The boat has been visited by divers, but the depth makes this very difficult and the site is considered suitable for only advanced divers. Four other boats lie off the coast of Northern Ireland, where they were sunk during 1946 as part of Operation Deadlight. Both and were found by nautical archaeologist Innes McCartney during his Operation Deadlight expeditions between 2001 and 2003. Both were found to be in remarkably good condition. In April 2018 the wreck of was found north of Skagen in Denmark.",
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"plaintext": "The Type XXI design directly influenced advanced post-war submarines, the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) improvements to the United States , , and -class submarines, and the Soviet submarine projects designated , , and by NATO. The Chinese-built Romeo-class submarines, and the subsequent , were based on Soviet blueprints.",
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"plaintext": " List of Type XXI submarines",
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"plaintext": " British R-class submarine",
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"plaintext": " Fitzsimons, Bernard, general editor. The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare (London: Phoebus Publishing Company, 1978), Volume 24, p.2594, \"'Whiskey'\", and p.2620, \"'Zulu'\".",
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"plaintext": " U-Boot Type XXI in Detail with photos.",
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"plaintext": " Type XXI on www.uboataces.com",
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38,446 | 1,095,532,857 | Albert_I_of_Germany | [
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"plaintext": "Albert I of Habsburg () (July 12551 May 1308) was a Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282 and King of Germany from 1298 until his assassination. He was the eldest son of King Rudolf I of Germany and his first wife Gertrude of Hohenberg. Sometimes referred to as 'Albert the One-eyed' because of a battle injury that left him with a hollow eye socket and a permanent snarl.",
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"plaintext": "From 1273 Albert ruled as a landgrave over his father's Swabian (Further Austrian) possessions in Alsace. In 1282 his father, the first German monarch from the House of Habsburg, invested him and his younger brother Rudolf II with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which he had seized from late King Ottokar II of Bohemia and defended in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld. By the 1283 Treaty of Rheinfelden his father entrusted Albert with their sole government, while Rudolf II ought to be compensated by the Further Austrian Habsburg home territories – which, however, never happened until his death in 1290. Albert and his Swabian ministeriales appear to have ruled the Austrian and Styrian duchies with conspicuous success, overcoming the resistance by local nobles.",
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"plaintext": "He did not abandon his hopes of the throne, however, which were eventually realised: In 1298, he was chosen German king by some of the princes, who were bothered about Adolf's attempts to gain his own power bases in the lands of Thuringia and Meissen, again led by the Bohemian king Wenceslaus II. The armies of the rival kings met at the Battle of Göllheim near Worms, where Adolf was defeated and slain. Submitting to a new election but securing the support of several influential princes by making extensive promises, he was chosen at the Imperial City of Frankfurt on 27 July 1298, and crowned at Aachen Cathedral on 24 August.",
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"plaintext": "Although a hard, stern man, Albert had a keen sense of justice when his own interests were not involved, and few of the German kings possessed so practical an intelligence. He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclamations against private war, formed alliances with the princes in order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he protected even the despised and persecuted Jews. Stories of his cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons (cf. William Tell) did not appear until the 16th century, and are now regarded as legendary. ",
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"plaintext": "Albert sought to play an important part in European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with the Kingdom of France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of Pope Boniface VIII to recognize his election led him to change his policy, and, in 1299, he made a treaty with King Philip IV, by which his son Rudolph was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, but in 1303, Boniface recognized him as German king and future emperor; in return, Albert recognized the authority of the pope alone to bestow the Imperial crown, and promised that none of his sons should be elected German king without papal consent.",
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"plaintext": "Albert had failed in his attempt to seize the counties of Holland and Zeeland, as vacant fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, on the death of Count John I in 1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia for his son Rudolph III on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He also renewed the claim made by his predecessor, Adolf, on Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the succession to the Hungarian throne. The Thuringian attack ended in Albert's defeat at the Battle of Lucka in 1307 and, in the same year, the death of his son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern Europe. His action in abolishing all tolls established on the Rhine since 1250 led the Rhenish prince-archbishops and the Elector of the Palatinate to form a league against him. Aided by the Imperial cities, however, he soon crushed the rising.",
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"plaintext": "In 1274 Albert had married Elizabeth, daughter of Count Meinhard II of Tyrol, who was a descendant of the Babenberg margraves of Austria who predated the Habsburgs' rule. The baptismal name Leopold, patron saint margrave of Austria, was given to one of their sons. Queen Elizabeth was in fact better connected to mighty German rulers than her husband: she was a descendant of earlier German kings, including Emperor Henry IV; she was also a niece of the Wittelsbach dukes of Bavaria, Austria's important neighbor.",
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"plaintext": "The poem , by Felicia Hemans recalls the scene of Albert's death, where he was supposedly comforted by a passing peasant woman. From Friendship's Offering annual, 1826.",
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38,447 | 1,091,893,279 | Albert_II_of_Germany | [
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"plaintext": "Albert the Magnanimous KG, elected King of the Romans as Albert II (10 August 139727 October 1439) was king of the Holy Roman Empire and a member of the House of Habsburg. By inheritance he became Albert V, Duke of Austria. Through his wife he also became King of Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, and inherited a claim to the Duchy of Luxembourg.",
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"plaintext": "He succeeded to the Duchy of Austria at the age of seven on his father's death in 1404. His uncle Duke William of Inner Austria, then head of the rivaling Leopoldinian line, served as regent for his nephew, followed by his brothers Leopold IV and Ernest the Iron in 1406. The quarrels between the brothers and their continued attempts to gain control over the Albertinian territories led to civil war-like conditions. Nevertheless, Albert, having received a good education, undertook the government of Austria proper on the occasion of Leopold's death in 1411 and succeeded, with the aid of his advisers, in ridding the duchy of the evils which had arisen during his minority.",
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"plaintext": "In 1422 Albert married Elisabeth of Luxemburg, the daughter and heiress of the King Sigismund of Hungary (later also Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia), and his second wife, the Slovenian noblewoman Barbara of Celje. Besides Hungary, Albert's marriage brought him claims to several Slavic kingdoms and principalities as well.",
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"plaintext": "Albert assisted his father-in-law Sigismund in his campaigns against the Hussites, involving the Austrian duchy in the Hussite Wars. In return Sigismund designated him as his successor and granted him the title of a Margrave of Moravia in 1423. The Austrian lands were devastated several times and Albert also participated in the 1431 Battle of Domažlice where the Imperial troops suffered an embarrassing defeat.",
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"plaintext": "When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned king of Hungary on 1 January 1438, and just as his predecessor did, he moved his court to the Hungarian Kingdom from where he later oversaw his other domains. Although crowned king of Bohemia six months after ascending to the Hungarian throne, he was unable to obtain possession of the country. He was engaged in warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies, when on 18 March 1438, he was chosen \"King of the Romans\" at Frankfurt, an honour which he does not appear to have sought. He was never crowned as Holy Roman Emperor.",
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"plaintext": "Afterwards engaged in defending Hungary against the attacks of the Turks, he died on 27 October 1439 at Neszmély and was buried at Székesfehérvár. Albert was an energetic and warlike prince, whose short reign as a triple king gave great promise of usefulness for the Holy Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Though the Jews in the Austrian duchy had been subject to local persecutions during the 13th and 14th century, their position remained relatively safe. Jewish communities prospered in several towns like Krems or the area around the Judenplatz at Vienna. During the confusion after the death of Duke Albert IV in 1404 their situation worsened sharply, culminating in the blaze of the Vienna synagogue on 5 November 1406, followed by riots and lootings.",
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"plaintext": "When Albert V came of age in 1411 and interfered in the Hussite Wars, he repeatedly established new taxes imposed on the Jewish community to finance his campaigns. On the other hand, after the Hussites had devastated the duchy, the Austrian Jews were accused of collaboration and arms trade in favour of the enemies. The accusations of a host desecration at Enns in 1420 gave Albert pretext for the destruction of the Jewish community.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 1463 Chronica Austriae by chronicler Thomas Ebendorfer, the duke on 23 May 1420, at the behest of the Church, ordered the imprisonment and forcible conversion of the Jews. Those that had not converted or escaped were sent off in boats down the Danube, while wealthy Jews remained under arrest, several of them tortured and stripped of their property. The forced baptism of Jewish children was stopped on intervention by Pope Martin V. On 12 March 1421 Albert sentenced the remaining Jews to death. Ninety-two men and 120 women were burned at the stake south of the Vienna city walls on 12 March 1421. The Jews were placed under an \"eternal ban\" and their synagogue was demolished. The persecutions in several Austrian towns are explicitly described in a 16th-century script called Vienna Gesera.",
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"plaintext": "Full titulature Albert possessed went as follows: Albert, by the grace of God elected King of the Romans, always August, King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria, elected King of Bohemia, duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, margrave of Moravia, Lord of the Wendish March and Port Naon, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Ferrete and Kyburg, etc. Margrave of Burgau and landgrave of Alsace.",
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"plaintext": "In practise he often used a shorter version: Albert, by the grace of God elected King of the Romans, always August, King of Hungary, Dalmatia and Croatia, etc. elected King of Bohemia, duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, Margrave of Moravia and Count of Tyrol, etc.",
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"plaintext": " Anne of Austria (1432–1462), who married William III, Duke of Saxony. William became (1457–69) Duke of Luxembourg, in right of his wife",
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"plaintext": " Elisabeth (1438–1505), who married Casimir IV of Poland, and whose son Vladislaus II of Bohemia later became king of Bohemia and Hungary",
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"plaintext": " Ladislas V Posthumus of Bohemia, King of Hungary and Bohemia",
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"plaintext": " Illustration by Francesco Terzio from 1569: Albertus II, Imp. ()",
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"plaintext": "These two conditions express what is precisely meant by the expression that \" preserves parallelism\".",
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"plaintext": "This formulation works irrespective of whether any of the domain, codomain and image vector spaces have the same number of dimensions.",
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"plaintext": "As an affine transformation is invertible, the square matrix appearing in its Representation is invertible. The matrix representation of the inverse transformation is thus",
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"plaintext": "The invertible affine transformations (of an affine space onto itself) form the affine group, which has the general linear group of degree as subgroup and is itself a subgroup of the general linear group of degree .",
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"plaintext": "The similarity transformations form the subgroup where is a scalar times an orthogonal matrix. For example, if the affine transformation acts on the plane and if the determinant of is 1 or −1 then the transformation is an equiareal mapping. Such transformations form a subgroup called the equi-affine group. A transformation that is both equi-affine and a similarity is an isometry of the plane taken with Euclidean distance.",
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"plaintext": "If there is a fixed point, we can take that as the origin, and the affine transformation reduces to a linear transformation. This may make it easier to classify and understand the transformation. For example, describing a transformation as a rotation by a certain angle with respect to a certain axis may give a clearer idea of the overall behavior of the transformation than describing it as a combination of a translation and a rotation. However, this depends on application and context.",
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"plaintext": "An affine map between two affine spaces is a map on the points that acts linearly on the vectors (that is, the vectors between points of the space). In symbols, determines a linear transformation such that, for any pair of points :",
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"plaintext": "We can interpret this definition in a few other ways, as follows.",
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"plaintext": "If an origin is chosen, and denotes its image , then this means that for any vector :",
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"plaintext": "If an origin is also chosen, this can be decomposed as an affine transformation that sends , namely",
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"plaintext": "followed by the translation by a vector .",
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"plaintext": "The conclusion is that, intuitively, consists of a translation and a linear map.",
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"plaintext": "In other words, preserves barycenters.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"affine\" as a mathematical term is defined in connection with tangents to curves in Euler's 1748 Introductio in analysin infinitorum. Felix Klein attributes the term \"affine transformation\" to Möbius and Gauss.",
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"plaintext": "The affine transforms are applicable to the registration process where two or more images are aligned (registered). An example of image registration is the generation of panoramic images that are the product of multiple images stitched together.",
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"plaintext": "The affine transform preserves parallel lines. However, the stretching and shearing transformations warp shapes, as the following example shows:",
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"plaintext": "This is an example of image warping. However, the affine transformations do not facilitate projection onto a curved surface or radial distortions.",
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"plaintext": " squeeze mapping combined with a homothety and a translation.",
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"plaintext": "To visualise the general affine transformation of the Euclidean plane, take labelled parallelograms ABCD and A′B′C′D′. Whatever the choices of points, there is an affine transformation T of the plane taking A to A′, and each vertex similarly. Supposing we exclude the degenerate case where ABCD has zero area, there is a unique such affine transformation T. Drawing out a whole grid of parallelograms based on ABCD, the image T(P) of any point P is determined by noting that T(A) = A′, T applied to the line segment AB is A′B′, T applied to the line segment AC is A′C′, and T respects scalar multiples of vectors based at A. [If A, E, F are collinear then the ratio length(AF)/length(AE) is equal to length(A′F′)/length(A′E′).] Geometrically T transforms the grid based on ABCD to that based in A′B′C′D′.",
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"plaintext": "Affine transformations do not respect lengths or angles; they multiply area by a constant factor",
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"plaintext": "area of A′B′C′D′ / area of ABCD.",
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"plaintext": "A given T may either be direct (respect orientation), or indirect (reverse orientation), and this may be determined by its effect on signed areas (as defined, for example, by the cross product of vectors).",
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"plaintext": "The functions with and in , are precisely the affine transformations of the real line.",
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"plaintext": "The following equation expresses an affine transformation of GF(28) viewed as an 8-dimensional vector space over GF(2), that is used in the crypto-algorithm Rijndael (AES):",
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"plaintext": "For instance, the affine transformation of the element in big-endian binary notation is calculated as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Thus, .",
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"plaintext": "In , the transformation shown at left is accomplished using the map given by:",
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"plaintext": "Transforming the three corner points of the original triangle (in red) gives three new points which form the new triangle (in blue). This transformation skews and translates the original triangle.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, all triangles are related to one another by affine transformations. This is also true for all parallelograms, but not for all quadrilaterals.",
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"plaintext": "Anamorphosis – artistic applications of affine transformations",
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"plaintext": "Affine geometry",
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"plaintext": "3D projection",
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"plaintext": "Homography",
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"plaintext": "Flat (geometry)",
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"plaintext": "Bent function",
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"plaintext": " Geometric Operations: Affine Transform, R. Fisher, S. Perkins, A. Walker and E. Wolfart.",
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"plaintext": " Affine Transform by Bernard Vuilleumier, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.",
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"plaintext": " Affine Transformation with MATLAB",
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] | [
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"Affine map"
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38,452 | 1,102,394,064 | Oxidation_state | [
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"plaintext": "In chemistry, the oxidation state, or oxidation number, is the hypothetical charge of an atom if all of its bonds to different atoms were fully ionic. It describes the degree of oxidation (loss of electrons) of an atom in a chemical compound. Conceptually, the oxidation state may be positive, negative or zero. While fully ionic bonds are not found in nature, many bonds exhibit strong ionicity, making oxidation state a useful predictor of charge.",
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"plaintext": "The oxidation state of an atom does not represent the \"real\" formal charge on that atom, or any other actual atomic property. This is particularly true of high oxidation states, where the ionization energy required to produce a multiply positive ion is far greater than the energies available in chemical reactions. Additionally, the oxidation states of atoms in a given compound may vary depending on the choice of electronegativity scale used in their calculation. Thus, the oxidation state of an atom in a compound is purely a formalism. It is nevertheless important in understanding the nomenclature conventions of inorganic compounds. Also, several observations regarding chemical reactions may be explained at a basic level in terms of oxidation states.",
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"plaintext": "Oxidation states are typically represented by integers which may be positive, zero, or negative. In some cases, the average oxidation state of an element is a fraction, such as for iron in magnetite (Fractional oxidation states). The highest known oxidation state is reported to be +9 in the tetroxoiridium(IX) cation (). It is predicted that even a +12 oxidation state may be achievable by uranium in the theoretical hexoxide . The lowest oxidation state is −5, as for boron in .",
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"plaintext": "In inorganic nomenclature, the oxidation state is represented by a Roman numeral placed after the element name inside the parenthesis or as a superscript after the element symbol, e.g. Iron(III) oxide.",
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"plaintext": "The term oxidation was first used by Antoine Lavoisier to signify the reaction of a substance with oxygen. Much later, it was realized that the substance, upon being oxidized, loses electrons, and the meaning was extended to include other reactions in which electrons are lost, regardless of whether oxygen was involved.",
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"plaintext": "The increase in the oxidation state of an atom, through a chemical reaction, is known as oxidation; a decrease in oxidation state is known as a reduction. Such reactions involve the formal transfer of electrons: a net gain in electrons being a reduction, and a net loss of electrons being oxidation. For pure elements, the oxidation state is zero.",
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"plaintext": "IUPAC has published a \"Comprehensive definition of the term oxidation state (IUPAC Recommendations 2016)\". It is a distillation of an IUPAC technical report \"Toward a comprehensive definition of oxidation state\" from 2014. The current IUPAC Gold Book definition of oxidation state is:",
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"plaintext": "and the term oxidation number is nearly synonymous.",
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"plaintext": "The underlying principle is that the ionic charge is \"the oxidation state of an atom, after ionic approximation of its bonds\", where ionic approximation means, hypothesizing that all bonds are ionic. Several criteria were considered for the ionic approximation:",
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"plaintext": " Extrapolation of the bond’s polarity; ",
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"plaintext": " Assignment of electrons according to the atom’s contribution to the bonding Molecular orbital (MO)/ the electron's allegiance in a LCAO–MO model.",
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"plaintext": "In a bond between two different elements, the bond's electrons are assigned to its main atomic contributor/higher electronegativity; in a bond between two atoms of the same element, the electrons are divided equally. This is because most electronegativity scales depend on the atom's bonding state, which makes the assignment of the oxidation state a somewhat circular argument. For example, some scales may turn out unusual oxidation states, such as -6 for platinum in , for Pauling and Mulliken scales. The dipole moments would, sometimes, also turn out abnormal oxidation numbers, such as in CO and NO, which",
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"plaintext": "are oriented with their positive end towards oxygen. Therefore, this leaves the atom's contribution to the",
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"plaintext": "bonding MO, the atomic-orbital energy, and from quantum-chemical calculations of charges, as the only viable criteria with cogent values for ionic approximation. However, for a simple estimate for the ionic approximation, we can use Allen electronegativities, as only that electronegativity scale is truly independent of the oxidation state, as it relates to the average valence‐electron energy of the free atom:",
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"plaintext": "While introductory levels of chemistry teaching use postulated oxidation states, the IUPAC recommendation and the Gold Book entry list Algorithm of assigning bonds of elements in chemical compounds.",
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"plaintext": "Introductory chemistry uses postulates: the oxidation state for an element in a chemical formula is calculated from the overall charge and postulated oxidation states for all the other atoms.",
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"plaintext": "A simple example is based on two postulates,",
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"plaintext": " OS = +1 for hydrogen",
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"plaintext": " OS = −2 for oxygen",
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"plaintext": "where OS stands for oxidation state. This approach yields correct oxidation states in oxides and hydroxides of any single element, and in acids such as H2SO4 or H2Cr2O7. Its coverage can be extended either by a list of exceptions or by assigning priority to the postulates. The latter works for H2O2 where the priority of rule 1 leaves both oxygens with oxidation state −1.",
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"plaintext": "Additional postulates and their ranking may expand the range of compounds to fit a textbook's scope. As an example, one postulatory algorithm from many possible; in a sequence of decreasing priority:",
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"plaintext": " An element in a free form has OS = 0.",
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"plaintext": " In a compound or ion, the sum of the oxidation states equals the total charge of the compound or ion.",
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"plaintext": " Fluorine in compounds has OS = −1; this extends to chlorine and bromine only when not bonded to a lighter halogen, oxygen or nitrogen.",
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"plaintext": " Group 1 and group 2 metals in compounds have OS = +1 and +2, respectively.",
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"plaintext": " Hydrogen has OS = +1 but adopts −1 when bonded as a hydride to metals or metalloids.",
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"plaintext": " Oxygen in compounds has OS = −2 but only when not bonded to oxygen (e.g. in peroxides) or fluorine.",
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"plaintext": "This set of postulates covers oxidation states of fluorides, chlorides, bromides, oxides, hydroxides, and hydrides of any single element. It covers all oxoacids of any central atom (and all their fluoro-, chloro-, and bromo-relatives), as well as salts of such acids with group 1 and 2 metals. It also covers iodides, sulfides, and similar simple salts of these metals.",
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"plaintext": "This algorithm is performed on a Lewis structure (a diagram that shows all valence electrons). Oxidation state equals the charge of an atom after each of its heteronuclear bonds has been assigned to the more-electronegative partner of the bond (The algorithm's caveat) and homonuclear bonds have been divided equally:",
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"plaintext": "where each \"—\" represents an electron pair (either shared between two atoms or solely on one atom), and \"OS\" is the oxidation state as a numerical variable.",
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"plaintext": "After the electrons have been assigned according to the vertical red lines on the formula, the total number of valence electrons that now \"belong\" to each atom is subtracted from the number N of valence electrons of the neutral atom (such as 5 for nitrogen in group 15) to yield that atom's oxidation state.",
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"plaintext": "This example shows the importance of describing the bonding. Its summary formula, HNO3, corresponds to two structural isomers; the peroxynitrous acid in the above figure and the more stable nitric acid. With the formula HNO3, the Simple approach without bonding considerations yields −2 for all three oxygens and +5 for nitrogen, which is correct for nitric acid. For the peroxynitrous acid, however, the two oxygens in the O–O bond each has OS = −1 and the nitrogen has OS = +3, which requires a structure to understand.",
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"plaintext": "Organic compounds are treated in a similar manner; exemplified here on functional groups occurring in between CH4 and CO2:",
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"plaintext": "Analogously for transition-metal compounds; on the left has a total of 36 valence electrons (18 pairs to be distributed), and on the right has 66 valence electrons (33 pairs):",
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"plaintext": "A key step is drawing the Lewis structure of the molecule (neutral, cationic, anionic): atom symbols are arranged so that pairs of atoms can be joined by single two-electron bonds as in the molecule (a sort of \"skeletal\" structure), and the remaining valence electrons are distributed such that sp atoms obtain an octet (duet for hydrogen) with a priority that increases in proportion with electronegativity. In some cases, this leads to alternative formulae that differ in bond orders (the full set of which is called the resonance formulas). Consider the sulfate anion ( with 32 valence electrons; 24 from oxygens, 6 from sulfur, 2 of the anion charge obtained from the implied cation). The bond orders to the terminal oxygens do not affect the oxidation state so long as the oxygens have octets. Already the skeletal structure, top left, yields the correct oxidation states, as does the Lewis structure, top right (one of the resonance formulas):",
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"plaintext": "The bond-order formula at the bottom is closest to the reality of four equivalent oxygens each having a total bond order of 2. That total includes the bond of order to the implied cation and follows the 8−N rule requiring that the main-group atom's bond order equals 8 minus N valence electrons of the neutral atom, enforced with a priority that proportionately increases with electronegativity.",
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"plaintext": "This algorithm works equally for molecular cations composed of several atoms. An example is the ammonium cation of 8 valence electrons (5 from nitrogen, 4 from hydrogens, minus 1 electron for the cation's positive charge):",
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"plaintext": "Drawing Lewis structures with electron pairs as dashes emphasizes the essential equivalence of bond pairs and lone pairs when counting electrons and moving bonds onto atoms. Structures drawn with electron dot pairs are of course identical in every way:",
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"plaintext": "The algorithm contains a caveat, which concerns rare cases of transition-metal complexes with a type of ligand that is reversibly bonded as a Lewis acid (as an acceptor of the electron pair from the transition metal); termed a \"Z-type\" ligand in Green's covalent bond classification method. The caveat originates from the simplifying use of electronegativity instead of the MO-based electron allegiance to decide the ionic sign. One early example is the O2S−RhCl(CO)(PPh3)2 complex with SO2 as the reversibly-bonded acceptor ligand (released upon heating). The Rh−S bond is therefore extrapolated ionic against Allen electronegativities of rhodium and sulfur, yielding oxidation state +1 for rhodium:",
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"plaintext": "This algorithm works on Lewis structures and bond graphs of extended (non-molecular) solids:",
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"plaintext": "An example of a Lewis structure with no formal charge,",
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"plaintext": "illustrates that, in this algorithm, homonuclear bonds are simply ignored (the bond orders are in blue).",
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"plaintext": "Carbon monoxide exemplifies a Lewis structure with formal charges:",
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"plaintext": "To obtain the oxidation states, the formal charges are summed with the bond-order value taken positively at the carbon and negatively at the oxygen.",
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"plaintext": "Applied to molecular ions, this algorithm considers the actual location of the formal (ionic) charge, as drawn in the Lewis structure. As an example, summing bond orders in the ammonium cation yields −4 at the nitrogen of formal charge +1, with the two numbers adding to the oxidation state of −3:",
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"plaintext": "The sum of oxidation states in the ion equals its charge (as it equals zero for a neutral molecule).",
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"plaintext": "Also in anions, the formal (ionic) charges have to be considered when nonzero. For sulfate this is exemplified with the skeletal or Lewis structures (top), compared with the bond-order formula of all oxygens equivalent and fulfilling the octet and 8−N rules (bottom):",
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"plaintext": "A bond graph in solid-state chemistry is a chemical formula of an extended structure, in which direct bonding connectivities are shown. An example is the AuORb3 perovskite, the unit cell of which is drawn on the left and the bond graph (with added numerical values) on the right:",
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"plaintext": "We see that the oxygen atom bonds to the six nearest rubidium cations, each of which has 4 bonds to the auride anion. The bond graph summarizes these connectivities. The bond orders (also called bond valences) sum up to oxidation states according to the attached sign of the bond's ionic approximation (there are no formal charges in bond graphs).",
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"plaintext": "Determination of oxidation states from a bond graph can be illustrated on ilmenite, FeTiO3. We may ask whether the mineral contains Fe2+ and Ti4+, or Fe3+ and Ti3+. Its crystal structure has each metal atom bonded to six oxygens and each of the equivalent oxygens to two irons and two titaniums, as in the bond graph below. Experimental data show that three metal-oxygen bonds in the octahedron are short and three are long (the metals are off-center). The bond orders (valences), obtained from the bond lengths by the bond valence method, sum up to 2.01 at Fe and 3.99 at Ti; which can be rounded off to oxidation states +2 and +4, respectively:",
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"plaintext": "Oxidation states can be useful for balancing chemical equations for oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions, because the changes in the oxidized atoms have to be balanced by the changes in the reduced atoms. For example, in the reaction of acetaldehyde with Tollens' reagent to form acetic acid (shown below), the carbonyl carbon atom changes its oxidation state from +1 to +3 (loses two electrons). This oxidation is balanced by reducing two Ag+ cations to Ag0 (gaining two electrons in total).",
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"plaintext": "An inorganic example is the Bettendorf reaction using SnCl2 to prove the presence of arsenite ions in a concentrated HCl extract. When arsenic(III) is present, a brown coloration appears forming a dark precipitate of arsenic, according to the following simplified reaction:",
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"plaintext": " 2As3+ + 3Sn2+ → 2As0 + 3Sn4+",
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"plaintext": "Here three tin atoms are oxidized from oxidation state +2 to +4, yielding six electrons that reduce two arsenic atoms from oxidation state +3 to 0. The simple one-line balancing goes as follows: the two redox couples are written down as they react;",
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"plaintext": "As3+ + Sn2+ As0 + Sn4+.",
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"plaintext": "One tin is oxidized from oxidation state +2 to +4, a two-electron step, hence 2 is written in front of the two arsenic partners. One arsenic is reduced from +3 to 0, a three-electron step, hence 3 goes in front of the two tin partners. An alternative three-line procedure is to write separately the half-reactions for oxidation and reduction, each balanced with electrons, and then to sum them up such that the electrons cross out. In general, these redox balances (the one-line balance or each half-reaction) need to be checked for the ionic and electron charge sums on both sides of the equation being indeed equal. If they are not equal, suitable ions are added to balance the charges and the non-redox elemental balance.",
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"plaintext": "A nominal oxidation state is a general term with two different definitions:",
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"plaintext": " Electrochemical oxidation state represents a molecule or ion in the Latimer diagram or Frost diagram for its redox-active element. An example is the Latimer diagram for sulfur at pH0 where the electrochemical oxidation state +2 for sulfur puts between S and H2SO3:",
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"plaintext": " Systematic oxidation state is chosen from close alternatives as a pedagogical description. An example is the oxidation state of phosphorus in H3PO3 (structurally diprotic HPO(OH)2) taken nominally as +3, while Allen electronegativities of phosphorus and hydrogen suggest +5 by a narrow margin that makes the two alternatives almost equivalent:",
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"plaintext": "Both alternative oxidation numbers for phosphorus make chemical sense, depending on which chemical property or reaction is emphasized. By contrast, a calculated alternative, such as the average (+4) does not.",
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"plaintext": "Lewis formulae are rule-based approximations of chemical reality, as are Allen electronegativities. Still, oxidation states may seem ambiguous when their determination is not straightforward. If only an experiment can determine the oxidation state, the rule-based determination is ambiguous (insufficient). There are also truly dichotomous values that are decided arbitrarily.",
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"plaintext": "Seemingly ambiguous oxidation states are derived from a set of resonance formulas of equal weights for a molecule having heteronuclear bonds where the atom connectivity does not correspond to the number of two-electron bonds dictated by the 8 − N rule. An example is S2N2 where four resonance formulas featuring one S=N double bond have oxidation states +2 and +4 for the two sulfur atoms, which average to +3 because the two sulfur atoms are equivalent in this square-shaped molecule.",
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"plaintext": " when a non-innocent ligand is present, of hidden or unexpected redox properties that could otherwise be assigned to the central atom. An example is the nickel dithiolate complex, .",
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"plaintext": " when the redox ambiguity of a central atom and ligand yields dichotomous oxidation states of close stability, thermally induced tautomerism may result, as exemplified by manganese catecholate, . Assignment of such oxidation states requires spectroscopic, magnetic or structural data.",
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"plaintext": " when the bond order has to be ascertained along with an isolated tandem of a heteronuclear and a homonuclear bond. An example is thiosulfate having two possible oxidation states (bond orders are in blue and formal charges in green):",
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"plaintext": "The S–S distance measurement in thiosulfate is needed to reveal that this bond order is very close to 1, as in the formula on the left.",
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"plaintext": " when the electronegativity difference between two bonded atoms is very small (as in H3PO3). Two almost equivalent pairs of oxidation states, arbitrarily chosen, are obtained for these atoms.",
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"plaintext": " when an electronegative p-block atom forms solely homonuclear bonds, the number of which differs from the number of two-electron bonds suggested by rules. Examples are homonuclear finite chains like (the central nitrogen connects two atoms with four two-electron bonds while only three two-electron bonds are required by 8 − N rule) or (the central iodine connects two atoms with two two-electron bonds while only one two-electron bond fulfills the 8−N rule). A sensible approach is to distribute the ionic charge over the two outer atoms. Such a placement of charges in a polysulfide (where all inner sulfurs form two bonds, fulfilling the 8−N rule) follows already from its Lewis structure.",
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"plaintext": " when the isolated tandem of a heteronuclear and a homonuclear bond leads to a bonding compromise in between two Lewis structures of limiting bond orders. An example is N2O:",
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"plaintext": "The typical oxidation state of nitrogen in N2O is +1, which also obtains for both nitrogens by a molecular orbital approach. The formal charges on the right comply with electronegativities, which implies an added ionic bonding contribution. Indeed, the estimated N−N and N−O bond orders are 2.76 and 1.9, respectively, approaching the formula of integer bond orders that would include the ionic contribution explicitly as a bond (in green):",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, formal charges against electronegativities in a Lewis structure decrease the bond order of the corresponding bond. An example is carbon monoxide with a bond-order estimate of 2.6.",
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"plaintext": "Fractional oxidation states are often used to represent the average oxidation state of several atoms of the same element in a structure. For example, the formula of magnetite is , implying an average oxidation state for iron of +. However, this average value may not be representative if the atoms are not equivalent. In a crystal below , two-thirds of the cations are and one-third are , and the formula may be more clearly represented as FeO·.",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, propane, , has been described as having a carbon oxidation state of −. Again, this is an average value since the structure of the molecule is , with the first and third carbon atoms each having an oxidation state of −3 and the central one −2.",
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"plaintext": "An example with true fractional oxidation states for equivalent atoms is potassium superoxide, . The diatomic superoxide ion has an overall charge of −1, so each of its two equivalent oxygen atoms is assigned an oxidation state of −. This ion can be described as a resonance hybrid of two Lewis structures, where each oxygen has an oxidation state of 0 in one structure and −1 in the other.",
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"plaintext": "For the cyclopentadienyl anion , the oxidation state of C is −1 + − = −. The −1 occurs because each carbon is bonded to one hydrogen atom (a less electronegative element), and the − because the total ionic charge of −1 is divided among five equivalent carbons. Again this can be described as a resonance hybrid of five equivalent structures, each having four carbons with oxidation state −1 and one with −2.",
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"plaintext": "|+ Examples of fractional oxidation states for carbon",
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"plaintext": "! Oxidation state !! Example species",
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"plaintext": "| − || ",
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"plaintext": "Finally, fractional oxidation numbers are not used in the description of red lead. is represented as lead(II,IV) oxide, showing the oxidation states of the two nonequivalent lead atoms.",
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"plaintext": "Most elements have more than one possible oxidation state. For example, carbon has nine possible integer oxidation states from −4 to +4:",
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"plaintext": "! Oxidation state !! Example compound",
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"plaintext": "Many compounds with luster and electrical conductivity maintain a simple stoichiometric formula, such as the golden TiO, blue-black RuO2 or coppery ReO3, all of obvious oxidation state. Ultimately, assigning the free metallic electrons to one of the bonded atoms is not comprehensive and can yield unusual oxidation states. Examples are the LiPb and ordered alloys, the composition and structure of which are largely determined by atomic size and packing factors. Should oxidation state be needed for redox balancing, it is best set to 0 for all atoms of such an alloy.",
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"plaintext": "This is a list of known oxidation states of the chemical elements, excluding Fractional oxidation states. The most common states appear in bold. The table is based on that of Greenwood and Earnshaw, with additions noted. Every element exists in oxidation state 0 when it is the pure non-ionized element in any phase, whether monatomic or polyatomic allotrope. The column for oxidation state 0 only shows elements known to exist in oxidation state 0 in compounds.",
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"plaintext": "A figure with a similar format was used by Irving Langmuir in 1919 in one of the early papers about the octet rule. The periodicity of the oxidation states was one of the pieces of evidence that led Langmuir to adopt the rule.",
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"plaintext": "When it was realized that some metals form two different binary compounds with the same nonmetal, the two compounds were often distinguished by using the ending -ic for the higher metal oxidation state and the ending -ous for the lower. For example, FeCl3 is ferric chloride and FeCl2 is ferrous chloride. This system is not very satisfactory (although sometimes still used) because different metals have different oxidation states which have to be learned: ferric and ferrous are +3 and +2 respectively, but cupric and cuprous are +2 and +1, and stannic and stannous are +4 and +2. Also, there was no allowance for metals with more than two oxidation states, such as vanadium with oxidation states +2, +3, +4, and +5.",
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"Chemical_properties",
"Coordination_chemistry",
"Dimensionless_numbers_of_chemistry",
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"oxidation state"
] |
38,454 | 1,107,790,869 | Gravitational_constant | [
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"plaintext": "Based on this, Hutton's 1778 result is equivalent to ≈ .",
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"plaintext": "The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by Henry Cavendish. He determined a value for implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell (1753). He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to Michell, the experiment is now known as the Cavendish experiment for its first successful execution by Cavendish.",
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"plaintext": "Cavendish's stated aim was the \"weighing of Earth\", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the Earth's mass. His result, 🜨 = , corresponds to value of = . It is surprisingly accurate, about 1% above the modern value (comparable to the claimed standard uncertainty of 0.6%).",
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"plaintext": "The accuracy of the measured value of has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies.",
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"plaintext": "Measurements with pendulums were made by Francesco Carlini (1821, ), Edward Sabine (1827, ), Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841, ) and George Biddell Airy (1854, ).",
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"plaintext": "Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by Ferdinand Reich (1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of , which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found .",
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"plaintext": "Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the \"Schiehallion\" (deflection) type or \"Peruvian\" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by Robert von Sterneck (1883, results between 5.0 and ) and Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1880, ).",
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"plaintext": "Cavendish's result was first improved upon by John Henry Poynting (1891), who published a value of , differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by C. V. Boys (1895) and Carl Braun (1897), with compatible results suggesting = . The modern notation involving the constant was introduced by Boys in 1894 and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the cgs system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the Cavendish experiment using 100,000kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Arthur Stanley Mackenzie in The Laws of Gravitation (1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century. Poynting is the author of the article \"Gravitation\" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Here, he cites a value of = with an uncertainty of 0.2%.",
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"plaintext": "Paul R. Heyl (1930) published the value of (relative uncertainty 0.1%), improved to (relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.",
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"plaintext": "Published values of derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1,000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive. Establishing a standard value for with a standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.",
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"plaintext": "By 1969, the value recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was cited with a standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to considerably increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).",
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"plaintext": "The uncertainty was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the standard uncertainty of 120ppm published in 1986. For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:",
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"plaintext": "In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a measurement of the gravitational constant by a new technique, atom interferometry, reporting a value of , 0.28% (2800 ppm) higher than the 2006 CODATA value. An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of . Although much closer to the accepted value (suggesting that the Fixler et al. measurement was erroneous), this result was 325ppm below the recommended 2014 CODATA value, with non-overlapping standard uncertainty intervals.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013).",
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"plaintext": "In August 2018, a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances, and based on two different methods. These are claimed as the most accurate measurements ever made, with a standard uncertainties cited as low as 12ppm. The difference of 2.7σ between the two results suggests there could be sources of error unaccounted for.",
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"plaintext": "A controversial 2015 study of some previous measurements of , by Anderson et al., suggested that most of the mutually exclusive values in high-precision measurements of G can be explained by a periodic variation. The variation was measured as having a period of 5.9 years, similar to that observed in length-of-day (LOD) measurements, hinting at a common physical cause that is not necessarily a variation in . A response was produced by some of the original authors of the measurements used in Anderson et al. This response notes that Anderson et al. not only omitted measurements, but that they also used the time of publication rather than the time the experiments were performed. A plot with estimated time of measurement from contacting original authors seriously degrades the length of day correlation. Also, consideration of the data collected over a decade by Karagioz and Izmailov shows no correlation with length of day measurements. As such, the variations in most likely arise from systematic measurement errors which have not properly been accounted for. Under the assumption that the physics of type Ia supernovae are universal, analysis of observations of 580 of them has shown that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years according to Mould et al. (2014).",
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"plaintext": " (Complete report available online: PostScript; PDF. Tables from the report also available: Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters)",
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"plaintext": " Newtonian constant of gravitation at the National Institute of Standards and Technology References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty",
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] | [
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38,455 | 1,100,347,241 | Imre_Lakatos | [
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"plaintext": "Imre Lakatos (, ; ; November 9, 1922 – February 2, 1974) was a Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science, known for his thesis of the fallibility of mathematics and its \"methodology of proofs and refutations\" in its pre-axiomatic stages of development, and also for introducing the concept of the \"research programme\" in his methodology of scientific research programmes.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos was born Imre (Avrum) Lipsitz to a Jewish family in Debrecen, Hungary, in 1922. He received a degree in mathematics, physics, and philosophy from the University of Debrecen in 1944. In March 1944 the Germans invaded Hungary, and Lakatos along with Éva Révész, his then-girlfriend and subsequent wife, formed soon after that event a Marxist resistance group. In May of that year, the group was joined by Éva Izsák, a 19-year-old Jewish antifascist activist. Lakatos, considering that there was a risk that she would be captured and forced to betray them, decided that her duty to the group was to commit suicide. Subsequently, a member of the group took her to Debrecen and gave her cyanide.",
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"plaintext": "During the occupation, Lakatos avoided Nazi persecution of Jews by changing his surname to Molnár. His mother and grandmother were murdered in Auschwitz. He changed his surname once again to Lakatos (Locksmith) in honor of Géza Lakatos.",
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"plaintext": "After the war, from 1947, he worked as a senior official in the Hungarian ministry of education. He also continued his education with a PhD at Debrecen University awarded in 1948 and also attended György Lukács's weekly Wednesday afternoon private seminars. He also studied at the Moscow State University under the supervision of Sofya Yanovskaya in 1949. When he returned, however, he found himself on the losing side of internal arguments within the Hungarian communist party and was imprisoned on charges of revisionism from 1950 to 1953. More of Lakatos' activities in Hungary after World War II have recently become known. In fact, Lakatos was a hardline Stalinist and, despite his young age, had an important role between 1945 and 1950 (his own arrest and jailing) in building up the Communist rule, especially in cultural life and the academia, in Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "After his release, Lakatos returned to academic life, doing mathematical research and translating George Pólya's How to Solve It into Hungarian. Still nominally a communist, his political views had shifted markedly, and he was involved with at least one dissident student group in the lead-up to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "After the Soviet Union invaded Hungary in November 1956, Lakatos fled to Vienna and later reached England. He received a PhD in philosophy in 1961 from the University of Cambridge; his doctoral thesis was entitled Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery, and his doctoral advisor was R. B. Braithwaite. The book The Logic of Mathematical Discovery, published after his death, is based on this work.",
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"plaintext": "With co-editor Alan Musgrave, he edited the often cited Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, the Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London, 1965. Published in 1970, the 1965 Colloquium included well-known speakers delivering papers in response to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.",
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"plaintext": "His last LSE lectures in scientific method in Lent Term 1973 along with parts of his correspondence with his friend and critic Paul Feyerabend have been published in For and Against Method ().",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos and his colleague Spiro Latsis organized an international conference devoted entirely to historical case studies in Lakatos's methodology of research programmes in physical sciences and economics, to be held in Greece in 1974, and which still went ahead following Lakatos's death in February 1974. These case studies in such as Einstein's relativity programme, Fresnel's wave theory of light and neoclassical economics, were published by Cambridge University Press in two separate volumes in 1976, one devoted to physical sciences and Lakatos's general programme for rewriting the history of science, with a concluding critique by his great friend Paul Feyerabend, and the other devoted to economics.",
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"plaintext": "The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos' own revision of its chapter1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–64 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. It is largely taken up by a fictional dialogue set in a mathematics class. The students are attempting to prove the formula for the Euler characteristic in algebraic topology, which is a theorem about the properties of polyhedra, namely that for all polyhedra the number of their vertices V minus the number of their edges E plus the number of their faces F is 2 (). The dialogue is meant to represent the actual series of attempted proofs that mathematicians historically offered for the conjecture, only to be repeatedly refuted by counterexamples. Often the students paraphrase famous mathematicians such as Cauchy, as noted in Lakatos's extensive footnotes.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos termed the polyhedral counterexamples to Euler's formula monsters and distinguished three ways of handling these objects: Firstly, monster-barring, by which means the theorem in question could not be applied to such objects. Secondly, monster-adjustment, whereby by making a re-appraisal of the monster it could be made to obey the proposed theorem. Thirdly, exception handling, a further distinct process. These distinct strategies have been taken up in qualitative physics, where the terminology of monsters has been applied to apparent counterexamples, and the techniques of monster-barring and monster-adjustment recognized as approaches to the refinement of the analysis of a physical issue.",
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"plaintext": "What Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of informal mathematics is final or perfect. This means that we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no counterexample has yet been found. Once a counterexample is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (If axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, however, Lakatos claimed that proofs from those axioms were tautological, i.e. logically true.)",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on the idea of heuristics. In Proofs and Refutations the concept of \"heuristic\" was not well developed, although Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical \"thought experiments\" are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs, and sometimes called his philosophy \"quasi-empiricism\".",
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"plaintext": "However, he also conceived of the mathematical community as carrying on a kind of dialectic to decide which mathematical proofs are valid and which are not. Therefore, he fundamentally disagreed with the \"formalist\" conception of proof prevailed in Frege's and Russell's logicism, which defines proof simply in terms of formal validity.",
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"plaintext": "On its first publication as an article in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science in 1963–64, Proofs and Refutations became highly influential on new work in the philosophy of mathematics, although few agreed with Lakatos' strong disapproval of formal proof. Before his death he had been planning to return to the philosophy of mathematics and apply his theory of research programmes to it. Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar use Poincaré (1893) to answer one of the major problems perceived by critics, namely that the pattern of mathematical research depicted in Proofs and Refutations does not faithfully represent most of the actual activity of contemporary mathematicians.",
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"plaintext": "In a 1966 text Cauchy and the continuum, Lakatos re-examines the history of the calculus, with special regard to Augustin-Louis Cauchy and the concept of uniform convergence, in the light of non-standard analysis. Lakatos is concerned that historians of mathematics should not judge the evolution of mathematics in terms of currently fashionable theories. As an illustration, he examines Cauchy's proof that the sum of a series of continuous functions is itself continuous. Lakatos is critical of those who would see Cauchy's proof, with its failure to make explicit a suitable convergence hypothesis, merely as an inadequate approach to Weierstrassian analysis. Lakatos sees in such an approach a failure to realize that Cauchy's concept of the continuum differed from currently dominant views.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos's second major contribution to the philosophy of science was his model of the \"research programme\", which he formulated in an attempt to resolve the perceived conflict between Popper's falsificationism and the revolutionary structure of science described by Kuhn. Popper's standard of falsificationism was widely taken to imply that a theory should be abandoned as soon as any evidence appears to challenge it, while Kuhn's descriptions of scientific activity were taken to imply that science is most fruitful during periods in which popular, or \"normal\", theories are supported despite known anomalies. Lakatos' model of the research programme aims to combine Popper's adherence to empirical validity with Kuhn's appreciation for conventional consistency.",
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"plaintext": "A Lakatosian research programme is based on a hard core of theoretical assumptions that cannot be abandoned or altered without abandoning the programme altogether. More modest and specific theories that are formulated in order to explain evidence that threatens the \"hard core\" are termed auxiliary hypotheses. Auxiliary hypotheses are considered expendable by the adherents of the research programme—they may be altered or abandoned as empirical discoveries require in order to \"protect\" the \"hard core\". Whereas Popper was generally read as hostile toward such theoretical amendments, Lakatos argued that they can be progressive, i.e. productive, when they enhance the programme's explanatory and/or predictive power, and that they are at least permissible until some better system of theories is devised and the research programme is replaced entirely. The difference between a progressive and a degenerative research programme lies, for Lakatos, in whether the recent changes to its auxiliary hypotheses have achieved this greater explanatory/predictive power or whether they have been made simply out of the necessity of offering some response in the face of new and troublesome evidence. A degenerative research programme indicates that a new and more progressive system of theories should be sought to replace the currently prevailing one, but until such a system of theories can be conceived of and agreed upon, abandonment of the current one would only further weaken our explanatory power and was therefore unacceptable for Lakatos. Lakatos's primary example of a research programme that had been successful in its time and then progressively replaced is that founded by Isaac Newton, with his three laws of motion forming the \"hard core\".",
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"plaintext": "The Lakatosian research programme deliberately provides a framework within which research can be conducted on the basis of \"first principles\" (the \"hard core\"), which are shared by those involved in the research programme and accepted for the purpose of that research without further proof or debate. In this regard, it is similar to Kuhn's notion of a paradigm. Lakatos sought to replace Kuhn's paradigm, guided by an irrational \"psychology of discovery\", with a research programme no less coherent or consistent, yet guided by Popper's objectively valid logic of discovery.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos was following Pierre Duhem's idea that one can always protect a cherished theory (or part of one) from hostile evidence by redirecting the criticism toward other theories or parts thereof. (See Confirmation holism and Duhem–Quine thesis). This aspect of falsification had been acknowledged by Popper.",
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"plaintext": "Popper's theory, falsificationism, proposed that scientists put forward theories and that nature \"shouts NO\" in the form of an inconsistent observation. According to Popper, it is irrational for scientists to maintain their theories in the face of nature's rejection, as Kuhn had described them doing. For Lakatos, however, \"It is not that we propose a theory and Nature may shout NO; rather, we propose a maze of theories, and nature may shout INCONSISTENT\". The continued adherence to a programme's \"hard core\", augmented with adaptable auxiliary hypotheses, reflects Lakatos's less strict standard of falsificationism.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos saw himself as merely extending Popper's ideas, which changed over time and were interpreted by many in conflicting ways. In his 1968 article \"Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes\", Lakatos contrasted Popper0, the \"naive falsificationist\" who demanded unconditional rejection of any theory in the face of any anomaly (an interpretation Lakatos saw as erroneous but that he nevertheless referred to often); Popper1, the more nuanced and conservatively interpreted philosopher; and Popper2, the \"sophisticated methodological falsificationist\" that Lakatos claims is the logical extension of the correctly interpreted ideas of Popper1 (and who is therefore essentially Lakatos himself). It is, therefore, very difficult to determine which ideas and arguments concerning the research programme should be credited to whom.",
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"plaintext": "While Lakatos dubbed his theory \"sophisticated methodological falsificationism\", it is not \"methodological\" in the strict sense of asserting universal methodological rules by which all scientific research must abide. Rather, it is methodological only in that theories are only abandoned according to a methodical progression from worse theories to better theories—a stipulation overlooked by what Lakatos terms \"dogmatic falsificationism\". Methodological assertions in the strict sense, pertaining to which methods are valid and which are invalid, are, themselves, contained within the research programmes that choose to adhere to them, and should be judged according to whether the research programmes that adhere to them prove progressive or degenerative. Lakatos divided these \"methodological rules\" within a research programme into its \"negative heuristics\", i.e., what research methods and approaches to avoid, and its \"positive heuristics\", i.e., what research methods and approaches to prefer. While the \"negative heuristic\" protects the hard core, the \"positive heuristic\" directs the modification of the hard core and auxiliary hypotheses in a general direction.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos claimed that not all changes of the auxiliary hypotheses of a research programme (which he calls \"problem shifts\") are equally productive or acceptable. He took the view that these \"problem shifts\" should be evaluated not just by their ability to defend the \"hard core\" by explaining apparent anomalies, but also by their ability to produce new facts, in the form of predictions or additional explanations. Adjustments that accomplish nothing more than the maintenance of the \"hard core\" mark the research programme as degenerative.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos' model provides for the possibility of a research programme that is not only continued in the presence of troublesome anomalies but that remains progressive despite them. For Lakatos, it is essentially necessary to continue on with a theory that we basically know cannot be completely true, and it is even possible to make scientific progress in doing so, as long as we remain receptive to a better research programme that may eventually be conceived of. In this sense, it is, for Lakatos, an acknowledged misnomer to refer to \"falsification\" or \"refutation\", when it is not the truth or falsity of a theory that is solely determining whether we consider it \"falsified\", but also the availability of a less false theory. A theory cannot be rightfully \"falsified\", according to Lakatos, until it is superseded by a better (i.e. more progressive) research programme. This is what he says is happening in the historical periods Kuhn describes as revolutions and what makes them rational as opposed to mere leaps of faith or periods of deranged social psychology, as Kuhn argued.",
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"plaintext": "According to the demarcation criterion of pseudoscience proposed by Lakatos, a theory is pseudoscientific if it fails to make any novel predictions of previously unknown phenomena or its predictions were mostly falsified, in contrast with scientific theories, which predict novel fact(s). Progressive scientific theories are those that have their novel facts confirmed, and degenerate scientific theories, which can degenerate so much that they become pseudo-science, are those whose predictions of novel facts are refuted. As he put it:",
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"plaintext": " \"A given fact is explained scientifically only if a new fact is predicted with it... The idea of growth and the concept of empirical character are soldered into one.\" See pages 34–35 of The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, 1978.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos's own key examples of pseudoscience were Ptolemaic astronomy, Immanuel Velikovsky's planetary cosmogony, Freudian psychoanalysis, 20th-century Soviet Marxism, Lysenko's biology, Niels Bohr's quantum mechanics post-1924, astrology, psychiatry, and neoclassical economics.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1973 Scientific Method Lecture 1 at the London School of Economics, he also claimed that \"nobody to date has yet found a demarcation criterion according to which Darwin can be described as scientific\".",
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"plaintext": "Almost 20 years after Lakatos's 1973 challenge to the scientificity of Darwin, in her 1991 The Ant and the Peacock, LSE lecturer and ex-colleague of Lakatos, Helena Cronin, attempted to establish that Darwinian theory was empirically scientific in respect of at least being supported by evidence of likeness in the diversity of life forms in the world, explained by descent with modification. She wrote that",
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"plaintext": "our usual idea of corroboration as requiring the successful prediction of novel facts... Darwinian theory was not strong on temporally novel predictions. ... however familiar the evidence and whatever role it played in the construction of the theory, it still confirms the theory.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1970 article \"History of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions\" Lakatos proposed a dialectical historiographical meta-method for evaluating different theories of scientific method, namely by means of their comparative success in explaining the actual history of science and scientific revolutions on the one hand, whilst on the other providing a historiographical framework for rationally reconstructing the history of science as anything more than merely inconsequential rambling. The article started with his now renowned dictum \"Philosophy of science without history of science is empty; history of science without philosophy of science is blind\".",
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"plaintext": "However, neither Lakatos himself nor his collaborators ever completed the first part of this dictum by showing that in any scientific revolution the great majority of the relevant scientific community converted just when Lakatos's criterion – one programme successfully predicting some novel facts whilst its competitor degenerated – was satisfied. Indeed, for the historical case studies in his 1968 article \"Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes\" he had openly admitted as much, commenting: \"In this paper it is not my purpose to go on seriously to the second stage of comparing rational reconstructions with actual history for any lack of historicity.\"",
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"plaintext": "Paul Feyerabend argued that Lakatos's methodology was not a methodology at all, but merely \"words that sound like the elements of a methodology\". He argued that Lakatos's methodology was no different in practice from epistemological anarchism, Feyerabend's own position. He wrote in Science in a Free Society (after Lakatos's death) that:",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos realized and admitted that the existing standards of rationality, standards of logic included, were too restrictive and would have hindered science had they been applied with determination. He therefore permitted the scientist to violate them (he admits that science is not \"rational\" in the sense of these standards). However, he demanded that research programmes show certain features in the long run — they must be progressive... I have argued that this demand no longer restricts scientific practice. Any development agrees with it.",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos and Feyerabend planned to produce a joint work in which Lakatos would develop a rationalist description of science, and Feyerabend would attack it. The correspondence between Lakatos and Feyerabend, where the two discussed the project, has since been reproduced, with commentary, by Matteo Motterlini.",
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"plaintext": "Howson, Colin, Ed. Method and Appraisal in the Physical Sciences: The Critical Background to Modern Science 1800–1905 Cambridge University Press 1976 ",
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"plaintext": "Kampis, Kvaz & Stoltzner (eds.) Appraising Lakatos: Mathematics, Methodology and the Man, Vienna Circle Institute Library, Kluwer 2002 ",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos, Musgrave ed. (1970). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos (1978). Mathematics, Science and Epistemology: Philosophical Papers Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos, I.: Cauchy and the continuum: the significance of nonstandard analysis for the history and philosophy of mathematics. Math. Intelligencer 1 (1978), no. 3, 151–161 (paper originally presented in 1966).",
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"plaintext": "Lakatos, I., and Feyerabend P., For and against Method: including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence, ed. by Matteo Motterlini, Chicago University Press, (451 pp), 1999, ",
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"plaintext": "Latsis, Spiro J. Ed. Method and Appraisal in Economics Cambridge University Press 1976 ",
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"plaintext": "<cite id=refpopper72>Popper, K R, (1972), Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1972 (bibliographic summary, no text).</cite id>",
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"plaintext": "Zahar, Elie (1988) Einstein's Revolution: A Study in Heuristic, Open Court 1988",
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"plaintext": "Alex Bandy (2010). Chocolate and Chess. Unlocking Lakatos. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ",
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"plaintext": "Reuben Hersh (2006). 18 Unconventional Essays on the Nature of Mathematics. Springer. ",
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"plaintext": "Brendan Larvor (1998). Lakatos: An Introduction. London: Routledge. ",
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"plaintext": "Jancis Long (1998). \"Lakatos in Hungary\", Philosophy of the Social Sciences 28, pp.244–311.",
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"plaintext": "John Kadvany (2001). Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason. Durham and London: Duke University Press. ; author's web site: johnkadvany.com.",
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"plaintext": "Teun Koetsier (1991). Lakatos' Philosophy of Mathematics: A Historical Approach. Amsterdam etc.: North Holland. ",
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"plaintext": "Szabó, Árpád The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics (Tr Ungar) Reidel & Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1978 ",
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"plaintext": "Science and Pseudoscience (Transcript and audio recording)– Lakatos' 1973 Open University BBC Radio talk on the subject",
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"plaintext": "The Space Shuttle program was the fourth human spaceflight program carried out by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which accomplished routine transportation for Earth-to-orbit crew and cargo from 1981 to 2011. Its official name, Space Transportation System (STS), was taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development. It flew 135 missions and carried 355 astronauts from 16 countries, many on multiple trips. ",
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"plaintext": "The Space Shuttle—composed of an orbiter launched with two reusable solid rocket boosters and a disposable external fuel tank—carried up to eight astronauts and up to of payload into low Earth orbit (LEO). When its mission was complete, the orbiter would reenter the Earth's atmosphere and land like a glider at either the Kennedy Space Center or Edwards Air Force Base.",
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"plaintext": "The Shuttle is the only winged crewed spacecraft to have achieved orbit and landing, and the first reusable crewed space vehicle that made multiple flights into orbit. Its missions involved carrying large payloads to various orbits including the International Space Station (ISS), providing crew rotation for the space station, and performing service missions on the Hubble Space Telescope. The orbiter also recovered satellites and other payloads (e.g., from the ISS) from orbit and returned them to Earth, though its use in this capacity was rare. Each vehicle was designed with a projected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational life. Original selling points on the shuttles were over 150 launches over a 15-year operational span with a 'launch per month' expected at the peak of the program, but extensive delays in the development of the International Space Station never created such a peak demand for frequent flights.",
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"plaintext": "Various shuttle concepts had been explored since the late 1960s. The program formally commenced in 1972, becoming the sole focus of NASA's human spaceflight operations after the Apollo, Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz programs in 1975. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and were formally initiated in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan, but the ISS suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired—serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to President George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration, use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point.",
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"plaintext": "The first experimental orbiter Enterprise was a high-altitude glider, launched from the back of a specially modified Boeing 747, only for initial atmospheric landing tests (ALT). Enterprises first test flight was on February 18, 1977, only five years after the Shuttle program was formally initiated; leading to the launch of the first space-worthy shuttle Columbia on April 12, 1981 on STS-1. The Space Shuttle program finished with its last mission, STS-135 flown by Atlantis, in July 2011, retiring the final Shuttle in the fleet. The Space Shuttle program formally ended on August 31, 2011.",
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"plaintext": "All Space Shuttle missions were launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Some civilian and military circumpolar space shuttle missions were planned for Vandenberg AFB in California. However, the use of Vandenberg AFB for space shuttle missions was canceled after the Challenger disaster in 1986. The weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning.",
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"plaintext": "The first fully functional orbiter was Columbia (designated OV-102), built in Palmdale, California. It was delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 25, 1979, and was first launched on April 12, 1981—the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's space flight—with a crew of two.",
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"plaintext": "Challenger (OV-099) was delivered to KSC in July 1982, Discovery (OV-103) in November 1983, Atlantis (OV-104) in April 1985 and Endeavour in May 1991. Challenger was originally built and used as a Structural Test Article (STA-099), but was converted to a complete orbiter when this was found to be less expensive than converting Enterprise from its Approach and Landing Test configuration into a spaceworthy vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "On April 24, 1990, Discovery carried the Hubble Space Telescope into space during STS-31.",
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"plaintext": "In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters (Columbia and Challenger) suffered catastrophic accidents, with the loss of all crew members, totaling 14 astronauts.",
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"plaintext": "The accidents led to national level inquiries and detailed analysis of why the accidents occurred. There was a significant pause where changes were made before the Shuttles returned to flight. The Columbia disaster occurred in 2003, but STS took more than a year off before returning to flight in June 2005 with the STS-114 mission. The previously mentioned break was between January 1986 (when the Challenger disaster occurred) and 32 months later when STS-26 was launched on September 29, 1988.",
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"plaintext": "The longest Shuttle mission was STS-80 lasting 17 days, 15 hours. The final flight of the Space Shuttle program was STS-135 on July 8, 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Since the Shuttle's retirement in 2011, many of its original duties are performed by an assortment of government and private vessels. The European ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle supplied the ISS between 2008 and 2015. Classified military missions are being flown by the US Air Force's uncrewed space plane, the X-37B. By 2012, cargo to the International Space Station was already being delivered commercially under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services by SpaceX's partially reusable Dragon spacecraft, followed by Orbital Sciences' Cygnus spacecraft in late 2013. Crew service to the ISS is currently provided by the Russian Soyuz and, since 2020, the SpaceX Dragon 2 crew capsule, launched on the company's reusable Falcon 9 rocket as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program. Boeing is also developing its Starliner capsule for ISS crew service, but has been delayed since its Dec. 2019 uncrewed test flight was unsuccessful. For missions beyond low Earth orbit, NASA is building the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft, part of the Artemis program.",
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"plaintext": "Space Shuttle missions have included:",
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"plaintext": "Spacelab missions Including:",
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"plaintext": "Science",
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"plaintext": "Carried to low Earth orbit (LEO):",
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"plaintext": "The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite",
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"plaintext": "The Mir Shuttle Docking Node",
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"plaintext": "Carried satellites with a booster, such as the Payload Assist Module (PAM-D) or the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), to the point where the booster sends the satellite to:",
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"plaintext": "A higher Earth orbit; these have included:",
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"plaintext": "Chandra X-ray Observatory",
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"plaintext": "The first six TDRS satellites",
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"plaintext": "Two DSCS-III (Defense Satellite Communications System) communications satellites in one mission",
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"plaintext": "A Defense Support Program satellite",
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"plaintext": "An interplanetary mission; these have included:",
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"plaintext": "Magellan",
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"plaintext": "Galileo",
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"plaintext": "Ulysses",
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"plaintext": "Early during development of the Space Shuttle, NASA had estimated that the program would cost $7.45billion ($43billion in 2011 dollars, adjusting for inflation) in development/non-recurring costs, and $9.3M ($54M in 2011 dollars) per flight. Early estimates for the cost to deliver payload to low-Earth orbit were as low as $118 per pound ($260/kg) of payload ($635/lb or $1,400/kg in 2011 dollars), based on marginal or incremental launch costs, and assuming a 65,000 pound (30000kg) payload capacity and 50 launches per year. A more realistic projection of 12 flights per year for the 15-year service life combined with the initial development costs would have resulted in a total cost projection for the program of roughly $54billion (in 2011 dollars).",
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"plaintext": "The total cost of the actual 30-year service life of the Shuttle program through 2011, adjusted for inflation, was $196billion. The exact breakdown into non-recurring and recurring costs is not available, but, according to NASA, the average cost to launch a Space Shuttle as of 2011 was about $450million per mission.",
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"plaintext": "NASA's budget for 2005 allocated 30%, or $5billion, to space shuttle operations; this was decreased in 2006 to a request of $4.3billion. Non-launch costs account for a significant part of the program budget: for example, during fiscal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent around $13 billion on the Space Shuttle program, even though the fleet was grounded in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches during this period of time. In fiscal year 2009, NASA budget allocated $2.98billion for 5 launches to the program, including $490million for \"program integration\", $1.03billion for \"flight and ground operations\", and $1.46billion for \"flight hardware\" (which includes maintenance of orbiters, engines, and the external tank between flights.)",
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"plaintext": "Per-launch costs can be measured by dividing the total cost over the life of the program (including buildings, facilities, training, salaries, etc.) by the number of launches. With 135 missions, and the total cost of US$192billion (in 2010 dollars), this gives approximately $1.5billion per launch over the life of the Shuttle program. A 2017 study found that carrying one kilogram of cargo to the ISS on the Shuttle cost $272,000 in 2017 dollars, twice the cost of Cygnus and three times that of Dragon.",
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"plaintext": "NASA used a management philosophy known as success-oriented management during the Space Shuttle program which was described by historian Alex Roland in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster as \"hoping for the best\". Success-oriented management has since been studied by several analysts in the area.",
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"plaintext": "In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters were destroyed, with loss of crew totalling 14 astronauts:",
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"plaintext": " Challenger – lost 73 seconds after liftoff, STS-51-L, January 28, 1986",
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"plaintext": " Columbia – lost approximately 16 minutes before its expected landing, STS-107, February 1, 2003",
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"plaintext": "There was also one abort-to-orbit and some fatal accidents on the ground during launch preparations.",
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"plaintext": "Close-up video footage of Challenger during its final launch on January 28, 1986 clearly shows that the problems began due to an O-ring failure on the right solid rocket booster (SRB). The hot plume of gas leaking from the failed joint caused the collapse of the external tank, which then resulted in the orbiter's disintegration due to high aerodynamic stress. The accident resulted in the loss of all seven astronauts on board. Endeavour (OV-105) was built to replace Challenger (using structural spare parts originally intended for the other orbiters) and delivered in May 1991; it was first launched a year later.",
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"plaintext": "After the loss of Challenger, NASA grounded the Space Shuttle program for over two years, making numerous safety changes recommended by the Rogers Commission Report, which included a redesign of the SRB joint that failed in the Challenger accident. Other safety changes included a new escape system for use when the orbiter was in controlled flight, improved landing gear tires and brakes, and the reintroduction of pressure suits for Shuttle astronauts (these had been discontinued after STS-4; astronauts wore only coveralls and oxygen helmets from that point on until the Challenger accident). The Shuttle program continued in September 1988 with the launch of Discovery on STS-26.",
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"plaintext": "The accidents did not just affect the technical design of the orbiter, but also NASA.",
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"plaintext": "Quoting some recommendations made by the post-Challenger Rogers commission:",
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"plaintext": "The Shuttle program operated accident-free for seventeen years and 88 missions after the Challenger disaster, until Columbia broke up on reentry, killing all seven crew members, on February 1, 2003. The ultimate cause of the accident was a piece of foam separating from the external tank moments after liftoff and striking the leading edge of the orbiter's left wing, puncturing one of the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels that covered the wing edge and protected it during reentry. As Columbia reentered the atmosphere at the end of an otherwise normal mission, hot gas penetrated the wing and destroyed it from the inside out, causing the orbiter to lose control and disintegrate.",
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"plaintext": "After the Columbia disaster, the International Space Station operated on a skeleton crew of two for more than two years and was serviced primarily by Russian spacecraft. While the \"Return to Flight\" mission STS-114 in 2005 was successful, a similar piece of foam from a different portion of the tank was shed. Although the debris did not strike Discovery, the program was grounded once again for this reason.",
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"plaintext": "The second \"Return to Flight\" mission, STS-121 launched on July 4, 2006, at 14:37 (EDT). Two previous launches were scrubbed because of lingering thunderstorms and high winds around the launch pad, and the launch took place despite objections from its chief engineer and safety head. A five-inch (13cm) crack in the foam insulation of the external tank gave cause for concern; however, the Mission Management Team gave the go for launch. This mission increased the ISS crew to three. Discovery touched down successfully on July 17, 2006 at 09:14 (EDT) on Runway 15 at Kennedy Space Center.",
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"plaintext": "Following the success of STS-121, all subsequent missions were completed without major foam problems, and the construction of the ISS was completed (during the STS-118 mission in August 2007, the orbiter was again struck by a foam fragment on liftoff, but this damage was minimal compared to the damage sustained by Columbia).",
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"plaintext": "The Columbia Accident Investigation Board, in its report, noted the reduced risk to the crew when a Shuttle flew to the International Space Station (ISS), as the station could be used as a safe haven for the crew awaiting rescue in the event that damage to the orbiter on ascent made it unsafe for reentry. The board recommended that for the remaining flights, the Shuttle always orbit with the station. Prior to STS-114, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe declared that all future flights of the Space Shuttle would go to the ISS, precluding the possibility of executing the final Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission which had been scheduled before the Columbia accident, despite the fact that millions of dollars worth of upgrade equipment for Hubble were ready and waiting in NASA warehouses. Many dissenters, including astronauts , asked NASA management to reconsider allowing the mission, but initially the director stood firm. On October 31, 2006, NASA announced approval of the launch of Atlantis for the fifth and final shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, scheduled for August 28, 2008. However SM4/STS-125 eventually launched in May 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Out of the five fully functional shuttle orbiters built, three remain. Enterprise, which was used for atmospheric test flights but not for orbital flight, had many parts taken out for use on the other orbiters. It was later visually restored and was on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center until April 19, 2012. Enterprise was moved to New York City in April 2012 to be displayed at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, whose Space Shuttle Pavilion opened on July 19, 2012. Discovery replaced Enterprise at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Atlantis formed part of the Space Shuttle Exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center visitor complex and has been on display there since June 29, 2013 following its refurbishment.",
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"plaintext": "On October 14, 2012, Endeavour completed an unprecedented drive on city streets from Los Angeles International Airport to the California Science Center, where it has been on display in a temporary hangar since late 2012. The transport from the airport took two days and required major street closures, the removal of over 400 city trees, and extensive work to raise power lines, level the street, and temporarily remove street signs, lamp posts, and other obstacles. Hundreds of volunteers, and fire and police personnel, helped with the transport. Large crowds of spectators waited on the streets to see the shuttle as it passed through the city. Endeavour, along with the last flight-qualified external tank (ET-94), is currently on display at the California Science Center's Samuel Oschin Pavilion (in a horizontal orientation) until the completion of the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center (a planned addition to the California Science Center). Once moved, it will be permanently displayed in launch configuration, complete with genuine solid rocket boosters and external tank.",
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"plaintext": "One area of Space Shuttle applications is an expanded crew. Crews of up to eight have been flown in the Orbiter, but it could have held at least a crew of ten. Various proposals for filling the payload bay with additional passengers were also made as early as 1979. One proposal by Rockwell provided seating for 74 passengers in the Orbiter payload bay, with support for three days in Earth orbit. With a smaller 64 seat orbiter, costs for the late 1980s would be around US$1.5million per seat per launch. The Rockwell passenger module had two decks, four seats across on top and two on the bottom, including a 25-inch (63.5cm) wide aisle and extra storage space.",
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"plaintext": "Another design was Space Habitation Design Associates 1983 proposal for 72 passengers in the Space Shuttle Payload bay. Passengers were located in 6 sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp at launch, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area.",
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"plaintext": "There were some efforts to analyze commercial operation of STS. Using the NASA figure for average cost to launch a Space Shuttle as of 2011 at about $450million per mission, a cost per seat for a 74 seat module envisioned by Rockwell came to less than $6million, not including the regular crew. Some passenger modules used hardware similar to existing equipment, such as the tunnel, which was also needed for Spacehab and Spacelab",
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"plaintext": "During the three decades of operation, various follow-on and replacements for the STS Space Shuttle were partially developed but not finished.",
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"plaintext": "Examples of possible future space vehicles to supplement or supplant STS:",
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"plaintext": "Advanced Crewed Earth-to-Orbit Vehicle",
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"plaintext": "Shuttle II, Johnson Space Center concept for a follow-on, with 2 boosters and 2 tanks mounted on its wings.",
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"plaintext": "VentureStar, SSTO spacelane concept using an aerospike engine.",
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"plaintext": "Lockheed Martin X-33 (cancelled 2001)",
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"plaintext": "Ares I (ended with Constellation cancellation)",
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"plaintext": "One effort in the direction of space transportation was the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) program, initiated in 1994 by NASA. This led to work on the X-33 and X-34 vehicles. NASA spent about US$1billion on developing the X-33 hoping for it be in operation by 2005. Another program around the turn of the millennium was the Space Launch Initiative, which was a next generation launch initiative.",
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"plaintext": "The Space Launch Initiative program was started in 2001, and in late 2002 it was evolved into two programs, the Orbital Space Plane Program and the Next Generation Launch Technology program. OSP was oriented towards provided access to the International Space Station.",
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"plaintext": "Other vehicles that would have taken over some of the Shuttles responsibilities were the HL-20 Personnel Launch System or the NASA X-38 of the Crew Return Vehicle program, which were primarily for getting people down from ISS. The X-38 was cancelled in 2002, and the HL-20 was cancelled in 1993. Several other programs in this existed such as the Station Crew Return Alternative Module (SCRAM) and Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV)",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration, the next human NASA program was to be Constellation program with its Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles and the Orion spacecraft; however, the Constellation program was never fully funded, and in early 2010 the Obama administration asked Congress to instead endorse a plan with heavy reliance on the private sector for delivering cargo and crew to LEO.",
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"plaintext": "The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The first of these vehicles, SpaceX Dragon, became operational in 2012, and the second, Orbital Sciences's Cygnus did so in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. These spacecraft, like SpaceX's Dragon 2 and Boeing CST-100 Starliner were expected to become operational around 2020. On the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, SpaceX's Dragon 2 sent astronauts to the ISS, restoring America's human launch capability. The first operational SpaceX mission launched on November 15, 2020 at 7:27:17p.m. ET, carrying four astronauts to the ISS.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced with a very similar Artemis program. The Orion spacecraft has been left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The planned Ares V rocket has been replaced with the smaller Space Launch System (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware. Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), an uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft, launched on December 5, 2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Artemis 1 is planned to be the first flight of the SLS and will be launched as a test of the completed Orion and SLS system. During the mission, an uncrewed Orion capsule will spend 10 days in a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon before returning to Earth. Artemis 2, the first crewed mission of the program, will launch four astronauts in 2024 on a free-return flyby of the Moon at a distance of . After Artemis 2, the Power and Propulsion Element of the Lunar Gateway and three components of an expendable lunar lander are planned to be delivered on multiple launches from commercial launch service providers. Artemis 3 is planned to launch in 2025 aboard a SLS Block 1 rocket and will use the minimalist Gateway and expendable lander to achieve the first crewed lunar landing of the program. The flight is planned to touch down on the lunar south pole region, with two astronauts staying there for about one week.",
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"plaintext": "The Space Shuttle program occupied over 654 facilities, used over 1.2million line items of equipment, and employed over 5,000 people. The total value of equipment was over $12billion. Shuttle-related facilities represented over a quarter of NASA's inventory. There were over 1,200 active suppliers to the program throughout the United States. NASA's transition plan had the program operating through 2010 with a transition and retirement phase lasting through 2015. During this time, the Ares I and Orion as well as the Altair Lunar Lander were to be under development, although these programs have since been canceled.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010s, two major programs for human spaceflight are Commercial Crew Program and the Artemis program. Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A is, for example, used to launch Falcon Heavy and Falcon 9.",
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"plaintext": "Many other vehicles were used in support of the Space Shuttle program, mainly terrestrial transportation vehicles.",
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"plaintext": " The crawler-transporter carried the mobile launcher platform and the Space Shuttle from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to Launch Complex 39, originally built for Project Apollo.",
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"plaintext": " The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) were two modified Boeing 747s. Either could fly an orbiter from alternative landing sites back to the Kennedy Space Center. These aircraft were retired to the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark at the Armstrong Flight Research Center and Space Center Houston.",
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"plaintext": " A 36-wheeled transport trailer, the Orbiter Transfer System, originally built for the U.S. Air Force's launch facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California (since then converted for Delta IV rockets) would transport the orbiter from the landing facility to the launch pad, which allowed both \"stacking\" and launch without utilizing a separate VAB-style building and crawler-transporter roadway. Prior to the closing of the Vandenberg facility, orbiters were transported from the OPF to the VAB on their undercarriages, only to be raised when the orbiter was being lifted for attachment to the SRB/ET stack. The trailer allowed the transportation of the orbiter from the OPF to either the SCA \"Mate-Demate\" stand or the VAB without placing any additional stress on the undercarriage.",
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"plaintext": " The Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV), a modified airport jet bridge, was used to assist astronauts to egress from the orbiter after landing. Upon entering the CTV, astronauts could take off their launch and reentry suits then proceed to chairs and beds for medical checks before being transported back to the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building. Originally built for Project Apollo.",
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"plaintext": " The Astrovan was used to transport astronauts from the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building to the launch pad on launch day. It was also used to transport astronauts back again from the Crew Transport Vehicle at the Shuttle Landing Facility.",
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"plaintext": " The three locomotives serving the NASA Railroad, used to transport segments of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, were determined to be no longer needed for day-to-day operation at the Kennedy Space Center. In April 2015, locomotive No. 1 was sent to Natchitoches Parish Port and No. 3 sent to the Madison Railroad. Locomotive No. 2 was sent to the Gold Coast Railroad Museum in 2014.",
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"plaintext": " List of human spaceflights",
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"plaintext": " List of Space Shuttle missions",
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"plaintext": " List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents",
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"plaintext": " Simulation",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Physics",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Other spaceflight programs",
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},
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"plaintext": "Similar vehicles",
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"plaintext": " Dream Chaser – Commercial space glider for flying either cargo or a crew to the ISS",
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"plaintext": "Footnotes",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Citations'''",
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{
"plaintext": " Shuttle Reference manual",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Orbiter Vehicles",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shuttle Program Funding 1992 – 2002",
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},
{
"plaintext": " NASA Space Shuttle News Reference – 1981 (PDF document)",
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"plaintext": " R. A. Pielke, \"Space Shuttle Value open to Interpretation\", Aviation Week'', issue 26. July 1993, p.57 (.pdf)",
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"plaintext": " Official NASA Mission Site",
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},
{
"plaintext": " NASA Johnson Space Center Space Shuttle Site",
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"plaintext": " Official Space Shuttle Mission Archives",
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"plaintext": " NASA Space Shuttle Multimedia Gallery & Archives",
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"plaintext": " Shuttle audio, video, and images – searchable archives from STS-67 (1995) to present",
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"plaintext": " Kennedy Space Center Media Gallery – searchable video/audio/photo gallery",
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"plaintext": "Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the Space Shuttle",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Space Flight History: Space Shuttle Program",
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"plaintext": "Natalie Portman (born Natalie Hershlag, , ) is an Israeli-born American actress. She has had an extensive career in film since her teenage years and starred in various blockbusters and independent films, receiving multiple accolades such as an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award.",
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"plaintext": "Portman's career progressed with her starring roles as Evey Hammond in V for Vendetta (2005), Anne Boleyn in The Other Boleyn Girl (2008), and a troubled ballerina in the psychological horror film Black Swan (2010), for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. She went on to star in the romantic comedy No Strings Attached (2011) and portrayed Jacqueline Kennedy in the biopic Jackie (2016), which earned her a third Academy Award nomination. Portman has also featured as Jane Foster in the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero films Thor (2011), The Dark World (2013), and Love and Thunder (2022), which established her among the world's highest-paid actresses.",
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"plaintext": "When Portman was ten years old, a Revlon agent spotted her at a pizza restaurant and asked her to become a child model. She turned down the offer but used the opportunity to get an acting agent. She auditioned for the 1992 off-Broadway Ruthless!, a musical about a girl who is prepared to commit murder to get the lead in a school play. Portman and Britney Spears were chosen as understudies for star Laura Bell Bundy.",
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"plaintext": "Six months after Ruthless! ended, Portman auditioned for and secured a leading role in Luc Besson's action drama The Professional (1994). To protect her privacy, she adopted her paternal grandmother's maiden name, Portman, as her stage name. She played Mathilda, an orphan child who befriends a middle-aged hitman (played by Jean Reno). Her parents were reluctant to let her do the part due to the explicit sexual and violent nature of the script, but agreed after Besson took out the nudity and the killings committed by Portman's character. Portman herself said that after those scenes were removed, she found nothing objectionable about the content. Even so, her mother was displeased with some of the \"sexual twists and turns\" in the finished film, which were not part of the script. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post commended Portman for bringing a \"genuine sense of tragedy\" to her part, but Peter Rainer of the Los Angeles Times believed that she \"isn't enough of an actress to unfold Mathilda's pain\" and criticized Besson's sexualization of her character.",
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"plaintext": "Portman was cast opposite Leonardo DiCaprio in Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet (1996), but she dropped out during rehearsals when studio executives found her too young for the role. Luhrmann said \"Natalie was amazing in the footage, but it was too much of a burden for her at that age\". She was also offered Adrian Lyne's Lolita, based on the novel of the same name, but she turned down the part due to its excessive sexual content. She later bemoaned that her parts in The Professional and Beautiful Girls prompted a series of offers to play a sexualized youngster, adding that it \"dictated a lot of my choices afterwards 'cos it scared me ... it made me reluctant to do sexy stuff\". Portman instead signed on to star as Anne Frank in a Broadway adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank, which was staged at the Music Box Theatre from December 1997 to May 1998. In preparation, she twice visited the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam and interacted with Miep Gies, who had preserved Anne's diary after the family was captured; she found a connection with Frank's story, given her own family's history with the Holocaust. Reviewing the production for Variety, Greg Evans disliked her portrayal, which he thought had \"little of the charm, budding genius or even brittle intelligence that the diary itself reveals\". Conversely, Ben Brantley found an \"ineffable grace in her awkwardness\". The experience of performing the play was emotionally draining for her, as she attended high school during the day and performed at night; she wrote personal essays in Time and Seventeen magazines about her experience.",
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"plaintext": "Portman graduated from Syosset High School in 1999. Her high school paper, \"A Simple Method to Demonstrate the Enzymatic Production of Hydrogen from Sugar\", co-authored with scientists Ian Hurley and Jonathan Woodward, was entered in the Intel Science Talent Search. Following production on The Phantom Menace, Portman initially turned down a lead role in the coming-of-age film Anywhere but Here (1999) after learning it would involve a sex scene, but the director Wayne Wang and actress Susan Sarandon (who played Portman's mother in the film) demanded a rewrite of the script. She was shown a new draft, and decided to accept the part. Mary Elizabeth Williams of Salon called Portman's performance \"astonishing\" and added that \"unlike any number of actresses her age, she's neither too maudlin nor too plucky\". She received a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination for it.",
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"plaintext": "Portman's sole screen appearance in 2000 was in Where the Heart Is, a romantic drama filmed in Texas, in which she played a pregnant teenager. After finishing work on the film, she began attending Harvard University to pursue her bachelor's degree in psychology, and significantly reduced her acting roles over the next few years. She studied advanced Hebrew literature, neurobiology, and she served as Alan Dershowitz's research assistant. In the summer of 2001, she returned to Broadway (at the Delacorte Theater) to perform Chekhov's drama The Seagull, which was directed by Mike Nichols and co-starred Meryl Streep and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Linda Winer of Newsday wrote that the \"major surprises come from Portman, whose Nina transforms with astonishing lyricism from the girl with ambition to Chekhov's most difficult symbol of destruction\". Also in 2001, Portman was among several celebrities who made cameo appearances in the comedy Zoolander. The following year she reprised her role of Amidala in Episode II – Attack of the Clones, which she had filmed in Sydney and London during her summer break of 2000. She was excited by the opportunity to play a confident young woman who did not depend on the male lead. When asked about balancing her career and education, she said, \"I don't care if [college] ruins my career. I'd rather be smart than a movie star.\" In 2002, she contributed to a study on memory called \"Frontal lobe activation during object permanence: data from near-infrared spectroscopy\". Portman graduated from Harvard in 2003 and her sole screen appearance that year was in the brief part of a young mother in the war film Cold Mountain.",
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"plaintext": "Portman next served as an executive producer for No Strings Attached (2011), a romantic comedy starring Ashton Kutcher and her as a young couple in a casual sex relationship. She described the experience of making it as a \"palate cleanser\" from the intensity of her Black Swan job. It received unfavorable reviews but was a commercial success. She next agreed to the stoner film Your Highness for the opportunity of playing an athletic and foul-mouthed character, which she believed was rare for actresses. Critics were dismissive of the film's reliance on scatological humor and it proved to be a box-office bomb. In her final film release of 2011, Portman took on the part of Jane Foster, a scientist and love-interest of the titular character (played by Chris Hemsworth) in the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero film Thor. She liked the idea of Kenneth Branagh directing a big-budget film that emphasized character; she signed on to it before receiving a script, and helped develop her part by reading the biography of scientists such as Rosalind Franklin. Richard Kuipers of Variety commended Portman's \"sterling work in a thinly written role\" for adding dimension to the film's romantic subplot. Thor earned $449.3million worldwide to emerge as the 15th highest-grossing film of 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, Portman appeared alongside an ensemble cast, including Christian Bale, in Terrence Malick's experimental drama film Knight of Cups, which marked her first project after giving birth. She shot for it within a week of returning to work and she did not receive a traditional script or dialogues, improvising most of her scenes with Bale. She said that shooting with Malick influenced her own directorial venture, A Tale of Love and Darkness which was released in the same year. Based on Israeli author Amos Oz's autobiographical novel of the same name which is set in Jerusalem during the last years of the British Mandate of Palestine, the Hebrew-language film starred Portman who also produced and co-wrote it. She wanted to adapt the book since she first read it a decade ago, but postponed it until she was old enough to play the leading role of a mother herself. She collaborated closely with Amos, showing him drafts of her script as she adapted the book. A. O. Scott of The New York Times found it to be a \"conscientious adaptation of a difficult book\" and was appreciative of Portman's potential as a filmmaker. She next produced and starred in the western film Jane Got a Gun about a young mother seeking vengeance. Initially scheduled to be directed by Lynne Ramsay, the production was plagued with numerous difficulties. Ramsay did not turn up on set for the first day of filming and was eventually replaced with Gavin O'Connor. Michael Fassbender, Jude Law, and Bradley Cooper were all cast as the male lead, before Ewan McGregor played the part. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian reviewed that Portman's \"stately performance\" was not enough to save the \"laborious and solemn western\", and it grossed less than $4million against its $25million budget.",
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"plaintext": "Portman portrayed Jacqueline Kennedy in the Pablo Larraín-directed biopic Jackie (2016), about Kennedy's life immediately after the 1963 assassination of her husband. She was initially intimidated to take on the part of a well-known public figure, and eventually researched Kennedy extensively by watching videos of her, reading books, and listening to audiotapes of her interviews. She also worked with a dialect coach to adapt Kennedy's unique speaking style. David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter termed it an \"incandescent performance\" and added that \"her Jackie is both inscrutable and naked, broken but unquestionably resilient, a mess and yet fiercely dignified\". She won the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She also served as producer for the comedy horror film Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, directed by Burr Steers, and starred in Rebecca Zlotowski's French-Belgian drama Planetarium. The 2017 experimental romance Song to Song marked Portman's second collaboration with Terrence Malick, which like their previous film polarized critics.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, Portman starred in the science fiction film Annihilation, based on Jeff VanderMeer's novel. She played a biologist and former soldier who studies a mysterious quarantined zone of mutating organisms. She was pleased to headline a rare female-led science fiction film, and she moved her family near Pinewood Studios during filming. For the action sequences, she underwent movement training with the dancer Bobbi Jene Smith. Benjamin Lee of The Guardian took note of Portman's \"strong, fiercely compelling presence\" and commended her for playing the part without unnecessary sentimentality. It only received a limited theatrical release and was distributed on Netflix internationally. Her next appearance was in Xavier Dolan's first English-language film, the ensemble drama The Death & Life of John F. Donovan (2018), which was termed a \"shocking misfire\" by Eric Kohn of IndieWire. She then starred as a troubled pop singer in Vox Lux, sharing the part with Raffey Cassidy. She was drawn to the idea of showcasing the negative effects of fame, and in preparation, she watched documentaries on musicians and listened to the music of Sia, who wrote her songs in the film. For the climactic dance routines, she trained with her husband, Benjamin Millepied, who choreographed the sequence. It received mixed reviews from critics, but Portman's performance earned unanimous praise. Comparing it to her performances in Black Swan and Jackie, Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph wrote that \"this role has a similar audacity and extravagance that few actresses would dare attempt, let alone be allowed to get away with\".",
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"plaintext": "Portman and her producing partner, Sophie Mas, founded the production company MountainA in 2021, and signed a first-look television deal with Apple TV+. Their first project will be Lady in the Lake, a miniseries adaptation of Laura Lippman's novel of the same name, starring Portman.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Portman signed a petition that defended Roman Polanski, who was charged with drugging and raping a thirteen-year-old girl in 1977, and has been a fugitive for decades. In February 2018, she expressed regret over signing the petition.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2011, Portman was appointed an ambassador of WE Charity (formerly known as Free The Children), an international charity and educational partner, spearheading their Power of a Girl campaign. She hosted a contest challenging girls in North America to fundraise for one of WE Charity's all-girl schools in Kenya. As incentives for the contest winner, Portman offered the designer Rodarte dress she wore to the premiere of Black Swan, along with tickets to her next film premiere. It was announced in May 2012 that Portman would be working with watch designer Richard Mille to develop a limited-edition timepiece with proceeds supporting WE Charity. During WE Day California 2019 Portman gave a pro vegan speech in front of the student audience, linking vegan lifestyle and feminism. In December 2019, she visited Kenya a second time with WE Charity and spoke with young girls determined to improve their lives through access to education.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, Portman served as a guest lecturer at Columbia University for a course in terrorism and counterterrorism, where she spoke about her film V for Vendetta. In February 2015, Portman was among other alumni of Harvard University including Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Darren Aronofsky and Susan Faludi who wrote an open letter to the school demanding it divest its $35,900,000,000 endowment from coal, gas, and oil companies. Later that year in May, she spoke at the annual Harvard Class Day to the graduating class of 2015.",
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"plaintext": "At Harvard, Portman wrote a letter to The Harvard Crimson in response to an essay critical of Israeli actions toward Palestinians. She has nevertheless criticized the Israeli government, specifically Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Portman was critical of Netanyahu's re-election in 2015, saying she was \"disappointed\" and often found his comments racist. In November 2017, Portman was announced as the Genesis Prize recipient for 2018, which includes $2,000,000 in prize money. The following April, Portman announced that she did not plan to attend the awards ceremony scheduled for June, citing \"recent events in Israel\" that left her feeling uncomfortable attending public events there. The ceremony was canceled. Portman further clarified that she was not boycotting Israel, explaining that she did not want to \"appear as endorsing\" Netanyahu, who was to give a speech at the ceremony. She is also a member of the One Voice movement.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, she donated $50,000 to the Time's Up initiative. Portman took part in the 2018 Women's March in Los Angeles, where she spoke about the \"sexual terrorism\" she experienced at age thirteen after the release of her film Léon: The Professional. She told the crowd, \"I understood very quickly, even as a 13-year-old, that if I were to express myself sexually I would feel unsafe and that men would feel entitled to discuss and objectify my body to my great discomfort.\" She drew attention to the MeToo movement, revealing that her first fan letter was a \"rape fantasy\" from a man and that her local radio station created a countdown until her eighteenth birthday (when she would reach legal age to consent to have intercourse).",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, Portman endorsed the \"defund the police\" movement. In 2020, Portman collaborated with JusticeLA to create a public service announcement #SuingToSaveLives about the health of people in L.A. County jails amid the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "Later in 2020, Portman was announced as one of the co-founders and investors in an almost all-female group that was awarded a new franchise in the National Women's Soccer League, the top level of the women's sport in the U.S. The new team, since unveiled as Angel City FC, began play in the 2022 NWSL season.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, Portman commented that she felt more Jewish in Israel and that she would like to raise her children Jewish: \"A priority for me is definitely that I'd like to raise my kids Jewish, but the ultimate thing is to have someone who is a good person and who is a partner.\" In January 2014, Millepied said he was in the process of converting to Judaism.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Portman signed on with Dior and appeared in several of the company's advertising campaigns. In October 2012, Britain's Advertising Standards Authority banned a Dior advertisement that featured Portman wearing Dior mascara after a complaint from Dior's competitor, L'Oreal. The ASA ruled that the photographs of Portman \"misleadingly exaggerated the likely effects of the product\". Portman is the face of one of the company's fragrances, Miss Dior, inspired by Catherine Dior. She has starred in campaign videos for the fragrance, and promoted a new version of the fragrance, Rose N'Roses, in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Portman's most acclaimed and highest-grossing films, according to the online portal Box Office Mojo and the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), Closer (2004), Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005), V for Vendetta (2005), Black Swan (2010), No Strings Attached (2011), Thor (2011), The Dark World (2013), Jackie (2016), and Annihilation (2018).",
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"plaintext": "Portman was awarded the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Drama and the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Black Swan, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for Closer. She has received two more Academy Award nominations: Best Supporting Actress for Closer and Best Actress for Jackie; and two more Golden Globe nominations: Best Supporting Actress for Anywhere but Here (1999) and Best Actress in a Drama for Jackie.",
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38,461 | 1,103,237,986 | Isoroku_Yamamoto's_sleeping_giant_quote | [
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"plaintext": "Although the producers of the film claim to have found the quote in Yamamoto's writings, there is no printed evidence to prove Yamamoto made this statement. Vermont Royster offers a possible origin to the phrase attributed to Napoleon, \"China is a sickly, sleeping giant. But when she awakes the world will tremble\".",
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"plaintext": "An abridged version of the quotation is also featured in the 2001 film Pearl Harbor. The 2019 film Midway also features Admiral Yamamoto speaking aloud the sleeping giant quote.",
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"plaintext": "The director of Tora! Tora! Tora!, Richard Fleischer, stated that while Yamamoto may never have said those words, the film's producer, Elmo Williams, had found the line written in Yamamoto's diary. Williams, in turn, has stated that Larry Forrester, the screenwriter, found a 1943 letter from Yamamoto to the Admiralty in Tokyo containing the quotation. However, Forrester cannot produce the letter, nor can anyone else, American or Japanese, recall it or find it. Randall Wallace, the screenwriter of the 2001 film Pearl Harbor, readily admitted that he copied the line from Tora! Tora! Tora!",
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"plaintext": "Yamamoto did believe that Japan could not win a protracted war with the United States. Moreover, he seemed later to have believed that the Pearl Harbor attack had been a blunder strategically, morally, and politically, even though he was the person who originated the idea of a surprise attack on the military installation. It is recorded that while all his staff members were celebrating, \"Yamamoto alone\" spent the day after Pearl Harbor \"sunk in apparent depression\". Although almost 2,500 Americans lost their lives at Pearl Harbor and surrounding areas in Honolulu, he was only upset by the bungling of the Foreign Ministry which led to the attack happening while the countries were still at peace, thus, along with other factors, making the incident an unprovoked surprise attack that enraged American public opinion.",
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"plaintext": "On December 8, 1941, the day after the attack at Pearl Harbor, an inspirational statement was made by Don McNeill during the NBC radio broadcast of Don McNeill’s Breakfast Club. His statement ended: ",
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"plaintext": "In The Reluctant Admiral, Hiroyuki Agawa gives a quotation from a reply by Admiral Yamamoto to Ogata Taketora on January9, 1942, which is similar to the famous version: \"A military man can scarcely pride himself on having 'smitten a sleeping enemy'; it is more a matter of shame, simply, for the one smitten. I would rather you made your appraisal after seeing what the enemy does, since it is certain that, angered and outraged, he will soon launch a determined counterattack.\"",
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"plaintext": "The other common quotation attributed to Yamamoto predicting the future outcome of a naval war against the United States is, \"I can run wild for six months... after that, I have no expectation of success\". As it happened, the Battle of Midway, the critical naval battle considered to be the turning point of the war in the Pacific, did indeed occur six months after Pearl Harbor, as the Battle of Midway ended on June 7, exactly 6 months later.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to the above quotation was another quotation: Yamamoto, when once asked his opinion on the war, pessimistically said that the only way for Japan to win the war was to dictate terms in the White House. Yamamoto's meaning was that military victory, in a protracted war against an opponent with as much of a population and industrial advantage as the United States possessed, was completely impossible, a rebuff to the Kantai Kessen Decisive Battle Doctrine of those who thought that winning a single major battle against the United States Navy would end the war, just as the Japanese victory in the Battle of Tsushima had ended the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.",
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"plaintext": "Yamamoto's quote about peace terms in the White House was abridged by Japanese propaganda to make it seem like an optimistic prediction; this version was promptly picked up by American propaganda to look even more boastful (see illustration).",
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38,468 | 1,107,896,305 | Psilocybin | [
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"plaintext": "Common responses include pupil dilation (93%); changes in heart rate (100%), including increases (56%), decreases (13%), and variable responses (31%); changes in blood pressure (84%), including hypotension (34%), hypertension (28%), and general instability (22%); changes in stretch reflex (86%), including increases (80%) and decreases (6%); nausea (44%); tremor (25%); and dysmetria (16%) (inability to properly direct or limit motions). The temporary increases in blood pressure caused by the drug can be a risk factor for users with pre-existing hypertension. These qualitative somatic effects caused by psilocybin have been corroborated by several early clinical studies. A 2005 magazine survey of club goers in the UK found that nausea or vomiting was experienced by over a quarter of those who had used psilocybin mushrooms in the last year, although this effect is caused by the mushroom rather than psilocybin itself. In one study, administration of gradually increasing dosages of psilocybin daily for 21 days had no measurable effect on electrolyte levels, blood sugar levels, or liver toxicity tests.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is known to strongly influence the subjective experience of the passage of time. Users often feel as if time is slowed down, resulting in the perception that \"minutes appear to be hours\" or \"time is standing still\". Studies have demonstrated that psilocybin significantly impairs subjects' ability to gauge time intervals longer than 2.5seconds, impairs their ability to synchronize to inter-beat intervals longer than 2seconds, and reduces their preferred tapping rate. These results are consistent with the drug's role in affecting prefrontal cortex activity, and the role that the prefrontal cortex is known to play in time perception. However, the neurochemical basis of psilocybin's effects on the perception of time are not known with certainty.",
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"plaintext": "Users having a pleasant experience can feel a sense of connection to others, nature, and the universe; other perceptions and emotions are also often intensified. Users having an unpleasant experience (a \"bad trip\") describe a reaction accompanied by fear, other unpleasant feelings, and occasionally by dangerous behavior. In general, the phrase \"bad trip\" is used to describe a reaction that is characterized primarily by fear or other unpleasant emotions, not just transitory experience of such feelings. A variety of factors may contribute to a psilocybin user experiencing a bad trip, including \"tripping\" during an emotional or physical low or in a non-supportive environment (see: set and setting). Ingesting psilocybin in combination with other drugs, including alcohol, can also increase the likelihood of a bad trip. Other than the duration of the experience, the effects of psilocybin are similar to comparable dosages of LSD or mescaline. However, in the Psychedelics Encyclopedia, author Peter Stafford noted, \"The psilocybin experience seems to be warmer, not as forceful and less isolating. It tends to build connections between people, who are generally much more in communication than when they use LSD.\"",
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"plaintext": "Through further anthropological studies regarding \"personal insights\" and the psycho-social effects of psilocybin, it can be seen in many traditional societies that powerful mind-active substances such as psilocybin are regularly \"consumed ritually for therapeutic purposes or for transcending normal, everyday reality.\" Positive effects that psilocybin has on individuals can be observed by taking on an anthropological approach and moving away from the Western bio-medical society; this is aided by the studies done by Leary. Within certain traditional societies where the use of psilocybin is frequent for shamanic healing rituals, group collectives praise their guide, healer and shaman for helping alleviate them of pains, aches and hurt. They do this through a group ritual practice where participants, or just the guide, ingests psilocybin to help extract any \"toxic psychic residues or sorcerous implants\" found in one's body. Group therapies using classic psychedelics are becoming more commonly used in the Western world in clinical practice. This may continue to grow as long providing the evidence remains indicative of safety and efficacy. In social sense, the group is shaped by their experiences surrounding psilocybin and how they view the plant collectively. As mentioned in anthropologist article, the group partake in a \"journey\" together, thus adding to the spiritual, social body, where roles, hierarchies and gender are subjectively understood.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous New World cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts. Reflecting the meaning of the word entheogen (\"the god within\"), the mushrooms are revered as powerful spiritual sacraments that provide access to sacred worlds. Typically used in small group community settings, they enhance group cohesion and reaffirm traditional values. Terence McKenna documented the worldwide practices of psilocybin mushroom usage as part of a cultural ethos relating to the Earth and mysteries of nature, and suggested that mushrooms enhanced self-awareness and a sense of contact with a \"Transcendent Other\"—reflecting a deeper understanding of our connectedness with nature.",
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"plaintext": "Psychedelic drugs can induce states of consciousness that have lasting personal meaning and spiritual significance in individuals who are religious or spiritually inclined; these states are called mystical experiences. Some scholars have proposed that many of the qualities of a drug-induced mystical experience are indistinguishable from mystical experiences achieved through non-drug techniques, such as meditation or holotropic breathwork. In the 1960s, Walter Pahnke and colleagues systematically evaluated mystical experiences (which they called \"mystical consciousness\") by categorizing their common features. These categories, according to Pahnke, \"describe the core of a universal psychological experience, free from culturally determined philosophical or theological interpretations\", and allow researchers to assess mystical experiences on a qualitative, numerical scale.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1962 Marsh Chapel Experiment, which was run by Pahnke at the Harvard Divinity School under the supervision of Timothy Leary, almost all of the graduate degree divinity student volunteers who received psilocybin reported profound religious experiences. One of the participants was religious scholar Huston Smith, author of several textbooks on comparative religion; he later described his experience as \"the most powerful cosmic homecoming I have ever experienced.\" In a 25-year followup to the experiment, all of the subjects given psilocybin described their experience as having elements of \"a genuine mystical nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life\". Psychedelic researcher Rick Doblin considered the study partially flawed due to incorrect implementation of the double-blind procedure, and several imprecise questions in the mystical experience questionnaire. Nevertheless, he said that the study cast \"a considerable doubt on the assertion that mystical experiences catalyzed by drugs are in any way inferior to non-drug mystical experiences in both their immediate content and long-term effects\". This sentiment was echoed by psychiatrist William A. Richards, who in a 2007 review stated \"[psychedelic] mushroom use may constitute one technology for evoking revelatory experiences that are similar, if not identical, to those that occur through so-called spontaneous alterations of brain chemistry.\"",
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"plaintext": "A group of researchers from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine led by Roland Griffiths conducted a study to assess the immediate and long-term psychological effects of the psilocybin experience, using a modified version of the mystical experience questionnaire and a rigorous double-blind procedure. When asked in an interview about the similarity of his work with Leary's, Griffiths explained the difference: \"We are conducting rigorous, systematic research with psilocybin under carefully monitored conditions, a route which Dr. Leary abandoned in the early 1960s.\" The National Institute of Drug Abuse-funded study, published in 2006, has been praised by experts for the soundness of its experimental design. In the experiment, 36 volunteers without prior experience with hallucinogens were given psilocybin and methylphenidate (Ritalin) in separate sessions; the methylphenidate sessions served as a control and psychoactive placebo. The degree of mystical experience was measured using a questionnaire developed by Ralph W. Hood; 61% of subjects reported a \"complete mystical experience\" after their psilocybin session, while only 13% reported such an outcome after their experience with methylphenidate. Two months after taking psilocybin, 79% of the participants reported moderately to greatly increased life satisfaction and sense of well-being. About 36% of participants also had a strong to extreme \"experience of fear\" or dysphoria (i.e., a \"bad trip\") at some point during the psilocybin session (which was not reported by any subject during the methylphenidate session); about one-third of these (13% of the total) reported that this dysphoria dominated the entire session. These negative effects were reported to be easily managed by the researchers and did not have a lasting negative effect on the subject's sense of well-being.",
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"plaintext": "A follow-up study conducted 14 months after the original psilocybin session confirmed that participants continued to attribute deep personal meaning to the experience. Almost one-third of the subjects reported that the experience was the single most meaningful or spiritually significant event of their lives, and over two-thirds reported it among their five most spiritually significant events. About two-thirds indicated that the experience increased their sense of well-being or life satisfaction. Even after 14 months, those who reported mystical experiences scored on average 4 percentage points higher on the personality trait of Openness/Intellect; personality traits are normally stable across the lifespan for adults. Likewise, in a recent (2010) web-based questionnaire study designed to investigate user perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use, 60% of the 503 psilocybin users reported that their use of psilocybin had a long-term positive impact on their sense of well-being.",
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"plaintext": "While many recent studies have concluded that psilocybin can cause mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance, not all the medical community agree. Paul R. McHugh, formerly director of the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at Johns Hopkins, responded as follows in a book review: \"The unmentioned fact in The Harvard Psychedelic Club is that LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and the like produce not a \"higher consciousness\" but rather a particular kind of \"lower consciousness\" known well to psychiatrists and neurologists—namely, \"toxic delirium.\"\" In response to Dr. McHugh's denial that the mystical experience leads to insight, Michael Pollan points to Roland Griffiths, Johns Hopkins researcher and author of many studies finding that the experiences of many of the participants have actually involved substantial and sustained personal meaning bringing enduring positive changes in psychological functioning. According to Pollan, Griffiths admits that those taking psilocybin may be encountering a temporary psychosis, but notes that the patients McHugh describes are unlikely to report years later of their experience: \"Wow, that was one of the greatest and most meaningful experiences of my life\". Such responses argue that it is not appropriate to automatically equate a psilocybin-induced experience of profound insight with superficially similar experiences of psychiatric patients (characterized as mere toxic delirium), when it is only the \"insight\" reached in the psilocybin experience that is reported to often result in profound, beneficial and enduring life changes for the person.",
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"plaintext": "Although psilocybin may be prepared synthetically, outside of the research setting it is not typically used in this form. The psilocybin present in certain species of mushrooms can be ingested in several ways: by consuming fresh or dried fruit bodies, by preparing an herbal tea, or by combining with other foods to mask the bitter taste. In rare cases people have injected mushroom extracts intravenously.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the comparatively few fatal incidents reported in the literature that are associated with psychedelic mushroom usage involve the simultaneous use of other drugs, especially alcohol. Probably the most common cause of hospital admissions resulting from psychedelic mushroom usage involve \"bad trips\" or panic reactions, in which affected individuals become extremely anxious, confused, agitated, or disoriented. Accidents, self-injury, or suicide attempts can result from serious cases of acute psychotic episodes. Although no studies have linked psilocybin with birth defects, it is recommended that pregnant women avoid its usage.",
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"plaintext": "Data is sparse, but in the decade leading up to 2020 an increasing number of psilocybin mushroom overdoses have been recorded. One analysis of mushrooms used by people hospitalized from psilocybin poisoning found high concentrations of phenethylamine (PEA), which has also been detected in the urine of people who have used psilocybin mushrooms. It is hypothesized that PEA may intensify the effect of psilocybin poisoning.",
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"plaintext": "In rats, the median lethal dose (LD50) when administered orally is 280milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), approximately one and a half times that of caffeine. When administered intravenously in rabbits, psilocybin's LD50 is approximately 12.5mg/kg. Psilocybin comprises approximately 1% of the weight of Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms, and so nearly of dried mushrooms, or of fresh mushrooms, would be required for a person to reach the 280mg/kg LD50 value of rats. Based on the results of animal studies, the lethal dose of psilocybin has been extrapolated to be 6grams, 1000 times greater than the effective dose of 6milligrams. The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances assigns psilocybin a relatively high therapeutic index of 641 (higher values correspond to a better safety profile); for comparison, the therapeutic indices of aspirin and nicotine are 199 and 21, respectively. The lethal dose from psilocybin toxicity alone is unknown at recreational or medicinal levels, and has rarely been documented—, only two cases attributed to overdosing on hallucinogenic mushrooms (without concurrent use of other drugs) have been reported in the scientific literature and may involve other factors aside from psilocybin.",
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"plaintext": "Panic reactions can occur after consumption of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, especially if the ingestion is accidental or otherwise unexpected. Reactions characterized by violent behavior, suicidal thoughts, schizophrenia-like psychosis, and convulsions have been reported in the literature. A 2005 survey conducted in the United Kingdom found that almost a quarter of those who had used psilocybin mushrooms in the past year had experienced a panic attack. Other adverse effects less frequently reported include paranoia, confusion, prolonged derealization (disconnection from reality), and mania. Psilocybin usage can temporarily induce a state of depersonalization disorder. Usage by those with schizophrenia can induce acute psychotic states requiring hospitalization.",
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"plaintext": "The similarity of psilocybin-induced symptoms to those of schizophrenia has made the drug a useful research tool in behavioral and neuroimaging studies of this psychotic disorder. In both cases, psychotic symptoms are thought to arise from a \"deficient gating of sensory and cognitive information\" in the brain that ultimately lead to \"cognitive fragmentation and psychosis\". Flashbacks (spontaneous recurrences of a previous psilocybin experience) can occur long after having used psilocybin mushrooms. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is characterized by a continual presence of visual disturbances similar to those generated by psychedelic substances. Neither flashbacks nor HPPD are commonly associated with psilocybin usage, and correlations between HPPD and psychedelics are further obscured by polydrug use and other variables.",
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"plaintext": "Tolerance to psilocybin builds and dissipates quickly; ingesting psilocybin more than about once a week can lead to diminished effects. Tolerance dissipates after a few days, so doses can be spaced several days apart to avoid the effect. A cross-tolerance can develop between psilocybin and the pharmacologically similar LSD, and between psilocybin and phenethylamines such as mescaline and DOM.",
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"plaintext": "Repeated use of psilocybin does not lead to physical dependence. A 2008 study concluded that, based on US data from the period 2000–2002, adolescent-onset (defined here as ages 11–17) usage of hallucinogenic drugs (including psilocybin) did not increase the risk of drug dependence in adulthood; this was in contrast to adolescent usage of cannabis, cocaine, inhalants, anxiolytic medicines, and stimulants, all of which were associated with \"an excess risk of developing clinical features associated with drug dependence\". Likewise, a 2010 Dutch study ranked the relative harm of psilocybin mushrooms compared to a selection of 19 recreational drugs, including alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin, and tobacco. Psilocybin mushrooms were ranked as the illicit drug with the lowest harm, corroborating conclusions reached earlier by expert groups in the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated in the body to psilocin, which is an agonist for several serotonin receptors, which are also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors. In rats, psilocin binds with high affinity to 5-HT2A receptors and low affinity to 5-HT1 receptors, including 5-HT1A and 5-HT1D; effects are also mediated via 5-HT2C receptors. The psychotomimetic (psychosis-mimicking) effects of psilocin can be blocked in a dose-dependent fashion by the 5-HT2A antagonist drug ketanserin. Various lines of evidence have shown that interactions with non-5-HT2 receptors also contribute to the subjective and behavioral effects of the drug. For example, psilocin indirectly increases the concentration of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the basal ganglia, and some psychotomimetic symptoms of psilocin are reduced by haloperidol, a non-selective dopamine receptor antagonist. Taken together, these suggest that there may be an indirect dopaminergic contribution to psilocin's psychotomimetic effects. Psilocybin and psilocin have no affinity for dopamine receptor D2, unlike another common 5-HT receptor agonist, LSD. Psilocin antagonizes H1 receptors with moderate affinity, compared to LSD which has a lower affinity.",
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"plaintext": "Serotonin receptors are located in numerous parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, and are involved in a wide range of functions, including regulation of mood, motivation, body temperature, appetite and sex.",
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"plaintext": "The effects of the drug begin 10–40minutes after ingestion, and last 2–6hours depending on dose, species, and individual metabolism. The half life of psilocybin is 163±64minutes when taken orally, or 74.1±19.6minutes when injected intravenously.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver. As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a first-pass effect, whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a glucuronide; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with glucuronic acid, which can then be excreted in the urine. Psilocin is glucuronated by the glucuronosyltransferase enzymes UGT1A9 in the liver, and by UGT1A10 in the small intestine. Based on studies using animals, about 50% of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine. Within 24hours, about 65% of the absorbed psilocybin is excreted into the urine, and a further 15–20% is excreted in the bile and feces. Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8hours, it is still detectable in the urine after 7days. Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8µg/liter within 2hours after ingestion of a single 15mg oral psilocybin dose; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4–6µg/liter. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis, and the physiological effects last about half as long.",
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"plaintext": "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) have been known to prolong and enhance the effects of DMT and one study assumed that the effect on psilocybin would be similar since it is a structural analogue of DMT. Alcohol consumption may enhance the effects of psilocybin, because acetaldehyde, one of the primary breakdown metabolites of consumed alcohol, reacts with biogenic amines present in the body to produce MAOIs related to tetrahydroisoquinoline and β-carboline. Tobacco smokers may also experience more powerful effects with psilocybin, because tobacco smoke exposure decreases the activity of MAO in the brain and peripheral organs.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin (O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, 4-PO-Psilocin, or 4-PO-HO-DMT) is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound psilocin in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction. This chemical reaction takes place under strongly acidic conditions, or under physiological conditions in the body, through the action of enzymes called alkaline phosphatases.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is a tryptamine compound with a chemical structure containing an indole ring linked to an ethylamine substituent. It is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, and is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psilocybin is a member of the general class of tryptophan-based compounds that originally functioned as antioxidants in earlier life forms before assuming more complex functions in multicellular organisms, including humans. Other related indole-containing psychedelic compounds include dimethyltryptamine, found in many plant species and in trace amounts in some mammals, and bufotenine, found in the skin of psychoactive toads.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is an alkaloid that is soluble in water, methanol and aqueous ethanol, but insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform and petroleum ether. Its pKa values are estimated to be 1.3 and 6.5 for the two successive phosphate OH groups and 10.4 for the dimethylamine nitrogen, so in general it exists as a zwitterionic structure.",
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"plaintext": "Exposure to light is detrimental to the stability of aqueous solutions of psilocybin, and will cause it to rapidly oxidize—an important consideration when using it as an analytical standard. Osamu Shirota and colleagues reported a method for the large-scale synthesis of psilocybin without chromatographic purification in 2003. Starting with 4-hydroxyindole, they generated psilocybin from psilocin in 85% yield, a marked improvement over yields reported from previous syntheses. Purified psilocybin is a white, crystalline powder. There are two known crystalline polymorphs of psilocybin, as well as reported hydrated phases. The compound is reported to have a melting point between , and a slightly ammonia-like taste. In 2020, a second-generation synthesis of psilocybin has been developed.",
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"plaintext": "Biosynthetically, the biochemical transformation from tryptophan to psilocybin involves several enzyme reactions: decarboxylation, methylation at the N9 position, 4-hydroxylation, and O-phosphorylation. Isotopic labeling experiments from the 1960s suggested that tryptophan decarboxylation is the initial biosynthetic step and that O-phosphorylation is the final step, but recent analyses of isolated enzymes demonstrate that O-phosphorylation is the third step in P. cubensis. The sequence of the intermediate enzymatic steps has been shown to involve 4 different enzymes (PsiD, PsiH, PsiK, and PsiM) in P. cubensis and P. cyanescens, although the biosynthetic pathway may differ between species. These enzymes are encoded in gene clusters in Psilocybe, Panaeolus, and Gymnopilus.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers have genetically engineered Escherichia coli that can manufacture large amounts of psilocybin. Psilocybin can be produced de novo in yeast.",
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"plaintext": "Several relatively simple chemical tests—commercially available as reagent testing kits—can be used to assess the presence of psilocybin in extracts prepared from mushrooms. The drug reacts in the Marquis test to produce a yellow color, and a green color in the Mandelin reagent. Neither of these tests, however, is specific for psilocybin; for example, the Marquis test will react with many classes of controlled drugs, such as those containing primary amino groups and unsubstituted benzene rings, including amphetamine and methamphetamine. Ehrlich's reagent and DMACA reagent are used as chemical sprays to detect the drug after thin layer chromatography. Many modern techniques of analytical chemistry have been used to quantify psilocybin levels in mushroom samples. Although the earliest methods commonly used gas chromatography, the high temperature required to vaporize the psilocybin sample prior to analysis causes it to spontaneously lose its phosphoryl group and become psilocin—making it difficult to chemically discriminate between the two drugs. In forensic toxicology, techniques involving gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS) are the most widely used due to their high sensitivity and ability to separate compounds in complex biological mixtures. These techniques include ion mobility spectrometry, capillary zone electrophoresis, ultraviolet spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used with ultraviolet, fluorescence, electrochemical, and electrospray mass spectrometric detection methods.",
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"plaintext": "Various chromatographic methods have been developed to detect psilocin in body fluids: the rapid emergency drug identification system (REMEDi HS), a drug screening method based on HPLC; HPLC with electrochemical detection; GC–MS; and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Although the determination of psilocin levels in urine can be performed without sample clean-up (i.e., removing potential contaminants that make it difficult to accurately assess concentration), the analysis in plasma or serum requires a preliminary extraction, followed by derivatization of the extracts in the case of GC–MS. A specific immunoassay has also been developed to detect psilocin in whole blood samples. A 2009 publication reported using HPLC to quickly separate forensically important illicit drugs including psilocybin and psilocin, which were identifiable within about half a minute of analysis time. These analytical techniques to determine psilocybin concentrations in body fluids are, however, not routinely available, and not typically used in clinical settings.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in over 200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms. In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of hallucinogenic mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these to be distributed amongst the following genera: Psilocybe (116species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Hypholoma (6), Pluteus (6), Inocybe (6), Conocybe (4), Panaeolina (4), Gerronema (2), and Galerina (1species). Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review. The majority of these are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed in the United States and Canada (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19). The diversity of psilocybin mushrooms is reported to have been increased by horizontal transfer of the psilocybin gene cluster between unrelated mushroom species. In general, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods of the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris. Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests. Psilocybe species commonly found in the tropics include P. cubensis and P. subcubensis. P. semilanceata—considered by Guzmán to be the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom—is found in Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, but is entirely absent from Mexico. Although the presence or absence of psilocybin is not of much use as a chemotaxonomical marker at the familial level or higher, it is used to classify taxa of lower taxonomic groups.",
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"plaintext": "Both the caps and the stems contain the psychoactive compounds, although the caps consistently contain more. The spores of these mushrooms do not contain psilocybin or psilocin. The total potency varies greatly between species and even between specimens of a species collected or grown from the same strain. Because most psilocybin biosynthesis occurs early in the formation of fruit bodies or sclerotia, younger, smaller mushrooms tend to have a higher concentration of the drug than larger, mature mushrooms. In general, the psilocybin content of mushrooms is quite variable (ranging from almost nothing to 2.5% of the dry weight) and depends on species, strain, growth and drying conditions, and mushroom size. Cultivated mushrooms have less variability in psilocybin content than wild mushrooms. The drug is more stable in dried than fresh mushrooms; dried mushrooms retain their potency for months or even years, while mushrooms stored fresh for four weeks contain only traces of the original psilocybin.",
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"plaintext": "The psilocybin contents of dried herbarium specimens of Psilocybe semilanceata in one study were shown to decrease with the increasing age of the sample: collections dated 11, 33, or 118 years old contained 0.84%, 0.67%, and 0.014% (all dry weight), respectively. Mature mycelia contain some psilocybin, while young mycelia (recently germinated from spores) lack appreciable amounts. Many species of mushrooms containing psilocybin also contain lesser amounts of the analog compounds baeocystin and norbaeocystin, chemicals thought to be biogenic precursors. Although most species of psilocybin-containing mushrooms bruise blue when handled or damaged due to the oxidization of phenolic compounds, this reaction is not a definitive method of identification or determining a mushroom's potency.",
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"plaintext": "There is evidence to suggest that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. 6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been tentatively identified as Psilocybe hispanica, a hallucinogenic species native to the area.",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological artifacts from Mexico, as well as the so-called Mayan \"mushroom stones\" of Guatemala have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica. In Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, the mushrooms were called teonanácatl, or \"God's flesh\". Following the arrival of Spanish explorers to the New World in the sixteenth century, chroniclers reported the use of mushrooms by the natives for ceremonial and religious purposes. According to the Dominican friar Diego Durán in The History of the Indies of New Spain (published c.1581), mushrooms were eaten in festivities conducted on the occasion of the accession to the throne of Aztec emperor Moctezuma II in 1502. The Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún wrote of witnessing mushroom usage in his Florentine Codex (published 1545–1590), and described how some merchants would celebrate upon returning from a successful business trip by consuming mushrooms to evoke revelatory visions. After the defeat of the Aztecs, the Spanish forbade traditional religious practices and rituals that they considered \"pagan idolatry\", including ceremonial mushroom use. For the next four centuries, the Indians of Mesoamerica hid their use of entheogens from the Spanish authorities.",
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"plaintext": "Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe, there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history besides the use of Amanita muscaria among Siberian peoples. The few existing historical accounts about psilocybin mushrooms typically lack sufficient information to allow species identification, and usually refer to the nature of their effects. For example, Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius (1526–1609) described the bolond gomba (crazy mushroom), used in rural Hungary to prepare love potions. English botanist John Parkinson included details about a \"foolish mushroom\" in his 1640 herbal Theatricum Botanicum. The first reliably documented report of intoxication with Psilocybe semilanceata—Europe's most common and widespread psychedelic mushroom—involved a British family in 1799, who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park.",
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"plaintext": "American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina P. Wasson, a physician, studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population in the Mazatec village Huautla de Jiménez, Mexico. In 1957, Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in \"Seeking the Magic Mushroom\", an article published in the popular American weekly Life magazine. Later the same year they were accompanied on a follow-up expedition by French mycologist Roger Heim, who identified several of the mushrooms as Psilocybe species. Heim cultivated the mushrooms in France, and sent samples for analysis to Albert Hofmann, a chemist employed by the Swiss multinational pharmaceutical company Sandoz (now Novartis). Hofmann, who had in 1938 created LSD, led a research group that isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds from Psilocybe mexicana. Hofmann was aided in the discovery process by his willingness to ingest mushroom extracts to help verify the presence of the active compounds. He and his colleagues later synthesized a number of compounds chemically related to the naturally occurring psilocybin, to see how structural changes would affect psychoactivity. The new molecules differed from psilocybin in the position of the phosphoryl or hydroxyl group at the top of the indole ring, and in the numbers of methyl groups (CH3) and other additional carbon chains.",
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"plaintext": "Two diethyl analogs (containing two ethyl groups in place of the two methyl groups) of psilocybin and psilocin were synthesized by Hofmann: 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine, called CEY-19, and 4-hydroxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine, called CZ-74. Because their physiological effects last only about three and a half hours (about half as long as psilocybin), they proved more manageable in European clinics using \"psycholytic therapy\"—a form of psychotherapy involving the controlled use of psychedelic drugs. Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin under the name Indocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide. There were no reports of serious complications when psilocybin was used in this way.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1960s, Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin, through the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert (who later changed his name to Ram Dass). Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz pharmaceutical. Some studies, such as the Concord Prison Experiment, suggested promising results using psilocybin in clinical psychiatry. According to a 2008 review of safety guidelines in human hallucinogenic research, however, Leary and Alpert's well-publicized termination from Harvard and later advocacy of hallucinogen use \"further undermined an objective scientific approach to studying these compounds\". In response to concerns about the increase in unauthorized use of psychedelic drugs by the general public, psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs suffered negative press and faced increasingly restrictive laws. In the United States, laws were passed in 1966 that prohibited the production, trade, or ingestion of hallucinogenic drugs; Sandoz stopped producing LSD and psilocybin the same year. Further backlash against LSD usage swept psilocybin along with it into the Schedule I category of illicit drugs in 1970. Subsequent restrictions on the use of these drugs in human research made funding for such projects difficult to obtain, and scientists who worked with psychedelic drugs faced being \"professionally marginalized\".",
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"plaintext": "Despite the legal restrictions on psilocybin use, the 1970s witnessed the emergence of psilocybin as the \"entheogen of choice\". This was due in large part to a wide dissemination of information on the topic, which included works such as those by author Carlos Castaneda, and several books that taught the technique of growing psilocybin mushrooms. One of the most popular of this latter group was published in 1976 under the pseudonyms O.T.Oss and O.N.Oeric by Jeremy Bigwood, Dennis J. McKenna, K. Harrison McKenna, and Terence McKenna, entitled Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide. Over 100,000 copies were sold by 1981. As ethnobiologist Jonathan Ott explains, \"These authors adapted San Antonio's technique (for producing edible mushrooms by casing mycelial cultures on a rye grain substrate; San Antonio 1971) to the production of Psilocybe [Stropharia] cubensis. The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements, and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his own home, without access to sophisticated technology, equipment or chemical supplies.\" San Antonio's technique describes a method to grow the common edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus",
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"plaintext": "Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms, retailers in the late 1990s and early 2000s commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK, and online. Several websites emerged that have contributed to the accessibility of information on description, use, effects and exchange of experiences among users. Since 2001, six EU countries have tightened their legislation on psilocybin mushrooms in response to concerns about their prevalence and increasing usage. In the 1990s, hallucinogens and their effects on human consciousness were again the subject of scientific study, particularly in Europe. Advances in neuropharmacology and neuropsychology, and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided impetus for using drugs like psilocybin to probe the \"neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations\". Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin back into the limelight.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, psilocybin (and psilocin) were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965, a product of a bill sponsored by Senator Thomas J. Dodd. The law—passed in July 1965 and effected on February 1, 1966—was an amendment to the federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and was intended to regulate the unlicensed \"possession, manufacture, or sale of depressant, stimulant and hallucinogenic drugs\". The statutes themselves, however, did not list the \"hallucinogenic drugs\" that were being regulated. Instead, the term \"hallucinogenic drugs\" was meant to refer to those substances believed to have a \"hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system\".",
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"plaintext": "Despite the seemingly strict provisions of the law, many people were exempt from prosecution. The statutes \"permit[ted] … people to possess such drugs so long as they were for the personal use of the possessor, [for] a member of his household, or for administration to an animal\". The federal law that specifically banned psilocybin and psilocin was enacted on October 24, 1968. The substances were said to have \"a high potential for abuse\", \"no currently accepted medical use,\" and \"a lack of accepted safety\". On October 27, 1970, both psilocybin and psilocin became classified as Schedule I drugs and were simultaneously labeled \"hallucinogens\" under a section of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act known as the Controlled Substances Act. ScheduleI drugs are illicit drugs that are claimed to have no known therapeutic benefit. Johns Hopkins researchers suggest that if psilocybin clears the current phase III clinical trials, it should be re-categorized to a schedule IV drug such as prescription sleep aids, but with tighter control.",
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"plaintext": "The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, and parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. However, the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention, due largely to pressure from the Mexican government.",
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"plaintext": "Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention; examples include the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978, Australia Poisons Standard (October 2015), the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996, and the Japanese Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law of 2002. The possession and use of psilocybin is prohibited under almost all circumstances, and often carries severe legal penalties.",
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"plaintext": "Possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including the bluing species of Psilocybe, is therefore prohibited by extension. However, in many national, state, and provincial drug laws, there has been a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, as well as a strong element of selective enforcement in some places. Most US state courts have considered the mushroom a 'container' of the illicit drugs, and therefore illegal. A loophole further complicates the legal situation—the spores of psilocybin mushrooms do not contain the drugs, and are legal to possess in many areas. Jurisdictions that have specifically enacted or amended laws to criminalize the possession of psilocybin mushroom spores include Germany (since 1998), and California, Georgia, and Idaho in the United States. As a consequence, there is an active underground economy involved in the sale of spores and cultivation materials, and an internet-based social network to support the illicit activity.",
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"plaintext": "Despite being illegal in many typically Western countries, such as the UK, Australia and some US states, less conservative governments opt to nurture the legal use of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. In Amsterdam, Netherlands, authorities provide education and promotion on the safe use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, in an aim to reduce public harm. Similarly, religious groups like America's Uniao do Vegetal, UDV, use psychedelics in traditional ceremonies, fundamentally contributing to the way people in those communities interact with each other peacefully. Current jurisdiction surrounding psilocybin in Australia fails to address proper grounds for negative impacts, as it has not been found to impact mental health amongst other material constructions of health. Psilocybin have been found for some individuals to have bare minimal harmful effects and have benefited some individuals that suffer from depression. However, because they are illegal even though they offer alternatives to several under treated psychological conditions it is very difficult to research.",
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"plaintext": "The criminalisation of possession or use of psilocybin in countries like Australia, US, UK and Japan, causes separation between civilians in a greater sense – those who abide by the law and those who do not and should therefore be incarcerated. Legalisation of psilocybin may help embrace some of the positive impacts of taking the substance, such as “ego dissolution” and may reduce forms of cultural discrimination against traditional owners.",
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"plaintext": "A 2009 national survey of drug use by the US Department of Health and Human Services concluded that the number of first-time psilocybin mushroom users in the United States was roughly equivalent to the number of first-time users of cannabis. In European countries, the lifetime prevalence estimates of psychedelic mushroom usage among young adults (15–34 years) range from 0.3% to 14.1%.",
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"plaintext": "In modern Mexico, traditional ceremonial use survives among several indigenous groups, including the Nahuas, the Matlatzinca, the Totonacs, the Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and the Chatino. Although hallucinogenic Psilocybe species are abundant in low-lying areas of Mexico, most ceremonial use takes places in mountainous areas of elevations greater than . Guzmán suggests this is a vestige of Spanish colonial influence from several hundred years earlier, when mushroom use was persecuted by the Catholic Church.",
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"plaintext": "Psilocybin has been a subject of preliminary research since the early 1960s, when the Harvard Psilocybin Project evaluated the potential therapeutic value of psilocybin for personality disorders. Beginning in the 2000s decade, research on anxiety disorders, major depression, and various addictions was conducted. Psilocybin has been tested for its potential for developing prescription drugs to treat drug dependence, anxiety, or mood disorders. There is evidence that psilocybin and LSD induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits, and tentative evidence psilocybin may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of anxiety and depression.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018–2019, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin-assisted therapy for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder, a review process enabling the FDA to implement an expedited review if clinical research results for psilocybin use in treating depression are compelling. A 2021 review found use of psilocybin was associated with reduced intensity of depression symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2021, new centers for psychedelic research exploring the use of psilocybin have been launched, including the Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research at Johns Hopkins University, and the Psychae Institute in Melbourne.",
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"plaintext": "A low dose (0.1mg/kg) of psilocybin given to mouse, increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus 2 weeks after administration, while a high dose (1mg/kg) significantly decreased neurogenesis.",
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"plaintext": " List of entheogens",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
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8826171
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " O-Acetylpsilocin",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6728421
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Psychoactive drug",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
33632441
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Psychedelic experience",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1173245
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Psychedelic microdosing",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
53814671
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Psychedelic plants",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
41440645
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Soma (drink)",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
99761
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "== External links ==",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Psilocybin Investigator`s Brochure Usona Institute, 2021",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
] | [
"Psychedelic_drugs",
"Psychedelic_tryptamines",
"Entheogens",
"Mycotoxins",
"Tryptamine_alkaloids",
"Serotonin_receptor_agonists",
"Organophosphates",
"Phenol_esters",
"Novartis_brands",
"Psilocybin"
] | 208,118 | 96,033 | 493 | 441 | 0 | 1 | psilocybin | chemical compound | [
"4-PO-DMT",
"O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine",
"4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine",
"psilocin phosphate ester",
"psilocybine",
"indocybin",
"3-(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)-1H-indol-4-ol dihydrogen phosphate ester",
"3-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)indol-4-yl dihydrogen phosphate"
] |
38,472 | 1,105,447,144 | Shakespearean_tragedy | [
{
"plaintext": "Shakespearean tragedy is the designation given to most tragedies written by playwright William Shakespeare. Many of his history plays share the qualifiers of a Shakespearean tragedy, but because they are based on real figures throughout the history of England, they were classified as \"histories\" in the First Folio. The Roman tragedies—Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus—are also based on historical figures, but because their sources were foreign and ancient they are almost always classified as tragedies rather than histories. Shakespeare's romances (tragicomic plays) were written late in his career and published originally as either tragedy or comedy. They share some elements of tragedy, insofar as they feature a high-status central character, but they end happily like Shakespearean comedies. Almost three centuries after Shakespeare's death, the scholar F. S. Boas also coined a fifth category, the \"problem play,\" for plays that do not fit neatly into a single classification because of their subject matter, setting, or ending. The classifications of certain Shakespeare plays are still debated among scholars.",
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"plaintext": "Below is the list of Shakespeare's plays listed as tragedies in the First Folio, along with the date range in which each play is believed to have been written.",
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"plaintext": "The English Renaissance, when Shakespeare was writing, was fueled by a renewed interest in Roman and Greek classics and neighboring renaissance literature written years earlier in Italy, France, and Spain. Shakespeare wrote the majority of his tragedies under the rule of James I, and their darker contents may reflect the general mood of the country following the death of Elizabeth I, as well as James' theatrical preferences. Shakespeare, as was customary for other playwrights in his day, used history, other plays, and non-dramatic literature as sources for his plays. In Elizabethan England there were no copyright or protections against plagiarism, so characters, plots, and even whole phrases of poetry were considered common property. The majority of Shakespeare's tragedies are based on historical figures, with the exception of Measure for Measure and Othello, which are based on narrative fictions by Giraldi Cintio. The historical basis for Shakespeare's Roman plays comes from The Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans by Plutarch, whereas the source of Shakespeare's Britain based plays and Hamlet (based on the Danish Prince Amleth) derive from Holinshed's Chronicles. Furthermore, the French author Belleforest published The Hystorie of Hamblet, Prince of Denmarke in 1582 which includes specifics from how the prince counterfeited to be mad, to how the prince stabbed and killed the King's counsellor who was eavesdropping on Hamlet and his mother behind the arras in the Queen's chamber. The story of Lear appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regium Britanniae , and then in John Higgins' poem The Mirror for Magistrates in 1574, as well as appearing in Holinshed's Chronicles in 1587. Some events that happen in Shakespeare's King Lear were inspired by various episodes of Philip Sidney's Arcadia from 1590, while the nonsensical musings of Edgar's \"poor Tom\" heavily reference Samuel Harsnett's 1603 book, A Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures.",
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1642
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1796,
1809
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1812,
1819
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1901,
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{
"plaintext": "Tragedies from these eras traced their philosophical essence back to Senecan tragedy, grounded in nobles who have a tragic flaw or commit a grave error (hamartia) which leads to their reversal of fortune (peripeteia). (However, some critics have argued that the \"pseudo-Aristotelian\" concept of the tragic flaw does not apply to Shakespeare's tragic figures.) Revenge tragedy was also of increasing popularity in this age; Shakespeare's Hamlet is one example of this. Plays of this age were also decidedly secular, in contrast to the religious morality plays which by this time were outlawed by Elizabeth I. One marked difference between English renaissance tragedies and the classics that inspired them, was the use and popularity of violence and murder on stage.",
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544,
558
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595,
606
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},
{
"plaintext": "Select exemplary (non-Shakespearean) Elizabethan and Jacobean tragedies:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Contemporary tragedy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": " The Jew of Malta by Christopher Marlowe",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": " Tamburlaine by Christopher Marlowe",
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"plaintext": " Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe",
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"plaintext": " Antonio's Revenge by John Marston",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Revenger's Tragedy by Thomas Middleton",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 'Tis Pity She's a Whore by John Ford",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shakespearean tragedies at the British Library",
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"section_name": "External links",
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]
]
}
] | [
"Shakespearean_tragedies",
"Plays_by_William_Shakespeare",
"Tragedies_(dramas)"
] | 2,724,880 | 9,398 | 78 | 60 | 0 | 0 | Shakespearean tragedy | tragedies written by William Shakespeare | [] |
38,475 | 1,072,515,343 | Fidelio | [
{
"plaintext": "Fidelio (; ), originally titled (Leonore, or The Triumph of Marital Love), Op. 72, is Ludwig van Beethoven's only opera. The German libretto was originally prepared by Joseph Sonnleithner from the French of Jean-Nicolas Bouilly, with the work premiering at Vienna's Theater an der Wien on 20 November 1805. The following year, Stephan von Breuning helped shorten the work from three acts to two. After further work on the libretto by Georg Friedrich Treitschke, a final version was performed at the Kärntnertortheater on 23 May 1814. By convention, both of the first two versions are referred to as Leonore.",
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"plaintext": "The libretto, with some spoken dialogue, tells how Leonore, disguised as a prison guard named \"Fidelio\", rescues her husband Florestan from death in a political prison. Bouilly's scenario fits Beethoven's aesthetic and political outlook: a story of personal sacrifice, heroism, and eventual triumph. With its underlying struggle for liberty and justice mirroring contemporary political movements in Europe, such topics are typical of Beethoven's \"middle period\". Notable moments in the opera include the \"Prisoners' Chorus\" (O welche Lust—\"O what a joy\"), an ode to freedom sung by a chorus of political prisoners, Florestan's vision of Leonore come as an angel to rescue him, and the scene in which the rescue finally takes place. The finale celebrates Leonore's bravery with alternating contributions of soloists and chorus.",
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"plaintext": "The work has a long and complicated history of composition: it went through three versions during Beethoven's career, and some of the music was first written as part of an earlier, never-completed opera.",
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"plaintext": "The distant origin of Fidelio dates from 1803, when the librettist and impresario Emanuel Schikaneder worked out a contract with Beethoven to write an opera. The contract included free lodging for Beethoven in the apartment complex that was part of Schikaneder's large suburban theater, the Theater an der Wien. Beethoven was to set a new libretto by Schikaneder, entitled Vestas Feuer; however, this libretto was not to Beethoven's liking. He spent about a month composing music for it, then abandoned it when the libretto for Fidelio came to his attention.",
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"plaintext": "The time Beethoven spent on Vestas Feuer was not entirely wasted, as two important numbers from Fidelio, Pizarro's \"'Ha! Welch' ein Augenblick!\" and the duet \"O namenlose Freude\" for Leonore and Florestan, both originated as music for Vestas Feuer. Beethoven continued to live at the Theater an der Wien for some time after he had abandoned Vestas Feuer for Fidelio, and was eventually freed from his obligations to Schikaneder after the latter was fired from his post as theater director in 1804.",
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"plaintext": "Fidelio itself, which Beethoven began in 1804 immediately after giving up on Vestas Feuer, was first performed in 1805 and was extensively revised by the composer for subsequent performances in 1806 and 1814. Although Beethoven used the title (\"Leonore, or The Triumph of Married Love\"), the 1805 performances were billed as Fidelio at the theatre's insistence, to avoid confusion with the 1798 opera Léonore; ou, L'amour conjugal by Pierre Gaveaux, and the 1804 opera Leonora by Ferdinando Paer (a score of which was owned by Beethoven). Beethoven published the 1806 libretto and, in 1810, a vocal score under the title Leonore, and the current convention is to use the name Leonore for both the 1805 (three-act) and 1806 (two-act) versions and Fidelio only for the final 1814 revision.",
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"plaintext": "The first version with a three-act German libretto adapted by Joseph Sonnleithner from the French of Jean-Nicolas Bouilly premiered at the Theater an der Wien on 20 November 1805, with additional performances the following two nights. The success of these performances was hindered by the fact that Vienna was under French military occupation, and most of the audience were French military officers who had little interest in German opera.",
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"plaintext": "After this premiere, Beethoven's friends suggested he revise and shorten the opera into just two acts, and he did so with the help of his close friend, Stephan von Breuning. The composer also wrote a new overture (now known as \"Leonore No.3\"; see below). In this form, the opera was first performed on 29 March and 10 April 1806, with greater success. Further performances were prevented by a disagreement between Beethoven and the theatre management.",
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"plaintext": "In 1814, Beethoven revised his opera yet again, with additional work on the libretto by Georg Friedrich Treitschke. This version was first performed at the Kärntnertortheater on 23 May 1814, again under the title Fidelio. The 17-year-old Franz Schubert was in the audience, having sold his school books to obtain a ticket. The increasingly deaf Beethoven conducted the performance, \"assisted\" by Michael Umlauf, who later performed the same task for Beethoven at the premiere of the Ninth Symphony. The role of Pizarro was taken by Johann Michael Vogl, who later became known for his collaborations with Schubert. This version of the opera was a great success, and Fidelio has been part of the operatic repertory ever since.",
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"plaintext": "Although critics have noted the similarity in plot with Gluck's opera Orfeo ed Euridice—the underground rescue mission in which the protagonist must control, or conceal, his emotions in order to retrieve his or her spouse, we do not know whether or not Beethoven or any of the librettists had this in mind while constructing the opera.",
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"plaintext": "No other work of Beethoven caused him so much frustration and disappointment. He found the difficulties posed by writing and producing an opera so disagreeable, he never attempted to compose another. In a letter to Treitschke he said, \"I assure you, dear Treitschke, that this opera will win me a martyr's crown. You have by your co-operation saved what is best from the shipwreck. For all this I shall be eternally grateful to you.\"",
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"plaintext": "The full score was not published until 1826, and all three versions are known as Beethoven's Opus 72.",
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"plaintext": "The first performance outside Vienna took place in Prague on 21 November 1814, with a revival in Vienna on 3 November 1822. In its two-act version, the opera was staged in London on 18 May 1832 at the King's Theatre, and in New York on 9 September 1839 at the Park Theatre.",
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"plaintext": "Fidelio was Arturo Toscanini's first complete opera performance to be broadcast on radio in the United States, over the NBC radio network, in December 1944, by the NBC Symphony Orchestra, featuring soloists Rose Bampton and Jan Peerce (though a shortwave broadcast of one act, conducted by Toscanini, had earlier been relayed from a 16 August 1936 performance at Salzburg). Divided into two consecutive broadcasts, the 1944 performances were later issued by RCA Victor on LP and CD.",
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"plaintext": "Fidelio was the first opera performed in Berlin after the end of World War II, with the Deutsche Oper staging it under the baton of Robert Heger at the only undamaged theatre, the Theater des Westens, in September 1945. At the time, Thomas Mann remarked: \"What amount of apathy was needed [by musicians and audiences] to listen to Fidelio in Himmler's Germany without covering their faces and rushing out of the hall!\"",
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"plaintext": "Not long after the end of World War II and the fall of Nazism, conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler remarked in Salzburg in 1948:",
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"plaintext": "[T]he conjugal love of Leonore appears, to the modern individual armed with realism and psychology, irremediably abstract and theoretical.... Now that political events in Germany have restored to the concepts of human dignity and liberty their original significance, this is the opera which, thanks to the music of Beethoven, gives us comfort and courage.... Certainly, Fidelio is not an opera in the sense we are used to, nor is Beethoven a musician for the theater, or a dramaturgist. He is quite a bit more, a whole musician, and beyond that, a saint and a visionary. That which disturbs us is not a material effect, nor the fact of the 'imprisonment'; any film could create the same effect. No, it is the music, it is Beethoven himself. It is this 'nostalgia of liberty' he feels, or better, makes us feel; this is what moves us to tears. His Fidelio has more of the Mass than of the Opera to it; the sentiments it expresses come from the sphere of the sacred, and preach a 'religion of humanity' which we never found so beautiful or necessary as we do today, after all we have lived through. Herein lies the singular power of this unique opera.... Independent of any historical consideration ... the flaming message of Fidelio touches deeply.",
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"plaintext": "We realize that for us Europeans, as for all men, this music will always represent an appeal to our conscience.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 November 1955, the Vienna State Opera was re-opened with Fidelio, conducted by Karl Böhm. This performance was the first live television broadcast by ORF at a time when there were about 800 television sets in Austria.",
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"plaintext": "The first night of Fidelio at the Semperoper in Dresden on 7 October 1989 on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the DDR (East Germany) coincided with violent demonstrations at the city's main train station. The applause after the \"Prisoners' Chorus\" interrupted the performance for considerable time, and the production by Christine Mielitz had the chorus appear in normal street clothes at the end, signifying their role as representatives of the audience. Four weeks later, on 9 November 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall signalled the end of East Germany's regime.",
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"plaintext": "Beethoven struggled to produce an appropriate overture for Fidelio, and ultimately went through four versions. His first attempt, for the 1805 premiere, is believed to have been the overture now known as \"Leonore No.2\". Beethoven then focused this version for the performances of 1806, creating \"Leonore No.3\". The latter is considered by many listeners as the greatest of the four overtures, but as an intensely dramatic, full-scale symphonic movement it had the effect of overwhelming the (rather light) initial scenes of the opera. Beethoven accordingly experimented with cutting it back somewhat, for a planned 1808 performance in Prague; this is believed to be the version now called \"Leonore No.1\". Finally, for the 1814 revival Beethoven began anew, and with fresh musical material wrote what we now know as the Fidelio overture. As this somewhat lighter overture seems to work best of the four as a start to the opera, Beethoven's final intentions are generally respected in contemporary productions.",
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"plaintext": "While some believe that Gustav Mahler introduced the practice of performing \"Leonore No.3\" between the two scenes of the second act, something which was common until the middle of the twentieth century, David Cairns states that it goes back to the middle of the 19th century and was therefore prior to Mahler. In this location, it acts as a kind of musical reprise of the rescue scene that has just taken place.",
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"plaintext": "Two years prior to the opening scene, the Spanish nobleman Florestan has exposed or attempted to expose certain crimes of a rival nobleman, Pizarro. In revenge, Pizarro has secretly imprisoned Florestan in the prison over which he is governor. Simultaneously, Pizarro has spread false rumors about Florestan's death.",
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"plaintext": "The warden of the prison, Rocco, has a daughter, Marzelline, and an assistant, Jaquino, who is in love with Marzelline. The faithful wife of Florestan, Leonore, suspects that her husband is still alive. Disguised as a boy, under the alias \"Fidelio\", she gains employment working for Rocco. As the boy Fidelio, she earns the favor of her employer, Rocco, and also the affections of his daughter Marzelline, much to Jaquino's chagrin.",
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"plaintext": "On orders, Rocco has been giving the imprisoned Florestan diminishing rations until he is nearly starved to death.",
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"plaintext": "Place: A Spanish state prison, a few miles from Seville",
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"plaintext": "Time: Late 18th century",
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"plaintext": "Jaquino and Marzelline are alone in Rocco's house. Jaquino asks Marzelline when she will agree to marry him, but she says that she will never marry him now that she has fallen in love with Fidelio, unaware that Fidelio is actually Leonore in disguise (Jetzt, Schätzchen, jetzt sind wir allein—\"Now, darling, now we are alone\"). Jaquino leaves, and Marzelline expresses her desire to become Fidelio's wife (O wär ich schon mit dir vereint—\"If only I were already united with thee\"). Rocco enters, looking for Fidelio, who then enters carrying a heavy load of newly repaired chains. Rocco compliments Fidelio, and misinterprets her modest reply as hidden attraction to his daughter. Marzelline, Fidelio, Rocco, and Jaquino sing a quartet about the love Marzelline has for Fidelio (Mir ist so wunderbar—\"A wondrous feeling fills me\", also known as the Canon Quartet).",
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"plaintext": "Rocco tells Fidelio that as soon as the governor has left for Seville, Marzelline and Fidelio can be married. He tells them, however, that unless they have money, they will not be happy. (Hat man nicht auch Gold beineben—\"If you don't have any money\"). Fidelio demands to know why Rocco will not allow for help in the dungeons, especially as he always seems to return short of breath. Rocco says that there is a dungeon down there where he can never take Fidelio, which houses a man who has been wasting away for two years. Marzelline begs her father to keep Fidelio away from such a terrible sight, but Fidelio claims courage sufficient to cope with it. Rocco and Fidelio sing of courage (Gut, Söhnchen, gut—\"All right, sonny, all right\"), and Marzelline joins in their acclamations.",
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"plaintext": "All but Rocco leave. A march is played as Pizarro enters with his guards. Rocco warns Pizarro that the minister plans a surprise visit tomorrow to investigate accusations of Pizarro's cruelty. Pizarro exclaims that he cannot let the minister discover the imprisoned Florestan, who has been thought dead. Instead, Pizarro will have Florestan murdered (Ha, welch ein Augenblick—\"Hah! What a moment!\"). As a signal, Pizarro orders that a trumpet be sounded at the minister's arrival. He offers Rocco money to kill Florestan, but Rocco refuses (Jetzt, Alter, jetzt hat es Eile!—\"Now, old man, we must hurry!\"). Pizarro says he will kill Florestan himself instead, and orders Rocco to dig a grave for him in the floor of the dungeon. Once the grave is ready, Rocco is to sound the alarm, upon which Pizarro will come into the dungeon and kill Florestan. Fidelio, hearing Pizarro's plot, is agitated, but hopes to rescue Florestan (Abscheulicher! Wo eilst du hin? and Komm, Hoffnung, lass den letzten Stern—\"Monster! Where are you off to so fast?\" and \"Come, hope, let the last star\").",
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"plaintext": "Jaquino once again begs Marzelline to marry him, but she continues to refuse. Fidelio, hoping to discover Florestan, asks Rocco to let the poor prisoners roam in the garden and enjoy the beautiful weather. Marzelline similarly begs him, and Rocco agrees to distract Pizarro while the prisoners are set free. The prisoners, ecstatic at their temporary freedom, sing joyfully (O welche Lust—\"O what a joy\"), but remembering that they might be caught by the prison's governor Pizarro, are soon quiet.",
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"plaintext": "After meeting with Pizarro, Rocco reenters and tells Fidelio that Pizarro will allow the marriage, and Fidelio will also be permitted to join Rocco on his rounds in the dungeon (Nun sprecht, wie ging's?—\"Speak, how did it go?\"). Rocco and Fidelio prepare to go to Florestan's cell, with the knowledge that he must be killed and buried within the hour. Fidelio is shaken; Rocco tries to discourage Fidelio from coming, but Fidelio insists. As they prepare to leave, Jaquino and Marzelline rush in and tell Rocco to run, as Pizarro has learned that the prisoners were allowed to roam, and is furious (Ach, Vater, Vater, eilt!—\"O, father, father, hurry!\").",
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"plaintext": "Before they can leave, Pizarro enters and demands an explanation. Rocco, thinking quickly, answers that the prisoners were given a little freedom in honor of the Spanish king's name day, and quietly suggests that Pizarro should save his anger for the prisoner in the dungeon below. Pizarro tells him to hurry and dig the grave, and then announces that the prisoners will be locked up again. Rocco, Leonore, Jacquino, and Marzelline reluctantly usher the prisoners back to their cells. (Leb wohl, du warmes Sonnenlicht—\"Farewell, you warm sunshine\").",
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"plaintext": "Florestan is alone in his cell, deep inside the dungeons. He sings first of his trust in God, and then has a vision of his wife Leonore coming to save him (Gott! Welch Dunkel hier!—\"God! What darkness here\" and In des Lebens Frühlingstagen—\"In the spring days of life\"). Florestan collapses and falls asleep, while Rocco and Fidelio come to dig his grave. As they dig, Rocco urges Fidelio to hurry (Wie kalt ist es in diesem unterirdischen Gewölbe!—\"How cold it is in this underground chamber\" and Nur hurtig fort, nur frisch gegraben—\"Come get to work and dig\", the \"Gravedigging Duet\").",
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"plaintext": "Florestan awakes and Fidelio recognizes him. When Florestan learns that the prison he is in belongs to Pizarro, he asks that a message be sent to his wife, Leonore, but Rocco says that it is impossible. Florestan begs for a drop to drink, and Rocco tells Fidelio to give him one. Florestan does not recognize Fidelio, his wife Leonore in disguise, but tells Fidelio that there will be reward for the good deed in Heaven (Euch werde Lohn in bessern Welten—\"You shall be rewarded in better worlds\"). Fidelio further begs Rocco to be allowed to give Florestan a crust of bread, and Rocco consents.",
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"plaintext": "Rocco obeys his orders and sounds the alarm for Pizarro, who appears and asks if all is ready. Rocco says that it is, and instructs Fidelio to leave the dungeon, but Fidelio hides instead. Pizarro reveals his identity to Florestan, who accuses him of murder (Er sterbe! Doch er soll erst wissen—\"Let him die! But first he should know\"). As Pizarro brandishes a dagger, Fidelio leaps between him and Florestan and reveals her identity as Leonore, the wife of Florestan. Pizarro raises his dagger to kill her, but she pulls a gun and threatens to shoot him.",
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"plaintext": "Just then, the trumpet is heard, announcing the arrival of the minister. Jaquino enters, followed by soldiers, to announce that the minister is waiting at the gate. Rocco tells the soldiers to escort Governor Pizarro upstairs. Florestan and Leonore sing to their victory as Pizarro declares that he will have revenge, while Rocco expresses his fear of what is to come (Es schlägt der Rache Stunde—\"Revenge's bell tolls\"). Together, Florestan and Leonore sing a love duet (O namenlose Freude!—\"O unnamed joy!\").",
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"plaintext": "Here, the overture \"Leonore No. 3\" is sometimes played.",
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"plaintext": "The prisoners and townsfolk sing to the day and hour of justice which has come (Heil sei dem Tag!—\"Hail to the day!\"). The minister, Don Fernando, announces that tyranny has ended. Rocco enters, with Leonore and Florestan, and he asks Don Fernando to help them (Wohlan, so helfet! Helft den Armen!—\"So help! Help the poor ones!\"). Rocco explains how Leonore disguised herself as Fidelio to save her husband. Previously in love with Fidelio, Marzelline is shocked. Rocco describes Pizarro's murder plot, and Pizarro is led away to prison. Florestan is released from his chains by Leonore, and the crowd sings the praises of Leonore, the loyal savior of her husband (Wer ein holdes Weib errungen—\"Who has got a good wife\").",
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"plaintext": "The orchestra consists of 1 piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 trombones, timpani, and strings. There is also an offstage trumpet.",
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"plaintext": " Fidelio discography",
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"plaintext": " Warrack, John, and Ewan West (1992). The Oxford Dictionary of Opera. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Léonore, ou l'amour conjugal; fait historique en deux actes et en prose mêlée de chantes (origin of Fidelio's libretto)",
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"plaintext": " , Lucia Popp (Marzelline), Gundula Janowitz (Leonore), Manfred Jungwirth (Rocco), Adolf Dallapozza (Jacquino); Vienna State Opera, Leonard Bernstein (1978)",
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38,476 | 1,101,086,135 | Franche-Comté | [
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"plaintext": "Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou: Fraintche-Comtè; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of Doubs, Jura, Haute-Saône and the Territoire de Belfort. In 2016, its population was 1,180,397.",
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"plaintext": "Franche-Comté was captured by France in 1668, but returned to Spain under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was conquered a second time in 1674, and finally was ceded to France in the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678). Enclaves such as Montbéliard remained outside French control.",
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"plaintext": "The population of the region fell by a fifth from 1851 to 1946, reflecting low French natural growth and migration to more urbanized parts of the country. Most of the decline occurred in Haute-Saône and Jura, which remain among the country's more agriculture-dependent areas.",
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"plaintext": "This region borders Switzerland and shares much of its architecture, cuisine, and culture with its neighbour. Between the Vosges range of mountains to the north and the Jura range to the south, the landscape consists of rolling cultivated fields, dense pine forest, and rampart-like mountains. Not so majestic as the Alps, the Jura mountains are more accessible and are France's first cross-country skiing area. It is also a superb place to hike, and there are some fine nature trails on the more gentle slopes. The Doubs and Loue valleys, with their timbered houses perched on stilts in the river, and the high valley of Ain, are popular visitor areas. The is a land of gorges and waterfalls dotted with tiny villages, each with a domed belfry decorated with mosaic of tiles or slates or beaten from metal. The lakes are perfect for swimming in the warmer months. The summits of Haut Jura have wonderful views across (Lake Geneva) and toward the Alps.",
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"plaintext": "Forty percent of the region's GDP is dependent on manufacturing activities, and most of its production is exported. Construction of automobiles and their parts is one of the most buoyant industries there. Forestry exploitation is steadily growing, and 38% of the agriculture is dairy and 17% cattle farming. The region has a large and lucrative cheese-making industry, with 40million tonnes of cheese produced here each year, much of which is made by fruitières (traditional cheese dairies of Franche-Comté); for instance, Comté cheese comes from this region.",
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"plaintext": "Among the regional languages of France, the term Franc-comtois refers to two dialects of two different languages. Franc-comtois is the name of the dialect of Langue d'Oïl spoken by people in the northern part of the region. The dialect of Arpitan has been spoken in its southern part since as early as the thirteenth century (the southern two-thirds of Jura and the southern third of Doubs). Both are recognized as languages of France.",
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"plaintext": " Jacques de Molay, last Grandmaster of the Knights Templar",
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"plaintext": " Charles Nodier, author",
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"plaintext": " Louis Pasteur, chemist and microbiologist",
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"plaintext": " Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, Burgundian statesman, leading minister of the Spanish Habsburgs",
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"plaintext": " Nicolas Perrenot de Granvelle, minister of justice under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor",
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"plaintext": " Pierre-Joseph Proudhon philosopher, socialist",
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"plaintext": " Franche-Comté : land of contrasts - Official French website (in English)",
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"plaintext": " Conseil régional de Franche-Comté Official website",
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"plaintext": " Franche-Comté directory search engine",
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38,477 | 1,105,564,355 | Singer_Corporation | [
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"plaintext": "In 1882, McKenzie, by then President-elect of the Singer Manufacturing Company, undertook the ground breaking ceremony on of farmland at Kilbowie, Clydebank. Originally, two main buildings were constructed, each long, wide and three storeys high. These were connected by three wings. Built above the middle wing was a tall clock tower with the \"Singer\" name clearly displayed for all to see for miles around. A total of of railway lines were laid throughout the factory to connect the different departments such as the boiler room, foundry, shipping and the lines to main railway stations. Sir Robert McAlpine was the building contractor and the factory was designed to be fire proof with water sprinklers, making it the most modern factory in Europe at that time.",
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"plaintext": "With nearly a million square feet of space and almost 7,000 employees, it was possible to produce on average 13,000 machines a week, making it the largest sewing machine factory in the world. The Clydebank factory was so productive that in 1905, the U.S. Singer Company set up and registered the Singer Manufacturing Company Ltd. in the United Kingdom. Demand continued to exceed production, so each building was extended upwards to 6 storeys high. A railway station with the company name was established in 1907 with connections to adjoining towns and central Glasgow to assist in transporting the workforce to the facility. Increased productivity came from 'scientific management' techniques which increased workloads whilst keeping salary overheads low, and in 1911, a mass walk out of 10,000 workers, the 'Singer Strike', took place in support of twelve women polishers, who had seen three staff dismissed, but the workload remained the same with no extra pay. It was significant in its recognition of the rights of women workers and 'collective bargaining' and predated the labour movement known as 'Red Clydeside'. A centenary film was made by the BBC about the female workers who stood up to the American management. ",
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"plaintext": "In the First World War, sewing machine production gave way to munitions. The Singer Clydebank factory received over 5000 government contracts, and made 303 million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes. Its labour force of 14,000 was about 70% female at war's end.",
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"plaintext": "From its opening in 1884 until 1943, the Kilbowie factory produced approximately 36,000,000 sewing machines. Singer was the world leader and sold more machines than all the other makers added together. In 1913, the factory shipped 1.3 million machines. The late 1950s and 1960s saw a period of significant change at the Clydebank factory. In 1958, Singer reduced production at their main American plant and transferred 40% of this production to the Clydebank factory in a bid to reduce costs. Between 1961 and 1964, the Clydebank factory underwent a £4 million modernization program which saw the Clydebank factory cease the production of cast iron machines and focus on the production of aluminium machines for western markets. As part of this modernisation programme, the famous Singer Clock was demolished in 1963. At the height of its productiveness in the mid 1960s, Singer employed over 16,000 workers but by the end of that decade, compulsory redundancies were taking place and 10 years later the workforce was down to 5,000. Financial problems and lack of orders forced the world's largest sewing machine factory to close in June 1980, bringing to an end over 100 years of sewing machine production in Scotland. The complex of buildings was demolished in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "An archive about the factory, the strike and the history of its business in Scotland, is regarded as a recognised collection of national significance by Museums Galleries Scotland.",
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"plaintext": "The Singer sewing machine was the first complex standardized technology to be mass marketed. It was not the first sewing machine, and its patent in 1851 led to a patent battle with Elias Howe, inventor of the lockstitch machine. This eventually resulted in a patent sharing accord among the major firms. Marketing strategies included focusing on the manufacturing industry, gender identity, credit plans, and \"hire purchases.\"",
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"plaintext": "Singer's marketing emphasized the role of women and their relationship to the home, evoking ideals of virtue, modesty, and diligence. Though the sewing machine represented liberation from arduous hand sewing, it chiefly benefited those sewing for their families and themselves. Tradespeople relying on sewing as a livelihood still suffered from poor wages, which dropped further in response to the time savings gained by machine sewing. Singer offered credit purchases and rent-to-own arrangements, allowing people to rent a machine with the rental payments applied to the eventual purchase of the machine, and sold globally through the use of direct-sales door-to-door canvassers to demonstrate and sell the machines.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, the company suspended sewing machine production to take on government contracts for weapons manufacturing. Factories in the United States supplied the American forces with Norden bomb sights and M1 Carbine rifle receivers, while factories in Germany provided their armed forces with weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939, the company was given a production study by the government to draw plans and develop standard raw material sizes for building M1911A1 pistols. The following April 17, Singer was given an educational order of 500 units with serial numbers S800001 S800500. The educational order was a program set up by the Ordnance Board in the U.S. to teach companies without gun-making experience to manufacture weapons.",
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"plaintext": "After the 500 units were delivered to the U.S. government, the management decided to produce artillery and bomb sights. The pistol tooling and manufacturing machines were transferred to Remington Rand whilst some went to the Ithaca Gun Company. Approximately 1.75 million 1911A1 pistols were produced during World War II, making original Singer pistols relatively rare and collectable.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1940, Singer won a contract to produce the M5 Antiaircraft Director, a version of the UK-designed Kerrison Predictor. The US Army had previously adopted the M7 Computing Sight for their 37 mm gun M1 anti-aircraft guns, but the gun proved temperamental and Sperry Corporation was too busy producing other systems to build the required number of M7's. After testing in September 1940, the Army accepted the Kerrison as the M5, and later, the Bofors 40 mm gun in place of the M1.",
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"plaintext": "Singer resumed developing sewing machines in 1946. After the not so well received Singer 206k, a first attempt in zig-zag machines, starting production in 1936, They introduced one of their most popular, highest-quality and fully-optioned machines in 1957, the 401 Slant-o-Matic. 2011 marked their 160th anniversary. Currently, they manufacture computerized, heavy duty, embroidery, quilting, serging, and mechanical sewing machines.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, they launched their new Singer Sewing Assistant App.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the company diversified, acquiring the Friden calculator company in 1965 and General Precision Equipment Corporation in 1968. GPE included Librascope, The Kearfott Company, Inc, and Link Flight Simulation. In 1968 also, Singer bought out GPS Systems and added it to the Link Simulations Systems Division (LSSD). This unit produced nuclear power plant control room simulators in Silver Spring, Maryland: Tech Road building for Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Parkway building for Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) and later moved to Broken Land Parkway in Columbia, Maryland while flight simulators were produced in Binghamton, New York.",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, corporate raider Paul Bilzerian made a \"greenmail\" run at Singer, and ended up owning the company when no \"White Knight\" rescuer appeared. To recover his money, Bilzerian sold off parts of the company. Kearfott was split, the Kearfott Guidance & Navigation Corporation was sold to the Astronautics Corporation of America in 1988 and the Electronic Systems Division was purchased the Plessey Company in 1988 and renamed Plessey Electronic Systems (and then acquired by GEC-Marconi in 1990, renamed GEC-Marconi Electronic Systems, and later incorporated into BAE Systems). The four Link divisions developing and supporting industrial and flight simulation were sold to Canadian Avionics Electronics (CAE) and became CAE-Link. The nuclear power simulator division became S3 Technologies, and later GSE Systems, and relocated to Eldersburg, MD. The Sewing Machine Division was sold in 1989 to Semi-Tech Microelectronics, a publicly traded Toronto-based company.",
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"plaintext": "For several years in the 1970s, Singer set up a national sales force for CAT phototypesetting machines (of UNIX troff fame) made by another Massachusetts company, Graphic Systems Inc. This division was purchased by Wang Laboratories in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "Sales and profits grew until the 1940s. The market was affected in several ways. The USA market matured after WWII. Japanese manufacturers ate into the market with zig-zag sewing machines. Under the leadership of Donald P. Kircher, Singer diversified into markets such as office equipment, defense, and aerospace. Revenue of which 90% of revenue from sewing machines was reduced to 35% after diversification.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978 Singer moved its HQ from Rockefeller Plaza to Stamford, Conn. This relocation moved 430 jobs to the new location.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s Singer sewing machine markets were being hit with Japanese machines and European brands including Bernina, Pfaff, and Viking. In 1986, the original Singer company spun off its sewing machine business under the name SSMC. In 1989 Semi-Tech Global purchased SSMC renaming SSMC back to Singer. Semi-Tech Global incorporated Singer into Singer N.V. based in Netherlands Antilles owned by the Hong Kong holding company.",
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"plaintext": "Singer N.V. filed bankruptcy in 1999 and was acquired by Kohlberg & Company. In 1997, Singer (Singer N.V.) US operations moved its consumer products to LaVergne, Tennessee. This location also served its wholesale distribution of sewing machines and parts. In 2006 The parent company of Singer - Kohlberg & Company, acquired Husqvarna and Pfaff brands. This merged the three brands into the current company the SVP Group. Its main competitors are Baby Lock, Bernina, Brother, Janome, Juki and Aisin Seiki.",
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"plaintext": "Singer was heavily involved in Manhattan real estate in the 1800s through Edward C. Clark, a founder of the company. Clark had built The Dakota apartments and other Manhattan buildings in the 1880s. In 1900, the Singer company retained Ernest Flagg to build a 12-story loft building at Broadway and Prince Street in Lower Manhattan. The building is now considered architecturally notable, and it has been restored.",
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"plaintext": "The 47-story Singer Building, completed in 1908, was also designed by Flagg, who designed two landmark residences for Bourne. Constructed during Bourne's tenure, the Singer Building (demolished in 1968) was then the tallest building in the world and was the tallest building to be intentionally demolished until the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were destroyed in the September 11 attacks.",
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"plaintext": "At their Clydebank factory, Singer built a clock tower, which stood over the central wing and had the reputation of being the largest four-faced clock in the world. Each face weighed five tons, and it took four men fifteen minutes twice a week to keep it wound. The tower was demolished in 1963,17 years before the factory closed in 1980 and is now the site of Clydebank Business Park. Singer railway station, built to serve the factory, is only one of two railway stations in the UK, named after a factory, and is still in operation today.",
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"plaintext": "The famous Singer House, designed by architect Pavel Suzor, was built in 1902–1904 at Nevsky Prospekt in Saint Petersburg as headquarters of the Russian branch of the company. This modern style building (situated just opposite the Kazan Cathedral) is officially recognized as an object of Russian historical-cultural heritage.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, a large factory fire destroyed a Singer distribution office and warehouse in Seven Hills, Sydney. Singer had manufactured sewing machines in Australia at a purpose-built plant in the western Sydney suburb of Penrith, from 1959 until 1967.",
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"plaintext": "Frederick Gilbert Bourne (1889–1905)",
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"plaintext": "Coffin, Judith G. \"Credit, consumption, and images of women's desires: Selling the sewing machine in late nineteenth-century France\". French Historical Studies (1994): 749–783. .",
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"plaintext": "Davies, Robert Bruce. Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854–1920 (Arno Press, 1976).",
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"plaintext": "Godley, Andrew. \"The Global Diffusion of the Sewing Machine, 1850–1914\". Research in Economic History 20#1 (2001): 1–46.",
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"plaintext": "Godley, Andrew. \"Selling the Sewing Machine Around the World: Singer's International Marketing Strategies, 1850–1920\", Enterprise & Society (2006) 7#2 pp.266–314.",
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"plaintext": "Godley, Andrew. \"Singer in Britain: the diffusion of sewing machine technology and its impact on the clothing industry in the United Kingdom, 1860–1905\". Textile History 27.1 (1996): 59–76.",
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"plaintext": "Jack, Andrew B. \"The channels of distribution for an innovation: The sewing-machine industry in America, 1860–1865\". Explorations in Economic History 9.3 (1957): 113.",
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"plaintext": "Weber, Nicholas Fox. The Clarks of Cooperstown: Their Singer Sewing Machine Fortune, Their Great and Influential Art Collections, Their Forty-year Feud (Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).",
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"plaintext": "Wickramasinghe, Nira. \"Following the Singer Sewing Machine: Fashioning a Market in a British Crown Colony,\" in Metallic Modern: Everyday Machines in Colonial Sri Lanka. (Berghahn Books, 2014) pp.16–40. .",
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"plaintext": "Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx (voice box), and the articulators. The lungs, the \"pump\" must produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds. The vocal folds (vocal cords) then vibrate to use airflow from the lungs to create audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to 'fine-tune' pitch and tone. The articulators (the parts of the vocal tract above the larynx consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen or weaken it as a sound source.",
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"plaintext": "The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound. The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, fear, happiness or sadness. The human voice is used to express emotion, and can also reveal the age and sex of the speaker. Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music.",
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"plaintext": "Adult men and women typically have different sizes of vocal fold; reflecting the male-female differences in larynx size. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds (which would be measured vertically in the opposite diagram), are between 17mm and 25mm in length. The female vocal folds are between 12.5mm and 17.5mm in length.",
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"plaintext": "The folds are within the larynx. They are attached at the back (side nearest the spinal cord) to the arytenoids cartilages, and at the front (side under the chin) to the thyroid cartilage. They have no outer edge as they blend into the side of the breathing tube (the illustration is out of date and does not show this well) while their inner edges or \"margins\" are free to vibrate (the hole). They have a three layer construction of an epithelium, vocal ligament, then muscle (vocalis muscle), which can shorten and bulge the folds. They are flat triangular bands and are pearly white in color. Above both sides of the vocal cord is the vestibular fold or false vocal cord, which has a small sac between its two folds.",
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"plaintext": "The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched voices. Additionally, genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men's and women's singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are bass, bass-baritone, baritone, baritenor, tenor and countertenor (ranging from E2 to C#7 and higher), and among women, contralto, alto, mezzo-soprano and soprano (ranging from F3 to C6 and higher). There are additional categories for operatic voices, see voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower-sounding timbre. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.",
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"plaintext": "Human spoken language makes use of the ability of almost all people in a given society to dynamically modulate certain parameters of the laryngeal voice source in a consistent manner. The most important communicative, or phonetic, parameters are the voice pitch (determined by the vibratory frequency of the vocal folds) and the degree of separation of the vocal folds, referred to as vocal fold adduction (coming together) or abduction (separating).",
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"plaintext": "The ability to vary the ab/adduction of the vocal folds quickly has a strong genetic component, since vocal fold adduction has a life-preserving function in keeping food from passing into the lungs, in addition to the covering action of the epiglottis. Consequently, the muscles that control this action are among the fastest in the body. Children can learn to use this action consistently during speech at an early age, as they learn to speak the difference between utterances such as \"apa\" (having an abductory-adductory gesture for the p) as \"aba\" (having no abductory-adductory gesture). Surprisingly enough, they can learn to do this well before the age of two by listening only to the voices of adults around them who have voices much different from their own, and even though the laryngeal movements causing these phonetic differentiations are deep in the throat and not visible to them.",
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"plaintext": "If an abductory movement or adductory movement is strong enough, the vibrations of the vocal folds will stop (or not start). If the gesture is abductory and is part of a speech sound, the sound will be called voiceless. However, voiceless speech sounds are sometimes better identified as containing an abductory gesture, even if the gesture was not strong enough to stop the vocal folds from vibrating. This anomalous feature of voiceless speech sounds is better understood if it is realized that it is the change in the spectral qualities of the voice as abduction proceeds that is the primary acoustic attribute that the listener attends to when identifying a voiceless speech sound, and not simply the presence or absence of voice (periodic energy).",
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"plaintext": "An adductory gesture is also identified by the change in voice spectral energy it produces. Thus, a speech sound having an adductory gesture may be referred to as a \"glottal stop\" even if the vocal fold vibrations do not entirely stop.",
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"plaintext": "Other aspects of the voice, such as variations in the regularity of vibration, are also used for communication, and are important for the trained voice user to master, but are more rarely used in the formal phonetic code of a spoken language.",
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"plaintext": "The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.",
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"plaintext": "Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx, which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers. The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant, which has been shown to be a resonance added to the normal resonances of the vocal tract above the frequency range of most instruments and so enables the singer's voice to carry better over musical accompaniment.",
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"plaintext": "Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal functioning. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular Vocal range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds. The occurrence of registers has also been attributed to effects of the acoustic interaction between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract. The term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:",
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"plaintext": " A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.",
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"plaintext": " A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.",
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"plaintext": " A phonatory process.",
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"plaintext": " A certain vocal timbre.",
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"plaintext": " A region of the voice that is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.",
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"plaintext": " A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.",
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"plaintext": "In linguistics, a register language is a language that combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system.",
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"plaintext": "Within speech pathology, the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.",
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"plaintext": "Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation; although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.",
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"plaintext": "There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.",
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"plaintext": "The twelve-tone musical scale, upon which a large portion of all music (western popular music in particular) is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.",
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"plaintext": "There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.",
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"plaintext": "Vocal nodules are caused over time by repeated abuse of the vocal cords which results in soft, swollen spots on each vocal cord. These spots develop into harder, callous-like growths called nodules. The longer the abuse occurs the larger and stiffer the nodules will become. Most polyps are larger than nodules and may be called by other names, such as polypoid degeneration or Reinke's edema. Polyps are caused by a single occurrence and may require surgical removal. Irritation after the removal may then lead to nodules if additional irritation persists. Speech-language therapy teaches the patient how to eliminate the irritations permanently through habit changes and vocal hygiene.",
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"plaintext": "Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying voice disorder such as nodes or polyps and should be investigated medically.",
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"plaintext": "Accent (dialect)",
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"plaintext": "Acoustic phonetics",
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"plaintext": "Belt (music)",
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"plaintext": "Histology of the Vocal Folds",
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"plaintext": "Intelligibility (communication)",
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"plaintext": "List of voice actors",
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"plaintext": "Lombard effect",
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"plaintext": "Puberphonia",
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"plaintext": "Vocal warm up",
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"plaintext": "Voice change in boys",
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"plaintext": "Voicing (music), a representation of a chord",
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38,482 | 1,105,890,933 | Mardi_Gras | [
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"plaintext": "Mardi Gras () refers to events of the Carnival celebration, beginning on or after the Christian feasts of the Epiphany (Three Kings Day) and culminating on the day before Ash Wednesday, which is known as Shrove Tuesday. is French for \"Fat Tuesday\", reflecting the practice of the last night of eating rich, fatty foods before the ritual Lenten sacrifices and fasting of the Lenten season.",
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"plaintext": "Related popular practices are associated with Shrovetide celebrations before the fasting and religious obligations associated with the penitential season of Lent. In countries such as the United Kingdom, Mardi Gras is more usually known as Pancake Day or (traditionally) Shrove Tuesday (derived from the word shrive, meaning \"to administer the sacrament of confession to; to absolve\").",
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"plaintext": "The festival season varies from city to city, as some traditions, such as the one in New Orleans, Louisiana, consider Mardi Gras to stretch the entire period from Twelfth Night (the last night of Christmas which begins Epiphany) to Ash Wednesday. Others treat the final three-day period before Ash Wednesday as the Mardi Gras. In Mobile, Alabama, Mardi Gras–associated social events begin in November, followed by mystic society balls on Thanksgiving, then New Year's Eve, followed by parades and balls in January and February, celebrating up to midnight before Ash Wednesday. In earlier times, parades were held on New Year's Day. Carnival is an important celebration in Anglican and Catholic European nations.",
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"plaintext": "In the Czech Republic, it is a folk tradition to celebrate Mardi Gras, which is called Masopust (meat-fast, i.e. beginning of the fast there). There are celebrations in many places including Prague, but the tradition also prevails in villages such as Staré Hamry, whose door-to-door processions made it to the UNESCO World Intangible Cultural Heritage List.",
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"plaintext": "The celebration on the same day in Germany knows many different terms, such as Schmutziger Donnerstag or Fetter Donnerstag (Fat Thursday), Unsinniger Donnerstag, Weiberfastnacht, Greesentag and others, and are often only one part of the whole carnival events during one or even two weeks before Ash Wednesday be called Karneval, Fasching, or Fastnacht among others, depending on the region. In standard German, schmutzig means \"dirty\", but in the Alemannic dialects schmotzig means \"lard\" (Schmalz), or \"fat\"; \"Greasy Thursday\", as remaining winter stores of lard and butter used to be consumed at that time, before the fasting began. Fastnacht means \"Eve of the Fast\", but all three terms cover the whole carnival season. The traditional start of the carnival season is on 11 November at 11:11 am (11/11 11:11).",
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"plaintext": "In Italy Mardi Gras is called Martedì Grasso (Fat Tuesday). It is the main day of Carnival along with the Thursday before, called Giovedí Grasso (Fat Thursday), which ratifies the start of the celebrations. The most famous Carnivals in northern Italy are in Venice, Viareggio and Ivrea, while in the southern part of Italy the Sardinian Sartiglia and the intriguing apotropaic masks, especially the mamuthones, issohadores, s'urtzu (and so on), are more popular, belonging to a very ancient tradition. Ivrea has the characteristic \"Battle of Oranges\" that finds its roots in medieval times. The Italian version of the festival is spelled Carnevale.",
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"plaintext": "In Sweden the celebration is called Fettisdagen, when fastlagsbulle is eaten, more commonly called Semla. The name comes from the words \"fett\" (fat) and \"tisdag\" (Tuesday). Originally, this was the only day one should eat fastlagsbullar.",
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"plaintext": "While not observed nationally throughout the United States, a number of traditionally ethnic French cities and regions in the country have notable celebrations. Mardi Gras arrived in North America as a French Catholic tradition with the Le Moyne brothers, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, in the late 17th century, when King Louis XIV sent the pair to defend France's claim on the territory of Louisiane, which included what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and part of eastern Texas.",
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"plaintext": "The expedition, led by Iberville, entered the mouth of the Mississippi River on the evening of 2 March 1699 (new style), Lundi Gras. They did not yet know it was the river explored and claimed for France by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle in 1683. The party proceeded upstream to a place on the east bank about downriver from where New Orleans is today, and made camp. This was on 3 March 1699, Mardi Gras, so in honour of this holiday, Iberville named the spot Point du Mardi Gras (French: \"Mardi Gras Point\") and called the nearby tributary Bayou Mardi Gras. Bienville went on to found the settlement of Mobile, Alabama in 1702 as the first capital of French Louisiana. In 1703 French settlers in Mobile established the first organised Mardi Gras celebration tradition in what was to become the United States. The first informal mystic society, or krewe, was formed in Mobile in 1711, the Boeuf Gras Society. By 1720, Biloxi had been made capital of Louisiana. The French Mardi Gras customs had accompanied the colonists who settled there.",
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"plaintext": "In 1723, the capital of Louisiana was moved to New Orleans, founded in 1718. The first Mardi Gras parade held in New Orleans is recorded to have taken place in 1837. The tradition in New Orleans expanded to the point that it became synonymous with the city in popular perception, and embraced by residents of New Orleans beyond those of French or Catholic heritage. Mardi Gras celebrations are part of the basis of the slogan Laissez les bons temps rouler (\"Let the good times roll\"). On Mardi Gras Day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, the last parades of the season wrap up and the celebrations come to a close with the Meeting of the Courts (known locally as the Rex Ball). Other cities along the Gulf Coast with early French colonial heritage, from Pensacola, Florida; Galveston, Texas; to Lake Charles and Lafayette, Louisiana; and north to Natchez, Mississippi and Alexandria, Louisiana, have active Mardi Gras celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "Galveston's first recorded Mardi Gras celebration, in 1867, included a masked ball at Turner Hall (Sealy at 21st St.) and a theatrical performance from Shakespeare's \"King Henry IV\" featuring Alvan Reed (a justice of the peace weighing in at 350 pounds!) as Falstaff. The first year that Mardi Gras was celebrated on a grand scale in Galveston was 1871 with the emergence of two rival Mardi Gras societies, or \"Krewes\" called the Knights of Momus (known only by the initials \"K.O.M.\") and the Knights of Myth, both of which devised night parades, masked balls, exquisite costumes and elaborate invitations. The Knights of Momus, led by some prominent Galvestonians, decorated horse-drawn wagons for a torch lit night parade. Boasting such themes as \"The Crusades,\" \"Peter the Great,\" and \"Ancient France,\" the procession through downtown Galveston culminated at Turner Hall with a presentation of tableaux and a grand gala.",
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"plaintext": "In the rural Acadiana area, many Cajuns celebrate with the Courir de Mardi Gras, a tradition that dates to medieval celebrations in France.",
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"plaintext": "St. Louis, Missouri, founded in 1764 by French fur traders, claims to host the second largest Mardi Gras celebration in the United States. The celebration is held in the historic French neighborhood, Soulard, and attracts hundreds of thousands of people from around the country. Although founded in the 1760s, the St. Louis Mardi Gras festivities only date to the 1980s. The city's celebration begins with \"12th night,\" held on Epiphany, and ends on Fat Tuesday. The season is peppered with various parades celebrating the city's rich French Catholic heritage.",
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"plaintext": "Mardi Gras, as a celebration of life before the more-somber occasion of Ash Wednesday, nearly always involves the use of masks and costumes by its participants, and the most popular celebratory colors are purple, green, and gold. In New Orleans, for example, these often take the shape of fairies, animals, people from myths, or various Medieval costumes as well as clowns and Indians (Native Americans). However, many costumes today are simply elaborate creations of colored feathers and capes. Unlike Halloween costumery, Mardi Gras costumes are not usually associated with such things as zombies, mummies, bats, blood, and the like, though death may be a theme in some. The Venice tradition has brought golden masks into the usual round of costumes.",
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"plaintext": "Women exposing their breasts during Mardi Gras in New Orleans, US, has been documented since 1889, when the Times-Democrat decried the \"degree of immodesty exhibited by nearly all female masqueraders seen on the streets.\" The practice was mostly limited to tourists in the upper Bourbon Street area. In the crowded streets of the French Quarter, generally avoided by locals on Mardi Gras Day, flashers on balconies cause crowds to form on the streets.",
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"plaintext": "In the last decades of the 20th century, the rise in producing commercial videotapes catering to voyeurs helped encourage a tradition of women baring their breasts in exchange for beads and trinkets. Social scientists studying \"ritual disrobement\" found, at Mardi Gras 1991, 1,200 instances of body-baring in exchange for beads or other favors.",
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"plaintext": " Carnaval de Ponce",
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"plaintext": " Fat Thursday, a similar traditional Christian feast associated with the celebration of Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "Fashion plates featuring historic Mardi Gras costumes from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries",
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38,483 | 1,106,254,021 | Carnival | [
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"plaintext": "The Latin-derived name of the holiday is sometimes also spelled Carnaval, typically in areas where Dutch, French, Spanish, and Portuguese are spoken, or Carnevale in Italian-speaking contexts. Alternative names are used for regional and local celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "The word is said to come from the Late Latin expression carne levare, which means \"remove meat\"; a folk etymology derives it from carne vale, \"farewell to meat\". In either case, this signifies the approaching fast. The word carne may also be translated as flesh, producing \"a farewell to the flesh\", a phrase embraced by certain carnival celebrants to embolden the festival's carefree spirit. The etymology of the word Carnival thus points to a Christian origin of the celebratory period.",
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"plaintext": "Other scholars argue that the origin of the word is a common meat-based country feast (in Latin ) or the festival of the Navigium Isidis (\"ship of Isis\"), where the image of Isis was carried to the seashore to bless the start of sailing season. The festival consisted of a parade of masks following an adorned wooden boat, called in Latin carrus navalis, possibly the source of both the name and the parade floats.",
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"plaintext": "The word Carnival is of Christian origin, and in the Middle Ages, it referred to a period following Epiphany season that reached its climax before midnight on Shrove Tuesday. British historian John Bossy, in writing on the origin of the practices during Carnival, states that \"These were, despite some appearances, Christian in character, and they were medieval in origin: although it has been widely supposed that they continued some kind of pre-Christian cult, there is in fact no evidence that they existed much before 1200.\" Because Lent was a period of fasting, \"Carnival therefore represented a last period of feasting and celebration before the spiritual rigors of Lent.\" Meat was plentiful during this part of the Christian calendar and it was consumed during Carnival as people abstained from meat consumption during the following liturgical season, Lent. In the last few days of Carnival, known as Shrovetide, people confessed (shrived) their sins in preparation for Lent as well. In 1605, a Shrovetide play spoke of Christians who painted their faces to celebrate the season: ",
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"plaintext": "From an anthropological point of view, carnival is a reversal ritual, in which social roles are reversed and norms about desired behavior are suspended.",
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"plaintext": "Winter was thought of as the reign of the winter spirits; these needed to be driven out in order for the summer to return. Carnival can thus be regarded as a rite of passage from darkness to light, from winter to summer: a fertility celebration, the first spring festival of the new year.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, a Carnival feast was the last opportunity for common people to eat well, as there was typically a food shortage at the end of the winter as stores ran out. Until spring produce was available, people were limited to the minimum necessary meals during this period. On what nowadays is called vastenavond (the days before fasting), all the remaining winter stores of lard, butter, and meat which were left would be eaten, for these would otherwise soon start to rot and decay. The selected livestock had already been slaughtered in November and the meat would no longer be preservable. All the food that had survived the winter had to be eaten to assure that everyone was fed enough to survive until the coming spring would provide new food sources.",
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"plaintext": "Several Germanic tribes celebrated the returning of the daylight. The winter would be driven out, to make sure that fertility could return in spring. A central figure of this ritual was possibly the fertility goddess Nerthus. Also, there are some indications that the effigy of Nerthus or Freyr was placed on a ship with wheels and accompanied by a procession of people in animal disguise and men in women's clothes. Aboard the ship a marriage would be consummated as a fertility ritual.",
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"plaintext": "Tacitus wrote in his Germania: Germania 9.6: Ceterum nec cohibere parietibus deos neque in ullam humani oris speciem adsimulare ex magnitudine caelestium arbitrator – \"The Germans, however, do not consider it consistent with the grandeur of celestial beings to confine the gods within walls, or to liken them to the form of any human countenance.\" – \"Afterwards the car, the vestments, and, if you like to believe it, the divinity herself, are purified in a secret lake.\"",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the feast also was a time to indulge in sexual desires, which were supposed to be suppressed during the following period fasting. Before Lent began, all rich food and drink were consumed in what became a giant celebration that involved the whole community, and is thought to be the origin of Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "In many Christian sermons and texts, the example of a vessel is used to explain Christian doctrine: \"the nave of the church of baptism\", \"the ship of Mary\", etc. The writings show that processions with ship-like carts were held and lavish feasts were celebrated on the eve of Lent or the greeting of spring in the early Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "The Lenten period of the liturgical calendar, the six weeks directly before Easter, was historically marked by fasting, study, and other pious or penitential practices. During Lent, no parties or celebrations were held, and people refrained from eating rich foods, such as meat, dairy, fat, and sugar. The first three classes were often totally unavailable during this period because of late winter shortages.",
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"plaintext": "While Christian festivals such as Corpus Christi were Church-sanctioned celebrations, Carnival was also a manifestation of European folk culture. In the Christian tradition, fasting is to commemorate the 40 days that Jesus fasted in the desert, according to the New Testament, and also to reflect on Christian values. It was a time for catechumens (those converting to Christianity) to prepare for baptism at Easter.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in the Middle Ages took not just a few days, but almost the entire period between Christmas and the beginning of Lent. In those two months, Christian populations used their several holidays as an outlet for their daily frustrations.",
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"plaintext": "Many synods and councils attempted to set things \"right\". Caesarius of Arles (470–542) protested around 500 CE in his sermons against the pagan practices. Centuries later, his statements were adapted as the building blocks of the Indiculus superstitionum et paganiarum (\"small index of superstitious and pagan practices\"), which was drafted by the Synod of Leptines in 742. It condemned the Spurcalibus en februario.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory the Great (590–604) decided that fasting would start on Ash Wednesday. The whole Carnival event was set before the fasting, to set a clear division between celebrations and penitence. He also dispatched missionaries to sanctify any excesses in popular Carnival customs. It was also the custom during Carnival that the ruling class would be playfully mocked using masks and disguises.",
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"plaintext": "In the year 743, the synod in Leptines (located near Binche in Belgium) spoke out furiously against the excesses in the month of February. Also from the same period dates the phrase: \"Whoever in February by a variety of less honorable acts tries to drive out winter is not a Christian, but a pagan.\" Confession books from around 800 contain more information about how people would dress as an animal or old woman during the festivities in January and February, even though this was a sin with no small penance. Also in Spain in the seventh century, San Isidoro de Sevilla complained in his writings about people coming out into the streets disguised, in many cases, as the opposite gender.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, \"Carnival and Lent were both necessary, inevitable episodes in the eternal cycle of the Church year.\"",
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"plaintext": "While forming an integral part of the Christian calendar, particularly in Catholic regions, many Carnival traditions resemble those antedating Christianity.",
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"plaintext": "While medieval pageants and festivals such as Corpus Christi were church-sanctioned, Carnival was also a manifestation of medieval folk culture. Many local Carnival customs are claimed to derive from local pre-Christian rituals, such as elaborate rites involving masked figures in the Swabian-Alemannic Fastnacht. However, evidence is insufficient to establish a direct origin from Saturnalia or other ancient festivals. No complete accounts of Saturnalia survive, and the shared features of feasting, role reversals, temporary social equality, masks, and permitted rule-breaking do not necessarily constitute a coherent festival or link these festivals. These similarities may represent a reservoir of cultural resources that can embody multiple meanings and functions. For example, Easter begins with the resurrection of Jesus, followed by a liminal period, and ends with rebirth. Carnival reverses this as King Carnival comes to life, and a liminal period follows before his death. Both feasts are calculated by the lunar calendar. Both Jesus and King Carnival may be seen as expiatory figures who make a gift to the people with their deaths. In the case of Jesus, the gift is eternal life in heaven, and in the case of King Carnival, the acknowledgement that death is a necessary part of the cycle of life. Besides Christian anti-Judaism, the commonalities between church and Carnival rituals and imagery suggest a common root. Christ's passion is itself grotesque: since early Christianity, Christ is figured as the victim of summary judgment, and is tortured and executed by Romans before a Jewish mob (\"His blood is on us and on our children!\" ). Holy Week processions in Spain include crowds who vociferously insult the figure of Jesus. Irreverence, parody, degradation, and laughter at a tragicomic effigy of God can be seen as intensifications of the sacred order. In 1466, the Catholic Church under Pope Paul II revived customs of the Saturnalia carnival: Jews were forced to race naked through the streets of the city of Rome. \"Before they were to run, the Jews were richly fed, so as to make the race more difficult for them and at the same time more amusing for spectators. They ran ... amid Rome's taunting shrieks and peals of laughter, while the Holy Father stood upon a richly ornamented balcony and laughed heartily\", an eyewitness reports.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the best-known traditions, including carnal parades and masquerade balls, were first recorded in medieval Italy. The Carnival of Venice was, for a long time, the most famous carnival (although Napoleon abolished it in 1797 and only in 1979 was the tradition restored). From Italy, Carnival traditions spread to Spain, Portugal, and France, and from France to New France in North America. From Spain and Portugal, it spread with colonization to the Caribbean and Latin America. In the early 19th century in the German Rhineland and Southern Netherlands, the weakened medieval tradition also revived. Continuously in the 18th and 19th centuries CE, as part of the annual Saturnalia abuse of the carnival in Rome, rabbis of the ghetto were forced to march through the city streets wearing foolish guise, jeered upon and pelted by a variety of missiles from the crowd. A petition of the Jewish community of Rome sent in 1836 to Pope Gregory XVI to stop the annual anti-semitic Saturnalia abuse got a negation: \"It is not opportune to make any innovation.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the Rhineland in 1823, the first modern Carnival parade took place in Cologne. Carnaval (Fasching or Fastnacht in Germany) mixed pagan traditions with Christian traditions. Pre-Lenten celebrations featured parades, costumes and masks to endure Lent's withdrawal from worldly pleasures.",
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"plaintext": "Other areas developed their own traditions. In the United Kingdom, West Indian immigrants brought with them the traditions of Caribbean Carnival; however, the Carnivals now celebrated at Notting Hill, Leeds, Yorkshire, and other places became divorced from their religious origin and became secular events that take place in the summer months.",
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"plaintext": "Mircea Eliade, historian of religions, gives us a clear explanation about Carnival and its meaning. He writes: \"Any new year is a revival of time at its beginning, a repetition of the cosmogony. Ritual fights between two groups of extras, the presence of the dead, Saturnalia and orgies, are all elements which indicate that at the end of the year and in the expectation of the new year the mythical moments of the passage of chaos to the cosmogony are repeated\". Eliade also writes: \"Then the dead will come back, because all barriers between the dead and the living are broken (is the primordial chaos not revived?), and will come back since – at this paradoxical moment – time will be interrupted, so that the dead may be again contemporaries of the living.\" Eliade stresses that people have \"a deep need to regenerate themselves periodically by abolishing the elapsed time and making topical the cosmogony\".",
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"plaintext": "As regards masks (monsters, animals, demons), they have an apotropaic meaning.",
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"plaintext": "Interpretations of Carnival present it as a social institution that degrades or \"uncrowns\" the higher functions of thought, speech, and the soul by translating them into the grotesque body, which serves to renew society and the world, as a release for impulses that threaten the social order that ultimately reinforces social norms, as a social transformation, or as a tool for different groups to focus attention on conflicts and incongruities by embodying them in \"senseless\" acts.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, some cultures use Carnival as a method of empowering themselves in spite of social conflicts. For example, when the Caribbean Carnival was established as a result of French settlers, even the slaves had their version of the masquerade, where they would reverse roles to mock those of higher social status. Along with empowering individuals for a period of time, despite their typical status, Carnival brings communities together. In a day where all are meant to perform a \"mask\" that differs from their typical identity, all members of a society are able to connect through their theatricality and satire.",
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"plaintext": "For the Canary Islands, see Canary Islands under Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival was introduced by Portuguese settlers. It is celebrated on each of the archipelago's nine inhabited islands. In Mindelo, São Vicente, groups challenge each other for a yearly prize. It has imported various Brazilian Carnival traditions. The celebration in São Nicolau is more traditional, where established groups parade through the Ribeira Brava, gathering in the town square, although it has adopted drums, floats and costumes from Brazil. In São Nicolau, three groups, Copa Cabana, Estrela Azul, and Brilho Da Zona, construct a painted float using fire, newspaper for the mold, and iron and steel for structure. Carnival São Nicolau is celebrated over three days: dawn Saturday, Sunday afternoon, and Tuesday. The celebrations are captured in the award-winning feature documentary Tchindas, nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival was introduced by German settlers. The celebration is based on the \"Rheinische\" Carnival tradition.",
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"plaintext": "The Seychelles carnival began in 2011. It is held in the capital city of Victoria and takes place over three days. On Day 1, the grand opening is held in the city center near the clock tower. The second day is parade day. On Day 3, the closing ceremony is held, and a lottery winner is announced.",
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"plaintext": "The Harare Carnival is held late in May. Events include fashion and music shows. The climax is a street party featuring costumes and music.",
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"plaintext": "The Antiguan Carnival is held from the end of July to the first Tuesday in August. The most important day is that of the j'ouvert (or juvé), in which brass and steel drum bands perform. Barbuda's Carnival, held in June, is known as \"Caribana\". The Antiguan and Barbudan Carnivals replaced the Old Time Christmas Festival in 1957, with hopes of inspiring tourism.",
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"plaintext": "In Argentina, the most representative Carnival performed is the so-called Murga, although other famous Carnivals, more like Brazil's, are held in Argentine Mesopotamia and the North-East. Gualeguaychú in the east of Entre Ríos Province is the most important Carnival city and has one of the largest parades. It adopts a musical background similar to Brazilian or Uruguayan Carnival. Corrientes is another city with a Carnival tradition. Chamamé is a popular musical style. In all major cities and many towns throughout the country, Carnival is celebrated.",
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"plaintext": "As Carnival coincides with summer in the Southern Hemisphere, in many parts of Argentina children play with water. The 19th century tradition of filling empty egg shells with water has evolved into water games that include the throwing of water balloons.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Aruba means weeks of events that bring colourfully decorated floats, contagiously throbbing music, luxuriously costumed groups of celebrants of all ages, King and Queen elections, electrifying jump-ups and torchlight parades, the Jouvert morning: the Children's Parades, and finally the Grand Parade. Aruba's biggest celebration is a month-long affair consisting of festive \"jump-ups\" (street parades), spectacular parades, and creative contests. Music and flamboyant costumes play a central role, from the Queen elections to the Grand Parade. Street parades continue in various districts throughout the month, with brass band, steel drum and roadmarch tunes. On the evening before Lent, Carnival ends with the symbolic burning of King Momo.",
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"plaintext": "Junkanoo is the principal street parade in the Bahamas, it has been practiced in the Bahamas before and after the 1834 emancipation of slavery in the British Empire.",
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"plaintext": "The Bahamas announced the first Bahamas Junkanoo Carnival to commence in May 2015. Carnival in the Bahamas rivals various carnivals throughout the Caribbean in that it is a unique blend between the revered Junkanoo and traditional Carnival. This fairly new festival has been referred to as the ultimate celebration of everything Bahamian.",
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"plaintext": "\"Crop Over\" (formerly called \"Harvest Home\") is a traditional harvest festival celebrated in Barbados. Its early beginnings were on the sugar cane plantations during the colonial period. Crop Over began in 1688, and featured singing, dancing, and accompaniment by shak-shak, banjo, triangle, fiddle, guitar, bottles filled with water, and bones. Other traditions included climbing a greased pole, feasting, and drinking competitions. Originally signaling the end of the yearly cane harvest, it evolved into a national festival. In the late 20th century, Crop Over began to closely mirror the Trinidad Carnival. Beginning in June, Crop Over runs until the first Monday in August when it culminates in the finale, the Grand Kadooment.",
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"plaintext": "Crop Over time for many islanders is one big party. Craft markets, food tents/stalls, street parties, and cavalcades fill every week.",
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"plaintext": "A major feature is the calypso competition. Calypso music, originating in Trinidad, uses syncopated rhythm and topical lyrics. It offers a medium in which to satirise local politics, amidst the general bacchanal. Calypso tents, also originating in Trinidad, feature cadres of musicians who perform biting social commentaries, political exposés or rousing exhortations to \"wuk dah waistline\" and \"roll dat bumper\". The groups compete for the Calypso Monarch Award, while the air is redolent with the smells of Bajan cooking during the Bridgetown Market Street Fair. The Cohobblopot Festival blends dance, drama, and music with the crowning of the King and Queen of costume bands. Every evening the \"Pic-o-de-Crop\" Show is performed after the King of Calypso is finally crowned. The climax of the festival is Kadooment Day, celebrated with a national holiday, when costume bands fill the streets with pulsating Barbadian rhythms and fireworks.",
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"plaintext": "San Pedro is one of Belize's few cities to observe Carnaval before Lent. Elsewhere, Carnaval (sometimes referred to as Carnival) often occurs in September. The Fiesta de Carnaval is often the most popular celebration, usually held over three days prior to Ash Wednesday, but the festivities often extend to the full week. This festival \"always includes music, dancing, costumes and parades\".",
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"plaintext": "Comparsas are held throughout the week, consisting of large groups \"of dancers dancing and traveling on the streets, followed by a Carrosa (carriage) where the musicians play. The Comparsa is a development of African processions where groups of devotees follow a given saint or deity during a particular religious celebration.\" One of the most popular comparsas of Fiesta de Carnaval is the male group comparsa, usually composed of notable men from the community who dress up in outlandish costumes or cross-dress and dance to compete for money and prizes. Other popular activities include body painting and flour fighting. \"On the last day of Carnival painters flood the street to paint each other. This simply means that a mixture of water paint and water or raw eggs is used to paint people on the streets, the goal being to paint as many people as you can.\"",
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"plaintext": "Street fights often occur during the festivities – some locals treat this festival as an opportunity to exact revenge on their enemies. Vandalism is common and \"businesses constantly have to prepare in covering or repainting their advertisements during Carnival season because of the mischief performed.\" The tradition continues despite critics who advocate the termination of these festivities.",
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"plaintext": "La Diablada Carnival takes place in Oruro in central Bolivia. It is celebrated in honor of the miners' patron saint, Vírgen de Socavon (the Virgin of the Tunnels). Over 50 parade groups dance, sing, and play music over a five kilometre-long course. Participants dress up as demons, devils, angels, Incas, and Spanish conquistadors. Dances include caporales and tinkus. The parade runs from morning until late at night, 18 hours a day, for three days before Ash Wednesday. It was declared the 2001 \"Masterpieces of Oral Heritage and Intangible Heritage of Humanity\" by UNESCO. Throughout the country, celebrations are held involving traditional rhythms and water parties. In Santa Cruz de la Sierra, on the east side of the country, tropical weather allows a Brazilian-type Carnival, with Comparsas dancing traditional songs in matching uniforms.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival in Brazil is a major part of Brazilian culture (Carnaval, in Brazilian Portuguese). The first true Carnival expression of this Brazilian festivity, officially recognized by Brazilian historians, took place in Rio de Janeiro, with the préstitos, very similar to a musical processions, in 1641, when John IV of Portugal was crowned King and parties were celebrated in public streets.",
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"plaintext": "The street carnival of Rio de Janeiro is designated by Guinness World Records as the largest carnival in the world, with approximately two million people each day.",
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"plaintext": "Samba schools are large, social entities with thousands of members and a theme for their song and parade each year. In Rio Carnival, samba schools parade in the Sambadrome (sambódromo in Portuguese). Some of the most famous include GRES Estação Primeira de Mangueira, GRES Portela, GRES Acadêmicos do Salgueiro, GRES Imperatriz Leopoldinense, GRES Beija-Flor de Nilópolis, GRES Mocidade Independente de Padre Miguel, and recently, Unidos da Tijuca and GRES União da Ilha do Governador. Local tourists pay $500–950, depending on the costume, to buy a samba costume and dance in the parade. Blocos are small informal groups with a definite theme in their samba, usually satirizing the political situation. About 30 schools in Rio gather hundreds of thousands of participants. More than 440 blocos operate in Rio. Bandas are samba musical bands, also called \"street carnival bands\", usually formed within a single neighborhood or musical background. The Carnival industry chain amassed in 2012 almost US$1billion in revenues.",
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"plaintext": "Recife is marked by the parade of the largest carnival block in the world, the Galo da Madrugada. This parade happens on the first Saturday of Carnival (Saturday of Zé Pereira), passes through the center of the city of Recife and has, as symbol, a giant rooster that is positioned in the Duarte Coelho Bridge. In this block, there is a great variety of musical rhythms, but the most present is Frevo (characteristic rhythm of both Recife and Olinda that was declared Intangible Heritage of Humanity by Unesco).",
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"plaintext": "Salvador has large Carnival celebrations, including the Axé, a typical Bahia music. A truck with giant speakers and a platform, where musicians play songs of local genres such as Axé, samba-reggae, and Arrocha, drives through town with a crowd following while dancing and singing. It was originally staged by two Salvador musicians, Dodo & Osmar, in the 1950s. After the Salvador Carnival, Porto Seguro continues the celebration.",
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"plaintext": "Three circuits make up the festival. Campo Grande is the longest and most traditional. Barra-Ondina is the most famous, on the seaside of Barra Beach and Ondina Beach and Pelourinho.",
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"plaintext": "International singers like David Guetta, will.i.am, Psy, and Bob Sinclar have performed in Salvador. Ivete Sangalo, Claudia Leitte, Daniela Mercury, Margareth Menezes, Chiclete com Banana, and Banda Eva are some traditional attractions. The party officially takes six days, but can continue for more than that.",
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"plaintext": "Toronto Caribbean Carnival, held in Toronto on the first weekend of August to take advantage of more comfortable weather, has its origins in Caribbean Carnival traditions. Tourist attendance at the parade typically exceeds one million.",
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"plaintext": "The Quebec Winter Carnival is one of the biggest winter-themed Carnivals in the world. It depends on snowfall and very cold weather, to keep snowy ski trails in good condition and ice sculptures frozen. The carnival is held during the last days of January and first days of February.",
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"plaintext": "In the Ottawa-Gatineau region, Winterlude takes place during February.",
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"plaintext": "Most Caribbean islands celebrate Carnival. The largest and most well-known is in Trinidad and Tobago. Antigua, Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Curaçao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Saba, Sint Eustatius (Statia), Sint Maarten, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts, Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, Saint Vincent, and the Grenadines hold lengthy carnival seasons and large celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival is an important cultural event in the Dutch Caribbean. Festivities include \"jump-up\" parades with beautifully colored costumes, floats, and live bands, as well as beauty contests and other competitions. Celebrations include a middle-of-the-night j'ouvert (juvé) parade that ends at sunrise with the burning of a straw King Momo, cleansing sins and bad luck. On Statia, he is called Prince Stupid.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival has been celebrated in Cuba since the 18th century. Participants don costumes from the island's cultural and ethnic variety. After Fidel Castro's Communist Revolution, Carnival's religious overtones were suppressed. The events remained, albeit frowned upon by the state. Carnival celebrations have been in decline throughout Cuba since then.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival was introduced by the Spaniards and incorporated elements from European cultures. It has managed to reinterpret traditions that belonged to Colombia's African and Amerindian cultures. Documentary evidence shows that Carnival existed in Colombia in the 18th century and had already been a cause for concern for colonial authorities, who censored the celebrations, especially in the main political centres such as Cartagena, Bogotá, and Popayán.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival continued its evolution in small/unimportant towns out of view of the rulers. The result was the uninterrupted celebration of Carnival festivals in Barranquilla (see Barranquilla's Carnival), now recognized as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The Barranquilla Carnival includes several parades on Friday and Saturday nights beginning on 11 January and ending with a six-day non-stop festival, beginning the Wednesday prior to Ash Wednesday and ending Tuesday midnight. Other celebrations occur in villages along the lower Magdalena River in northern Colombia, and in Pasto and Nariño (see Blacks and Whites' Carnival) in the south of the country. In the early 20th century, attempts to introduce Carnival in Bogotá were rejected by the government. The Bogotá Carnival was renewed in the 21st century.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Dominica is held in the capital city of Roseau, and takes elements of Carnival that can be seen in the neighbouring French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, as well as Trinidad. Notable events leading up to Carnival include the Opening of Carnival celebrations, the Calypso Monarch music competition, the Queen of Carnival Beauty Pageant, and bouyon music bands. Celebrations last for the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday.",
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"plaintext": "Dominican Carnival is celebrated in most cities and towns in the main streets during February. Among its main characteristics are its flashy costumes and loud music. The one held in La Vega, which is one of the biggest in the country, and the national parade in Santo Domingo were where the first Carnival of the Americas was held.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival masks are elaborate and colorful. The costumes used on the parades are satires of the Devil and are called \"Diablos Cojuelos\". They dance, and run to the rhythm of merengue music mixed with techno, hip-hop, and reggaeton. Additional allegorical characters represent Dominican traditions such as \"Roba la Gallina\" and \"Califé\".",
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"plaintext": "One of the most international parades is in San Pedro de Macorís. It exhibits the \"Guloyas\" parade of costumed groups dancing in the streets. Revelers flee from the \"Diablos Cojuelos\" who try to hit them with \"Vejigas\".",
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"plaintext": "The timing of the festivals has grown apart from its original religious synchronization with the period of Lent. With National Independence Day on 27 February and the birthday of Juan Pablo Duarte, its founding father, on 26 January, the Carnival celebrations fill February regardless of the Lenten calendar.",
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"plaintext": "In Ecuador, the celebrations began before the arrival of Catholicism. The Huarangas Indians (from the Chimbos nation) used to celebrate the second moon of the year with a festival at which they threw flour, flowers, and perfumed water. This indigenous tradition merged with the Catholic celebration of Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "A common feature of Ecuadorian Carnival is the diablitos (little devils) who play with water. As with snowball fights, the practice of throwing or dumping water on unsuspecting victims is revered by children and teenagers although feared by some adults. Throwing water balloons, sometimes even eggs and flour both to friends and strangers is fun, but can also upset the uninformed.",
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"plaintext": "Although the government as well as school authorities forbid such games, they are widely practiced. Historians tell of a bishop in 1867 who threatened excommunication for the sin of playing Carnival games.",
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"plaintext": "Festivals differ across the country. Locals wear disguises with colorful masks and dance. Usually, the celebrations begin with the election of Taita Carnival (Father Carnival) who heads the festivities and leads the parades in each city.",
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"plaintext": "The most famed Carnival festivities are in Guaranda (Bolivar province) and Ambato (Tungurahua province). In Ambato, the festivities are called Fiesta de las Flores y las Frutas (Festival of the Flowers and Fruits). Other cities have revived Carnival traditions with colorful parades, such as in Azogues (Cañar Province). In Azogues and the Southern Andes in general, Taita Carnival is always an indigenous Cañari. Recently, a celebration has gained prominence in the northern part of the Andes in the Chota Valley in Imbabura which is a zone of a strong Afro-Ecuadorian population and so the Carnival is celebrated with bomba del chota music.",
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"plaintext": "Latacunga celebrates Carnival in three manners: Carnival with water where people play with water, religious Carnival where people make religious festivity, and Carnival parade in the city in which people march on the Latacunga streets wearing masks while they dance with music bands.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of French Guiana has roots in Creole culture. Everyone participates – mainland French, Brazilians (Guiana has a frontier with Brazil), and Chinese as well as Creoles.",
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"plaintext": "Its duration is variable, determined by movable religious festivals: Carnival begins at Epiphany and ends on Ash Wednesday, and so typically lasts through most of January and February. During this period, from Friday evening until Monday morning the entire country throbs to the rhythm of masked balls and street parades.",
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"plaintext": "Friday afternoons are for eating galette des rois (the cake of kings) and drinking champagne. The cake may be flavoured with frangipani, guava, or coconut.",
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"plaintext": "On Sunday afternoons, major parades fill the streets of Cayenne, Kourou, and Saint-Laurent du Maroni. Competing groups prepare for months. Dressed to follow the year's agreed theme, they march with Carnival floats, drums, and brass bands.",
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"plaintext": "Brazilian groups are appreciated for their elaborate feathered and sequined costumes. However, they are not eligible for competition since the costumes do not change over time.",
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"plaintext": "Mythical characters appear regularly in the parades:",
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"plaintext": " Karolin − a small person dressed in a magpie tail and top hat, riding on a shrew.",
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"plaintext": " Les Nèg'marrons − groups of men dressed in red loincloths, bearing ripe tomatoes in their mouths while their bodies are smeared with grease or molasses. They deliberately try to come in contact with spectators, soiling their clothes.",
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"plaintext": " Les makoumés − cross-dressing men (out of the Carnival context, makoumé is a pejorative term for a homosexual).",
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"plaintext": " Soussouris (the bat) − a character dressed in a winged leotard from head to foot, usually black in colour. Traditionally malevolent, this character is liable to chase spectators and \"sting\" them.",
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"plaintext": "A uniquely Creole tradition are the touloulous. These women wear decorative gowns, gloves, masks, and headdresses that cover them completely, making them unrecognisable, even to the colour of their skin. On Friday and Saturday nights of Carnival, touloulou balls are held in so-called \"universities\", large dance halls that open only at Carnival time. Touloulous get in free, and are even given condoms in the interest of the sexual health of the community. Men attend the balls, but they pay admittance and are not disguised. The touloulous pick their dance partners, who may not refuse. The setup is designed to make it easy for a woman to create a temporary liaison with a man in total anonymity. Undisguised women are not welcomed. By tradition, if such a woman gets up to dance, the orchestra stops playing. Alcohol is served at bars – the disguised women whisper to the men \"touloulou thirsty\", at which a round of drinks is expected, to be drunk through a straw protect their anonymity.",
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"plaintext": "In more modern times, Guyanais men have attempted to turn the tables by staging soirées tololo, in which it is the men who, in disguise, seek partners from undisguised women bystanders.",
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"plaintext": "The final four days of Carnival follow a rigid schedule, and no work is done:",
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"plaintext": " Sunday − The Grand Parade, in which the groups compete.",
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"plaintext": " Monday − Marriage burlesque, with men dressed as brides and women as grooms.",
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"plaintext": " Tuesday − Red Devil Day in which everyone wears red or black.",
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"plaintext": " (Ash) Wednesday − Dress is black and white only, for the grand ceremony of burning the effigy of Vaval, King Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous Carnival celebration in Guatemala is in Mazatenango. During February, Mazatenango is famous for its eight-day Carnival Feast. Days of food, music, parades, and games fill the streets of the Suchitepéquez Department. As one Guatemalan website states, \"To mention the Carnival of Mazatenango is to bring to mind moments of a happy and cordial party. In the eight days of this celebration's duration, the local residents have kept alive the traditions of the Department.\"",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Haiti started in 1804 in the capital Port-au-Prince after the declaration of independence. The Port-au-Prince Carnival is one of the largest in North America. It is known as Kanaval in the Creole language. It starts in January, known as \"Pre-Kanaval\", while the main carnival activities begin in February. In July 2012, Haiti had another carnival called Kanaval de Fleur. Beautiful costumes, floats, Rara parades, masks, foods, and popular rasin music (such as Boukman Eksperyans, Foula Vodoule, Tokay, Boukan Ginen, and Eritaj) and kompa bands (such as T-Vice, Djakout No. 1, Sweet Micky, KreyòlLa, D.P. Express, Mizik Mizik, Ram, T-Micky, Carimi, Djakout Mizik, and Scorpio Fever) play for dancers in the streets of the plaza of Champ-de-Mars. An annual song competition takes place.",
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"plaintext": "Other places in Haiti celebrate carnival, including Jacmel and Aux Cayes. In 2013, Kanaval was celebrated in Okap (Cap-Haïtien).",
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"plaintext": "Carnival finishes on Ash Wednesday, followed by rara, another parading musical tradition known mainly in Haiti and in the Dominican Republic. This festival emphasises religion. Songs are composed each year, and bands play bamboo tubes (vaksin) and homemade horns (konèt). Rara is also performed in Prospect and Central Park in summertime New York.",
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"plaintext": "In La Ceiba in Honduras, Carnival is held on the third or fourth Saturday of every May to commemorate San Isidro. It is the largest Carnival celebration in Central America.",
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"plaintext": "In Mexico, Carnaval is celebrated in about 225 cities and towns. The largest are in Mazatlán and the city of Veracruz, with others in Baja California and Yucatán. The larger city Carnavals employ costumes, elected queens, and parades with floats, but Carnaval celebrations in smaller and rural areas vary widely depending on the level of European influence during Mexico's colonial period. The largest of these is in Huejotzingo, Puebla, where most townspeople take part in mock combat with rifles shooting blanks, roughly based on the Battle of Puebla. Other important states with local traditions include Morelos, Oaxaca, Tlaxcala, and Chiapas. Carnaval of Campeche goes back 400 years, to 1582.",
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"plaintext": "On the Caribbean coast of Bluefields, Nicaragua, Carnival is better known as \"Palo de Mayo\" (or Mayo Ya!) and is celebrated every day of May.",
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"plaintext": "In Managua, it is celebrated for two days. There it is named Alegria por la vida (\"Joy for Life\") and features a different theme each year. Another festival in Managua celebrates patron saint Domingo de Guzman and lasts ten days.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally beginning on Friday and ending on the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, \"los Carnavales\", as Panamanians refer to the days of Carnival, are celebrated across the country. Carnival Week is especially popular in the sleepy town of Las Tablas. The population multiplies because of the opulent Carnival celebrations. Carnival celebrations in Panama City and almost all of the Azuero Peninsula are popular tourist attractions. Penonomé features a parade on the Rio Zarati as a unique Carnival event.",
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"plaintext": "The Panamanian Carnival is also popular because of the concerts featuring popular artists in the most visited areas. Concerts are often carried out during the night, and continue until the next morning.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival Week is a national holiday in Panama, with most businesses and government offices remaining closed during its duration, and with most Panamanians opting to go to the country's rural areas to participate on the Carnivals and visit their relatives.",
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"plaintext": "Carnivals in Panama also feature large repurposed fuel trucks that are used for soaking attendees through the use of firehoses that are controlled and directed by one or more people that stand in a platform that is mounted on top of the truck. This is known as \"culecos\" or \"los culecos\". Trucks get their water from nearby, government-approved rivers, and the water is tested for cleanliness before use. Culecos are often performed from 10 AM to 3 PM, when the sun is at its brightest. Children and pregnant women are banned from participating in the culecos, and the trucks are always sponsored by a well-known Panamanian company or brand. The culecos are also often accompanied by reggaeton concerts.",
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"plaintext": "The open consumption of large amounts of cold, low-alcohol beer or Smirnoff, stored in ice-filled coolers, is common among attendees. Just like in Rio de Janeiro, some carnivals also feature floats, but they may have young women with elaborate costumes that stand as the \"Queens\" of \"Calle Arriba\" and \"Calle Abajo\", representing rich and working-class people, respectively. The queens are chosen through a contest and announced on October of the previous year, and are replaced every year. The queens are introduced on the first carnival day, and are always accompanied by a music band, who are present whenever the queens are present. Fireworks are launched on the last carnival night, to signal the end of the carnival.",
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"plaintext": "The town of Cajamarca is considered the capital of Carnival in Peru. Local residents of all ages dance around the unsha, or yunsa, a tree adorned with ribbons, balloons, toys, fruits, bottles of liquor, and other prizes.",
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"plaintext": "At a certain point, the Mayordomo (governor of the feast) walks into the circle. The governor chooses a partner to go to the unsha, which they attempt to cut down by striking it three times with a machete. The machete is passed from couple to couple as each strikes the tree three times. When the unsha finally falls, the crowd rushes to grab the prizes.",
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"plaintext": "The person who successfully brings down the unsha becomes the following year's governor.",
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"plaintext": "While generally peaceful, there have been issues with people using Carnival as a pretext for crime, particularly robbery or vandalism, especially in certain areas of Lima.",
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"plaintext": "Puerto Rico's most popular festivals are the Carnaval de Loiza and Carnaval de Ponce. The Carnaval de Ponce (officially \"Carnaval Ponceño\") is celebrated annually in Ponce. The celebration lasts one week and ends on the day before Ash Wednesday. It is one of the oldest carnivals of the Western Hemisphere, dating to 1858. Some authorities trace the Ponce Carnaval to the eighteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "In Trinidad and Tobago, Carnival lasts months and culminates in large celebrations on the three days before Ash Wednesday with Dimanche Gras, J'ouvert, and Mas (masquerade). Tobago's celebration culminates on Monday and Tuesday on a much smaller scale. Carnival combines costumes, dance, music, competitions, rum, and partying (fete-ing). Music styles include soca, calypso, rapso, and more recently chutney and chutney soca.",
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"plaintext": "The annual Carnival steel pan competition known as the National Panorama competition holds the finals on the Saturday before the main event. Pan players compete in categories such as \"Conventional Steel Band\" or \"Single Pan Band\" by performing renditions of the year's calypsos.",
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"plaintext": "\"Dimanche Gras\" takes place on the Sunday night before Ash Wednesday. Here the Calypso Monarch is chosen (after competition) and prize money and a vehicle awarded. The King and Queen of the bands are crowned, where each band parades costumes for two days and submits a king and queen, from which an overall winner is chosen. These usually involve huge, complex, beautiful well-crafted costumes, that includes 'wire-bending'.",
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"plaintext": "J'ouvert, or \"Dirty Mas\", takes place before dawn on the Monday (known as Carnival Monday) before Ash Wednesday. It means \"opening of the day\". Revelers dress in costumes embodying puns on current affairs, especially political and social events. \"Clean Mud\" (clay mud), oil paint and body paint are familiar during J'ouvert. A common character is \"Jab-jabs\" (devils, blue, black, or red) complete with pitchfork, pointed horns and tails. A King and Queen of J'ouvert are chosen, based on their witty political/social messages.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival Monday involves the parade of the mas bands. Revelers wear only parts of their costumes, more for fun than display or competition. Monday Night Mas is popular in most towns and especially the capital, where smaller bands compete. There is also the \"Bomb Competition\", a smaller-scaled judging of steel bands.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival Tuesday hosts the main events. Full costume is worn, complete with make-up and body paint/adornment. Usually \"Mas Boots\" that complement the costumes are worn. Each band has their costume presentation based on a particular theme, and contains various sections (some consisting of thousands of revelers) that reflect these themes. The street parade and band costume competition take place. The mas bands eventually converge on the Queen's Park Savannah to pass on \"The Stage\" for judging. The singer of the most played song is crowned Road March King or Queen, earning prize money and usually a vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "This parading and revelry goes on until Tuesday midnight. Ash Wednesday itself, while not an official holiday, sends flocks to local beaches. The most popular are Maracas Beach and Manzanilla Beach, where huge beach parties take place on Ash Wednesday.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival celebrations, usually referred to as Mardi Gras (\"Fat Tuesday\" in French), were first celebrated in the Gulf Coast area, but now occur in many states. Customs originated in the onetime French colonial capitals of Mobile (now in Alabama), New Orleans (Louisiana), and Biloxi (Mississippi), all of which have celebrated for many years with street parades and masquerade balls. Other major American cities with celebrations include Washington, D.C.; St. Louis, Missouri; San Francisco and San Diego, California; Galveston, Texas; and Pensacola, Tampa, and Orlando in Florida.",
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"plaintext": "The most widely known, elaborate, and popular U.S. events are in New Orleans, where krewes organize parades, balls, and other activities starting with Phunny Phorty Phellows streetcar parade on Twelfth Night and ending with the closing of Bourbon Street at midnight on Fat Tuesday. It is often called \"the greatest free party on earth\". Many other Louisiana cities such as Lake Charles, Baton Rouge, Shreveport, Lafayette, Mamou, Houma, and Thibodaux, most of which were under French control at one time or another, also hold Carnival celebrations. On the prairie country northwest of Lafayette, Louisiana, the Cajuns celebrate the traditional Courir de Mardi Gras, which has its roots in celebrations from rural Medieval France.",
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"plaintext": "In New York City, a Caribbean Carnival known as the West Indian Day Parade is held in Crown Heights, Brooklyn on Labor Day. Founded by immigrants from Trinidad, the event was initially held at the beginning of Lent, but was later moved to Labor Day in order to allow an outdoor event in the summer.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in 2013, the Slovenian-American community located in the St. Clair-Superior neighborhood of Cleveland began hosting a local version of Kurentovanje, the Carnival event held in the city of Ptuj, Slovenia. The event is conducted on the Saturday prior to Ash Wednesday.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival in Uruguay lasts more than 40 days, generally beginning towards the end of January and running through mid March. Celebrations in Montevideo are the largest. The festival is performed in the European parade style with elements from Bantu and Angolan Benguela cultures imported with slaves in colonial times. The main attractions of Uruguayan Carnival include two colorful parades called Desfile de Carnaval (Carnival Parade) and Desfile de Llamadas (Calls Parade, a candombe-summoning parade).",
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"plaintext": "During the celebration, theaters called tablados are built in many places throughout the cities, especially in Montevideo. Traditionally formed by men and now starting to be open to women, the different Carnival groups (Murgas, Lubolos, or Parodistas) perform a kind of popular opera at the tablados, singing and dancing songs that generally relate to the social and political situation. The 'Calls' groups, basically formed by drummers playing the tamboril, perform candombe rhythmic figures. The carnival in Uruguay have escolas de samba too, and the biggest samba parades are in Artigas and in Montevideo. Revelers wear their festival clothing. Each group has its own theme. Women wearing elegant, bright dresses are called vedettes and provide a sensual touch to parades.",
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"plaintext": "European archetypes (Pierrot, Harlequin, and Columbina) merge with African ancestral elements (the Old Mother or Mama Vieja, the Medicine Man or Gramillero and the Magician or Escobero) in the festival.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Venezuela covers two days, 40 days before Easter. It is a time when youth in many rural towns have water fights (including the use of water balloons and water guns). Any pedestrian risks getting soaked. Coastal towns and provinces celebrate Carnival more fervently than elsewhere in the country. Venezuelans regard Carnival about the same way they regard Christmas and Semana Santa (Holy Week; the week before Easter Sunday) when they take the opportunity to visit their families.",
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"plaintext": "In India, Carnival is celebrated only in the state of Goa and was originally a local Roman Catholic tradition known as Intruz which means \"swindler\" in Konkani while Entrudo is the appropriate word in Portuguese for \"Carnival\". The present commercial version of the Goan carnival (King Momo, floats, etc.) was created based on the Rio Carnival only in the 1960s as a means of attracting tourism. The largest celebration takes place in the capital Panaji. The commercial Carnival festivities occur during the three days and nights preceding Ash Wednesday. Sixtus Eric Dias from Candolim was the King Momo for the Carnival 2021. All-night parades occur throughout the state with bands, dances, and floats. Grand balls are held in the evenings.",
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"plaintext": "In Indonesia, the word \"carnival\" or karnaval is not related to pre-Lent festivities, but more to festivals in general, especially those with processions and extravagant costumes. One of the largest carnivals in Indonesia is the Solo Batik Carnival, held in Solo, Central Java. The Jember Fashion Carnaval is held in Jember, East Java.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman Catholic community of Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, held an Easter procession in form of an Easter Carnival called Pawai Paskah Kupang.",
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"plaintext": "Carnivals have begun to be celebrated in Korça before 1940, a period in which cultural life in this city has been varied. Although a pagan holiday, the Carnival was later celebrated on Feast Day in February. In addition to the many carnival-wearing individuals, there were bands with guitars, bows, and butaphoric masks such as animal heads and humans. The Korça Carnival took a big hit after the creation of cultural societies such as the \"Korça Youth\". During this period carnivals were accompanied by mandolins, guitars and humorous songs. Carnival celebrations were discontinued after 1960, to resume in other social conditions after 1990. Korça is one of the first cities to revive the Carnival tradition by establishing the Carnival Association in 1992 as part of the National Carnival Association of Albania. On 10 April 1994, the first International Carnival Festival in Albania was organized in Korça. The following year, the second International Carnival Festival is even larger. Since this year and until 2008, the Korca Carnival group has been represented at a number of international festivals organized in various European countries.",
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"plaintext": "Many parts of Belgium celebrate Carnival, typically with costume parades, partying and fireworks. These areas include the province of Limburg with its cities Maasmechelen, Maaseik and Lanaken along the river Meuse, the cities of Aalst, Ninove, Binche, Eupen, Halle, Heist, Kelmis, Malmedy, and Stavelot.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of Binche dates at least to the 14th century. Parades are held over the three days before Lent; the most important participants are the Gilles, who wear traditional costumes on Shrove Tuesday and throw blood oranges to the crowd. In 2003, the Carnival of Binche was recognised as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The Carnival of Aalst, celebrated during the three days preceding Ash Wednesday, received the same recognition in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of Malmedy is locally called Cwarmê. Even if Malmedy is located in the east Belgium, near the German-speaking area, the Cwarmê is a pure Walloon and Latin carnival. The celebration takes place during the four days before Shrove Tuesday. The Cwarmê Sunday is the most important and interesting to see. All the old traditional costumes parade in the street. The Cwarmê is a \"street carnival\" and is not only a parade. People who are disguised pass through the crowd and perform a part of the traditional costume they wear. The famous traditional costumes at the Cwarmê of Malmedy are the Haguète, the Longuès-Brèsses, and the Long-Né.",
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"plaintext": "Some Belgian cities hold Carnivals during Lent. One of the best-known is Stavelot, where the Carnival de la Laetare takes place on Laetare Sunday, the fourth Sunday of Lent. The participants include the Blancs-Moussis, who dress in white, carry long red noses and parade through town attacking bystanders with confetti and dried pig bladders. The city of Halle also celebrates on Laetare Sunday. Belgium's oldest parade is the Carnival Parade of Maaseik, also held on Laetare Sunday, which originated in 1865.",
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"plaintext": "In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croat-majority city of Ljubuški holds a traditional Carnival (). Ljubuški is a member of the Federation of European Carnival Cities (FECC).",
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"plaintext": "The most famous Croatian Carnival (Croatian: karneval, also called maškare or fašnik) is the Rijeka Carnival, during which the mayor of Rijeka hands over the keys to the city to the Carnival master (meštar od karnevala). The festival includes several events, culminating on the final Sunday in a masked procession. (A similar procession for children takes place on the previous weekend.)",
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"plaintext": "Many towns in Croatia's Kvarner region (and in other parts of the country, e.g. in Međimurje County in Northern Croatia) observe the Carnival period, incorporating local traditions and celebrating local culture. Some of the towns and places are Grobnik, Permani, Kastav and many others places near Rijeka, then Čakovec, Samobor etc. Just before the end of Carnival, every Kvarner town burns a man-like doll called a \"Pust\", who is blamed for all the strife of the previous year. The Zvončari, or bell-ringers push away winter and all the bad things in the past year and calling spring, they wear bells and large head regalia representing their areas of origin (for example, those from Halubje wear regalia in the shape of animal heads). The traditional Carnival food is fritule, a pastry. This festival can also be called Poklade.",
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"plaintext": "Masks are worn to many of the festivities, including concerts and parties. Children and teachers are commonly allowed to wear masks to school for a day, and also wear masks at school dances or while trick-or-treating. Carnivals also take place in summer. One of the most famous is the Senj Summer Carnival – first celebrated in 1968. The towns of Cres, Pag, Novi Vinodolski, and Fužine also organise Summer Carnivals.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival has been celebrated in Cyprus for centuries. The tradition was likely established under Venetian rule around the 16th century. It may have been influenced by Greek traditions, such as festivities for deities such as Dionysus. The celebration originally involved dressing in costumes and holding masked balls or visiting friends. In the twentieth century, it became an organized event held during the 10 days preceding Lent (according to the Greek Orthodox calendar). The festival is celebrated almost exclusively in the city of Limassol.",
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"plaintext": "Three main parades take place during Carnival. The first is held on the first day, during which the \"Carnival King\" (either a person in costume or an effigy) rides through the city on his carriage. The second is held on the first Sunday of the festival, and the participants are mainly children. The third and largest takes place on the last day of Carnival and involves hundreds of people walking in costume along the town's longest avenue. The latter two parades are open to anyone who wishes to participate.",
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"plaintext": "In the Czech Republic, the Masopust Festival takes place from Epiphany (Den tří králů) through Ash Wednesday (Popeleční středa). The word masopust translates literally from old Czech to mean \"meat fast\", and the festival often includes a pork feast. The tradition is most common in Moravia but also occurs in Bohemia. While practices vary, masks and costumes are present everywhere.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Denmark is called Fastelavn, and is held on the Sunday or Monday before Ash Wednesday. The holiday is sometimes described as a Nordic Halloween, with children dressing in costume and gathering treats for the Fastelavn feast. One popular custom is the fastelavnsris, a switch that children use to flog their parents to wake them up on Fastelavns Sunday.",
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"plaintext": "In Norway, students having seen celebrations in Paris introduced Carnival processions, masked balls, and Carnival balls to Christiana in the 1840s and 1850s. From 1863, the artist federation Kunstnerforeningen held annual Carnival balls in the old Freemasons lodge, which inspired Johan Svendsen's compositions Norsk Kunstnerkarneval and Karneval in Paris. The following year, Svendsen's Festpolonaise was written for the opening procession. Edvard Grieg attended and wrote \"Aus dem Karneval\" (Folkelivsbilleder Op. 19). Since 1988, the student organization has produced annual masquerade balls in Oslo, with masks, costumes, and processions after attending an opera performance. The Carnival season also includes Fastelavens søndag (with cream buns) and fastelavensris with decorated branches.",
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"plaintext": "In England, the season immediately before Lent was called Shrovetide. A time for confessing sins (\"shriving\"), it had fewer festivities than the Continental Carnivals. Today, Shrove Tuesday is celebrated as Pancake Day, but little else of the Lent-related Shrovetide survived the 16th-century English Reformation. The Shrovetide Carnival in the United Kingdom is celebrated in Cowes and East Cowes on the Isle of Wight. Since 2012, Hastings in East Sussex has celebrated with its own Mardi Gras, or Fat Tuesday.",
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"plaintext": "Five days of music and street events culminating with a Grand Ball on Fat Tuesday itself. Loosely based on the New Orleans style of carnival, Hastings has taken its own course.",
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"plaintext": "The Helsinki Samba Carnaval, modelled after the samba carnivals in Brazil, takes place every year in middle June. The carnival lacks a proper historical tradition and has instead mostly grown from experimenting.",
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"plaintext": "Some major Carnivals of mainland France are the Nice Carnival, the Dunkirk Carnival and the Limoux Carnival. The Nice Carnival was held as far back as 1294, and annually attracts over a million visitors during the two weeks preceding Lent.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1604, a characteristic masked Carnival is celebrated in Limoux.",
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"plaintext": "The Dunkirk Carnival is among the greatest and most exuberant carnivals celebrated in Europe. Its traditions date back to the 17th century and are based on the vischerbende as fishermen went from one café to another accompanied by their relatives and friends just before departing to Icelandic fishing grounds.",
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"plaintext": "In the French West Indies, it occurs between the Sunday of Epiphany and Ash Wednesday; this dates back to the arrival of French colonists in the islands.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest written record of Carnival in Germany was in 1296 in Speyer. The first worldwide Carnival parade took place in Cologne in 1823.",
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"plaintext": "The most active Carnival week begins on the Thursday before Ash Wednesday, with parades during the weekend, and finishes the night before Ash Wednesday, with the main festivities occurring around Rosenmontag (Rose Monday). This time is also called the \"Fifth Season\". Shrove Tuesday, called Fastnacht or Veilchendienstag, is celebrated in some cities.",
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"plaintext": "Parties feature self-made and more fanciful costumes and occasional masks. The parties become more exuberant as the weeks progress and peak after New Year, in January and February. The final Tuesday features all-night parties, dancing, hugging, and smooching. Some parties are for all, some for women only and some for children. Fasnachtsküchle (similar to Kreppel or donuts) are the traditional Fasching food and are baked or fried.",
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"plaintext": "In Germany, Rheinischer Karnival and Schwäbische Fastnacht are distinct; first is less formal and more political, second is much more traditional.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Rheinische\" Carnival is held in the west of Germany, mainly in the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate, but also in Hesse (including Upper Hesse). Similar forms of the festival occur in Bavaria, and other states. Some cities are more famous for celebrations such as parades and costume balls. The Cologne Carnival, as well as those in Mainz, Eschweiler and Düsseldorf, are the largest and most famous. Other cities have their own, often less well-known celebrations, parades, and parties, such as Aachen, Bonn, Worms am Rhein, Speyer, Kaiserslautern, Frankfurt, Darmstadt, Duisburg, Dortmund, Essen, Mannheim, Münster, Krefeld, Ludwigshafen, Mönchengladbach, Stuttgart, Augsburg, Munich, and Nuremberg. The biggest German carnival club is located in a little town Dieburg in South Hesse. Festivities can start as early as 11 November at 11:11am for some carnival organizations, though the main events are often after the Christmas season. On Carnival Thursday (called \"Old Women Day\" or \"The Women's Day\" in commemoration of an 1824 revolt by washer-women), women storm city halls, cut men's ties, and are allowed to kiss any passing man. Special acrobatic show dances in mock uniforms are a traditional contribution to most festive balls. They may or may not have been a source of inspiration to American cheerleading. The Fasching parades and floats make fun of individual politicians and other public figures. Many speeches do the same.",
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"plaintext": "Traditions often also include the \"Faschingssitzung\" – a sit-only party with dancing and singing presentations, and often many speeches given that humorously criticize politics.",
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"plaintext": "The Swabian-Alemannic Fastnacht, known as Schwäbische Fastnacht, takes place in Baden, Swabia, the Allgäu, Alsace, and Vorarlberg (western Austria). During the pagan era, it represented the time of year when the reign of the grim winter spirits is over, and these spirits are hunted and expelled. It then adapted to Catholicism. The first official record of Karneval, Fasching or Fastnacht in Germany dates to 1296. Often the costumes and masks on parades strictly follow traditional designs and represent specific historical characters, public figures – or specific daemons.",
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"plaintext": "In Switzerland, Fasnacht takes place in the Catholic cantons of Switzerland, e.g. in Lucerne (Lozärner Fasnacht), but also in Protestant Basel. However, the Basler Fasnacht begins on the Monday after Ash Wednesday. Both began in the Late Middle Ages. Smaller Fasnacht festivities take place across German Switzerland, e.g. in Bern and Olten, or in the eastern part (Zurich, St. Gallen, Appenzell).",
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"plaintext": "In Greece, Carnival is known as (, '[goodbye] to meat'), and officially begins with the \"Opening of the Triodion\", the liturgical book used by the Orthodox Church from then until Holy Week. Apokries is made up of three themed weeks of celebration known as (, 'preannouncement week'), (, 'meat week'), and (, 'cheese week'). One of the season's high points during Kreatini is ( 'Smoky-Thursday'), when celebrants throw large outdoor parties and roast huge amounts of meat; the ritual is repeated the following Sunday, after which point meat is forbidden until Easter. The following week, Tirini, is marked by similar festivities revolving around the consumption of cheese, eggs, and dairy and culminates with a \"Cheese Sunday.\" Great Lent, and its restrictive fasting rules, begins in earnest the next day on Clean Monday. Throughout the Carnival season, festivals, parades, and balls are held all over the country. Many people disguise themselves as (\"masqueraders\") and engage in pranks and revelry throughout the season.",
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"plaintext": "Patras holds the largest annual Carnival in Greece, and one of the largest in the world. The famous Patras Carnival is a three-day spectacle replete with concerts, theatre performances, parading troupes, an elaborate treasure hunt game, three major parades, parallel celebrations specifically for children, and many masquerade balls including the famous Bourboúlia () ball in which women wear special robe-like costumes called a to hide their identy. The festivities come to a crescendo on \"Cheese Sunday\" when The Grand Parade of troupes and floats leads celebrators to the harbor for the ceremonial burning of the effigy of King Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival in Corfu is much influenced by the Carnival of Venice. During this period, various theatrical sketches are presented on the island, called Petególia or Petegolétsa (Πετεγολέτσα) in the local dialect. In previous centuries, existed also the custom of \"Giostra\" (jousting).",
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"plaintext": "The second biggest Carnival in Greece takes place in Xanthi (Eastern Macedonia and Thrace) since 1966 and it is the major event of its kind in Northern Greece. The Xanthi Carnival manages to attract visitors from the nearby countries such as Bulgaria, Turkey, and Romania. Other regions host festivities of smaller extent, focused on the reenactment of traditional carnival customs, such as Tyrnavos (Thessaly), Kozani (Western Macedonia), Rethymno (Crete). Tyrnavos holds an annual Phallus festival, a traditional \"phallkloric\" event in which giant, gaudily painted effigies of phalluses made of papier-mâché are paraded, and which women are asked to touch or kiss. Their reward for so doing is a shot of the famous local tsipouro alcohol spirit.",
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"plaintext": "Every year, from 1–8 January, mostly in regions of Western Macedonia, traditional Carnival festivals erupt. Best known of these is the () festival in the city of Kastoria whose celebration may date back to antiquity and whose name derives from the Latin word 'beggars', in reference to the beggars who could mingle with the rich in their masks. It takes place from 6–8 January with mass participation and is noted for its brass bands, flutes, and Macedonian drums. It is an ancient celebration of nature's rebirth akin to ancient festivals for Dionysus (Dionysia) and Kronos (Saturnalia).",
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"plaintext": "In Mohács, Hungary, the Busójárás is a celebration held at the end of the Carnival season. It involves locals dressing in woolly costumes, with scary masks and noise-makers. According to legend, the festival celebrates both the conclusion of the winter season and a victory by the local people over invading Ottomans in 1526.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous Carnivals of Italy are held in Venice, Viareggio, and Ivrea.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival in Venice was first recorded in 1268. Its subversive nature is reflected in Italy's many laws over the centuries attempting to restrict celebrations and the wearing of masks. Carnival celebrations in Venice were halted after the city fell under Austrian control in 1798, but were revived in the late 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "The month-long Carnival of Viareggio is characterized mainly by its parade of floats and masks caricaturing popular figures. In 2001, the town built a new \"Carnival citadel\" dedicated to Carnival preparations and entertainment.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of Ivrea is famous for its \"Battle of the Oranges\" fought with fruit between the people on foot and the troops of the tyrant on carts, to remember the wars of the Middle Ages.",
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"plaintext": "In the most part of the Archdiocese of Milan, the Carnival lasts four more days, ending on the Saturday after Ash Wednesday, because of the Ambrosian Rite.",
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"plaintext": "In Sardinia, the Carnival (in Sardinian language Carrasecare or Carrasegare) varies greatly from the one in the mainland of Italy: due to its close relation to the Dionysian Rites, the majority of the Sardinian celebrations features not only feasts and parades but also crude fertility rites such as bloodsheds to fertilize the land, the death and the resurrection of the Carnival characters and representations of violence and torture. The typical characters of the Sardinian Carnival are zoomorphic and/or androgynous, such as the Mamuthones and Issohadores from Mamoiada, the Boes and Merdules from Ottana and many more. The Carnival is celebrated with street performances that are typically accompanied by Sardinian dirges called , meaning literally \"cry of a baby when the mother doesn't want nursed him/her anymore\" (from the word titta meaning breasts). Other particular and important Carnival instances in Sardinia are the Sartiglia in Oristano and the Tempio Pausania Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "Užgavėnės is a Lithuanian festival that takes place on Shrove Tuesday. Its name in English means \"the time before Lent\". The celebration corresponds to Carnival holiday traditions.",
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"plaintext": "Užgavėnės begins on the night before Ash Wednesday, when an effigy of winter (usually named Morė) is burnt. A major element symbolizes the defeat of winter in the Northern Hemisphere. It is a staged battle between Lašininis (\"porky\") personifying winter and Kanapinis (\"hempen man\") personifying spring. Devils, witches, goats, the grim reaper, and other joyful and frightening characters appear in costumes during the celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "Eating pancakes is an important part of the celebration.",
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"plaintext": "In Luxembourg, the pre-Lenten holiday season is known as Fuesend. Throughout the Grand-Duchy, parades and parties are held.",
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"plaintext": "Pétange is the home of the Grand-Duchy's largest pre-Lenten Karneval celebration. Annually hosting a cavalcade with roughly 1,200 participants and thousand of celebrants, the official name is Karneval Gemeng Péiteng or \"Kagepe\" (the initials in Luxembourgish are pronounced \"Ka\", \"Ge\" and \"Pe\").",
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"plaintext": "The town of Remich holds a three-day-long celebration, notable for two special events in addition to its parades. The first is the Stréimännchen, which is the burning of a male effigy from the Remich Bridge that crosses the Moselle River separating the Grand Duchy from Germany. The Stréimännchen symbolizes the burning away of winter. The other special event at the Remich Fuesend celebrations is the Buergbrennen or bonfire that closes the celebration.",
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"plaintext": "Like Remich, the town of Esch-sur-Alzette holds a three-day celebration. Other major Fuesend parades in Luxembourg are held in the towns of Diekirch and Schifflange.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in Malta (Maltese: il-Karnival ta' Malta) was introduced to the islands by Grand Master Piero de Ponte in 1535. It is held during the week leading up to Ash Wednesday, and typically includes masked balls, fancy dresses, and grotesque mask competitions, lavish late-night parties, a colourful, ticker-tape parade of allegorical floats presided over by King Carnival (Maltese: ir-Re tal-Karnival), marching bands, and costumed revellers.",
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"plaintext": "The largest celebration takes place in and around the capital city of Valletta and Floriana; several more \"spontaneous\" Carnivals take place in more remote areas. The Nadur Carnival is notable for its darker themes. In 2005, the Nadur Carnival hosted the largest-ever gathering of international Carnival organizers for the FECC's global summit.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional dances include the parata, a lighthearted re-enactment of the 1565 victory of the Knights Hospitaller over the Turks, and an 18th-century court dance known as il-Maltija. Carnival food includes perlini (multi-coloured, sugar-coated almonds) and the prinjolata, which is a towering assembly of sponge cake, biscuits, almonds, and citrus fruits, topped with cream and pine nuts.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in the Netherlands is called Carnaval, Vastenavond (\"Eve of Lent\") or, in Limburgish, , and is mostly celebrated in traditionally Catholic regions, particularly in the southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg, but also in Overijssel, especially in Twente. While Dutch Carnaval is officially celebrated on the Sunday through Tuesday preceding Ash Wednesday, since the 1970s the feast has gradually started earlier and generally includes now the preceding weekend. Although traditions vary from town to town, Dutch carnaval usually includes a parade, a \"Prince Carnival\" plus cortège (\"Council of 11\", sometimes with a Jester or Adjutant), sometimes also the handing over by the mayor of the symbolic keys of the town to Prince Carnival, the burning or burial of a symbolic figure, a peasant wedding (boerenbruiloft), and eating herring (haring happen) on Ash Wednesday.",
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"plaintext": "Two main variants can be distinguished: the Rhineland carnaval, found in the province of Limburg, and the Bourgondische carnaval, found mainly in North Brabant. Maastricht, Limburg's capital, holds a street carnaval that features elaborate costumes.",
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"plaintext": "The first known documentation dates from the late 8th century (Indiculus superstitionum et paganiarum), but Carnaval was already mentioned during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and by Caesarius of Arles (470-542) around 500 CE. In the Netherlands itself, the first documentation is found in 1383 in 's-Hertogenbosch. The oldest-known images of Dutch Carnaval festivities date from 1485, also in 's-Hertogenbosch.",
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"plaintext": "Normal daily life comes to a stop for about a week in the southern part of the Netherlands during the carnival, with roads temporary blocked and many local businesses closed for the week as a result of employees who are en masse taking the days off during and the day after the carnival.",
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"plaintext": "The most popular Carnivals in North Macedonia are in Vevčani and Strumica.",
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"plaintext": "The Vevčani Carnival (Macedonian: Вевчански Kарневал, translated Vevchanski Karneval) has been held for over 1,400 years, and takes place on 13 and 14 January (New Year's Eve and New Year's Day by the old calendar). The village becomes a live theatre where costumed actors improvise on the streets in roles such as the traditional \"August the Stupid\".",
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"plaintext": "The Strumica Carnival (Macedonian: Струмички Карневал, translated Strumichki Karneval) has been held since at least 1670, when the Turkish author Evlija Chelebija wrote while staying there, \"I came into a town located in the foothills of a high hillock and what I saw that night was masked people running house–to–house, with laughter, scream and song.\" The Carnival took an organized form in 1991; in 1994, Strumica became a member of FECC and in 1998 hosted the XVIII International Congress of Carnival Cities. The Strumica Carnival opens on a Saturday night at a masked ball where the Prince and Princess are chosen; the main Carnival night is on Tuesday, when masked participants (including groups from abroad) compete in various subjects. As of 2000, the Festival of Caricatures and Aphorisms has been held as part of Strumica's Carnival celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "The Polish Carnival season includes Fat Thursday (Polish: Tłusty Czwartek), when pączki (doughnuts) are eaten, and Śledzik (Shrove Tuesday) or Herring Day. The Tuesday before the start of Lent is also often called Ostatki (literally \"leftovers\"), meaning the last day to party before the Lenten season.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional way to celebrate Carnival is the kulig, a horse-drawn sleigh ride through the snow-covered countryside. In modern times, Carnival is increasingly seen as an excuse for intensive partying and has become more commercialized, with stores offering Carnival-season sales.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival is Carnaval in Portugal, celebrated throughout the country, most famously in Ovar, Sesimbra, Madeira, Loulé, Nazaré, and Torres Vedras. Carnaval in Podence and Lazarim incorporates pagan traditions such as the careto, while the Torres Vedras celebration is probably the most typical.",
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"plaintext": "On the islands of the Azores, local clubs and Carnival groups create colorful and creative costumes that jab at politics or culture.",
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"plaintext": "On São Miguel Island, Carnival features street vendors selling fried dough, called a malassada. The festival on the biggest island starts off with a black tie grand ball, followed by Latin music at Coliseu Micaelense. A children's parade fills the streets of Ponta Delgada with children from each school district in costume. A massive parade continues past midnight, ending in fireworks.",
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"plaintext": "The event includes theatre performances and dances. In the \"Danças de Entrudo\", hundreds of people follow the dancers around the island. Throughout the show the dancers act out scenes from daily life. The \"Dances de Carnival\" are allegorical and comedic tales acted out in the streets. The largest is in Angra do Heroísmo, with more than 30 groups performing. More Portuguese-language theatrical performances occur there than anywhere else.",
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"plaintext": "Festivities end on Ash Wednesday, when locals sit down for the \"Batatada\" or potato feast, in which the main dish is salted cod with potatoes, eggs, mint, bread and wine. Residents then return to the streets for the burning of the \"Carnival clown\", ending the season.",
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"plaintext": "On the island of Madeira, the island's capital, Funchal, wakes up on the Friday before Ash Wednesday to the sound of brass bands and Carnival parades throughout downtown. Festivities continue with concerts and shows in the Praça do Município for five consecutive days. The main Carnival street parade takes place on Saturday evening, with thousands of samba dancers filling the streets. The traditional street event takes place on Tuesday, featuring daring caricatures.",
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"plaintext": "Arguably, Brazil's Carnival could be traced to the period of the Portuguese Age of Discoveries when their caravels passed regularly through Madeira, a territory that emphatically celebrated Carnival.",
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"plaintext": "Carnival in the town of Ovar, in the Aveiro Region, began in 1952 and is the region's largest festivity, representing a large investment and the most important touristic event to the city. It is known for its creative designs, displayed in the Carnival Parade, which features troupes with themed costumes and music, ranging from the traditional to pop culture. Along with the Carnival Parade, there are five nights of partying, finishing with the famous 'Magical night' where people come from all over the country, mostly with their handmade costumes, only to have fun with the locals.",
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"plaintext": "In Estarreja, in the Central region of Portugal, the town's first references to Carnival were in the 14th century, with \"Flower Battles\", richly decorated floats that paraded through the streets. At the beginning of the twentieth century, these festivities ended with the deaths of its main promoters, only to reappear again in the 1960s to become one of many important Carnival festivals in Portugal.",
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"plaintext": "In the Northern region of Podence, children appear from Sunday to Tuesday with tin masks and colorful multilayered costumes made from red, green and yellow wool. In the Central Portugal towns of Nelas and Canas de Senhorim, Carnival is an important tourist event. Nelas and Canas de Senhorim host four festive parades that offer colorful and creative costumes: Bairro da Igreja and Cimo do Povo in Nelas and do Paço and do Rossio in Canas de Senhorim.",
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"plaintext": "In Lisbon, Carnival offers parades, dances and festivities featuring stars from Portugal and Brazil. The Loures Carnival celebrates the country's folk traditions, including the enterro do bacalhau or burial of the cod, which marks the end of Carnival and the festivities.",
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"plaintext": "North of Lisbon is the famous Torres Vedras Carnival, described as the \"most Portuguese in Portugal\". The celebration highlight is a parade of creatively decorated streetcars that satirize society and politics.",
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"plaintext": "Other Central Portugal towns, such as Fátima and Leiria, offer colorful, family-friendly celebrations. In these towns, everyone dresses up as if it were Halloween. Children and adults wear masks.",
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"plaintext": "In the Algarve region, several resort towns offer Carnival parades. Besides the themed floats and cars, the festivities include \"samba\" groups, bands, dances, and music.",
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"plaintext": "In Lazarim, a civil parish in the municipality of Lamego, celebrations follow the pagan tradition of Roman Saturnalias. It celebrates by burning colorful effigies and dressing in home-made costumes. Locally-made wooden masks are worn. The masks are effigies of men and women with horns, but both roles are performed by men. They are distinguished by their clothes, with caricature attributes of both men and women.",
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"plaintext": "The Lazarim Carnaval cycle encompasses two periods, the first starting on the fifth Sunday before Quinquagesima Sunday. Masked figures and people wearing large sculpted heads walk through the town. The locals feast on meats, above all pork. The second cycle, held on Sundays preceding Ash Wednesday, incorporates the tradition of the Compadres and Comadres, with men and women displaying light-hearted authority over the other.",
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"plaintext": "Over the five weeks, men prepare large masked heads and women raise funds to pay for two mannequins that will be sacrificed in a public bonfire. This is a key event and is unique to Portugal. During the bonfire, a girl reads the Compadre's will and a boy reads the Comadre's will. The executors of the will are named, a donkey is symbolically distributed to both female and male \"heirs\", and then there is the final reckoning in which the Entrudo, or Carnival doll, is burned.",
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"plaintext": "Maslenitsa (, also called \"Pancake Week\" or \"Cheese Week\") is a Russian folk holiday that incorporates some pagan traditions. It is celebrated during the last week before Lent. The essential element is bliny, Russian pancakes, popularly taken to symbolize the sun. Round and golden, they are made from the rich foods allowed that week by the Orthodox traditions: butter, eggs, and milk. (In the tradition of Orthodox Lent, the consumption of meat ceases one week before that of milk and eggs.)",
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"plaintext": "Maslenitsa also includes masquerades, snowball fights, sledding, swinging on swings, and sleigh rides. The mascot is a brightly dressed straw effigy of Lady Maslenitsa, formerly known as Kostroma. The celebration culminates on Sunday evening, when Lady Maslenitsa is stripped of her finery and put to the flames of a bonfire.",
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"plaintext": "In Slovakia, the Fašiangy (fašiang, fašangy) takes place from Three Kings Day (Traja králi) until the midnight before Ash Wednesday (Škaredá streda or Popolcová streda). At the midnight marking the end of fašiangy, a symbolic burial ceremony for the contrabass is performed, because music ceases for Lent.",
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"plaintext": "The Slovenian name for carnival is pust. The Slovenian countryside displays a variety of disguised groups and individual characters, among which the most popular and characteristic is the Kurent (plural: Kurenti), a monstrous and demon-like, but fluffy figure. The most significant festival is held in Ptuj (see: Kurentovanje). Its special feature are the Kurents themselves, magical creatures from another world, who visit major events throughout the country, trying to banish the winter and announce spring's arrival, fertility, and new life with noise and dancing. The origin of the Kurent is a mystery, and not much is known of the times, beliefs, or purposes connected with its first appearance. The origin of the name itself is obscure.",
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"plaintext": "The Cerknica Carnival is heralded by a figure called \"Poganjič\" carrying a whip. In the procession, organised by the \"Pust society\", a monstrous witch named Uršula is driven from the mountain Slivnica, to be burned at the stake on Ash Wednesday. Unique to this region is a group of dormice, driven by the Devil and a huge fire-breathing dragon. Cerkno and its surrounding area are known for the Laufarji, Carnival figures with artistically carved wooden masks.",
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"plaintext": "The Maškare from Dobrepolje used to represent a triple character: the beautiful, the ugly (among which the most important represented by an old man, an old woman, a hunchback, and a Kurent), and the noble (imitating the urban elite).",
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"plaintext": "The major part of the population, especially the young and children, dress up in ordinary non-ethnic costumes, going to school, work, and organized events, where prizes are given for the best and most original costumes. Costumed children sometimes go from house to house asking for treats.",
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"plaintext": "Arguably the most famous Carnivals in Spain are Santa Cruz, Las Palmas, Sitges, Vilanova i la Geltrú, Tarragona, Águilas, Solsona, Cádiz, Badajoz, Bielsa (an ancestral Carnival celebration), Plan, San Juan de Plan, Laza, Verín, Viana, and Xinzo de Limia.",
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"plaintext": "One of the oldest pre-Indo-European carnival in Europe takes place in Ituren and Zubieta in Navarre in late January/early February. The carnival symbolises the eternal struggle between the forces of good and evil, light and darkness, winter and spring.",
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"plaintext": "In Cádiz, the costumes worn are often related to recent news, such as the bird flu epidemic in 2006, during which many people were disguised as chickens. The feeling of this Carnival is the sharp criticism, the funny play on words and the imagination in the costumes, more than the glamorous dressings. It is traditional to paint the face with lipstick as a humble substitute of a mask.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous groups are the chirigotas, choirs, and comparsas. The chirigotas are well known witty, satiric popular groups who sing about politics, new times, and household topics, wearing the same costume, which they prepare for the whole year. The Choirs (coros) are wider groups that go on open carts through the streets singing with an orchestra of guitars and lutes. Their signature piece is the \"Carnival Tango\", alternating comical and serious repertory. The comparsas are the serious counterpart of the chirigota in Cádiz, and the poetic lyrics and the criticism are their main ingredients. They have a more elaborated polyphony that is easily recognizable by the typical countertenor voice.",
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"plaintext": "The Santa Cruz Carnival is, with the Carnival of Cadiz, the most important festival for Spanish tourism and Spain's largest Carnival. In 1980, it was declared a Festival Tourist International Interest. Every February, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of the largest of the Canary Islands, hosts the event, attracting around a million people.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, it was declared a Festival Tourist International Interest. In 1987, Cuban singer Celia Cruz with orchestra Billo's Caracas Boys performed at the \"Carnival Chicharrero\", attended by 250,000 people. This was registered in the Guinness Book of World Records as the largest gathering of people in an outdoor plaza to attend a concert, a record she holds today.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) has a drag queen's gala where a jury chooses a winner.",
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"plaintext": "In Catalonia, people dress in masks and costume (often in themed groups) and organize a week-long series of parties, pranks, outlandish activities such as bed races, street dramas satirizing public figures, and raucous processions to welcome the arrival of Sa Majestat el Rei Carnestoltes (\"His Majesty King Carnival\"), known by various titles, including el Rei dels poca-soltes (\"King of the Crackpots\"), Princep etern de Cornudella (\"Eternal Prince of Cuckoldry\"), (\"Duke of Fools and the Corrupt\"), Marquès de la bona mamella (\"Marquis of the lovely breast\"), Comte de tots els barruts (\"Count of the Insolent\"), Baró de les Calaverades (\"Baron of Nocturnal Debaucheries\"), and (\"Lord of the Tall Banana in Bloom, of the Voyeurs and Punks and the Artist of Honor upon the Bed\").",
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"plaintext": "The King presides over a period of misrule in which conventional social rules may be broken and reckless behavior is encouraged. Festivities are held in the open air, beginning with a cercavila, a ritual procession throughout the town to call everyone to attend. Rues of masked revelers dance alongside. On Thursday, Dijous Gras (Fat Thursday) is celebrated, also called 'omelette day' (el dia de la truita), on which coques (), and omelettes are eaten. The festivities end on Ash Wednesday with elaborate funeral rituals marking the death of King Carnival, who is typically burned on a pyre in what is called the \"burial of the sardine\" (enterrament de la sardina), or, in Vilanova, as l'enterro.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival of Vilanova i la Geltrú has a documented history from 1790 and is one of the richest in the variety of its acts and rituals. It adopts an ancient style in which satire, the grotesque body (particularly cross-dressing and displays of exaggerated bellies, noses, and phalli) and above all, active participation are valued over glamorous, media-friendly spectacles that Vilanovins mock as \"thighs and feathers\". It is best known for Les Comparses (held on Sunday), a tumultuous dance in which thousands of dancers in traditional dresses and Mantons de Manila (Manila shawls), organized into groups of couples march in the street forming lines while throwing tons of hard candies at one another. Vilanovinians organize several rituals during the week. On Dijous Gras, Vilanovin children are excused from school to participate in the Merengada, a day-long scene of eating and fighting with sticky, sweet meringue while adults have a meringue battle at midnight at the historic Plaça de les Cols.",
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"plaintext": "On Friday citizens are called to a parade for the arrival of King Carnival called l'Arrivo that changes every year. It includes a raucous procession of floats and dancers lampooning current events or public figures and a bitingly satiric sermon (el sermo) delivered by the King himself. On Saturday, the King's procession and his concubines scandalize the town with their sexual behavior, the mysterious Moixo Foguer (Little-Bird-Bonfire) is shown accompanied by the Xerraire (jabberer) who try to convince the crowd about the wonders of this mighty bird he carries in a box (who is in fact a naked person covered in feathers). and other items such as sport acts and barbecues in the streets, the talking-dance of the Mismatched Couples (Ball de Malcasats), the children's King Caramel whose massive belly, long nose and sausage-like hair hint at his insatiable appetites, or the debauched Nit dels Mascarots dance.",
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"plaintext": "After Sunday, vilanovinians continue its Carnival with the children's partyVidalet, the satirical chorus of Carnestoltes songs and the last night of revelry, the Vidalot. For the King's funeral, people dress in elaborate mourning costume, many of them cross-dressing men who carry bouquets of phallic vegetables. In the funeral house, the body of the King is surrounded by weeping concubines, crying over the loss of sexual pleasure brought about by his death. The King's body is carried to the Plaça de la Vila where a satiric eulogy is delivered while the townspeople eat salty grilled sardines with bread and wine, suggesting the symbolic cannibalism of the communion ritual. Finally, amid rockets and explosions, the King's body is burned in a massive pyre.",
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"plaintext": "Carnaval de Solsona takes place in Solsona, Lleida. It is one of the longest; free events in the streets and nightly concerts run for more than a week. The Carnival is known for a legend that explains how a donkey was hung at the tower bell − because the animal wanted to eat grass that grew on the top of the tower. To celebrate this legend, locals hang a stuffed donkey at the tower that \"pisses\" above the excited crowd using a water pump. This event is the most important and takes place on Saturday night. For this reason, the inhabitants are called matarrucs (\"donkey killers\").",
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"plaintext": "\"Comparses\" groups organize free activities. These groups of friends create and personalize a uniformed suit to wear during the festivities.",
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"plaintext": "In Sitges, special feasts include (xató is a traditional local salad of the Penedès coast) served with omelettes. Two important moments are the Rua de la Disbauxa (Debauchery Parade) on Sunday night and the Rua de l'Extermini (Extermination Parade) on Tuesday night. In 2022, the Rua de la Disbauxa hosted 34 floats and over 1,200 participants.",
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"plaintext": "Tarragona has one of the region's most complete ritual sequences. The events start with the building of a huge barrel and ends with its burning with the effigies of the King and Queen. On Saturday, the main parade takes place with masked groups, zoomorphic figures, music, and percussion bands, and groups with fireworks (the devils, the dragon, the ox, the female dragon). Carnival groups stand out for their clothes full of elegance, showing brilliant examples of fabric crafts, at the Saturday and Sunday parades. About 5,000 people are members of the parade groups.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most important Spanish Carnival Festivals is celebrated in Vinaròs, a small town situated in the northern part of the province of Castellón, Valencian Community.",
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"plaintext": "The Carnival Festival in Vinaròs has been declared of Regional Touristic Interest and in 2017, this outstanding and ancient show celebrates 35 years of History. The Carnival Festival in Vinaròs became a forbidden celebration during the Spanish Civil War but after the dictatorship, the party regained importance with the democracy's arrival.",
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"plaintext": "Every year in February, forty days before the Spanish Cuaresma, thirty-three \"comparsas\" go singing, dancing and walking down the streets in a great costumes' parade in Vinaròs. In addition, many other festive, cultural and musical activities of all ages take place, such as an epic battle of confetti and flour, funny karaoke contests or the so-called \"Entierro de la Sardina\" (Burial of the Sardine).",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the most important event is the gala performance of the Carnival's Queen. In this breathtaking show, it is elected the Queen of the Carnival, the major representative of the Carnival in Vinaròs all year round.",
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"plaintext": "For almost five centuries, local Greek communities throughout Istanbul celebrated Carnival with weeks of bawdy parades, lavish balls, and street parties. This continued for weeks before Lent. Baklahorani took place on Shrove Monday, the last day of the carnival season. The event was led by the Greek Orthodox community, but the celebrations were public and inter-communal. The final celebration was sited in the Kurtuluş district. In 2010, the festival was revived.",
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"plaintext": " Adloyada",
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"plaintext": " Careto",
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"plaintext": " Carnival of Basel",
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"plaintext": " Carny",
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"plaintext": "McGowan, Chris and Pessanha, Ricardo. \"The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova and the Popular Music of Brazil.\" 1998. 2nd edition. Temple University Press. .",
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"plaintext": "Jeroen Dewulf (2017) From the Kingdom of Kongo to Congo Square: Kongo Dances and the Origins of the Mardi Gras Indians (Lafayette, LA: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press)",
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38,484 | 1,106,452,581 | Artois | [
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"plaintext": "Artois ( ; ; ; English adjective: Artesian) is a region of northern France. Its territory covers an area of about 4,000km2 and it has a population of about one million. Its principal cities are Arras (Dutch: Atrecht), Saint-Omer, Lens, and Béthune. It is the eponym for the term artesian.",
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"plaintext": "Originally a feudal county itself, Artois was annexed by the county of Flanders. It came to France in 1180 as a dowry of a Flemish princess, Isabelle of Hainaut, and was again made a separate county in 1237 for Robert, a grandson of Isabelle. Through inheritance, Artois came under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy in 1384. At the death of the fourth duke, Charles the Bold, Artois was inherited by the Habsburgs and passed to the dynasty's Spanish line. After the religious revolts of 1566 in the Netherlands, Artois briefly entered the Dutch Revolt in 1576, participating in the Pacification of Ghent until it formed the Union of Atrecht in 1579.",
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"plaintext": "After the Union of Atrecht, Artois and Hainaut (Dutch: Henegouwen) reached a separate agreement with Philip II. Artois remained with the Spanish Netherlands until it was conquered by the France during the Franco-Spanish War. The annexation was acknowledged during the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, and it became a French province. Artois had already been largely French-speaking, but it was part of the Southern Netherlands until the French annexation.",
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"plaintext": "Artois experienced rapid industrial development during the second half of the 19th century, fueled by its rich coal resources. During World War I, the front line between the opposing Central Powers and Allied armies in France ran through the province, resulting in enormous physical damage. Since the second half of the 20th century, Artois has suffered along with nearby areas because of the decline of the coal industry.",
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"plaintext": " Pierre-Charles Le Sueur (c. 1657 – c. 1705), born in Artois, noted explorer and trader.",
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1397218
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"plaintext": " List of World War I memorials and cemeteries in Artois",
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"plaintext": " Weald-Artois Anticline, a ridge that connected continental Europe and Britain until 225,000 years ago",
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38,486 | 1,106,669,668 | List_of_Anuran_families | [
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"plaintext": "This list of Anuran families shows all extant families of Anura. Anura is an order of animals in the class Amphibia that includes frogs and toads. More than 5,000 species are described in the order. The living anurans are typically divided into three suborders: Archaeobatrachia, Mesobatrachia, and Neobatrachia. This classification is based on such morphological features as the number of vertebrae, the structure of the pectoral girdle, and the morphology of tadpoles.",
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"plaintext": "The archaeobatrachians are the most primitive of frogs. These frogs have morphological characteristics which are found mostly in extinct frogs, and are absent in most of the modern frog species. Most of these characteristics are not common between all the families of Archaeobatrachia, or are not absent from all the modern species of frogs. However, all archaeobatrachians have free vertebrae, whereas all other species of frogs have their ribs fused to their vertebrae.",
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"plaintext": "The Neobatrachia comprise the most modern species of frogs. Most of these frogs have morphological features which are more complex than those of the mesobatrachians and archaeobatrachians. The neobatrachians all have a palatine bone, which braces the upper jaw to the neurocranium. This is absent in all Archaeobatrachia and some Mesobatrachia. The third distal carpus is fused with the remaining carpal bones. The adductor longus muscle is present in the neobatrachians, but absent in the archaeobatrachians and some mesobatrachians. It is believed to have differentiated from pectineus muscle, and this differentiation has not occurred in the primitive frogs. ",
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"plaintext": "The Mesobatrachia are considered the evolutionary link between the Archaeobatrachia and the Neobatrachia. The families within the mesobatrachian suborder generally contain morphological features typical of both the other suborders. For example, the palatine bone is absent in all archaeobatrachians, and present in all neobatrachians. However, within the mesobatrachians families, it can be dependent on the species as to whether the palatine bone is present.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the many morphological features which separate the frogs, many different systems are used for the classification of the anuran suborders. These different classification systems usually split the Mesobatrachia suborder.",
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38,490 | 1,098,225,017 | Drummer | [
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"plaintext": "Most contemporary western bands that play rock, pop, jazz, or R&B music include a drummer for purposes including timekeeping and embellishing the musical timbre. The drummer's equipment includes a drum kit (or \"drum set\" or \"trap set\"), which includes various drums, cymbals and an assortment of accessory hardware such as pedals, standing support mechanisms, and drum sticks.",
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"plaintext": "Some famous drummers include: Max Roach, Ringo Starr (The Beatles), John Bonham (Led Zeppelin), Ginger Baker (Cream), Keith Moon (The Who), Neil Peart (Rush), Buddy Rich, Gene Krupa, Tony Williams, Elvin Jones, Brian Blade, Jack DeJohnette, Tim \"Herb\" Alexander (Primus), Phil Rudd (AC/DC), Roger Taylor (Queen), Charlie Watts (The Rolling Stones), Nick Mason (Pink Floyd), Bill Ward (Black Sabbath), Chad Smith (Red Hot Chili Peppers), Travis Barker (Blink-182), Phil Collins (Genesis), Rick Allen (Def Leppard), Alex Van Halen (Van Halen), Tré Cool (Green Day), Dave Grohl (Nirvana), Joey Jordison (Slipknot), Lars Ulrich (Metallica), Tommy Lee (Mötley Crüe), and James “The Rev” Sullivan (Avenged Sevenfold).",
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"plaintext": "As well as the primary rhythmic function, in some musical styles, such as world, jazz, classical, and electronica, the drummer is called upon to provide solo and lead performances, at times when the main feature of the music is the rhythmic development. Drummers tend to possess considerable stamina and hands-eyes-legs coordination.",
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"plaintext": "auxiliary percussion (bells, Latin drums, cowbells, temple blocks) and many others.",
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"plaintext": "There are also single, double, and triple bass pedals that drummers may use for the bass drum.",
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"plaintext": "Before motorized transport became widespread, drummers played a key role in military conflicts. Military drummers provided drum cadences that set a steady marching pace and elevated troop morale on the battlefield. In some armies drums also assisted in combat by keeping cadence for firing and loading drills with muzzle loading guns. Military drummers were also employed on the parade field, when troops passed in review, and in various ceremonies including ominous drum rolls accompanying disciplinary punishments. Children also served as drummer boys well into the nineteenth century, though less commonly than is popularly assumed; due to the nature of the job, experienced older men were preferred.",
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"plaintext": "Military-based musical percussion traditions were not limited exclusively to the western world. When Emir Osman I was appointed commander of the Turkish army on the Byzantine border in the late 13th century, he was symbolically installed via a handover of musical instruments by the Seldjuk sultan. In the Ottoman Empire, the size of a military band reflected the rank of its commander in chief: the largest band was reserved for the Sultan (viz. his Grand Vizier when taking the field). It included various percussion instruments, often adopted in European military music (as 'Janissary music'). The pitched bass drum is still known in some languages as the Turkish Drum.",
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"plaintext": "The drumline is a type of marching ensemble descended from military drummers, and can be arranged as a performance of a drum, a group of drummers, or as a part of a larger marching band. Their uniforms will often have a military style and a fancy hat. In recent times, it is more common to see drummers in parades wearing costumes with an African, Asian, Latin, Native American, or tribal look and sound.",
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"plaintext": "Various indigenous cultures use the drum to create a sense of unity with others especially during recreational events. The drum also helps in prayers and meditations.",
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38,493 | 1,106,991,328 | Genus | [
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"plaintext": "Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.",
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"plaintext": "E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera. Panthera is a genus within the family Felidae.",
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"plaintext": "The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists. The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful:",
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"plaintext": " monophyly – all descendants of an ancestral taxon are grouped together (i.e. phylogenetic analysis should clearly demonstrate both monophyly and validity as a separate lineage).",
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"plaintext": " reasonable compactness – a genus should not be expanded needlessly.",
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"plaintext": " distinctness – with respect to evolutionarily relevant criteria, i.e. ecology, morphology, or biogeography; DNA sequences are a consequence rather than a condition of diverging evolutionary lineages except in cases where they directly inhibit gene flow (e.g. postzygotic barriers).",
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"plaintext": "The term \"genus\" comes from the Greek γένος, a noun form cognate with ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered \"the founder of the modern concept of genera\".",
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"plaintext": "The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name; in modern style guides and science it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms, where it is combined with the scientific name of a species: see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology).",
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"plaintext": "Except for viruses, the standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf's scientific name is with Canis (Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and (Latin for 'wolf') being the specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany.",
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"plaintext": "When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example C. lupus in place of Canis lupus. Where species are further subdivided, the generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics.",
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"plaintext": "The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example, the virus species \"Salmonid herpesvirus 1\", \"Salmonid herpesvirus 2\" and \"Salmonid herpesvirus 3\" are all within the genus Salmonivirus, however, the genus to which the species with the formal names \"Everglades virus\" and \"Ross River virus\" are assigned is Alphavirus.",
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"plaintext": "As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in the form \"author, year\" in zoology, and \"standard abbreviated author name\" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as \"Canis Linnaeus, 1758\" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus, also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply \"Hibiscus L.\" (botanical usage).",
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"plaintext": "Each genus should have a designated type, although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this is the type species, and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed.",
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"plaintext": "In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as \"available\" or \"unavailable\". Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the \"valid\" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.",
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"plaintext": "Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time, which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. \"Unavailable\" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to the provisions of the ICZN Code, or have subsequently been suppressed, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated.",
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"plaintext": "In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's \"available name\" is a validly published name. An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval.; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej.; a later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg.; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the \"valid taxon\" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is \"correct name\" or \"current name\" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split.",
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"plaintext": "Prokaryote and virus Codes of Nomenclature also exist which serve as a reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of \"names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature\".",
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"plaintext": "An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for the taxon is termed a synonym; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural Code, and rejected or suppressed names.",
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"plaintext": "A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for a long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776.",
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"plaintext": "However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called \"homonyms\". Although this is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance,",
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"plaintext": " Prunella is the generic name of both accentors and self-heal; and",
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"plaintext": " Proboscidea is the order of elephants and the genus of devil's claws.",
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"plaintext": " The name of the genus Paramecia (an extinct red alga) is also the plural of the name of the genus Paramecium (which is in the SAR supergroup), which can also lead to confusion.",
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"plaintext": "A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG).",
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"plaintext": "The type genus forms the base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name (\"Canids\") based on Canis. However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is (\"Carnivores\").",
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"plaintext": "The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of a total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. \"Official\" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no \"official\" standing such as Index Fungorum for Fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and the International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names (http://www.organismnames.com/) for zoological names.",
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"plaintext": "Totals for both \"all names\" and estimates for \"accepted names\" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom:",
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"plaintext": " Animalia: 239,093 accepted genus names (± 55,350)",
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"plaintext": " Plantae: 28,724 accepted genus names (± 7,721)",
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"plaintext": " Fungi: 10,468 accepted genus names (± 182)",
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"plaintext": " Chromista: 11,114 accepted genus names (± 1,268)",
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"plaintext": " Protozoa: 3,109 accepted genus names (± 1,206)",
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"plaintext": " Bacteria: 3,433 accepted genus names (± 115)",
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"plaintext": " Archaea: 140 accepted genus names (± 0)",
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"plaintext": " Viruses: 851 accepted genus names (± 0)",
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"plaintext": "The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists \"uncertain\" names (not researched therein) in addition to known \"accepted\" names; the values quoted are the mean of \"accepted\" names alone (all \"uncertain\" names treated as unaccepted) and \"accepted + uncertain\" names (all \"uncertain\" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes.",
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"plaintext": "Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda, with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up the largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae).",
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"plaintext": "By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 \"accepted\" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups.",
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"plaintext": "The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus, contains over 3,000 species.",
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"plaintext": "Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be \"similar\", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists whether large, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance, the lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets.",
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38,498 | 1,106,595,038 | Frog | [
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"plaintext": "A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura (ανοὐρά, literally without tail in Ancient Greek). The oldest fossil \"proto-frog\" Triadobatrachus is known from the Early Triassic of Madagascar, but molecular clock dating suggests their split from other amphibians may extend further back to the Permian, 265 million years ago. Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforest. Frogs account for around 88% of extant amphibian species. They are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders. Warty frog species tend to be called toads, but the distinction between frogs and toads is informal, not from taxonomy or evolutionary history.",
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"plaintext": "An adult frog has a stout body, protruding eyes, anteriorly-attached tongue, limbs folded underneath, and no tail (the tail of tailed frogs is an extension of the male cloaca). Frogs have glandular skin, with secretions ranging from distasteful to toxic. Their skin varies in colour from well-camouflaged dappled brown, grey and green to vivid patterns of bright red or yellow and black to show toxicity and ward off predators. Adult frogs live in fresh water and on dry land; some species are adapted for living underground or in trees.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs typically lay their eggs in water. The eggs hatch into aquatic larvae called tadpoles that have tails and internal gills. They have highly specialized rasping mouth parts suitable for herbivorous, omnivorous or planktivorous diets. The life cycle is completed when they metamorphose into adults. A few species deposit eggs on land or bypass the tadpole stage. Adult frogs generally have a carnivorous diet consisting of small invertebrates, but omnivorous species exist and a few feed on plant matter. Frog skin has a rich microbiome which is important to their health. Frogs are extremely efficient at converting what they eat into body mass. They are an important food source for predators and part of the food web dynamics of many of the world's ecosystems. The skin is semi-permeable, making them susceptible to dehydration, so they either live in moist places or have special adaptations to deal with dry habitats. Frogs produce a wide range of vocalizations, particularly in their breeding season, and exhibit many different kinds of complex behaviors to attract mates, to fend off predators and to generally survive.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs are valued as food by humans and also have many cultural roles in literature, symbolism and religion. They are also seen as environmental bellwethers, with declines in frog populations often viewed as early warning signs of environmental damage. Frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s. More than one third of species are considered to be threatened with extinction and over 120 are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. The number of malformations among frogs is on the rise and an emerging fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, has spread around the world. Conservation biologists are working to understand the causes of these problems and to resolve them.",
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"plaintext": "The use of the common names frog and toad has no taxonomic justification. From a classification perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered \"true toads\". The use of the term frog in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic and have smooth, moist skins; the term toad generally refers to species that are terrestrial with dry, warty skins. There are numerous exceptions to this rule. The European fire-bellied toad (Bombina bombina) has a slightly warty skin and prefers a watery habitat whereas the Panamanian golden frog (Atelopus zeteki) is in the toad family Bufonidae and has a smooth skin.",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the order name Anura—and its original spelling Anoures—is the Ancient Greek \"alpha privative\" prefix () 'without', and (), meaning 'animal tail'. It refers to the tailless character of these amphibians.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of the word frog are uncertain and debated. The word is first attested in Old English as , but the usual Old English word for the frog was (with variants such as and ), and it is agreed that the word frog is somehow related to this. Old English remained in dialectal use in English as frosh and frosk into the nineteenth century, and is paralleled widely in other Germanic languages, with examples in the modern languages including German , Norwegian , Icelandic , and Dutch . These words allow reconstruction of a Common Germanic ancestor . The third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary finds that the etymology of is uncertain, but agrees with arguments that it could plausibly derive from a Proto-Indo-European base along the lines of , meaning 'jump'.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, the word toad, first attested as Old English , is unique to English and is likewise of uncertain etymology. It is the basis for the word tadpole, first attested as Middle English , apparently meaning 'toad-head'.",
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"plaintext": "About 88% of amphibian species are classified in the order Anura. These include over 7,100 species in 55 families, of which the Craugastoridae (850 spp.), Hylidae (724 spp.), Microhylidae (688 spp.), and Bufonidae (621 spp.) are the richest in species.",
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"plaintext": "The Anura include all modern frogs and any fossil species that fit within the anuran definition. The characteristics of anuran adults include: 9 or fewer presacral vertebrae, the presence of a urostyle formed of fused vertebrae, no tail, a long and forward-sloping ilium, shorter fore limbs than hind limbs, radius and ulna fused, tibia and fibula fused, elongated ankle bones, absence of a prefrontal bone, presence of a hyoid plate, a lower jaw without teeth (with the exception of Gastrotheca guentheri) consisting of three pairs of bones (angulosplenial, dentary, and mentomeckelian, with the last pair being absent in Pipoidea), an unsupported tongue, lymph spaces underneath the skin, and a muscle, the protractor lentis, attached to the lens of the eye. The anuran larva or tadpole has a single central respiratory spiracle and mouthparts consisting of keratinous beaks and denticles.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs and toads are broadly classified into three suborders: Archaeobatrachia, which includes four families of primitive frogs; Mesobatrachia, which includes five families of more evolutionary intermediate frogs; and Neobatrachia, by far the largest group, which contains the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species throughout the world. The suborder Neobatrachia is further divided into the two superfamilies Hyloidea and Ranoidea. This classification is based on such morphological features as the number of vertebrae, the structure of the pectoral girdle, and the morphology of tadpoles. While this classification is largely accepted, relationships among families of frogs are still debated.",
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"plaintext": "Some species of anurans hybridize readily. For instance, the edible frog (Pelophylax esculentus) is a hybrid between the pool frog (P. lessonae) and the marsh frog (P. ridibundus). The fire-bellied toads Bombina bombina and B. variegata are similar in forming hybrids. These are less fertile than their parents, giving rise to a hybrid zone where the hybrids are prevalent.",
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"plaintext": "The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians are hotly debated. A molecular phylogeny based on rDNA analysis dating from 2005 suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs and the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fishes. This would help account for the relative scarcity of amphibian fossils from the period before the groups split. Another molecular phylogenetic analysis conducted about the same time concluded that lissamphibians first appeared about 330 million years ago and that the temnospondyl-origin hypothesis is more credible than other theories. The neobatrachians seemed to have originated in Africa/India, the salamanders in East Asia and the caecilians in tropical Pangaea. Other researchers, while agreeing with the main thrust of this study, questioned the choice of calibration points used to synchronise the data. They proposed that the date of lissamphibian diversification should be placed in the Permian, rather less than 300 million years ago, a date in better agreement with the palaeontological data. A further study in 2011 using both extinct and living taxa sampled for morphological, as well as molecular data, came to the conclusion that Lissamphibia is monophyletic and that it should be nested within Lepospondyli rather than within Temnospondyli. The study postulated that Lissamphibia originated no earlier than the late Carboniferous, some 290 to 305 million years ago. The split between Anura and Caudata was estimated as taking place 292 million years ago, rather later than most molecular studies suggest, with the caecilians splitting off 239 million years ago.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, Gerobatrachus hottoni, a temnospondyl with many frog- and salamander-like characteristics, was discovered in Texas. It dated back 290 million years and was hailed as a missing link, a stem batrachian close to the common ancestor of frogs and salamanders, consistent with the widely accepted hypothesis that frogs and salamanders are more closely related to each other (forming a clade called Batrachia) than they are to caecilians. However, others have suggested that Gerobatrachus hottoni was only a dissorophoid temnospondyl unrelated to extant amphibians.",
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"plaintext": "Salientia (Latin salire (salio), \"to jump\") is the name of the total group that includes modern frogs in the order Anura as well as their close fossil relatives, the \"proto-frogs\" or \"stem-frogs\". The common features possessed by these proto-frogs include 14 presacral vertebrae (modern frogs have eight or 9), a long and forward-sloping ilium in the pelvis, the presence of a frontoparietal bone, and a lower jaw without teeth. The earliest known amphibians that were more closely related to frogs than to salamanders are Triadobatrachus massinoti, from the early Triassic period of Madagascar (about 250 million years ago), and Czatkobatrachus polonicus, from the Early Triassic of Poland (about the same age as Triadobatrachus). The skull of Triadobatrachus is frog-like, being broad with large eye sockets, but the fossil has features diverging from modern frogs. These include a longer body with more vertebrae. The tail has separate vertebrae unlike the fused urostyle or coccyx in modern frogs. The tibia and fibula bones are also separate, making it probable that Triadobatrachus was not an efficient leaper.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known \"true frogs\" that fall into the anuran lineage proper all lived in the early Jurassic period. One such early frog species, Prosalirus bitis, was discovered in 1995 in the Kayenta Formation of Arizona and dates back to the Early Jurassic epoch (199.6 to 175 million years ago), making Prosalirus somewhat more recent than Triadobatrachus. Like the latter, Prosalirus did not have greatly enlarged legs, but had the typical three-pronged pelvic structure of modern frogs. Unlike Triadobatrachus, Prosalirus had already lost nearly all of its tail and was well adapted for jumping. Another Early Jurassic frog is Vieraella herbsti, which is known only from dorsal and ventral impressions of a single animal and was estimated to be from snout to vent. Notobatrachus degiustoi from the middle Jurassic is slightly younger, about 155–170 million years old. The main evolutionary changes in this species involved the shortening of the body and the loss of the tail. The evolution of modern Anura likely was complete by the Jurassic period. Since then, evolutionary changes in chromosome numbers have taken place about 20 times faster in mammals than in frogs, which means speciation is occurring more rapidly in mammals.",
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"plaintext": "According to genetic studies, the families Hyloidea, Microhylidae, and the clade Natatanura (comprising about 88% of living frogs) diversified simultaneously some 66 million years ago, soon after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event associated with the Chicxulub impactor. All origins of arboreality (e.g. in Hyloidea and Natatanura) follow from that time and the resurgence of forest that occurred afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "Frog fossils have been found on all of the earth's continents. In 2020, it was announced that 40 million year old helmeted frog fossils had been discovered by a team of vertebrate paleontologists in Seymour Island on the Antarctic Peninsula, indicating that this region was once home to frogs related to those now living in South American Nothofagus forest.",
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"plaintext": "A cladogram showing the relationships of the different families of frogs in the clade Anura can be seen in the table below. This diagram, in the form of a tree, shows how each frog family is related to other families, with each node representing a point of common ancestry. It is based on Frost et al. (2006), Heinicke et al. (2009) and Pyron and Wiens (2011).",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have no tail, except as larvae, and most have long hind legs, elongated ankle bones, webbed toes, no claws, large eyes, and a smooth or warty skin. They have short vertebral columns, with no more than 10 free vertebrae and fused tailbones (urostyle or coccyx). Frogs range in size from Paedophryne amauensis of Papua New Guinea that is in snout–to–vent length to the up to and goliath frog (Conraua goliath) of central Africa. There are prehistoric, extinct species that reached even larger sizes. ",
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"plaintext": "The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground, in water, in trees, or in burrows. Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help them to do so. Most frogs are either proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors that were, with much of the musculoskeletal morphology modified for this purpose. The tibia, fibula, and tarsals have been fused into a single, strong bone, as have the radius and ulna in the fore limbs (which must absorb the impact on landing). The metatarsals have become elongated to add to the leg length and allow frogs to push against the ground for a longer period on take-off. The ilium has elongated and formed a mobile joint with the sacrum which, in specialist jumpers such as ranids and hylids, functions as an additional limb joint to further power the leaps. The tail vertebrae have fused into a urostyle which is retracted inside the pelvis. This enables the force to be transferred from the legs to the body during a leap.",
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"plaintext": "The muscular system has been similarly modified. The hind limbs of ancestral frogs presumably contained pairs of muscles which would act in opposition (one muscle to flex the knee, a different muscle to extend it), as is seen in most other limbed animals. However, in modern frogs, almost all muscles have been modified to contribute to the action of jumping, with only a few small muscles remaining to bring the limb back to the starting position and maintain posture. The muscles have also been greatly enlarged, with the main leg muscles accounting for over 17% of the total mass of frogs.",
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"plaintext": "Many frogs have webbed feet and the degree of webbing is directly proportional to the amount of time the species spends in the water. The completely aquatic African dwarf frog (Hymenochirus sp.) has fully webbed toes, whereas those of White's tree frog (Litoria caerulea), an arboreal species, are only a quarter or half webbed. Exceptions include flying frogs in the Hylidae and Rhacophoridae, which also have fully webbed toes used in gliding.",
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"plaintext": "Arboreal frogs have pads located on the ends of their toes to help grip vertical surfaces. These are not suction pads, the surface consisting instead of columnar cells with flat tops with small gaps between them lubricated by mucous glands. When the frog applies pressure, the cells adhere to irregularities on the surface and the grip is maintained through surface tension. This allows the frog to climb on smooth surfaces, but the system does not function efficiently when the pads are excessively wet.",
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"plaintext": "In many arboreal frogs, a small \"intercalary structure\" on each toe increases the surface area touching the substrate. Furthermore, many arboreal frogs have hip joints that allow both hopping and walking. Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes. This allows the frogs to \"parachute\" or make a controlled glide from one position in the canopy to another.",
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"plaintext": "Ground-dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs. Most have smaller toe pads, if any, and little webbing. Some burrowing frogs such as Couch's spadefoot (Scaphiopus couchii) have a flap-like toe extension on the hind feet, a keratinised tubercle often referred to as a spade, that helps them to burrow.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes during the tadpole stage, one of the developing rear legs is eaten by a predator such as a dragonfly nymph. In some cases, the full leg still grows, but in others it does not, although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs. Occasionally, a parasitic flatworm (Ribeiroia ondatrae) digs into the rear of a tadpole, causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops one or more extra legs.",
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"plaintext": "A frog's skin is protective, has a respiratory function, can absorb water, and helps control body temperature. It has many glands, particularly on the head and back, which often exude distasteful and toxic substances (granular glands). The secretion is often sticky and helps keep the skin moist, protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria, and make the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators. The skin is shed every few weeks. It usually splits down the middle of the back and across the belly, and the frog pulls its arms and legs free. The sloughed skin is then worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten.",
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"plaintext": "Being cold-blooded, frogs have to adopt suitable behaviour patterns to regulate their temperature. To warm up, they can move into the sun or onto a warm surface; if they overheat, they can move into the shade or adopt a stance that exposes the minimum area of skin to the air. This posture is also used to prevent water loss and involves the frog squatting close to the substrate with its hands and feet tucked under its chin and body. The colour of a frog's skin is used for thermoregulation. In cool damp conditions, the colour will be darker than on a hot dry day. The grey foam-nest tree frog (Chiromantis xerampelina) is even able to turn white to minimize the chance of overheating.",
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"plaintext": "Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area, but the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Glands located all over the body exude mucus which helps keep the skin moist and reduces evaporation. Some glands on the hands and chest of males are specialized to produce sticky secretions to aid in amplexus. Similar glands in tree frogs produce a glue-like substance on the adhesive discs of the feet. Some arboreal frogs reduce water loss by having a waterproof layer of skin, and several South American species coat their skin with a waxy secretion. Other frogs have adopted behaviours to conserve water, including becoming nocturnal and resting in a water-conserving position. Some frogs may also rest in large groups with each frog pressed against its neighbours. This reduces the amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface, and thus reduces water loss. Woodhouse's toad (Bufo woodhousii), if given access to water after confinement in a dry location, sits in the shallows to rehydrate. The male hairy frog (Trichobatrachus robustus) has dermal papillae projecting from its lower back and thighs, giving it a bristly appearance. They contain blood vessels and are thought to increase the area of the skin available for respiration.",
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"plaintext": "Some species have bony plates embedded in their skin, a trait that appears to have evolved independently several times. In certain other species, the skin at the top of the head is compacted and the connective tissue of the dermis is co-ossified with the bones of the skull (exostosis).",
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"plaintext": "Camouflage is a common defensive mechanism in frogs. Features such as warts and skin folds are usually on ground-dwelling frogs, for whom smooth skin would not provide such effective camouflage. Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract. Some are even able to control their skin texture. The Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla) has green and brown morphs, plain or spotted, and changes colour depending on the time of year and general background colour. ",
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"plaintext": "Like other amphibians, oxygen can pass through their highly permeable skins. This unique feature allows them to remain in places without access to the air, respiring through their skins. Ribs are generally absent, so the lungs are filled by buccal pumping and a frog deprived of its lungs can maintain its body functions without them. The fully aquatic Bornean flat-headed frog (Barbourula kalimantanensis) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have three-chambered hearts, a feature they share with lizards. Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through separate atria. When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. ",
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"plaintext": "Some species of frog have adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water. The Titicaca water frog (Telmatobius culeus) is one such species and has wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange. It normally makes no use of its rudimentary lungs but will sometimes raise and lower its body rhythmically while on the lake bed to increase the flow of water around it.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey. Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch flies and other small moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at great speed. Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands. The African bullfrog (Pyxicephalus), which preys on relatively large animals such as mice and other frogs, has cone shaped bony projections called odontoid processes at the front of the lower jaw which function like teeth. The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat. ",
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"plaintext": "The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the cloaca.",
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"plaintext": "Although adapted to terrestrial life, frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively. When they are on land, much water is lost by evaporation from the skin. The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two kidneys that remove nitrogenous products from the blood. Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules. The nitrogen is excreted as ammonia by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as urea, a less toxic product, by most terrestrial adults. A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic uric acid. The urine passes along paired ureters to the urinary bladder from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca. All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent.",
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"plaintext": "In the male frog, the two testes are attached to the kidneys and semen passes into the kidneys through fine tubes called efferent ducts. It then travels on through the ureters, which are consequently known as urinogenital ducts. There is no penis, and sperm is ejected from the cloaca directly onto the eggs as the female lays them. The ovaries of the female frog are beside the kidneys and the eggs pass down a pair of oviducts and through the cloaca to the exterior.",
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"plaintext": "When frogs mate, the male climbs on the back of the female and wraps his fore limbs round her body, either behind the front legs or just in front of the hind legs. This position is called amplexus and may be held for several days. The male frog has certain hormone-dependent secondary sexual characteristics. These include the development of special pads on his thumbs in the breeding season, to give him a firm hold. The grip of the male frog during amplexus stimulates the female to release eggs, usually wrapped in jelly, as spawn. In many species the male is smaller and slimmer than the female. Males have vocal cords and make a range of croaks, particularly in the breeding season, and in some species they also have vocal sacs to amplify the sound.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of frog brains correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions. The relative size of the cerebrum in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans. Frogs have ten pairs of cranial nerves which pass information from the outside directly to the brain, and ten pairs of spinal nerves which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord. By contrast, all amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.",
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"plaintext": "The eyes of most frogs are located on either side of the head near the top and project outwards as hemispherical bulges. They provide binocular vision over a field of 100° to the front and a total visual field of almost 360°. They may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water. Each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a nictitating membrane which provides further protection, especially when the frog is swimming. Members of the aquatic family Pipidae have the eyes located at the top of the head, a position better suited for detecting prey in the water above. The irises come in a range of colours and the pupils in a range of shapes. The common toad (Bufo bufo) has golden irises and horizontal slit-like pupils, the red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas) has vertical slit pupils, the poison dart frog has dark irises, the fire-bellied toad (Bombina spp.) has triangular pupils and the tomato frog (Dyscophus spp.) has circular ones. The irises of the southern toad (Anaxyrus terrestris) are patterned so as to blend in with the surrounding camouflaged skin.",
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"plaintext": "The distant vision of a frog is better than its near vision. Calling frogs will quickly become silent when they see an intruder or even a moving shadow but the closer an object is, the less well it is seen. When a frog shoots out its tongue to catch an insect it is reacting to a small moving object that it cannot see well and must line it up precisely beforehand because it shuts its eyes as the tongue is extended. Although it was formerly debated, more recent research has shown that frogs can see in colour, even in very low light.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs can hear both in the air and below water. They do not have external ears; the eardrums (tympanic membranes) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye. The size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls. In some species such as the bullfrog, the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females, the eyes and tympani are much the same size. A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear. The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation. In the inner ear, the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea, the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla. The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies. Because the cochlea is short, frogs use electrical tuning to extend their range of audible frequencies and help discriminate different sounds. This arrangement enables detection of the territorial and breeding calls of their conspecifics. In some species that inhabit arid regions, the sound of thunder or heavy rain may arouse them from a dormant state. A frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight.",
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"plaintext": "The call or croak of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs create this sound by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth, that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile (1.6km) away. Additionally, some species have been found to use man-made structures such as drain pipes for artificial amplification of their call. The coastal tailed frog (Ascaphus truei) lives in mountain streams in North America and does not vocalize.",
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"plaintext": "The main function of calling is for male frogs to attract mates. Males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites. In many frog species, such as the common tree frog (Polypedates leucomystax), females reply to males' calls, which acts to reinforce reproductive activity in a breeding colony. Female frogs prefer males that produce sounds of greater intensity and lower frequency, attributes that stand out in a crowd. The rationale for this is thought to be that by demonstrating his prowess, the male shows his fitness to produce superior offspring.",
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"plaintext": "A different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male. This is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body. Tree frogs and some non-aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher-pitched call. It is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorient the attacker so that it releases the frog.",
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"plaintext": "Many species of frog have deep calls. The croak of the American bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) is sometimes written as \"jug o' rum\". The Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla) produces the onomatopoeic \"ribbit\" often heard in films. Other renderings of frog calls into speech include \"brekekekex koax koax\", the call of the marsh frog (Pelophylax ridibundus) in The Frogs, an Ancient Greek comic drama by Aristophanes. The calls of the Concave-eared torrent frog (Amolops tormotus) are unusual in many aspects. The males are notable for their varieties of calls where upward and downward frequency modulations take place. When they communicate, they produce calls that fall in the ultrasound frequency range. The last aspect that makes this species of frog's calls unusual is that nonlinear acoustic phenomena are important components in their acoustic signals.",
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"plaintext": "During extreme conditions, some frogs enter a state of torpor and remain inactive for months. In colder regions, many species of frog hibernate in winter. Those that live on land such as the American toad (Bufo americanus) dig a burrow and make a hibernaculum in which to lie dormant. Others, less proficient at digging, find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves. Aquatic species such as the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie, semi-immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water. Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves. Some frogs such as the wood frog or spring peeper can even survive being frozen. Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose. An apparently lifeless, frozen frog can resume respiration and its heartbeat can restart when conditions warm up.",
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"plaintext": "At the other extreme, the striped burrowing frog (Cyclorana alboguttata) regularly aestivates during the hot, dry season in Australia, surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year. It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective cocoon formed by its shed skin. Researchers at the University of Queensland have found that during aestivation, the metabolism of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the mitochondria is increased. This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner. This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold-blooded and have no need to generate heat. Other research showed that, to provide these energy requirements, muscles atrophy, but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected. Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius.",
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"plaintext": "Different species of frog use a number of methods of moving around including jumping, running, walking, swimming, burrowing, climbing and gliding.",
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"plaintext": "Jumping",
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"plaintext": "Frogs are generally recognized as exceptional jumpers and, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates. The striped rocket frog, Litoria nasuta, can leap over , a distance that is more than fifty times its body length of . There are tremendous differences between species in jumping capability. Within a species, jump distance increases with increasing size, but relative jumping distance (body-lengths jumped) decreases. The Indian skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis) has the ability to leap out of the water from a position floating on the surface. The tiny northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans) can \"skitter\" across the surface of a pond with a series of short rapid jumps.",
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"plaintext": "Slow-motion photography shows that the muscles have passive flexibility. They are first stretched while the frog is still in the crouched position, then they are contracted before being stretched again to launch the frog into the air. The fore legs are folded against the chest and the hind legs remain in the extended, streamlined position for the duration of the jump. In some extremely capable jumpers, such as the Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) and the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens), the peak power exerted during a jump can exceed that which the muscle is theoretically capable of producing. When the muscles contract, the energy is first transferred into the stretched tendon which is wrapped around the ankle bone. Then the muscles stretch again at the same time as the tendon releases its energy like a catapult to produce a powerful acceleration beyond the limits of muscle-powered acceleration. A similar mechanism has been documented in locusts and grasshoppers.",
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"plaintext": "Early hatching of froglets can have negative effects on frog jumping performance and overall locomotion. The hindlimbs are unable to completely form, which results in them being shorter and much weaker relative to a normal hatching froglet. Early hatching froglets may tend to depend on other forms of locomotion more often, such as swimming and walking.",
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"plaintext": "Walking and running",
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"plaintext": "Frogs in the families Bufonidae, Rhinophrynidae, and Microhylidae have short back legs and tend to walk rather than jump. When they try to move rapidly, they speed up the rate of movement of their limbs or resort to an ungainly hopping gait. The Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad (Gastrophryne olivacea) has been described as having a gait that is \"a combination of running and short hops that are usually only an inch or two in length\". In an experiment, Fowler's toad (Bufo fowleri) was placed on a treadmill which was turned at varying speeds. By measuring the toad's uptake of oxygen it was found that hopping was an inefficient use of resources during sustained locomotion but was a useful strategy during short bursts of high-intensity activity.",
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"plaintext": "The red-legged running frog (Kassina maculata) has short, slim hind limbs unsuited to jumping. It can move fast by using a running gait in which the two hind legs are used alternately. Slow-motion photography shows, unlike a horse that can trot or gallop, the frog's gait remained similar at slow, medium, and fast speeds. This species can also climb trees and shrubs, and does so at night to catch insects. The Indian skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis) has broad feet and can run across the surface of the water for several metres (yards).",
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"plaintext": "Swimming ",
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"plaintext": "Frogs that live in or visit water have adaptations that improve their swimming abilities. The hind limbs are heavily muscled and strong. The webbing between the toes of the hind feet increases the area of the foot and helps propel the frog powerfully through the water. Members of the family Pipidae are wholly aquatic and show the most marked specialization. They have inflexible vertebral columns, flattened, streamlined bodies, lateral line systems, and powerful hind limbs with large webbed feet. Tadpoles mostly have large tail fins which provide thrust when the tail is moved from side to side.",
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"plaintext": "Burrowing ",
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"plaintext": "Some frogs have become adapted for burrowing and a life underground. They tend to have rounded bodies, short limbs, small heads with bulging eyes, and hind feet adapted for excavation. An extreme example of this is the purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) from southern India which feeds on termites and spends almost its whole life underground. It emerges briefly during the monsoon to mate and breed in temporary pools. It has a tiny head with a pointed snout and a plump, rounded body. Because of this fossorial existence, it was first described in 2003, being new to the scientific community at that time, although previously known to local people.",
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"plaintext": "The spadefoot toads of North America are also adapted to underground life. The Plains spadefoot toad (Spea bombifrons) is typical and has a flap of keratinised bone attached to one of the metatarsals of the hind feet which it uses to dig itself backwards into the ground. As it digs, the toad wriggles its hips from side to side to sink into the loose soil. It has a shallow burrow in the summer from which it emerges at night to forage. In winter, it digs much deeper and has been recorded at a depth of . The tunnel is filled with soil and the toad hibernates in a small chamber at the end. During this time, urea accumulates in its tissues and water is drawn in from the surrounding damp soil by osmosis to supply the toad's needs. Spadefoot toads are \"explosive breeders\", all emerging from their burrows at the same time and converging on temporary pools, attracted to one of these by the calling of the first male to find a suitable breeding location.",
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"plaintext": "The burrowing frogs of Australia have a rather different lifestyle. The western spotted frog (Heleioporus albopunctatus) digs a burrow beside a river or in the bed of an ephemeral stream and regularly emerges to forage. Mating takes place and eggs are laid in a foam nest inside the burrow. The eggs partially develop there, but do not hatch until they are submerged following heavy rainfall. The tadpoles then swim out into the open water and rapidly complete their development. Madagascan burrowing frogs are less fossorial and mostly bury themselves in leaf litter. One of these, the green burrowing frog (Scaphiophryne marmorata), has a flattened head with a short snout and well-developed metatarsal tubercles on its hind feet to help with excavation. It also has greatly enlarged terminal discs on its fore feet that help it to clamber around in bushes. It breeds in temporary pools that form after rains.",
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"plaintext": "Climbing ",
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"plaintext": "Tree frogs live high in the canopy, where they scramble around on the branches, twigs, and leaves, sometimes never coming down to earth. The \"true\" tree frogs belong to the family Hylidae, but members of other frog families have independently adopted an arboreal habit, a case of convergent evolution. These include the glass frogs (Centrolenidae), the bush frogs (Hyperoliidae), some of the narrow-mouthed frogs (Microhylidae), and the shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae). Most tree frogs are under in length, with long legs and long toes with adhesive pads on the tips. The surface of the toe pads is formed from a closely packed layer of flat-topped, hexagonal epidermal cells separated by grooves into which glands secrete mucus. These toe pads, moistened by the mucus, provide the grip on any wet or dry surface, including glass. The forces involved include boundary friction of the toe pad epidermis on the surface and also surface tension and viscosity. Tree frogs are very acrobatic and can catch insects while hanging by one toe from a twig or clutching onto the blade of a windswept reed. Some members of the subfamily Phyllomedusinae have opposable toes on their feet. The reticulated leaf frog (Phyllomedusa ayeaye) has a single opposed digit on each fore foot and two opposed digits on its hind feet. This allows it to grasp the stems of bushes as it clambers around in its riverside habitat.",
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"plaintext": "Gliding ",
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"plaintext": "During the evolutionary history of frogs, several different groups have independently taken to the air. Some frogs in the tropical rainforest are specially adapted for gliding from tree to tree or parachuting to the forest floor. Typical of them is Wallace's flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus) from Malaysia and Borneo. It has large feet with the fingertips expanded into flat adhesive discs and the digits fully webbed. Flaps of skin occur on the lateral margins of the limbs and across the tail region. With the digits splayed, the limbs outstretched, and these flaps spread, it can glide considerable distances, but is unable to undertake powered flight. It can alter its direction of travel and navigate distances of up to between trees.",
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"plaintext": "Two main types of reproduction occur in frogs, prolonged breeding and explosive breeding. In the former, adopted by the majority of species, adult frogs at certain times of year assemble at a pond, lake or stream to breed. Many frogs return to the bodies of water in which they developed as larvae. This often results in annual migrations involving thousands of individuals. In explosive breeders, mature adult frogs arrive at breeding sites in response to certain trigger factors such as rainfall occurring in an arid area. In these frogs, mating and spawning take place promptly and the speed of larval growth is rapid in order to make use of the ephemeral pools before they dry up.",
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"plaintext": "Among prolonged breeders, males usually arrive at the breeding site first and remain there for some time whereas females tend to arrive later and depart soon after they have spawned. This means that males outnumber females at the water's edge and defend territories from which they expel other males. They advertise their presence by calling, often alternating their croaks with neighbouring frogs. Larger, stronger males tend to have deeper calls and maintain higher quality territories. Females select their mates at least partly on the basis of the depth of their voice. In some species there are satellite males who have no territory and do not call. They may intercept females that are approaching a calling male or take over a vacated territory. Calling is an energy-sapping activity. Sometimes the two roles are reversed and a calling male gives up its territory and becomes a satellite.",
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"plaintext": "In explosive breeders, the first male that finds a suitable breeding location, such as a temporary pool, calls loudly and other frogs of both sexes converge on the pool. Explosive breeders tend to call in unison creating a chorus that can be heard from far away. The spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus spp.) of North America fall into this category. Mate selection and courtship is not as important as speed in reproduction. In some years, suitable conditions may not occur and the frogs may go for two or more years without breeding. Some female New Mexico spadefoot toads (Spea multiplicata) only spawn half of the available eggs at a time, perhaps retaining some in case a better reproductive opportunity arises later.",
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"plaintext": "At the breeding site, the male mounts the female and grips her tightly round the body. Typically, amplexus takes place in the water, the female releases her eggs and the male covers them with sperm; fertilization is external. In many species such as the Great Plains toad (Bufo cognatus), the male restrains the eggs with his back feet, holding them in place for about three minutes. Members of the West African genus Nimbaphrynoides are unique among frogs in that they are viviparous; Limnonectes larvaepartus, Eleutherodactylus jasperi and members of the Tanzanian genus Nectophrynoides are the only frogs known to be ovoviviparous. In these species, fertilization is internal and females give birth to fully developed juvenile frogs, except L. larvaepartus, which give birth to tadpoles.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs may lay their in eggs as clumps, surface films, strings, or individually. Around half of species deposit eggs in water, others lay eggs in vegetation, on the ground or in excavations. The tiny yellow-striped pygmy eleuth (Eleutherodactylus limbatus) lays eggs singly, burying them in moist soil. The smoky jungle frog (Leptodactylus pentadactylus) makes a nest of foam in a hollow. The eggs hatch when the nest is flooded, or the tadpoles may complete their development in the foam if flooding does not occur. The red-eyed treefrog (Agalychnis callidryas) deposits its eggs on a leaf above a pool and when they hatch, the larvae fall into the water below. ",
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"plaintext": "In certain species, such as the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), symbiotic unicellular green algae are present in the gelatinous material. It is thought that these may benefit the developing larvae by providing them with extra oxygen through photosynthesis. The interior of globular egg clusters of the wood frog has been also been found to be up to 6°C (11°F) warmer than the surrounding water and this speeds up the development of the larvae. The larvae developing in the eggs can detect vibrations caused by nearby predatory wasps or snakes, and will hatch early to avoid being eaten. In general, the length of the egg stage depends on the species and the environmental conditions. Aquatic eggs normally hatch within one week when the capsule splits as a result of enzymes released by the developing larvae.",
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"plaintext": "Direct development, where eggs hatch into juveniles like small adults, is also known in many frogs, for example, Ischnocnema henselii, Eleutherodactylus coqui, and Raorchestes ochlandrae and Raorchestes chalazodes.",
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"plaintext": "The larvae that emerge from the eggs, known as tadpoles (or occasionally polliwogs). Tadpoles lack eyelids and limbs, and have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), and tails they use for swimming. As a general rule, free-living larvae are fully aquatic, but at least one species (Nannophrys ceylonensis) has semiterrestrial tadpoles which live among wet rocks. ",
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"plaintext": "From early in its development, a gill pouch covers the tadpole's gills and front legs. The lungs soon start to develop and are used as an accessory breathing organ. Some species go through metamorphosis while still inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. Tadpoles lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species have two elongated, parallel rows of small, keratinized structures called keradonts in their upper jaws. Their lower jaws usually have three rows of keradonts surrounded by a horny beak, but the number of rows can vary and the exact arrangements of mouth parts provide a means for species identification. In the Pipidae, with the exception of Hymenochirus, the tadpoles have paired anterior barbels, which make them resemble small catfish. Their tails are stiffened by a notochord, but does not contain any bony or cartilaginous elements except for a few vertebrae at the base which forms the urostyle during metamorphosis. This has been suggested as an adaptation to their lifestyles; because the transformation into frogs happens very fast, the tail is made of soft tissue only, as bone and cartilage take a much longer time to be broken down and absorbed. The tail fin and tip is fragile and will easily tear, which is seen as an adaptation to escape from predators which tries to grasp them by the tail.",
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"plaintext": "Tadpoles are typically herbivorous, feeding mostly on algae, including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish. The Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) is one of a number of species in which the tadpoles can be cannibalistic. Tadpoles that develop legs early may be eaten by the others, so late developers may have better long-term survival prospects.",
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"plaintext": "Tadpoles are highly vulnerable to being eaten by fish, newts, predatory diving beetles, and birds, particularly water bird, such as storks and herons and domestic ducks. Some tadpoles, including those of the cane toad (Bufo marinus), are poisonous. The tadpole stage may be as short as a week in explosive breeders or it may last through one or more winters followed by metamorphosis in the spring.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the tadpole stage, a frog undergoes metamorphosis in which its body makes a sudden transition into the adult form. This metamorphosis typically lasts only 24 hours, and is initiated by production of the hormone thyroxine. This causes different tissues to develop in different ways. The principal changes that take place include the development of the lungs and the disappearance of the gills and gill pouch, making the front legs visible. The lower jaw transforms into the big mandible of the carnivorous adult, and the long, spiral gut of the herbivorous tadpole is replaced by the typical short gut of a predator. The nervous system becomes adapted for hearing and stereoscopic vision, and for new methods of locomotion and feeding. The eyes are repositioned higher up on the head and the eyelids and associated glands are formed. The eardrum, middle ear, and inner ear are developed. The skin becomes thicker and tougher, the lateral line system is lost, and skin glands are developed. The final stage is the disappearance of the tail, but this takes place rather later, the tissue being used to produce a spurt of growth in the limbs. Frogs are at their most vulnerable to predators when they are undergoing metamorphosis. At this time, the tail is being lost and locomotion by means of limbs is only just becoming established.",
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"plaintext": "Adult frogs may live in or near water, but few are fully aquatic. Almost all frog species are carnivorous as adults, preying on invertebrates, including insects, crabs, spiders, mites, worms, snails, and slugs. A few of the larger ones may eat other frogs, small mammals and reptiles, and fish. A few species also eat plant matter; the tree frog Xenohyla truncata is partly herbivorous, its diet including a large proportion of fruit, Leptodactylus mystaceus has been found to eat plants, and folivory occurs in Euphlyctis hexadactylus, with plants constituting 79.5% of its diet by volume. Many frogs use their sticky tongues to catch prey, while others simply grab them with their mouths. Adult frogs are themselves attacked by many predators. The northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) is eaten by herons, hawks, fish, large salamanders, snakes, raccoons, skunks, mink, bullfrogs, and other animals.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs are primary predators and an important part of the food web. Being cold-blooded, they make efficient use of the food they eat with little energy being used for metabolic processes, while the rest is transformed into biomass. They are themselves eaten by secondary predators and are the primary terrestrial consumers of invertebrates, most of which feed on plants. By reducing herbivory, they play a part in increasing the growth of plants and are thus part of a delicately balanced ecosystem.",
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"plaintext": "Little is known about the longevity of frogs and toads in the wild, but some can live for many years. Skeletochronology is a method of examining bones to determine age. Using this method, the ages of mountain yellow-legged frogs (Rana muscosa) were studied, the phalanges of the toes showing seasonal lines where growth slows in winter. The oldest frogs had ten bands, so their age was believed to be 14 years, including the four-year tadpole stage. Captive frogs and toads have been recorded as living for up to 40 years, an age achieved by a European common toad (Bufo bufo). The cane toad (Bufo marinus) has been known to survive 24 years in captivity, and the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) 14 years. Frogs from temperate climates hibernate during the winter, and four species are known to be able to withstand freezing during this time, including the wood frog (Rana sylvatica).",
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"plaintext": "Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, up to an estimated 20% of amphibian species may care for their young in some way. The evolution of parental care in frogs is driven primarily by the size of the water body in which they breed. Those that breed in smaller water bodies tend to have greater and more complex parental care behaviour. Because predation of eggs and larvae is high in large water bodies, some frog species started to lay their eggs on land. Once this happened, the desiccating terrestrial environment demands that one or both parents keep them moist to ensure their survival. The subsequent need to transport hatched tadpoles to a water body required an even more intense form of parental care.",
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"plaintext": "In small pools, predators are mostly absent and competition between tadpoles becomes the variable that constrains their survival. Certain frog species avoid this competition by making use of smaller phytotelmata (water-filled leaf axils or small woody cavities) as sites for depositing a few tadpoles. While these smaller rearing sites are free from competition, they also lack sufficient nutrients to support a tadpole without parental assistance. Frog species that changed from the use of larger to smaller phytotelmata have evolved a strategy of providing their offspring with nutritive but unfertilized eggs. The female strawberry poison-dart frog (Oophaga pumilio) lays her eggs on the forest floor. The male frog guards them from predation and carries water in his cloaca to keep them moist. When they hatch, the female moves the tadpoles on her back to a water-holding bromeliad or other similar water body, depositing just one in each location. She visits them regularly and feeds them by laying one or two unfertilized eggs in the phytotelma, continuing to do this until the young are large enough to undergo metamorphosis. The granular poison frog (Oophaga granulifera) looks after its tadpoles in a similar way.",
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"plaintext": "Many other diverse forms of parental care are seen in frogs. The tiny male Colostethus subpunctatus stands guard over his egg cluster, laid under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, he transports the tadpoles on his back to a temporary pool, where he partially immerses himself in the water and one or more tadpoles drop off. He then moves on to another pool. The male common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) carries the eggs around with him attached to his hind legs. He keeps them damp in dry weather by immersing himself in a pond, and prevents them from getting too wet in soggy vegetation by raising his hindquarters. After three to six weeks, he travels to a pond and the eggs hatch into tadpoles. The tungara frog (Physalaemus pustulosus) builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs from predation. The foam is made from proteins and lectins, and seems to have antimicrobial properties. Several pairs of frogs may form a colonial nest on a previously built raft. The eggs are laid in the centre, followed by alternate layers of foam and eggs, finishing with a foam capping.",
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"plaintext": "Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs (Assa darlingtoni) guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. The female gastric-brooding frog (Rheobatrachus sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. The female Darwin's frog (Rhinoderma darwinii) from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge.",
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"plaintext": "At first sight, frogs seem rather defenceless because of their small size, slow movement, thin skin, and lack of defensive structures, such as spines, claws or teeth. Many use camouflage to avoid detection, the skin often being spotted or streaked in neutral colours that allow a stationary frog to merge into its surroundings. Some can make prodigious leaps, often into water, that help them to evade potential attackers, while many have other defensive adaptations and strategies.",
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"plaintext": "The skin of many frogs contains mild toxic substances called bufotoxins to make them unpalatable to potential predators. Most toads and some frogs have large poison glands, the parotoid glands, located on the sides of their heads behind the eyes and other glands elsewhere on their bodies. These glands secrete mucus and a range of toxins that make frogs slippery to hold and distasteful or poisonous. If the noxious effect is immediate, the predator may cease its action and the frog may escape. If the effect develops more slowly, the predator may learn to avoid that species in future. Poisonous frogs tend to advertise their toxicity with bright colours, an adaptive strategy known as aposematism. The poison dart frogs in the family Dendrobatidae do this. They are typically red, orange, or yellow, often with contrasting black markings on their bodies. Allobates zaparo is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of two different toxic species with which it shares a common range in an effort to deceive predators. Other species, such as the European fire-bellied toad (Bombina bombina), have their warning colour underneath. They \"flash\" this when attacked, adopting a pose that exposes the vivid colouring on their bellies.",
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"plaintext": "Some frogs, such as the poison dart frogs, are especially toxic. The native peoples of South America extract poison from these frogs to apply to their weapons for hunting, although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose. At least two non-poisonous frog species in tropical America (Eleutherodactylus gaigei and Lithodytes lineatus) mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs for self-protection. Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat. Others, such as the Australian corroboree frogs (Pseudophryne corroboree and Pseudophryne pengilleyi), can synthesize the alkaloids themselves. The chemicals involved may be irritants, hallucinogens, convulsants, nerve poisons or vasoconstrictors. Many predators of frogs have become adapted to tolerate high levels of these poisons, but other creatures, including humans who handle the frogs, may be severely affected.",
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"plaintext": "Some frogs use bluff or deception. The European common toad (Bufo bufo) adopts a characteristic stance when attacked, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. The bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) crouches down with eyes closed and head tipped forward when threatened. This places the parotoid glands in the most effective position, the other glands on its back begin to ooze noxious secretions and the most vulnerable parts of its body are protected. Another tactic used by some frogs is to \"scream\", the sudden loud noise tending to startle the predator. The gray tree frog (Hyla versicolor) makes an explosive sound that sometimes repels the shrew Blarina brevicauda. Although toads are avoided by many predators, the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) regularly feeds on them. The strategy employed by juvenile American toads (Bufo americanus) on being approached by a snake is to crouch down and remain immobile. This is usually successful, with the snake passing by and the toad remaining undetected. If it is encountered by the snake's head, however, the toad hops away before crouching defensively.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs live on all the continents except Antarctica, but they are not present on certain islands, especially those far away from continental land masses. Many species are isolated in restricted ranges by changes of climate or inhospitable territory, such as stretches of sea, mountain ridges, deserts, forest clearance, road construction, or other man-made barriers. Usually, a greater diversity of frogs occurs in tropical areas than in temperate regions, such as Europe. Some frogs inhabit arid areas, such as deserts, and rely on specific adaptations to survive. Members of the Australian genus Cyclorana bury themselves underground where they create a water-impervious cocoon in which to aestivate during dry periods. Once it rains, they emerge, find a temporary pool, and breed. Egg and tadpole development is very fast in comparison to those of most other frogs, so breeding can be completed before the pond dries up. Some frog species are adapted to a cold environment. The wood frog (Rana sylvatica), whose habitat extends into the Arctic Circle, buries itself in the ground during winter. Although much of its body freezes during this time, it maintains a high concentration of glucose in its vital organs, which protects them from damage.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, of 4,035 species of amphibians that depend on water during some lifecycle stage, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened. This is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which evidence was insufficient to assess their status. Frog populations have declined dramatically since the 1950s. More than one-third of frog species are considered to be threatened with extinction, and more than 120 species are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. Among these species are the gastric-brooding frogs of Australia and the golden toad of Costa Rica. The latter is of particular concern to scientists because it inhabited the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and its population crashed in 1987, along with about 20 other frog species in the area. This could not be linked directly to human activities, such as deforestation, and was outside the range of normal fluctuations in population size. Elsewhere, habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline, as are pollutants, climate change, increased UVB radiation, and the introduction of non-native predators and competitors. A Canadian study conducted in 2006 suggested heavy traffic in their environment was a larger threat to frog populations than was habitat loss. Emerging infectious diseases, including chytridiomycosis and ranavirus, are also devastating populations.",
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"plaintext": "Many environmental scientists believe amphibians, including frogs, are good biological indicators of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate positions in food chains, their permeable skins, and typically biphasic lives (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults). It appears that species with both aquatic eggs and larvae are most affected by the decline, while those with direct development are the most resistant.",
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"plaintext": "Frog mutations and genetic defects have increased since the 1990s. These often include missing legs or extra legs. Various causes have been identified or hypothesized, including an increase in ultraviolet radiation affecting the spawn on the surface of ponds, chemical contamination from pesticides and fertilizers, and parasites such as the trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae. Probably all these are involved in a complex way as stressors, environmental factors contributing to rates of disease, and vulnerability to attack by parasites. Malformations impair mobility and the individuals may not survive to adulthood. An increase in the number of frogs eaten by birds may actually increase the likelihood of parasitism of other frogs, because the trematode's complex lifecycle includes the ramshorn snail and several intermediate hosts such as birds.",
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"plaintext": "In a few cases, captive breeding programs have been established and have largely been successful. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums named 2008 as the \"Year of the Frog\" in order to draw attention to the conservation issues faced by them.",
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"plaintext": "The cane toad (Bufo marinus) is a very adaptable species native to South and Central America. In the 1930s, it was introduced into Puerto Rico, and later various other islands in the Pacific and Caribbean region, as a biological pest control agent. In 1935, 3000 toads were liberated in the sugar cane fields of Queensland, Australia, in an attempt to control cane beetles such as Dermolepida albohirtum, the larvae of which damage and kill the canes. Initial results in many of these countries were positive, but it later became apparent that the toads upset the ecological balance in their new environments. They bred freely, competed with native frog species, ate bees and other harmless native invertebrates, had few predators in their adopted habitats, and poisoned pets, carnivorous birds, and mammals. In many of these countries, they are now regarded both as pests and invasive species, and scientists are looking for a biological method to control them.",
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"plaintext": "Frog legs are eaten by humans in many parts of the world. Indonesia is the world's largest exporter of frog meat, exporting more than 5,000 tonnes of frog meat each year, mostly to France, Belgium and Luxembourg. Originally, they were supplied from local wild populations, but overexploitation led to a diminution in the supply. This resulted in the development of frog farming and a global trade in frogs. The main importing countries are France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the United States, while the chief exporting nations are Indonesia and China. The annual global trade in the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), mostly farmed in China, varies between 1200 and 2400 tonnes.",
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"plaintext": "The mountain chicken frog, so-called as it tastes of chicken, is now endangered, in part due to human consumption, and was a major food choice of the Dominicans. Coon, possum, partridges, prairie hen, and frogs were among the fare Mark Twain recorded as part of American cuisine.",
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"plaintext": "In November, 1970, NASA sent two bullfrogs into space for six days during the Orbiting Frog Otolith mission to test weightlessness.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs are used for dissections in high school and university anatomy classes, often first being injected with coloured substances to enhance contrasts among the biological systems. This practice is declining due to animal welfare concerns, and \"digital frogs\" are now available for virtual dissection.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have served as experimental animals throughout the history of science. Eighteenth-century biologist Luigi Galvani discovered the link between electricity and the nervous system by studying frogs. He created one of the first tools for measuring electric current out of a frog leg. In 1852, H. F. Stannius used a frog's heart in a procedure called a Stannius ligature to demonstrate the ventricle and atria beat independently of each other and at different rates. The African clawed frog or platanna (Xenopus laevis) was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy tests in the first half of the 20th century. A sample of urine from a pregnant woman injected into a female frog induces it to lay eggs, a discovery made by English zoologist Lancelot Hogben. This is because a hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin, is present in substantial quantities in the urine of women during pregnancy. In 1952, Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King cloned a frog by somatic cell nuclear transfer. This same technique was later used to create Dolly the sheep, and their experiment was the first time a successful nuclear transplantation had been accomplished in higher animals.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs are used in cloning research and other branches of embryology. Although alternative pregnancy tests have been developed, biologists continue to use Xenopus as a model organism in developmental biology because their embryos are large and easy to manipulate, they are readily obtainable, and can easily be kept in the laboratory. Xenopus laevis is increasingly being displaced by its smaller relative, Xenopus tropicalis, which reaches its reproductive age in five months rather than the one to two years for X. laevis, thus facilitating faster studies across generations.",
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"plaintext": "Genomes of Xenopus laevis, X. tropicalis, Rana catesbeiana, Rhinella marina, and Nanorana parkeri have been sequenced and deposited in the NCBI Genome database.",
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"plaintext": "Due to being inexpensive and relatively easy to care for, many species of frogs and toads have become popular as exotic pets. They are undemanding and require low maintenance. Both frogs and toads can be housed in paludariums, terrariums and aquariums.",
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"plaintext": "Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a \"natural pharmacy\". The alkaloid epibatidine, a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine, is made by some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skins of frogs may offer resistance to HIV infection. Dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs.",
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"plaintext": "It has long been suspected that pre-Columbian Mesoamericans used a toxic secretion produced by the cane toad as a hallucinogen, but more likely they used substances secreted by the Colorado River toad (Bufo alvarius). These contain bufotenin (5-MeO-DMT), a psychoactive compound that has been used in modern times as a recreational drug. Typically, the skin secretions are dried and then smoked. Illicit drug use by licking the skin of a toad has been reported in the media, but this may be an urban myth.",
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"plaintext": "Exudations from the skin of the golden poison frog (Phyllobates terribilis) are traditionally used by native Colombians to poison the darts they use for hunting. The tip of the projectile is rubbed over the back of the frog and the dart is launched from a blowgun. The combination of the two alkaloid toxins batrachotoxin and homobatrachotoxin is so powerful, one frog contains enough poison to kill an estimated 22,000 mice. Two other species, the Kokoe poison dart frog (Phyllobates aurotaenia) and the black-legged dart frog (Phyllobates bicolor) are also used for this purpose. These are less toxic and less abundant than the golden poison frog. They are impaled on pointed sticks and may be heated over a fire to maximise the quantity of poison that can be transferred to the dart.",
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"plaintext": "Frogs have been featured in mythology, fairy tales and popular culture. In traditional Chinese myths, the world rests on a giant frog, who would try to swallow the moon, causing the lunar eclipse. Frogs have been featured in religion, folklore, and popular culture. The ancient Egyptians depicted the god Heqet, protector of newborns, with the head of a frog. For the Mayans, frogs represented water, crops, fertility and birth and were associated with the god Chaac. In the Bible, Moses unleashes a plague of frogs on the Egyptians. Medieval Europeans associated frogs and toads with evil and witchcraft. The Brothers Grimm fairy tale The Frog Prince features a princess taking in a frog and it turning into a handsome prince. In modern culture, frogs make take a comedic or hapless role, such as Mr. Toad of the 1908 novel The Wind in the Willows, Michigan J. Frog of Warner Bros. Cartoons the Muppet Kermit the Frog and in the game Frogger.",
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"plaintext": " Estes, R., and O. A. Reig. (1973). \"The early fossil record of frogs: a review of the evidence.\" pp.11–63 In J. L. Vial (Ed.), Evolutionary Biology of the Anurans: Contemporary Research on Major Problems. University of Missouri Press, Columbia.",
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"plaintext": " AmphibiaWeb",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gallery of Frogs– Photography and images of various frog species",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Whole Frog Project– Virtual frog dissection and anatomy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " \"Disappearance of toads, frogs has some scientists worried\" San Francisco Chronicle, 20 April 1992",
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},
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"plaintext": " Amphibian photo gallery by scientific name– Features many unusual frogs",
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"plaintext": " Scientific American: Researchers Pinpoint Source of Poison Frogs' Deadly Defenses",
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},
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"plaintext": " Time-lapse video showing the egg's development until hatching",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Frog vocalisations from around the world– From the British Library Sound Archive",
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"plaintext": " Frog calls– From Manitoba, Canada",
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"Extant_Hettangian_first_appearances"
] | 53,636 | 63,625 | 7,229 | 521 | 0 | 1 | Anura | order of amphibians | [
"frog order",
"frog"
] |
38,499 | 1,105,136,484 | Toad | [
{
"plaintext": "Toad is a common name for certain frogs, especially of the family Bufonidae, that are characterized by dry, leathery skin, short legs, and large bumps covering the parotoid glands.",
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"plaintext": "A distinction between frogs and toads is not made in scientific taxonomy, but is common in popular culture (folk taxonomy), in which toads are associated with drier, rougher skin and more terrestrial habitats.",
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"plaintext": "In scientific taxonomy, toads include the true toads (Bufonidae) and various other terrestrial or warty-skinned frogs.",
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"plaintext": "Non-bufonid \"toads\" can be found in the families:",
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"plaintext": " Bombinatoridae (fire-bellied toads and jungle toads)",
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"plaintext": " Calyptocephalellidae (helmeted water toad and false toads)",
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"plaintext": " Discoglossidae (midwife toads)",
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"plaintext": " Myobatrachidae (Australian toadlets)",
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"plaintext": " Pelobatidae (European spadefoot toad)",
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"plaintext": " Rhinophrynidae (burrowing toads)",
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"plaintext": " Scaphiopodidae (American spadefoot toads)",
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"plaintext": " Microhylidae (narrowmouth toads)",
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"plaintext": "Usually the largest of the bumps on the skin of a toad are those that cover the parotoid glands. The bumps are commonly called warts, but they have nothing to do with pathologic warts, being fixed in size, present on healthy specimens, and not caused by infection. It's a myth that handling toads causes warts.",
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"plaintext": "Toads travel from non-breeding to breeding areas of ponds and lakes. Bogert (1947) suggests that the toads' call is the most important cue in the homing to ponds.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Toads, like many amphibians, exhibit breeding site fidelity (philopatry). Individual American toads return to their natal ponds to breed where they are likely to encounter siblings as potential mates. Although inbred examples within a species are possible, siblings rarely mate. Toads recognize and avoid mating with close kin. Advertisement vocalizations given by males appear to serve as cues by which females recognize kin. Kin recognition thus allows avoidance of inbreeding and consequent inbreeding depression.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom common toads often climb trees to hide in hollows or in nest boxes.",
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"plaintext": "In Kenneth Grahame's novel The Wind in the Willows (1908), Mr. Toad is a likeable and popular, if selfish and narcissistic, comic character. Mr. Toad reappears as the lead character in A. A. Milne's play Toad of Toad Hall (1929), based on the book.",
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"plaintext": "In Chinese culture, the Money Toad (or Frog) Jin Chan appears as a Feng Shui charm for prosperity.",
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"plaintext": " True toad",
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"plaintext": " Common toad",
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38,501 | 1,093,296,014 | Knight's_tour | [
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"plaintext": "A knight's tour is a sequence of moves of a knight on a chessboard such that the knight visits every square exactly once. If the knight ends on a square that is one knight's move from the beginning square (so that it could tour the board again immediately, following the same path), the tour is closed (or re-entrant); otherwise, it is open.",
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"plaintext": "The knight's tour problem is the mathematical problem of finding a knight's tour. Creating a program to find a knight's tour is a common problem given to computer science students. Variations of the knight's tour problem involve chessboards of different sizes than the usual , as well as irregular (non-rectangular) boards.",
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"plaintext": "The knight's tour problem is an instance of the more general Hamiltonian path problem in graph theory. The problem of finding a closed knight's tour is similarly an instance of the Hamiltonian cycle problem. Unlike the general Hamiltonian path problem, the knight's tour problem can be solved in linear time.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known reference to the knight's tour problem dates back to the 9th century AD. In Rudraṭa's (5.15), a Sanskrit work on Poetics, the pattern of a knight's tour on a half-board has been presented as an elaborate poetic figure () called the or 'arrangement in the steps of a horse'. The same verse in four lines of eight syllables each can be read from left to right or by following the path of the knight on tour. Since the Indic writing systems used for Sanskrit are syllabic, each syllable can be thought of as representing a square on a chessboard. Rudrata's example is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "transliterated:",
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"plaintext": "For example, the first line can be read from left to right or by moving from the first square to the second line, third syllable (2.3) and then to 1.5 to 2.7 to 4.8 to 3.6 to 4.4 to 3.2.",
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"plaintext": "The Sri Vaishnava poet and philosopher Vedanta Desika during the 14th century in his 1,008-verse magnum opus praising Lord Ranganatha's divine sandals of Srirangam; i.e., Paduka Sahasram (in chapter 30: Chitra Paddhati) has composed two consecutive Sanskrit verses containing 32 letters each (in Anushtubh meter) where the second verse can be derived from the first verse by performing a Knight's tour on a board, starting from the top-left corner. The transliterated 19th verse is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "The 20th verse that can be obtained by performing Knight's tour on the above verse is as follows:",
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{
"plaintext": "sThi thA sa ma ya rA ja thpA",
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},
{
"plaintext": "ga tha rA mA dha kE ga vi |",
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},
{
"plaintext": "dhu ran ha sAm sa nna thA dhA",
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},
{
"plaintext": "sA dhyA thA pa ka rA sa rA ||",
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},
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"plaintext": "It is believed that Desika composed all 1008 verses (including the special Chaturanga Turanga Padabandham mentioned above) in a single night as a challenge.",
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"plaintext": "A tour reported in the fifth book of Bhagavantabaskaraby by Bhat Nilakantha, a cyclopedic work in Sanskrit on ritual, law and politics, written either about 1600 or about 1700 describes three knight's tours. The tours are not only reentrant but also symmetrical, and the verses are based on the same tour, starting from different squares. Nilakantha's work is an extraordinary achievement being a fully symmetric closed tour, predating the work of Euler (1759) by at least 60 years.",
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"plaintext": "After Nilakantha, one of the first mathematicians to investigate the knight's tour was Leonhard Euler. The first procedure for completing the knight's tour was Warnsdorf's rule, first described in 1823 by H. C. von Warnsdorf.",
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century, the Oulipo group of writers used it, among many others. The most notable example is the knight's tour which sets the order of the chapters in Georges Perec's novel Life a User's Manual.",
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"plaintext": "The sixth game of the World Chess Championship 2010 between Viswanathan Anand and Veselin Topalov saw Anand making 13 consecutive knight moves (albeit using both knights); online commentators jested that Anand was trying to solve the knight's tour problem during the game.",
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"plaintext": "Schwenk proved that for any board with m ≤ n, a closed knight's tour is always possible unless one or more of these three conditions are met:",
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"plaintext": " m and n are both odd",
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"plaintext": " m = 1, 2, or 4",
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"plaintext": " m = 3 and n = 4, 6, or 8.",
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"plaintext": "Cull et al. and Conrad et al. proved that on any rectangular board whose smaller dimension is at least 5, there is a (possibly open) knight's tour.",
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"plaintext": "On an board, there are exactly 26,534,728,821,064 directed closed tours (i.e. two tours along the same path that travel in opposite directions are counted separately, as are rotations and reflections). The number of undirected closed tours is half this number, since every tour can be traced in reverse. There are 9,862 undirected closed tours on a board.",
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"plaintext": "There are several ways to find a knight's tour on a given board with a computer. Some of these methods are algorithms while others are heuristics.",
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"plaintext": "A brute-force search for a knight's tour is impractical on all but the smallest boards. For example, there are approximately 4×1051 possible move sequences on an board, and it is well beyond the capacity of modern computers (or networks of computers) to perform operations on such a large set. However, the size of this number is not indicative of the difficulty of the problem, which can be solved \"by using human insight and ingenuity ... without much difficulty.\"",
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"plaintext": "By dividing the board into smaller pieces, constructing tours on each piece, and patching the pieces together, one can construct tours on most rectangular boards in linear time – that is, in a time proportional to the number of squares on the board.",
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"plaintext": "Warnsdorff's rule is a heuristic for finding a single knight's tour. The knight is moved so that it always proceeds to the square from which the knight will have the fewest onward moves. When calculating the number of onward moves for each candidate square, we do not count moves that revisit any square already visited. It is possible to have two or more choices for which the number of onward moves is equal; there are various methods for breaking such ties, including one devised by Pohl and another by Squirrel and Cull.",
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"plaintext": "This rule may also more generally be applied to any graph. In graph-theoretic terms, each move is made to the adjacent vertex with the least degree. Although the Hamiltonian path problem is NP-hard in general, on many graphs that occur in practice this heuristic is able to successfully locate a solution in linear time. The knight's tour is such a special case.",
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{
"plaintext": "The heuristic was first described in \"Des Rösselsprungs einfachste und allgemeinste Lösung\" by H. C. von Warnsdorff in 1823.",
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"plaintext": "A computer program that finds a knight's tour for any starting position using Warnsdorff's rule was written by Gordon Horsington and published in 1984 in the book Century/Acorn User Book of Computer Puzzles.",
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"plaintext": "The knight's tour problem also lends itself to being solved by a neural network implementation. The network is set up such that every legal knight's move is represented by a neuron, and each neuron is initialized randomly to be either \"active\" or \"inactive\" (output of 1 or 0), with 1 implying that the neuron is part of the solution. Each neuron also has a state function (described below) which is initialized to 0. ",
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"plaintext": "When the network is allowed to run, each neuron can change its state and output based on the states and outputs of its neighbors (those exactly one knight's move away) according to the following transition rules:",
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},
{
"plaintext": "where represents discrete intervals of time, is the state of the neuron connecting square to square , is the output of the neuron from to , and is the set of neighbors of the neuron.",
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"plaintext": "Although divergent cases are possible, the network should eventually converge, which occurs when no neuron changes its state from time to . When the network converges, either the network encodes a knight's tour or a series of two or more independent circuits within the same board.",
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{
"plaintext": "Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli",
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"plaintext": "George Koltanowski",
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"plaintext": "Longest uncrossed knight's path",
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"plaintext": "Eight queens puzzle",
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"plaintext": "Self-avoiding walk",
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"plaintext": "H. C. von Warnsdorf 1823 in Google Books",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Introduction to Knight's tours by George Jelliss",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Knight's tours complete notes by George Jelliss",
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38,512 | 1,086,117,294 | Plesiochronous_digital_hierarchy | [
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"plaintext": "The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment such as fibre optic and microwave radio systems. The term plesiochronous is derived from Greek plēsios, meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly, but not quite perfectly, synchronized.",
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"plaintext": "Backbone transport networks replaced PDH networks with synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) or synchronous optical networking (SONET) equipment over the ten years ending around the turn of the millennium (2000), whose floating payloads relaxed the more stringent timing requirements of PDH network technology. The cost in North America was $4.5 billion in 1998 alone, p.171.",
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"plaintext": "PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same rate, but allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By analogy, any two watches are nominally running at the same rate, clocking up 60 seconds every minute. However, there is no link between watches to guarantee that they run at exactly the same rate, and it is highly likely that one is running slightly faster than the other.",
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"plaintext": "The data rate is controlled by a clock in the equipment generating the data. The rate is allowed to vary by ±50ppm of 2048kbit/s (according to ITU-T recommendation). This means that different data streams can (and probably do) run at slightly different rates from one another.",
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"plaintext": "In order to transport multiple data streams from one place to another over a common transmission medium, they are multiplexed in groups of four. Because each of the four data streams is not necessarily running at the same rate, some compensation has to be introduced. Typically the multiplexer takes the data from the 4 incoming 2.048 Mbit/s data streams and feeds each into a 2.112 Mbit/s stream via a buffer store leaving a series of fixed gaps in each frame.",
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"plaintext": "The data rate is thus 2.112 Mbit/s x (number of bits in a frame – number of gaps)/(number of bits in a frame)",
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"plaintext": "This is slightly greater than 2.048 Mbit/s + 50ppm. If an extra gap is added, this is slightly smaller than 2.048 Mbit/s – 50ppm. Thus on average the data rate can be made exactly equal to the incoming rate by adding a gap in some frames and not others. This extra gap is in a fixed place in the frame and is referred to as the \"stuffable bit\". If it does not contain data (i.e. it's a gap) it is \"stuffed\". The data from the 4 data streams in now contained in 4 data streams of 2.112 Mbit/s which are synchronous and can easily be multiplexed to give a single stream of 8.448 Mbit/s by taking 1 bit from stream #1, followed by 1 bit from stream #2, then #3, then #4 etc. Some of the fixed gaps accommodate a synchronisation word which allows the demultiplexer to identify the start of each frame and others contain control bits for each stream which say whether or not the stuffable bit is stuffed or not (i.e. contains data or not). The process can then be reversed by the demultiplexer and 4 data streams produced with exactly the same bit rate as previous. The timing irregularity is ironed out using a phase locked loop.",
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"plaintext": "This scheme does not allow the addition of a stuffed bit as soon as it is required because the stuffable bit is in a fixed point in the frame so it is necessary to wait until the stuffable bit time slot. This wait results in \"waiting time jitter\" which can be arbitrarily low in frequency (i.e. down to zero) so cannot be entirely eliminated by the filtering effects of the phase lock loop. The worst possible stuffing ratio would be 1 frame in 2 as this gives a theoretical 0.5 bit of jitter so the stuffing ratio is carefully chosen to give theoretical minimum jitter. In a practical system however, the actual decision to stuff or not may be made by comparing the read address and write address of the input buffer store so the position in the frame when the decision is made varies and adds a second variable dependent on the length of the store.",
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"plaintext": "The process is sometimes called \"pulse justification\" because \"justification\" in printing is adding gaps so that each line takes up a full column width. It is believed that this term was preferred because \"...... stuffing stuffable bits\", and \"waiting time jitter is the jitter you get while waiting to stuff a stuffable bit\", though technically correct, does sound like a pleonasm!",
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"plaintext": "Similar techniques are used to combine four ×8Mbit/s together, plus bit stuffing and frame alignment, giving 34Mbit/s. Four ×34Mbit/s, gives 140. Four ×140 gives 565.",
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"plaintext": "In telecommunications networks, independent clocks are free-running precision clocks located at the nodes which are used for synchronization.",
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"plaintext": "Variable storage buffers, installed to accommodate variations in transmission delay between nodes, are made large enough to accommodate small time (phase) departures among the nodal clocks that control transmission. Traffic may occasionally be interrupted to allow the buffers to be emptied of some or all of their stored data.",
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"plaintext": " Bilateral synchronization",
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"plaintext": " Digital multiplex hierarchy",
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"plaintext": " List of device bandwidths",
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"plaintext": " T-carrier and E-carrier systems",
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38,514 | 1,065,895,374 | Broadband_Integrated_Services_Digital_Network | [
{
"plaintext": "In the 1980s, the telecommunications industry expected that digital services would follow much the same pattern as voice services did on the public switched telephone network, and conceived an end-to-end circuit switched service, known as Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN).",
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"plaintext": "Before B-ISDN, the original ISDN attempted to substitute the analog telephone system with a digital system which was appropriate for both voice and non-voice traffic. Obtaining worldwide agreement on the basic rate interface standard was expected to lead to a large user demand for ISDN equipment, hence leading to mass production and inexpensive ISDN chips. However, the standardization process took years while computer network technology moved rapidly. Once the ISDN standard was finally agreed upon and products were available, it was already obsolete. For home use the largest demand for new services was video and voice transfer, but the ISDN basic rate lacks the necessary channel capacity.",
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"plaintext": "This led to introduction of B-ISDN, by adding the word broadband. Although the term had a meaning in physics and engineering (similar to wideband), the CCITT defined it as: \"Qualifying a service or system requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the primary rate\" referring to the primary rate which ranged from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s. Services envisioned included video telephone and video conferencing. Technical papers were published in early 1988. Standards were issued by the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT, now known as ITU-T), and called \"Recommendations\". They included G.707 to G.709, and I.121 which defined the principal aspects of B-ISDN, with many others following through the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "The designated technology for B-ISDN was Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which was intended to carry both synchronous voice and asynchronous data services on the same transport. The B-ISDN vision has been overtaken by other disruptive technologies used in the Internet. The ATM technology survived as a low-level layer in most digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies, and as a payload type in some wireless technologies such as WiMAX. The term \"broadband\" became a marketing term for any digital Internet access service.",
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"plaintext": " Broadband networks",
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"plaintext": " Dynamic synchronous transfer mode, a revival of circuit switching technology for broadband traffic",
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38,518 | 1,071,407,239 | Lyrics | [
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"plaintext": "Lyrics are words that make up a song, usually consisting of verses and choruses. The writer of lyrics is a lyricist. The words to an extended musical composition such as an opera are, however, usually known as a \"libretto\" and their writer, as a \"librettist\". The meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. Some lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. Rappers can also create lyrics (often with a variation of rhyming words) that are meant to be spoken rhythmically rather than sung.",
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"plaintext": "The differences between poem and song may become less meaningful where verse is set to music, to the point that any distinction becomes untenable. This is perhaps recognised in the way popular songs have lyrics.",
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"plaintext": "However, the verse may pre-date its tune (in the way that \"Rule Britannia\" was set to music, and \"And did those feet in ancient time\" has become the hymn \"Jerusalem\"), or the tune may be lost over time but the words survive, matched by a number of different tunes (this is particularly common with hymns and ballads).",
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"plaintext": "Possible classifications proliferate (under anthem, ballad, blues, carol, folk song, hymn, libretto, lied, lullaby, march, praise song, round, spiritual). Nursery rhymes may be songs, or doggerel: the term doesn't imply a distinction. The ghazal is a sung form that is considered primarily poetic. See also rapping, roots of hip hop music.",
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"plaintext": "Analogously, verse drama might normally be judged (at its best) as poetry, but not consisting of poems (see dramatic verse).",
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"plaintext": "In Baroque music, melodies and their lyrics were prose. Rather than paired lines they consist of rhetorical sentences or paragraphs consisting of an opening gesture, an amplification (often featuring sequence), and a close (featuring a cadence); in German Vordersatz-Fortspinnung-Epilog. For example:",
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"plaintext": " When I was a child, [opening gesture]",
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"plaintext": " I spoke as a child, [amplification...]",
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"plaintext": " I understood as a child, [...]",
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"plaintext": " I thought as a child; [...]",
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"plaintext": " But when I became a man, I put away childish things. [close]",
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"plaintext": " - 1 Corinthians 13:11",
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"plaintext": "In the lyrics of popular music a \"shifter\" is a word, often a pronoun, \"where reference varies according to who is speaking, when and where\", such as \"I\", \"you\", \"my\", \"our\". For example, who is the \"my\" of \"My Generation\"?",
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"plaintext": " See Royalties",
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"plaintext": ", there are many websites featuring song lyrics. This offering, however, is controversial, since some sites include copyrighted lyrics offered without the holder's permission. The U.S. Music Publishers Association (MPA), which represents sheet music companies, launched a legal campaign against such websites in December 2005. The MPA's president, Lauren Keiser, said the free lyrics web sites are \"completely illegal\" and wanted some website operators jailed.",
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"plaintext": "Lyrics licenses could be obtained worldwide through one of the two aggregators: LyricFind and Musixmatch. The first company to provide licensed lyrics was Yahoo!, quickly followed by MetroLyrics. Several lyric websites are providing licensed lyrics, such as SongMeanings and LyricWiki (defunct as of 2020).",
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"plaintext": "Many competing lyrics web sites are still offering unlicensed content, causing challenges around the legality and accuracy of lyrics. In an attempt to crack down unlicensed lyrics web sites, a U.S. federal court has ordered LiveUniverse, a network of websites run by MySpace co-founder Brad Greenspan, to cease operating four sites offering unlicensed song lyrics.",
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"plaintext": "Lyrics can be studied from an academic perspective. For example, some lyrics can be considered a form of social commentary. Lyrics often contain political, social, and economic themes—as well as aesthetic elements—and so can communicate culturally significant messages. These messages can be explicit, or implied through metaphor or symbolism. Lyrics can also be analyzed with respect to the sense of unity (or lack of unity) it has with its supporting music. Analysis based on tonality and contrast are particular examples. Former Oxford Professor of Poetry Christopher Ricks famously published Dylan's Visions of Sin, an in-depth and characteristically Ricksian analysis of the lyrics of Bob Dylan; Ricks gives the caveat that to have studied the poetry of the lyrics in tandem with the music would have made for a much more complicated critical feat.",
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"plaintext": "A 2009 report published by McAfee found that, in terms of potential exposure to malware, lyrics-related searches and searches containing the word \"free\" are the most likely to have risky results from search engines, both in terms of average risk of all results, and maximum risk of any result.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in late 2014, Google changed its search results pages to include song lyrics. When users search for a name of a song, Google can now display the lyrics directly in the search results page. When users search for a specific song's lyrics, most results show the lyrics directly through a Google search by using Google Play.",
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"plaintext": " Lyricist, a writer of lyrics",
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"plaintext": " Libretto, the \"little book\" of an extended musical piece, written by a librettist",
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"plaintext": " \"singing in the Spirit\", vocal improvisation in a spiritual context",
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"plaintext": " scat singing & vocalese, vocal improvisation in jazz",
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"plaintext": " bol, kouji, beatbox, forms of vocal mimicry or percussion",
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38,520 | 1,107,512,832 | Pas-de-Calais | [
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"plaintext": "Pas-de-Calais (, \"strait of Calais\"; ; also ) is a department in northern France named after the French designation of the Strait of Dover, which it borders. It has the most communes of all the departments of France, 890, and is the 8th most populous. It had a population of 1,465,278 in 2019. The Calais Passage connects to the Port of Calais on the English Channel. Pas-de-Calais borders the departments of Nord and Somme and is connected to the English county of Kent via the Channel Tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "Inhabited since prehistoric times, the Pas-de-Calais region was populated in turn by the Celtic Belgae, the Romans, the Germanic Franks and the Alemanni. During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Roman practice of co-opting Germanic tribes to provide military and defence services along the route from Boulogne-sur-Mer to Cologne created a Germanic-Romance linguistic border in the region that persisted until the eighth century.",
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"plaintext": "Saxon colonization into the region from the fifth to the eighth centuries likely extended the linguistic border somewhat south and west so that by the ninth century most inhabitants north of the line between Béthune and Berck spoke a dialect of Middle Dutch, while the inhabitants to the south spoke Picard, a variety of Romance dialects.",
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"plaintext": "This linguistic border is still evident today in the toponyms and patronyms of the region. Beginning in the ninth century, the linguistic border began a steady move to north and the east, and by the end of the 15th century Romance dialects had completely displaced those of Dutch.",
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"plaintext": "Pas-de-Calais is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the former provinces of Calaisis, formerly English, Boulonnais, Ponthieu and Artois, this last formerly part of the Spanish Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the costliest battles of World War I were fought in the region. The Canadian National Vimy Memorial, eight kilometres from Arras, commemorates the Battle of Vimy Ridge assault during the Battle of Arras (1917) and is Canada's most important memorial in Europe to its fallen soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "Pas-de-Calais was also the target of Operation Fortitude during World War II, which was an Allied plan to deceive the Germans that the invasion of Europe at D-Day was to occur here, rather than in Normandy.",
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"plaintext": "Pas-de-Calais is in the current region of Hauts-de-France and is surrounded by the departments of Nord and Somme, the English Channel, and the North Sea. It shares a nominal border with the English county of Kent halfway through the Channel Tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "The principal rivers are the following:",
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"plaintext": " Authie",
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"plaintext": " Canche",
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"plaintext": " Ternoise",
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"plaintext": " Liane",
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"plaintext": " Sensée",
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"plaintext": " Scarpe",
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"plaintext": " Deûle",
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"plaintext": " Aa",
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"plaintext": "Its principal towns are, on the coast, Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer, and in Artois, Arras, Lens, Liévin, and Béthune. The most populous commune is Calais; the prefecture Arras is the second-most populous. As of 2019, there are 10 communes with more than 15,000 inhabitants:",
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"plaintext": "The economy of the department was long dependent on mining, primarily the coal mines near the town of Lens, Pas-de-Calais where coal was discovered in 1849. However, since World War II, the economy has become more diversified.",
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"plaintext": "Pas-de-Calais is one of the most densely populated departments of France, but has no cities with over 100,000 residents: Calais has about 73,000 inhabitants. The remaining population is primarily concentrated along the border with the department of Nord in the mining district, where a string of small towns constitutes an urban area with a population of about 1.2 million. The centre and south of the department are more rural, but still quite heavily populated, with many villages and small towns.",
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"plaintext": "Although the department saw some of the heaviest fighting of World War I, its population rebounded quickly after both world wars. However, many of the mining towns have seen dramatic decreases in population, some up to half of their population.",
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"plaintext": "Population development since 1801:",
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"plaintext": "The president of the Departmental Council is Jean-Claude Leroy, elected in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In the second round of the French presidential elections of 2017 Pas-de-Calais was one of only two departments in which the candidate of the Front National, Marine Le Pen, received a majority of the votes cast: 52.06%.",
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"plaintext": "There are currently two public universities in the department. Although it is one of the most populous departments of France, Pas-de-Calais did not contain a university until 1991 when the French government created two universities: ULCO (Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale) on the western part of the department, and Université d'Artois on the eastern part.",
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"plaintext": " Cantons of the Pas-de-Calais department",
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"plaintext": " Arrondissements of the Pas-de-Calais department",
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"plaintext": " 7 Valleys Pas-de-Calais",
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"plaintext": "Bill Viola ( , ; born 1951) is an American contemporary video artist whose artistic expression depends upon electronic, sound, and image technology in new media. His works focus on the ideas behind fundamental human experiences such as birth, death and aspects of consciousness.",
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"plaintext": "In 1973 Viola graduated from Syracuse University with a BFA in experimental studies. He studied in the College of Visual and Performing Arts, including the Synapse experimental program, which evolved into CitrusTV.",
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"plaintext": "Viola's first job after graduation was as a video technician at the Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse. From 1973 to 1980, he studied and performed with composer David Tudor in the new music group \"Rainforest\" (later named \"Composers Inside Electronics\"). From 1974 to 1976, Viola worked as technical director at , a pioneering video studio led by Maria Gloria Conti Bicocchi, in Florence, Italy where he encountered video artists Nam June Paik, Bruce Nauman, and Vito Acconci. From 1976 to 1983, he was artist-in-residence at WNET Thirteen Television Laboratory in New York. In 1976 and 1977, he travelled to the Solomon Islands, Java and Indonesia to record traditional performing arts.",
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"plaintext": "Viola was invited to show work at La Trobe University (Melbourne, Australia) in 1977, by cultural arts director Kira Perov. Viola and Perov later married, beginning an important lifelong collaboration in working and traveling together. In 1980, they lived in Japan for a year and a half on a Japan/U.S. cultural exchange fellowship where they studied Buddhism with Zen Master Daien Tanaka. During this time, Viola was also an artist-in-residence at Sony Corporation's Atsugi Laboratories.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, he became an instructor in Advanced Video at the California Institute of the Arts, in Valencia, California. He represented the United States at the 46th Venice Biennale in 1995 for which he produced a series of works called Buried Secrets, including one of his best known works The Greeting, a contemporary interpretation of Pontormo's The Visitation. In 1997, the Whitney Museum of American Art organized and toured internationally a major 25-year retrospective of Viola's work.",
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"plaintext": "Viola was the 1998, Getty Scholar-in-residence at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles . Later, in 2000, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2002, he completed Going Forth By Day, a digital \"fresco\" cycle in High-Definition video, commissioned by the Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin and the Guggenheim Museum, New York.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003,The Passions was exhibited in Los Angeles, London, Madrid, and Canberra. This was a major collection of Viola's emotionally charged, slow-motion works inspired by traditions within Renaissance devotional painting.",
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"plaintext": "The first biography of Viola, entitled Viola on Vídeo, was written by Federico Utrera (King Juan Carlos University) and published in Spain in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Bill Viola Studio is run by his wife, Kira Perov, who is the executive director. She has worked with Viola since 1978 managing and assisting Viola with his videotapes and installations. She documents their work in progress on location. All publications from the studio are edited by Perov.",
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"plaintext": "Viola's art deals largely with the central themes of human consciousness and experience - birth, death, love, emotion, and a kind of humanist spirituality. Throughout his career he has drawn meaning and inspiration from his deep interest in mystical traditions, especially Zen Buddhism, Christian mysticism and Islamic Sufism, often evident in the transcendental quality of some of his works. Equally, the subject matter and manner of western medieval and renaissance devotional art have informed his aesthetic.",
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"plaintext": "An ongoing theme that he constantly explores is dualism, or the idea that comprehension of a subject is impossible unless its opposite is known. For example, a lot of his work has themes such as life and death, light and dark, stressed and calm, or loud and quiet.",
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"plaintext": "His work can be divided into three types, conceptual, visual, and a unique combination of the two. According to art critic James Gardner of the National Review, Viola's conceptual work is forgettable just like most video art. However, others have different opinions.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, Gardner feels that Viola's visual work such as \"The Veiling\", and his combination of both the conceptual and visual such as \"The Crossing\" are impressive and memorable.",
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"plaintext": "Viola's work often exhibits a painterly quality, his use of ultra-slow motion video encouraging the viewer to sink into the image and connect deeply to the meanings contained within it. This quality makes his work perhaps unusually accessible within a contemporary art context. As a consequence, his work often receives mixed reviews from critics, some of whom have noted a tendency toward grandiosity and obviousness in some of his work. Yet it is this very ambitiousness, his striving toward meaning, and attempts to deal with the big themes of human life, that also make his work so clearly appreciated by other critics, his audiences and collectors.",
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"plaintext": "His early work established his fascination with issues that continue to inform his work today. In particular, Viola's obsession with capturing the essence of emotion through recording of its extreme display began at least as early as his 1976 work, The Space Between the Teeth, a video of himself screaming, and continues to this day with such works as the 45-second Silent Mountain (2001), which shows two actors in states of anguish.",
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"plaintext": "If Viola's depictions of emotional states with no objective correlative — emotional states for which the viewer has no external object or event to understand them by—are one feature of many of his works, another, which has come to the forefront, is his reference to medieval and classical depictions of emotion. Most immediately, his subdued Catherine's Room 2001, has many scene by scene parallels with Andrea di Bartolo's 1393 St. Catherine of Siena Praying.",
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"plaintext": "Viola's work has received critical accolades. Critic Marjorie Perloff singles him out for praise. Writing at length about the necessity of poetic works responding to and taking advantage of contemporary computer technologies, Perloff sees Viola as an example of how new technology—in his case, the video camera—can create entirely new aesthetic criteria and possibilities that did not exist in previous incarnations of the genre — in this case, theater.",
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"plaintext": "While many video artists have been quick to adopt new technologies to their medium, Viola relies little on digital editing. Perhaps the most technically challenging part of his work, and that which has benefited most from the advances since his earliest pieces, is his use of extreme slow motion.",
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"plaintext": "Reverse Television 1983 is a 15-minute montage of people watching video cameras as though they were televisions.",
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"plaintext": "The Quintet Series 2000 is a set of four separate videos that shows the unfolding expressions of five actors in low motion so that details of their changing expressions can be detected.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Bill Viola collaborated with the industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails and its lead singer Trent Reznor to create a video suite for the band's tour. The triptych mainly is focused on water imagery and was supposed to be integral with the songs that were played.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, Viola was invited back to the 52nd Venice Biennale to present an installation called \"Ocean without a Shore,\" which was seen by over 60,000 viewers throughout its duration. The work consists of people standing in the foreground with nothing but black behind them. Each of them seem to produce gallons of water from themselves as if they were waterfalls. The water comes gushing out of their bodies as if they are being reborn. The piece who only seem to trickle water, while all the others produce a waterfall of water (Sal 2008). Viola says that this piece is about how the dead are undead; that once they get through the water they are conscious again.",
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"plaintext": "Observance 2002, is a work which may be taken partly as a response to the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, Viola embarked on The Tristan Project. At the invitation of opera director Peter Sellars, he created video sequences to be shown as a backdrop to the action on stage during the performance of Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde. Using his extreme slow motion, Viola's pieces used actors to portray the metaphorical story behind Wagner's story, seeing for example the first act as an extended ritual of purification in which the characters disrobe and wash themselves before finally plunging headlong into water together (in Wagner's story, the two characters maintain the facade of being indifferent to each other (necessary because Isolde is betrothed to Tristan's uncle) before, mistakenly believing they are going to die anyway, and reveal their true feelings). The piece was first performed in Los Angeles at Disney Hall on 3 separate evenings in 2004, one act at a time, then given complete performances at the Bastille Opera in Paris in April and in November 2005. The video pieces were later shown in London without Wagner's music in June to September 2006, at the Haunch of Venison Gallery and St Olave's College, London. The Tristan project returned, both in music and video, to the Disney Hall in Los Angeles in April 2007, with further performances at New York City's Lincoln Center in May 2007 and at the Gergiev Festival in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, in September 2007.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, he began working with Tracy Fullerton and the Game Innovation Lab at USC on the art game, The Night Journey, a project based on the universal story of an individual's mystic journey toward enlightenment. The game has presented at a number of exhibits worldwide as a work in progress. It was awarded Sublime Experience at Indiecade 2008.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2009, Viola's solo exhibition entitled \"Bodies of Light\" appeared at the James Cohan Gallery in New York. Featured in the exhibition was Pneuma (1994), a projection of alternating images evoking the concept of fleeting memories. Also on view were several pieces from the Viola's ongoing \"Transfiguration\" series, which he evolved from his 2007 installation Ocean Without a Shore.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, Viola began work on a new production of Richard Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde, a collaboration with director Peter Sellars, conductor Esa-Pekka Salonen and executive producer Kira Perov. The opera premiered at the Opéra National de Paris in 2005 and Viola's video work was subsequently shown as LOVE/DEATH The Tristan Project at the Haunch of Venison Gallery and St Olave's School, London, in 2006. During 2007, the Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo in Sevilla, organized an exhibition at the Palace of Charles V in la Alhambra- Granada- in which Viola's work dialogues with the Fine Arts Collection of the museum.",
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"plaintext": "Bill Viola was awarded the XXIst Catalonia International Prize on May 11, 2009. The [Premi Internacional Catalunya was created by the autonomous government of Catalonia, the Generalitat de Catalunya, to be awarded to those who make notable contributions to the advancement of human, cultural, and scientific values. The award honors an individual \"whose creative work has made a significant contribution to the development of cultural, scientific or human values anywhere in the world\".",
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"plaintext": "Viola felt as if there are 3 different structures to describe patterns of data structures. There is the branching structure, matrix structure, and schizo structure.",
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"plaintext": "\"The most common structure is called branching. In this structure, the viewer proceeds from the top to bottom in time.\" The branching structure of presenting data is the typical narrative and linear structure. The viewer proceeds from a set point A to point B by taking an exact path, the same path any other reader would take. An example of this is Google because users go into this website with a certain mindset of what they want to search for, and they get a certain result as they branch off and end at another website.",
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"plaintext": "The second structure is the Matrix structure. This structure describes media when it follows nonlinear progression through information. The viewer could enter at any point, move in any direction, at any speed, pop in and out at any place. Like the branching structure, this also has its set perimeters. However, the exact path that is followed is up to the user. The user has the option of participating in decision-making that affect the viewing experience of the media. An example of this is Public Secrets, a website that reveals secrets of the justice and the incarceration system within the US for women. There is a set boundary of what users can and can't do while presenting them with different themes and subjects users are able to view. Different users will find themselves taking different paths, using flash cues to guide themselves through the website. This vast selection of paths presents many users with a unique viewing experience (in relation to that of the previous persons). As well, they have the choice to read the excerpts from these women or hear it out loud. This connects to Borges' \"The Garden of Forking Paths\" where the participant has a variety of choices on how they see a story unfold before them. Each time, they can create a different path.",
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"plaintext": "The last structure is called the schizo, or the spaghetti model. This form of data structure pertains to pure or mostly randomness. \"Everything is irrelevant and significant at the same time. Viewers may become lost in this structure and never find their way out.\"",
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"plaintext": " 1984 Polaroid Video Art Award for outstanding achievement, USA",
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"plaintext": " 1987 Maya Deren Award, American Film Institute, USA",
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"plaintext": " 1989 John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Award, USA",
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"plaintext": " 1993 Skowhegan Medal (Video Installation), USA",
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"plaintext": " 1993 Medienkunstpreis, Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie, Karlsruhe, and Siemens Kulturprogramm, Germany",
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"plaintext": " 2003 Cultural Leadership Award, American Federal of Arts, USA",
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"plaintext": " 2006 NORD/LB Art Prize, Bremen, Germany",
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"plaintext": " 2009 Eugene McDermott Award in the Arts, MIT, Cambridge, MA He was awarded $75,000 and was able to go to MIT and help enhance the creative groups there.",
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"plaintext": " 2009 Catalonia International Prize, Barcelona, Spain",
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"plaintext": " List of video artists",
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"plaintext": " Viola, Bill, Peter Sellars, John Walsh, and Hans Belting. Bill Viola: The Passions. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum in association with the National Gallery, London, 2003. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Hanhardt, John G, Kira Perov, and Bill Viola. Bill Viola., 2015. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Townsend, Chris, and Bill Viola. The Art of Bill Viola. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Viola, Bill, and Jérôme Neutres. Bill Viola: Paris, Grand Palais, Galeries Nationales, 5 Mars-21 Juillet 2014., 2014. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Viola, Bill. Going Forth by Day. New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, 2002. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Viola, Bill, and Robert Violette. Reasons for Knocking at an Empty House: Writings 1973-1994. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Rogers, Holly. 'Acoustic Architecture: Music and Space in the Video Installations of Bill Viola'. Twentieth Century Music, (2005) 2(2), pp.197–219. ISSN 1478-5722",
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"plaintext": " Ross, David A, Peter Sellars, and Lewis Hyde. Bill Viola. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1997. Print. ",
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"plaintext": " Cameras are Keepers of the Souls. An interview with Bill Viola Video by Louisiana Channel",
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38,523 | 1,096,552,437 | Departments_of_France | [
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"plaintext": "In the administrative divisions of France, the department (, ) is one of the three levels of government under the national level (\"territorial collectivities\"), between the administrative regions and the communes. Ninety-six departments are in metropolitan France, and five are overseas departments, which are also classified as overseas regions. Departments are further subdivided into 332 arrondissements, and these are divided into cantons. The last two levels of government have no autonomy; they are the basis of local organisation of police, fire departments and, sometimes, administration of elections.",
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"plaintext": "Each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council ( [sing.], [plur.]). From 1800 to April 2015, these were called general councils ( [sing.] [plur.]). Each council has a president. Their main areas of responsibility include the management of a number of social and welfare allowances, of junior high school () buildings and technical staff, and local roads and school and rural buses, and a contribution to municipal infrastructures. Local services of the state administration are traditionally organised at departmental level, where the prefect represents the government; however, regions have gained importance since the 2000s, with some department-level services merged into region-level services.",
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"plaintext": "The departments were created in 1790 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity; the title \"department\" is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after physical geographical features (rivers, mountains, or coasts), rather than after historical or cultural territories, which could have their own loyalties. The division of France into departments was a project particularly identified with the French revolutionary leader the Abbé Sieyès, although it had already been frequently discussed and written about by many politicians and thinkers. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1665 in the writings of d'Argenson. They have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. The 1822 territorial division of Spain (reverted due to the 1823 French intervention ending the trienio liberal) and the 1833 territorial division of Spain, which forms the basis of the present day Provinces of Spain with minor modifications is also based on the French model of departments of roughly equal size.",
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"plaintext": "Most French departments are assigned a two-digit number, the \"Official Geographical Code\", allocated by the (). Overseas departments have a three-digit number. The number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. Residents commonly use the numbers to refer to their own department or a neighbouring one, for example, inhabitants of Loiret may refer to their department as \"the 45\". More distant departments are generally referred to by their names, as few people know the numbers of all the departments.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, President François Hollande proposed to abolish departmental councils by 2020, which would have maintained the departments as administrative divisions, and to transfer their powers to other levels of governance. This reform project has since been scrapped.",
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"plaintext": "The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René d'Argenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées (Bridges and Highways) infrastructure administration.",
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"plaintext": "Before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces. During the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. The National Constituent Assembly decided to create a more uniform division into departments (département) and districts in late 1789. The process began on 4 August 1789 with the elimination of provincial privileges, and a 22 December 1789 decree (with letters patent in January 1790) provided for the termination of the provincial governments.",
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"plaintext": "The modern department system, as all-purpose units of the government, was decreed on 26 February 1790 (with letters patent on 4 March 1790) by the National Constituent Assembly. Their boundaries served two purposes:",
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"plaintext": " Boundaries were chosen to break up France's historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences and build a more homogeneous nation.",
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"plaintext": " Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a day's ride of the capital of a department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the entire national territory under close control.",
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"plaintext": "The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments. Most were named after an area's principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine. Savoy, during its temporary occupation, became the department of Mont-Blanc. The provinces continued to exist administratively until 21 September 1791.",
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"plaintext": "The number of departments, initially 83, had been increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleon's defeats in 1814–1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size and the number of departments was reduced to 86 (three of the original departments having been split). In 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice and a portion of the Var department. The 89 departments were given numbers based on the alphabetical order of their names.",
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"plaintext": "The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. A small part of Haut-Rhin however remained French and became known as the Territoire de Belfort; the remaining parts of Meurthe and Moselle were merged into a new Meurthe-et-Moselle department. When France regained the ceded departments after World War I, the Territoire de Belfort was not re-integrated into Haut-Rhin. In 1922, it became France's 90th department. Likewise, the Lorraine departments were not changed back to their original boundaries, and a new Moselle department was created in the regained territory, with slightly different boundaries from the pre-war department of the same name.",
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"plaintext": "The re-organisation of Île-de-France in 1968 and the division of Corsica in 1975 added six more departments, raising the total in Metropolitan France to 96. By 2011, when the overseas collectivity of Mayotte became a department, joining the earlier overseas departments of the Republic (all created in 1946) – French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Réunion – the total number of departments in the French Republic had become 101. In 2015, the Urban Community of Lyon was split from Rhône to form the Métropole de Lyon, a sui generis entity, with the powers of both an intercommunality and those of a department on its territory, formally classified as a \"territorial collectivity with particular status\" () and as such not belonging to any department. As of 2019, Corse-du-Sud and Haute-Corse are still administrative departments, although they no longer have the status of departmental \"territorial collectivities\": region and department functions have been managed by a \"single territorial collectivity\" since 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the intention to avoid the old nomenclature, often the names of pre-1790 provinces remained in use. For example, the name of Berry, though no longer having an official status, remains up to the present in widespread use in daily life.",
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"plaintext": "The departmental seat of government is known as the prefecture () or and is generally a town of some importance roughly at the geographical centre of the department. This was determined according to the time taken to travel on horseback from the periphery of the department. The goal was for the prefecture to be accessible on horseback from any town in the department within 24 hours. The prefecture is not necessarily the largest city in the department: for instance, in Saône-et-Loire department the capital is Mâcon, but the largest city is Chalon-sur-Saône. Departments may be divided into . The capital of an arrondissement is called a subprefecture () or .",
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"plaintext": "Each department is administered by a departmental council (), an assembly elected for six years by universal suffrage, with the President of the Departmental Council as executive of the department. Before 1982, the chief executive of the department was the prefect (), who represents the Government of France in each department and is appointed by the President of the French Republic. The prefect is assisted by one or more sub-prefects () based in the subprefectures of the department. Since 1982, the prefect retains only the powers that are not delegated to the department councils. In practice, their role has been largely limited to preventing local policy from conflicting with national policy.",
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"plaintext": "The departments are further divided into communes, governed by municipal councils. As of 2013, there were 36,681 communes in France. In the overseas territories, some communes play a role at departmental level. Paris, the country's capital city, is a commune as well as a department.",
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"plaintext": "In continental France (metropolitan France, excluding Corsica), the median land area of a department is , which is two-and-a-half times the median land area of the ceremonial counties of England and the preserved counties of Wales and slightly more than three-and-half times the median land area of a county of the United States. At the 2001 census, the median population of a department in continental France was 511,000 inhabitants, which is 21 times the median population of a United States county, but less than two-thirds of the median population of a ceremonial county of England and Wales. Most of the departments have an area of between 4,000 and 8,000km2 (1500 to 3000 sq. mi.), and a population between 320,000 and 1 million. The largest in area is Gironde (10,000km2; 4000 sq. mi.), while the smallest is the city of Paris (105km2; 40 sq. mi.). The most populous is Nord (2,550,000) and the least populous is Lozère (74,000).",
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"plaintext": "The departments are numbered: their two-digit numbers appear in postal codes, in INSEE codes (including \"social security numbers\") and on vehicle number plates. Initially, the numbers corresponded to the alphabetical order of the names of the departments, but several changed their names, so the correspondence became less exact. Alphanumeric codes 2A and 2B were used for Corsica while it was split but it has since reverted to 20. The two-digit code \"98\" is used by Monaco. Together with the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code FR, the numbers form the ISO 3166-2 country subdivision codes for the metropolitan departments. The overseas departments get three digits.",
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"plaintext": "Originally, the relationship between the departments and the central government was left somewhat ambiguous. While citizens in each department elected their own officials, the local governments were subordinated to the central government, becoming instruments of national integration. By 1793, however, the revolutionary government had turned the departments into transmission belts for policies enacted in Paris. With few exceptions, the departments had this role until the early 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "These maps cannot be used as a useful resource of voter preferences, because Departmental Councils are elected on a two-round system, which drastically limits the chances of fringe parties, if they are not supported on one of the two rounds by a moderate party. After the 1992 election, the left had a majority in only 21 of the 100 departments; after the 2011 election, the left dominated 61 of the 100 departments. (Mayotte only became a department after the election.)",
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"plaintext": "Key to the parties:",
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"plaintext": " Divers Centre = Independents of the centre or Democratic Movement (Mouvement démocrate)",
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"plaintext": " Divers Droite (DVD) = Independent conservatives",
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"plaintext": " Divers Gauche (DVG) = Independent left-wing politicians",
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"plaintext": " MPF = Movement for France (Mouvement pour la France) (right)",
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"plaintext": " Nouveau Centre = New Centre (centre or centre-right)",
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"plaintext": " PCF = French Communist Party (Parti communiste français)",
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"plaintext": " PRG = Radical Party of the Left (Parti radical de gauche)",
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"plaintext": " PS = Socialist Party (Parti socialiste)",
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"plaintext": " UDF = Union for French Democracy (Union pour la démocratie française) succeeded by Democratic Movement",
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"plaintext": " UMP = Union for a Popular Movement (Union pour un mouvement populaire)",
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"plaintext": "The removal of one or more levels of local government has been discussed for some years; in particular, the option of removing the departmental level. Frédéric Lefebvre, spokesman for the UMP, said in December 2008 that the fusion of the departments with the regions was a matter to be dealt with soon. This was soon refuted by Édouard Balladur and Gérard Longuet, members of the committee for the reform of local authorities, known as the Balladur Committee.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2008, the Attali Commission recommended that the departmental level of government should be eliminated within ten years.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the Balladur Committee has not retained this proposition and does not advocate the disappearance of the departments, but simply \"favors the voluntary grouping of departments\", which it suggests also for the regions, with the aim of reducing the number of regions to 15. This committee advocates, on the contrary, the suppression of the cantons.",
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"plaintext": "Each department has a coat of arms and a flag with which it is commonly associated, though not all are officially recognised or used.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the rest of , Algeria was divided into overseas departments from 1848 until its independence in 1962. These departments were supposed to be \"assimilated\" or \"integrated\" to France sometime in the future.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of former departments in territories conquered by France during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire that are now not part of France:",
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"plaintext": "Notes for Table 7:",
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"plaintext": " Where a Napoleonic department was composed of parts from more than one country, the nation-state containing the prefecture is listed. Please expand this table to list all countries containing significant parts of the department.",
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"plaintext": " Territories that were a part of Austrian Netherlands were also a part of Holy Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": " The Bishopric of Basel was a German Prince-Bishopric, not to be confused with the adjacent Swiss Canton of Basel.",
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"plaintext": " The territories of the Republic of Venice were lost to France, becoming the Septinsular Republic, a nominal vassal of the Ottoman Empire, from 1800 to 1807. After reverting to France at the Treaty of Tilsit, these territories then became a British protectorate, as the United States of the Ionian Islands",
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"plaintext": "Gregory Benford's first professional sale was the story \"Stand-In\" in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (June 1965), which won second prize in a short story contest based on a poem by Doris Pitkin Buck. In 1969, he began writing a science column for Amazing Stories.",
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38,528 | 1,098,379,932 | Nord_(French_department) | [
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"plaintext": "During the 4th and 5th Centuries, Roman rulers of Gallia Belgica secured the route from the major port of Bononia (Boulogne) to Colonia (Cologne), by co-opting Germanic peoples north-east of this corridor, such as the Tungri. In effect, the area known later as Nord became an isogloss (linguistic border) between the Germanic and Romance languages. Saxon colonisation of the region from the 5th to the 8th centuries likely shifted the isogloss further south so that, by the 9th century, most people immediately north of Lille spoke a dialect of Old Dutch. This has remained evident in the place names of the region. After the County of Flanders became part of France in the 9th century, the isogloss moved north and east.",
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"plaintext": "During the 14th century, much of the area came under the control of the Duchy of Burgundy and in subsequent centuries was therefore part of the Habsburg Netherlands (from 1482) and the Spanish Netherlands (1581).",
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"plaintext": "Areas that later constituted Nord were ceded to France by treaties in 1659, 1668, and 1678, becoming the Counties of Flanders and Hainaut, and part of the Bishopric of Cambrai.",
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"plaintext": "Modern government policies making French the only official language have led to a decline in use of the Dutch West Flemish dialect. There are currently 20,000 speakers of a sub-dialect of West Flemish in the arrondissement of Dunkirk and it appears likely that this particular sub-dialect will be extinct within decades.",
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"plaintext": "Nord is part of the current Hauts-de-France region and is surrounded by the French departments of Pas-de-Calais, Somme, and Aisne, as well as by Belgium and the North Sea. Its area is . It is the longest department in metropolitan France, measuring 184km from Fort-Philippe in the north-west to Anor in the south-east.",
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"plaintext": "The most populous commune is Lille, the prefecture. With nearby Roubaix, Tourcoing and Villeneuve-d'Ascq, it constitutes the center of a cluster of industrial and former mining towns totalling slightly over a million inhabitants. As of 2019, there are 10 communes with more than 30,000 inhabitants:",
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"plaintext": "The President of the Departmental Council is the unaffiliated right-winger Christian Poiret.",
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"plaintext": "The first President of the Fifth Republic, General Charles de Gaulle, was born in Lille in the department on 22 November 1890.",
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"plaintext": "At the forefront of France's 19th century industrialisation, the area suffered severely during World War I and now faces the economic, social and environmental problems associated with the decline of coal mining with its neighbours following the earlier decline of the Lille-Roubaix textile industry.",
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38,534 | 1,107,682,414 | Adoption | [
{
"plaintext": "Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parents to the adoptive parents.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike guardianship or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. Historically, some societies have enacted specific laws governing adoption, while others used less formal means (notably contracts that specified inheritance rights and parental responsibilities without an accompanying transfer of filiation). Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations.",
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"plaintext": "Adoption for the well-born",
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"plaintext": "While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, forms of the practice appeared throughout history. The Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well-documented in the Codex Justinianus.",
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"plaintext": "Markedly different from the modern period, ancient adoption practices put emphasis on the political and economic interests of the adopter, providing a legal tool that strengthened political ties between wealthy families and created male heirs to manage estates. The use of adoption by the aristocracy is well-documented: many of Rome's emperors were adopted sons. Adrogation was a kind of Roman adoption in which the person adopted consented to be adopted by another.",
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"plaintext": "Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare. Abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empire's slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families and raised as a son or daughter. Although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them.",
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"plaintext": "Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well. Evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices; in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. In ancient India, secondary sonship, clearly denounced by the Rigveda, continued, in a limited and highly ritualistic form, so that an adopter might have the necessary funerary rites performed by a son. China had a similar idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship.",
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"plaintext": "The practice of adopting the children of family members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai.",
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"plaintext": "Adoption and commoners",
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"plaintext": "The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic cultures that dominated Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire denounced the practice of adoption. In medieval society, bloodlines were paramount; a ruling dynasty lacking a \"natural-born\" heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption. English common law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. In the same vein, France's Napoleonic Code made adoption difficult, requiring adopters to be over the age of 50, sterile, older than the adopted person by at least 15 years, and to have fostered the adoptee for at least six years. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, based on ad hoc contracts. For example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Like other contemporary arrangements, the agreement stressed the responsibility of the adopted rather than adopter, focusing on the fact that, under the contract, the adoptive father was meant to be cared for in his old age; an idea that is similar to the conceptions of adoption under Roman law.",
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"plaintext": "Europe's cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption. Without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church. Initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Church's innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and reared within a monastery. This created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europe's abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, which in turn took the role of adopter. Oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage.",
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"plaintext": "As the idea of institutional care gained acceptance, formal rules appeared about how to place children into families: boys could become apprenticed to an artisan and girls might be married off under the institution's authority. Institutions informally adopted out children as well, a mechanism treated as a way to obtain cheap labor, demonstrated by the fact that when the adopted died their bodies were returned by the family to the institution for burial.",
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"plaintext": "This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, today seen as a transitional phase for adoption history. Under the direction of social welfare activists, orphan asylums began to promote adoptions based on sentiment rather than work; children were placed out under agreements to provide care for them as family members instead of under contracts for apprenticeship. The growth of this model is believed to have contributed to the enactment of the first modern adoption law in 1851 by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, unique in that it codified the ideal of the \"best interests of the child\". Despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum (BFA) is a good example, which had up to 30% of its charges adopted out by 1888. Officials of the BFA noted that, although the asylum promoted otherwise, adoptive parents did not distinguish between indenture and adoption: \"We believe,\" the asylum officials said, \"that often, when children of a younger age are taken to be adopted, the adoption is only another name for service.\"",
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"plaintext": "The next stage of adoption's evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages and foundling homes in the mid-nineteenth century. Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister, became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City. Brace considered the abandoned youth, particularly Catholics, to be the most dangerous element challenging the city's order. ",
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"plaintext": "His solution was outlined in The Best Method of Disposing of Our Pauper and Vagrant Children (1859), which started the Orphan Train movement. The orphan trains eventually shipped an estimated 200,000 children from the urban centers of the East to the nation's rural regions. The children were generally indentured, rather than adopted, to families who took them in. As in times past, some children were raised as members of the family while others were used as farm laborers and household servants. The sheer size of the displacement—the largest migration of children in history—and the degree of exploitation that occurred, gave rise to new agencies and a series of laws that promoted adoption arrangements rather than indenture. The hallmark of the period is Minnesota's adoption law of 1917, which mandated investigation of all placements and limited record access to those involved in the adoption.",
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"plaintext": "During the same period, the Progressive movement swept the United States with a critical goal of ending the prevailing orphanage system. The culmination of such efforts came with the First White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children called by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1909, where it was declared that the nuclear family represented \"the highest and finest product of civilization\" and was best able to serve as primary caretaker for the abandoned and orphaned. As late as 1923, only two percent of children without parental care were in adoptive homes, with the balance in foster arrangements and orphanages. Less than forty years later, nearly one-third were in adoptive homes.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the popularity of eugenic ideas in America put up obstacles to the growth of adoption. There were grave concerns about the genetic quality of illegitimate and indigent children, perhaps best exemplified by the influential writings of Henry H. Goddard, who protested against adopting children of unknown origin, saying,",
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"plaintext": " The period 1945 to 1974, the baby scoop era, saw rapid growth and acceptance of adoption as a means to build a family. Illegitimate births rose three-fold after World War II, as sexual mores changed. Simultaneously, the scientific community began to stress the dominance of nurture over genetics, chipping away at eugenic stigmas. In this environment, adoption became the obvious solution for both unwed people and infertile couples.",
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"plaintext": "Taken together, these trends resulted in a new American model for adoption. Following its Roman predecessor, Americans severed the rights of the original parents while making adopters the new parents in the eyes of the law. Two innovations were added: 1) adoption was meant to ensure the \"best interests of the child\", the seeds of this idea can be traced to the first American adoption law in Massachusetts, and 2) adoption became infused with secrecy, eventually resulting in the sealing of adoption and original birth records by 1945. The origin of the move toward secrecy began with Charles Loring Brace, who introduced it to prevent children from the Orphan Trains from returning to or being reclaimed by their parents. Brace feared the impact of the parents' poverty, in general, and Catholic religion, in particular, on the youth. This tradition of secrecy was carried on by the later Progressive reformers when drafting of American laws.",
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"plaintext": "The number of adoptions in the United States peaked in 1970. It is uncertain what caused the subsequent decline. Likely contributing factors in the 1960s and 1970s include a decline in the fertility rate, associated with the introduction of the pill, the completion of legalization of artificial birth control methods, the introduction of federal funding to make family planning services available to the young and low-income, and the legalization of abortion. In addition, the years of the late 1960s and early 1970s saw a dramatic change in society's view of illegitimacy and in the legal rights of those born outside of wedlock. In response, family preservation efforts grew so that few children born out of wedlock today are adopted. Ironically, adoption is far more visible and discussed in society today, yet it is less common.",
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"plaintext": "The American model of adoption eventually proliferated globally. England and Wales established their first formal adoption law in 1926. The Netherlands passed its law in 1956. Sweden made adoptees full members of the family in 1959. West Germany enacted its first laws in 1977. Additionally, the Asian powers opened their orphanage systems to adoption, influenced as they were by Western ideas following colonial rule and military occupation. In France, local public institutions accredit candidates for adoption, who can then contact orphanages abroad or ask for the support of NGOs. The system does not involve fees, but gives considerable power to social workers whose decisions may restrict adoption to \"standard\" families (middle-age, medium to high income, heterosexual, Caucasian).",
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"plaintext": "Adoption is today practiced globally. The table below provides a snapshot of Western adoption rates. Adoption in the United States still occurs at rates nearly three times those of its peers even though the number of children awaiting adoption has held steady in recent years, between 100,000 and 125,000 during the period 2009 to 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Contemporary adoption practices can be open or closed.",
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"plaintext": " Open adoption allows identifying information to be communicated between adoptive and biological parents and, perhaps, interaction between kin and the adopted person. Open adoption can be an informal arrangement subject to termination by adoptive parents who have sole custody over the child. In some jurisdictions, the biological and adoptive parents may enter into a legally enforceable and binding agreement concerning visitation, exchange of information, or other interaction regarding the child. As of February 2009, 24 U.S. states allowed legally enforceable open adoption contract agreements to be included in the adoption finalization.",
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"plaintext": " The practice of closed adoption (also called confidential or secret adoption), which has not been the norm for most of modern history, seals all identifying information, maintaining it as secret and preventing disclosure of the adoptive parents', biological kin's, and adoptees' identities. Nevertheless, closed adoption may allow the transmittal of non-identifying information such as medical history and religious and ethnic background. Today, as a result of safe haven laws passed by some U.S. states, secret adoption is seeing renewed influence. In so-called \"safe-haven\" states, infants can be left anonymously at hospitals, fire departments, or police stations within a few days of birth, a practice criticized by some adoption advocacy organizations as being retrograde and dangerous.",
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"plaintext": "Adoptions can occur between related or unrelated individuals. Historically, most adoptions occurred within a family. The most recent data from the U.S. indicates that about half of adoptions are currently between related individuals. A common example of this is a \"step-parent adoption\", where the new partner of a parent legally adopts a child from the parent's previous relationship. Intra-family adoption can also occur through surrender, as a result of parental death, or when the child cannot otherwise be cared for and a family member agrees to take over.",
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"plaintext": "Adoption is not always a voluntary process. In some countries, for example in the U.K., one of the main origins of children being placed for adoption is that they have been removed from the birth home, often by a government body such as the local authority. There are a number of reasons why children are removed including abuse and neglect, which can have a lasting impact on the adoptee. Social workers in many cases will be notified of a safeguarding concern in relation to a child and will make enquiries into the child's well-being. Social workers will often seek means of keeping a child together with the birth family, for example, by providing additional support to the family before considering removal of a child. A court of law will often then make decisions regarding the child's future, for example, whether they can return to the birth family, enter into foster care or be adopted.",
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"plaintext": "Infertility is the main reason parents seek to adopt children they are not related to. One study shows this accounted for 80% of unrelated infant adoptions and half of adoptions through foster care. Estimates suggest that 11–24% of Americans who cannot conceive or carry to term attempt to build a family through adoption, and that the overall rate of ever-married American women who adopt is about 1.4%. Other reasons people adopt are numerous although not well documented. These may include wanting to cement a new family following divorce or death of one parent, compassion motivated by religious or philosophical conviction, to avoid contributing to overpopulation out of the belief that it is more responsible to care for otherwise parent-less children than to reproduce, to ensure that inheritable diseases (e.g., Tay–Sachs disease) are not passed on, and health concerns relating to pregnancy and childbirth. Although there are a range of reasons, the most recent study of experiences of women who adopt suggests they are most likely to be 40–44 years of age, to be currently married, to have impaired fertility, and to be childless.",
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"plaintext": "Unrelated adoptions may occur through the following mechanisms:",
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"plaintext": " Private domestic adoptions: under this arrangement, charities and for-profit organizations act as intermediaries, bringing together prospective adoptive parents with families who want to place a child, all parties being residents of the same country. Alternatively, prospective adoptive parents sometimes avoid intermediaries and connect with women directly, often with a written contract; this is not permitted in some jurisdictions. Private domestic adoption accounts for a significant portion of all adoptions; in the United States, for example, nearly 45% of adoptions are estimated to have been arranged privately.",
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"plaintext": " Foster care adoption: this is a type of domestic adoption where a child is initially placed in public care. Many times the foster parents take on the adoption when the children become legally free. Its importance as an avenue for adoption varies by country. Of the 127,500 adoptions in the U.S. in 2000, about 51,000 or 40% were through the foster care system.",
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"plaintext": " International adoption: this involves the placing of a child for adoption outside that child's country of birth. This can occur through public or private agencies. In some countries, such as Sweden, these adoptions account for the majority of cases (see above table). The U.S. example, however, indicates there is wide variation by country since adoptions from abroad account for less than 15% of its cases. More than 60,000 Russian children have been adopted in the United States since 1992, and a similar number of Chinese children were adopted from 1995 to 2005. The laws of different countries vary in their willingness to allow international adoptions. Recognizing the difficulties and challenges associated with international adoption, and in an effort to protect those involved from the corruption and exploitation which sometimes accompanies it, the Hague Conference on Private International Law developed the Hague Adoption Convention, which came into force on 1 May 1995 and has been ratified by 85 countries as of November 2011.",
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"plaintext": " Embryo adoption: based on the donation of embryos remaining after one couple's in vitro fertilization treatments have been completed; embryos are given to another individual or couple, followed by the placement of those embryos into the recipient woman's uterus, to facilitate pregnancy and childbirth. In the United States, embryo adoption is governed by property law rather than by the court systems, in contrast to traditional adoption.",
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"plaintext": " Common law adoption: this is an adoption that has not been recognized beforehand by the courts, but where a parent, without resorting to any formal legal process, leaves his or her children with a friend or relative for an extended period of time. At the end of a designated term of (voluntary) co-habitation, as witnessed by the public, the adoption is then considered binding, in some courts of law, even though not initially sanctioned by the court. The particular terms of a common-law adoption are defined by each legal jurisdiction. For example, the U.S. state of California recognizes common law relationships after co-habitation of 2 years. The practice is called \"private fostering\" in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "Although adoption is often described as forming a \"forever\" family, the relationship can be ended at any time. The legal termination of an adoption is called disruption. In U.S. terminology, adoptions are disrupted if they are ended before being finalized, and they are dissolved if the relationship is ended afterwards. It may also be called a failed adoption. After legal finalization, the disruption process is usually initiated by adoptive parents via a court petition and is analogous to divorce proceedings. It is a legal avenue unique to adoptive parents as disruption/dissolution does not apply to biological kin, although biological family members are sometimes disowned or abandoned.",
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"plaintext": "Ad hoc studies performed in the U.S., however, suggest that between 10 and 25 percent of adoptions through the child welfare system (e.g., excluding babies adopted from other countries or step-parents adopting their stepchildren) disrupt before they are legally finalized and from 1 to 10 percent are dissolved after legal finalization. The wide range of values reflects the paucity of information on the subject and demographic factors such as age; it is known that teenagers are more prone to having their adoptions disrupted than young children.",
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"plaintext": "Joint adoption by same-sex couples is legal in 34 countries as of March 2022, and additionally in various sub-national territories. Adoption may also be in the form of step-child adoption (6 additional countries), wherein one partner in a same-sex couple adopts the child of the other. Most countries that have same-sex marriage allow joint adoption by those couples, the exceptions being Ecuador (no adoption by same-sex couples), Taiwan (step-child adoption only) and Mexico (in one third of states with same-sex marriage). A few countries with civil unions or lesser marriage rights nonetheless allow step- or joint adoption.",
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"plaintext": "The biological relationship between a parent and child is important, and the separation of the two has led to concerns about adoption. The traditional view of adoptive parenting received empirical support from a Princeton University study of 6,000 adoptive, step, and foster families in the United States and South Africa from 1968 to 1985; the study indicated that food expenditures in households with mothers of non-biological children (when controlled for income, household size, hours worked, age, etc.) were significantly less for adoptees, step-children, and foster children, causing the researchers to speculate that people are less interested in sustaining the genetic lines of others. This theory is supported in another more qualitative study wherein adoptive relationships marked by sameness in likes, personality, and appearance, were associated with both adult adoptees and adoptive parents report being happier with the adoption.",
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"plaintext": "Other studies provide evidence that adoptive relationships can form along other lines. A study evaluating the level of parental investment indicates strength in adoptive families, suggesting that parents who adopt invest more time in their children than other parents, and concludes \"...adoptive parents enrich their children's lives to compensate for the lack of biological ties and the extra challenges of adoption.\" Another recent study found that adoptive families invested more heavily in their adopted children, for example, by providing further education and financial support. Noting that adoptees seemed to be more likely to experience problems such as drug addiction, the study speculated that adoptive parents might invest more in adoptees not because they favor them, but because they are more likely than genetic children to need the help.",
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"plaintext": "Psychologists' findings regarding the importance of early mother-infant bonding created some concern about whether parents who adopt older infants or toddlers after birth have missed some crucial period for the child's development. However, research on The Mental and Social Life of Babies suggested that the \"parent-infant system\", rather than a bond between biologically related individuals, is an evolved fit between innate behavior patterns of all human infants and equally evolved responses of human adults to those infant behaviors. Thus nature \"ensures some initial flexibility with respect to the particular adults who take on the parental role.\"",
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"plaintext": "Beyond the foundational issues, the unique questions posed for adoptive parents are varied. They include how to respond to stereotypes, answering questions about heritage, and how best to maintain connections with biological kin when in an open adoption. One author suggests a common question adoptive parents have is: \"Will we love the child even though he/she is not our biological child?\" A specific concern for many parents is accommodating an adoptee in the classroom. Familiar lessons like \"draw your family tree\" or \"trace your eye color back through your parents and grandparents to see where your genes come from\" could be hurtful to children who were adopted and do not know this biological information. Numerous suggestions have been made to substitute new lessons, e.g., focusing on \"family orchards\".",
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"plaintext": "Adopting older children presents other parenting issues. Some children from foster care have histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, and are at risk of developing psychiatric problems. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment. Studies by Cicchetti et al. (1990, 1995) found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants in their sample exhibited disorganized attachment styles. Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms, as well as depressive, anxious, and acting-out symptoms. \"Attachment is an active process—it can be secure or insecure, maladaptive or productive.\" In the U.K., some adoptions fail because the adoptive parents do not get sufficient support to deal with difficult, traumatized children. This is a false economy as local authority care for these children is extremely expensive.",
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"plaintext": "Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined genetic influences on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families.",
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"plaintext": "Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to body mass index found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences.",
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"plaintext": "These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems, substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Several factors affect the decision to release or raise the child. White adolescents tend to give up their babies to non-relatives, whereas black adolescents are more likely to receive support from their own community in raising the child and also in the form of informal adoption by relatives. Studies by Leynes and by Festinger and Young, Berkman, and Rehr found that, for pregnant adolescents, the decision to release the child for adoption depended on the attitude toward adoption held by the adolescent's mother. Another study found that pregnant adolescents whose mothers had a higher level of education were more likely to release their babies for adoption. Research suggests that women who choose to release their babies for adoption are more likely to be younger, enrolled in school, and have lived in a two-parent household at age 10, than those who kept and raised their babies.",
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"plaintext": "There is limited research on the consequences of adoption for the original parents, and the findings have been mixed. One study found that those who released their babies for adoption were less comfortable with their decision than those who kept their babies. However, levels of comfort over both groups were high, and those who released their child were similar to those who kept their child in ratings of life satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and positive future outlook for schooling, employment, finances, and marriage. Subsequent research found that adolescent mothers who chose to release their babies for adoption were more likely to experience feelings of sorrow and regret over their decision than those who kept their babies. However, these feelings decreased significantly from one year after birth to the end of the second year.",
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"plaintext": "More recent research found that in a sample of mothers who had released their children for adoption four to 12 years prior, every participant had frequent thoughts of their lost child. For most, thoughts were both negative and positive in that they produced both feelings of sadness and joy. Those who experienced the greatest portion of positive thoughts were those who had open, rather than closed or time-limited mediated, adoptions.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "In another study that compared mothers who released their children to those who raised them, mothers who released their children were more likely to delay their next pregnancy, to delay marriage, and to complete job training. However, both groups reached lower levels of education than their peers who were never pregnant. Another study found similar consequences for choosing to release a child for adoption. Adolescent mothers who released their children were more likely to reach a higher level of education and to be employed than those who kept their children. They also waited longer before having their next child. Most of the research that exists on adoption effects on the birth parents was conducted with samples of adolescents, or with women who were adolescents when carrying their babies—little data exists for birth parents from other populations. Furthermore, there is a lack of longitudinal data that may elucidate long-term social and psychological consequences for birth parents who choose to place their children for adoption.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": "Previous research on adoption has led to assumptions that indicate that there is a heightened risk in terms of psychological development and social relationships for adoptees. Yet, such assumptions have been clarified as flawed due to methodological failures. But more recent studies have been supportive in indicating more accurate information and results about the similarities, differences and overall lifestyles of adoptees.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Development of adoptees",
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"plaintext": "Evidence about the development of adoptees can be supported in newer studies. It can be said that adoptees, in some respect, tend to develop differently from the general population. This can be seen in many aspects of life, but usually can be found as a greater risk around the time of adolescence. For example, it has been found that many adoptees experience difficulty in establishing a sense of identity.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "There are many ways in which the concept of identity can be defined. It is true in all cases that identity construction is an ongoing process of development, change and maintenance of identifying with the self. Research has shown that adolescence is a time of identity progression rather than regression. One's identity tends to lack stability in the beginning years of life but gains a more stable sense in later periods of childhood and adolescence. Typically associated with a time of experimentation, there are endless factors that go into the construction of one's identity. As well as being many factors, there are many types of identities one can associate with. Some categories of identity include gender, sexuality, class, racial and religious, etc. For transracial and international adoptees, tension is generally found in the categories of racial, ethnic and national identification. Because of this, the strength and functionality of family relationships play a huge role in its development and outcome of identity construction. Transracial and transnational adoptees tend to develop feelings of a lack of acceptance because of such racial, ethnic, and cultural differences. Therefore, exposing transracial and transnational adoptees to their \"cultures of origin\" is important in order to better develop a sense of identity and appreciation for cultural diversity. Identity construction and reconstruction for transnational adoptees the instant they are adopted. For example, based upon specific laws and regulations of the United States, the Child Citizen Act of 2000 makes sure to grant immediate U.S. citizenship to adoptees.",
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"plaintext": "Identity is defined both by what one is and what one is not. Adoptees born into one family lose an identity and then borrow one from the adopting family.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "The formation of identity is a complicated process and there are many factors that affect its outcome. From a perspective of looking at issues in adoption circumstances, the people involved and affected by adoption (the biological parent, the adoptive parent and the adoptee) can be known as the \"triad members and state\".",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Adoption may threaten triad members' sense of identity. Triad members often express feelings related to confused identity and identity crises because of differences between the triad relationships.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Adoption, for some, precludes a complete or integrated sense of self. Triad members may experience themselves as incomplete, deficient, or unfinished. They state that they lack feelings of well-being, integration, or solidity associated with a fully developed identity.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Family plays a vital role in identity formation. This is not only true in childhood but also in adolescence. Identity (gender/sexual/ethnic/religious/family) is still forming during adolescence and family holds a vital key to this.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "The research seems to be unanimous; a stable, secure, loving, honest and supportive family in which all members feel safe to explore their identity is necessary for the formation of a sound identity. Transracial and International adoptions are some factors that play a significant role in the identity construction of adoptees. Many tensions arise from relationships built between the adoptee(s) and their family. These include being \"different\" from the parent(s), developing a positive racial identity, and dealing with racial/ethnic discrimination. It has been found that multicultural and transnational youth tend to identify with their parents origin of culture and ethnicity rather than their residing location, yet it is sometimes hard to balance an identity between the two because school environments tend to lack diversity and acknowledgment regarding such topics. These tensions also tend to create questions for the adoptee, as well as the family, to contemplate. Some common questions include what will happen if the family is more naïve to the ways of socially constructed life? Will tensions arise if this is the case? What if the very people that are supposed to be modeling a sound identity are in fact riddled with insecurities? Ginni Snodgrass answers these questions in the following way.",
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"plaintext": "The secrecy in an adoptive family and the denial that the adoptive family is different builds dysfunction into it. \"...social workers and insecure adoptive parents have structured a family relationship that is based on dishonesty, evasions and exploitation. To believe that good relationships will develop on such a foundation is psychologically unsound\" (Lawrence). Secrecy erects barriers to forming a healthy identity.",
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"plaintext": "The research says that the dysfunction, untruths and evasiveness that can be present in adoptive families not only makes identity formation impossible, but also directly works against it. What effect on identity formation is present if the adoptee knows they are adopted but has no information about their biological parents? Silverstein and Kaplan's research states that adoptees lacking medical, genetic, religious, and historical information are plagued by questions such as \"Who am I?\" \"Why was I born?\" \"What is my purpose?\" This lack of identity may lead adoptees, particularly in adolescent years, to seek out ways to belong in a more extreme fashion than many of their non-adopted peers. Adolescent adoptees are overrepresented among those who join sub-cultures, run away, become pregnant, or totally reject their families.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined genetic influences on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families.",
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"plaintext": "Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to body mass index found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences.",
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"plaintext": "These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems, substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "The adoptee population does, however, seem to be more at risk for certain behavioral issues. Researchers from the University of Minnesota studied adolescents who had been adopted and found that adoptees were twice as likely as non-adopted people to develop oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with an 8% rate in the general population. Suicide risks were also significantly greater than the general population. Swedish researchers found both international and domestic adoptees undertook suicide at much higher rates than non-adopted peers; with international adoptees and female international adoptees, in particular, at highest risk.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, work on adult adoptees has found that the additional risks faced by adoptees are largely confined to adolescence. Young adult adoptees were shown to be alike with adults from biological families and scored better than adults raised in alternative family types including single parent and step-families. Moreover, while adult adoptees showed more variability than their non-adopted peers on a range of psychosocial measures, adult adoptees exhibited more similarities than differences with adults who had not been adopted. There have been many cases of remediation or the reversibility of early trauma. For example, in one of the earliest studies conducted, Professor Goldfarb in England concluded that some children adjust well socially and emotionally despite their negative experiences of institutional deprivation in early childhood. Other researchers also found that prolonged institutionalization does not necessarily lead to emotional problems or character defects in all children. This suggests that there will always be some children who fare well, who are resilient, regardless of their experiences in early childhood. Furthermore, much of the research on psychological outcomes for adoptees draws from clinical populations. This suggests that conclusions such that adoptees are more likely to have behavioral problems such as ODD and ADHD may be biased. Since the proportion of adoptees that seek mental health treatment is small, psychological outcomes for adoptees compared to those for the general population are more similar than some researchers propose.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Adopted children are more likely to experience psychological and behavioral problems than non-adopted peers. Children who were older than four at the time of their adoption experience more psychological problems than those who were younger.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "According to study in the UK, adopted children can have mental health problems that do not improve even four years after their adoption. Children with multiple adverse childhood experiences are more likely to have mental health problems. The study suggests that to identify and tread mental health problems early, care professionals and the adopting parents need detailed biographical information about the child's life. Another study in the UK suggests that adopted children are more likely to suffer from post-traumatic stress (PTS) then the general population. Their PTS symptoms depend on the type of adverse experiences they went through and knowledge of their history offers an option for tailored support.",
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"plaintext": "In Western culture, many see that the common image of a family being that of a heterosexual couple with biological children. This idea places alternative family forms outside the norm. As a consequence – research indicates – disparaging views of adoptive families exist, along with doubts concerning the strength of their family bonds.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "The most recent adoption attitudes survey completed by the Evan Donaldson Institute provides further evidence of this stigma. Nearly one-third of the surveyed population believed adoptees are less-well adjusted, more prone to medical issues, and predisposed to drug and alcohol problems. Additionally, 40–45% thought adoptees were more likely to have behavior problems and trouble at school. In contrast, the same study indicated adoptive parents were viewed favorably, with nearly 90% describing them as \"lucky, advantaged, and unselfish\".",
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"plaintext": "The majority of people state that their primary source of information about adoption comes from friends and family and the news media. Nevertheless, most people report the media provides them a favorable view of adoption; 72% indicated receiving positive impressions. There is, however, still substantial criticism of the media's adoption coverage. Some adoption blogs, for example, criticized Meet the Robinsons for using outdated orphanage imagery as did advocacy non-profit The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute.",
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"plaintext": "The stigmas associated with adoption are amplified for children in foster care. Negative perceptions result in the belief that such children are so troubled it would be impossible to adopt them and create \"normal\" families. A 2004 report from the Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care has shown that the number of children waiting in foster care doubled since the 1980s and now remains steady at about a half-million a year.\"",
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"plaintext": "Attitude toward Adoption Questionnaire (ATAQ): this questionnaire was first developed by Abdollahzadeh, Chaloyi and Mahmoudi(2019). Preliminary Edition: This questionnaire has 23 items based on the Likert scale of 1 (totally Disagree), up to 5 (Totally Agree) being obtained after refining the items designed to construct the present tool and per-study study. The analysis of item and initial psychometric analyses indicate that there are two factors in it. Items 3-10-11-12-14-15-16-17-19-20-21 are reversed and the rest are graded positively. The results of exploratory factor analysis by main components with varimax rotation indicated two components of attitude toward adoption being named respectively cognitive as the aspects of attitude toward adoption and behavioral-emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption. These two components explained 43.25% of the variance of the total sample. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.709 for the whole questionnaire, 0.71 for the first component, and 0.713 for the second one. In addition, there was a significant positive relationship between desired social tendencies and the cognitive aspect of attitude toward adoption as well as the behavioral -emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption (P ≤ 0.01).",
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"plaintext": "Adoption practices have changed significantly over the course of the 20th century, with each new movement labeled, in some way, as reform. Beginning in the 1970s, efforts to improve adoption became associated with opening records and encouraging family preservation. These ideas arose from suggestions that the secrecy inherent in modern adoption may influence the process of forming an identity, create confusion regarding genealogy, and provide little in the way of medical history.",
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"plaintext": "Family preservation: As concerns over illegitimacy began to decline in the early 1970s, social-welfare agencies began to emphasize that, if possible, mothers and children should be kept together. In the U.S., this was clearly illustrated by the shift in policy of the New York Foundling Home, an adoption-institution that is among the country's oldest and one that had pioneered sealed records. It established three new principles including \"to prevent placements of children...\", reflecting the belief that children would be better served by staying with their biological families, a striking shift in policy that remains in force today. In addition, groups such as Origins USA (founded in 1997) started to actively speak about family preservation and the rights of mothers. The intellectual tone of these reform movements was influenced by the publishing of The Primal Wound by Nancy Verrier. \"Primal wound\" is described as the \"devastation which the infant feels because of separation from its birth mother. It is the deep and consequential feeling of abandonment which the baby adoptee feels after the adoption and which may continue for the rest of his life.\"",
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"plaintext": "Open records: After a legal adoption in the United States, an adopted person's original birth certificate is usually amended and replaced with a new post-adoption birth certificate. The names of any birth parents listed on the original birth certificate are replaced on an amended certificate with the names of the adoptive parents, making it appear that the child was born to the adoptive parents. Beginning in the late 1930s and continuing through the 1970s, state laws allowed for the sealing of original birth certificates after an adoption and, except in some states, made the original birth certificate unavailable to the adopted person even at the age of majority.",
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"plaintext": "Adopted people have long sought to undo these laws so that they can obtain their own original birth certificates. Movements to unseal original birth certificates and other adoption records for adopted people proliferated in the 1970s along with increased acceptance of illegitimacy. In the United States, Jean Paton founded Orphan Voyage in 1954, and Florence Fisher founded the Adoptees' Liberty Movement Association (ALMA) in 1971, calling sealed records \"an affront to human dignity\". While in 1975, Emma May Vilardi created the first mutual-consent registry, the International Soundex Reunion Registry (ISRR), allowing those separated by adoption to locate one another. and Lee Campbell and other birthmothers established CUB (Concerned United Birthparents). Similar ideas were taking hold globally with grass-roots organizations like Parent Finders in Canada and Jigsaw in Australia. In 1975, England and Wales opened records on moral grounds.",
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"plaintext": "By 1979, representatives of 32 organizations from 33 states, Canada and Mexico gathered in Washington, DC, to establish the American Adoption Congress (AAC) passing a unanimous resolution: \"Open Records complete with all identifying information for all members of the adoption triad, birthparents, adoptive parents and adoptee at the adoptee's age of majority (18 or 19, depending on state) or earlier if all members of the triad agree.\" Later years saw the evolution of more militant organizations such as Bastard Nation (founded in 1996), groups that helped overturn sealed records in Alabama, Delaware, New Hampshire, Oregon, Tennessee, and Maine. A coalition of New York and national adoptee rights activists successfully worked to overturn a restrictive 83-year-old law in 2019, and adult adopted people born in New York, as well as their descendants, today have the right to request and obtain their own original birth certificates. As of 2021, ten states in the United States recognize the right of adult adopted people to obtain their own original birth certificates, including Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon and Rhode Island. Connecticut in 2021 became the tenth state to restore an adopted person's right to request and obtain their original birth certificates.",
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"plaintext": "Estimates for the extent of search behavior by adoptees have proven elusive; studies show significant variation. In part, the problem stems from the small adoptee population which makes random surveying difficult, if not impossible.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, some indication of the level of search interest by adoptees can be gleaned from the case of England and Wales which opened adoptees' birth records in 1975. The U.K. Office for National Statistics has projected that 33% of all adoptees would eventually request a copy of their original birth records, exceeding original forecasts made in 1975 when it was believed that only a small fraction of the adoptee population would request their records. The projection is known to underestimate the true search rate, however, since many adoptees of the era get their birth records by other means.",
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"plaintext": "The research literature states adoptees give four reasons for desiring reunion: 1) they wish for a more complete genealogy, 2) they are curious about events leading to their conception, birth, and relinquishment, 3) they hope to pass on information to their children, and 4) they have a need for a detailed biological background, including medical information. It is speculated by adoption researchers, however, that the reasons given are incomplete: although such information could be communicated by a third-party, interviews with adoptees, who sought reunion, found they expressed a need to actually meet biological relations.",
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"plaintext": "It appears the desire for reunion is linked to the adoptee's interaction with and acceptance within the community. Internally focused theories suggest some adoptees possess ambiguities in their sense of self, impairing their ability to present a consistent identity. Reunion helps resolve the lack of self-knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "Externally focused theories, in contrast, suggest that reunion is a way for adoptees to overcome social stigma. First proposed by Goffman, the theory has four parts: 1) adoptees perceive the absence of biological ties as distinguishing their adoptive family from others, 2) this understanding is strengthened by experiences where non-adoptees suggest adoptive ties are weaker than blood ties, 3) together, these factors engender, in some adoptees, a sense of social exclusion, and 4) these adoptees react by searching for a blood tie that reinforces their membership in the community. The externally focused rationale for reunion suggests adoptees may be well adjusted and happy within their adoptive families, but will search as an attempt to resolve experiences of social stigma.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "Some adoptees reject the idea of reunion. It is unclear, though, what differentiates adoptees who search from those who do not. One paper summarizes the research, stating, \"...attempts to draw distinctions between the searcher and non-searcher are no more conclusive or generalizable than attempts to substantiate ... differences between adoptees and nonadoptees.\"",
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"plaintext": "In sum, reunions can bring a variety of issues for adoptees and parents. Nevertheless, most reunion results appear to be positive. In the largest study to date (based on the responses of 1,007 adoptees and relinquishing parents), 90% responded that reunion was a beneficial experience. This does not, however, imply ongoing relationships were formed between adoptee and parent nor that this was the goal.",
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"plaintext": "Reform and family preservation efforts have also been strongly associated with the perceived misuse of adoption. In some cases, parents' rights have been terminated when their ethnic or socio-economic group has been deemed unfit by society. Some of these practices were generally accepted but have later been considered abusive; others were uncontroversially reprehensible.",
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"plaintext": "Forced adoption based on ethnicity occurred during World War II. In German-occupied Poland, it is estimated that 200,000 Polish children with purportedly Aryan traits were removed from their families and given to German or Austrian couples, and only 25,000 returned to their families after the war.",
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"plaintext": "The Stolen Generation of Aboriginal people in Australia were affected by similar policies, as were Native Americans in the United States and First Nations of Canada.",
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"plaintext": "These practices have become significant social and political issues in recent years, and in many cases the policies have changed. The United States, for example, now has the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act, which allows the tribe and family of a Native American child to be involved in adoption decisions, with preference being given to adoption within the child's tribe.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1950s through the 1970s, a period called the baby scoop era, adoption practices that involved coercion were directed against unwed mothers, as described for the U.S. in The Girls Who Went Away.",
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"plaintext": "More recently the military dictatorship in Argentina from 1976 to 1983 is known to have given hundreds of babies born to women captives who were then murdered to be brought up by military families.",
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"plaintext": "In Spain under Francisco Franco's 1939–75 dictatorship the newborns of some left-wing opponents of the regime, or unmarried or poor couples, were removed from their mothers and adopted. New mothers were frequently told their babies had died suddenly after birth and the hospital had taken care of their burials, when in fact they were given or sold to another family. It is believed that up to 300,000 babies were involved. These system—which allegedly involved doctors, nurses, nuns and priests—outlived Franco's death in 1975 and carried on as an illegal baby trafficking network until 1987 when a new law regulating adoption was introduced.",
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"plaintext": "On January 29, 2010, a group of ten American Baptist missionaries from Idaho attempted to cross the Haiti–Dominican Republic border with 33 Haitian children. The group, known as the New Life Children's Refuge, did not have proper authorization for transporting the children and were arrested on kidnapping charges. After the process for the adoption of 400 children by families in the US and the Netherlands was expedited, Unicef and SOS Children urged an immediate halt to adoptions from Haiti. Jasmine Whitbread, chief executive of Save the Children said: \"The vast majority of the children currently on their own still have family members alive who will be desperate to be reunited with them and will be able to care for them with the right support. Taking children out of the country would permanently separate thousands of children from their families—a separation that would compound the acute trauma they are already suffering and inflict long-term damage on their chances of recovery.\"",
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"plaintext": "With the increase in adoption rates over the many decades, the United States has been faced with a new morally questionable practice: rehoming. This is the act of caregivers posting an advertisement when they do not feel the child should be in their care any longer. Investigation of the child's new housing situation is not required in this practice, and this has created an underground market, one where child traffickers can thrive. There is a lack of regulation surrounding this practice and current legislation contradicts each other, making this harder to combat.",
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"plaintext": "When a parent adopts a child, they may not have been aware that the child has special needs and thus, are not equipped to help this child. The child may act out or not fit in with the family so the family turns to rehoming. Rehoming is not adoption and because of that, the government does not have to be notified and adoption agencies are not involved. Thus, re-homing is a prime target for child and sex traffickers. There are laws set in place to protect children through adoption processes and against sex trafficking, but there are barely any laws regarding rehoming. The courts authorize this practice because the U.S. state law may allow a parent, legal guardian or relative within the second degree to place out or board out a child. However, while the U.S. federal bill Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act would require the family to make rational decisions and prioritize the health of the child, the Interstate Compact on the Placement of Children contradicts this. This states that the family only has to make sure children are placed in adequate care only when the re-homing process is done across state lines. There is no mention of maintaining the children's safety when rehoming within the same state.",
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"plaintext": "The laws surrounding rehoming are basically non-existent which puts adopted children at the risk of unequipped parents and all other types of dysfunctional homes. This second-chance adoption, as some parents see it, has led to negative effects that failed adoptions have on children as they go through the process of readapting to a new home environment again. With the statute that allows second-degree legal guardians to put their adopted child in the care of someone else, and the rising of re-homing websites and ads on social media, the rehoming process highly exposes children to underground markets and other trafficking prospects. In that regard, laws and statutes concerning adoption and rehoming should be re-evaluated to ensure the full protection of adopted children.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the Uniform Law Commission formed a committee to study the rehoming issue, which is also known more formerly as \"unregulated transfer of adopted children\". The committee indicated that it will draft a uniform or model law to prohibit the unregulated transfer of all adopted children.",
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"plaintext": "The language of adoption is changing and evolving, and since the 1970s has been a controversial issue tied closely to adoption reform efforts. The controversy arises over the use of terms which, while designed to be more appealing or less offensive to some persons affected by adoption, may simultaneously cause offense or insult to others. This controversy illustrates the problems in adoption, as well as the fact that coining new words and phrases to describe ancient social practices will not necessarily alter the feelings and experiences of those affected by them. Two of the contrasting sets of terms are commonly referred to as \"positive adoption language\" (PAL) (sometimes called \"respectful adoption language\" (RAL)), and \"honest adoption language\" (HAL).",
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"plaintext": "In the 1970s, as adoption search and support organizations developed, there were challenges to the language in common use at the time. As books like Adoption Triangle by Sorosky, Pannor and Baran were published, and support groups formed like CUB (Concerned United Birthparents), a major shift from \"natural parent\" to \"birthparent\" occurred. Along with the change in times and social attitudes came additional examination of the language used in adoption.",
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"plaintext": "Social workers and other professionals in the field of adoption began changing terms of use to reflect what was being expressed by the parties involved. In 1979, Marietta Spencer wrote \"The Terminology of Adoption\" for The Child Welfare League of America (CWLA), which was the basis for her later work \"Constructive Adoption Terminology\". This influenced Pat Johnston's \"Positive Adoption Language\" (PAL) and \"Respectful Adoption Language\" (RAL). The terms contained in \"Positive Adoption Language\" include the terms \"birth mother\" (to replace the terms \"natural mother\" and \"real mother\"), and \"placing\" (to replace the term \"surrender\"). These kinds of recommendations encouraged people to be more aware of their use of adoption terminology.",
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"plaintext": "\"Honest Adoption Language\" refers to a set of terms that proponents say reflect the point of view that: (1) family relationships (social, emotional, psychological or physical) that existed prior to the legal adoption often continue past this point or endure in some form despite long periods of separation, and that (2) mothers who have \"voluntarily surrendered\" children to adoption (as opposed to involuntary terminations through court-authorized child-welfare proceedings) seldom view it as a choice that was freely made, but instead describe scenarios of powerlessness, lack of resources, and overall lack of choice. It also reflects the point of view that the term \"birth mother\" is derogatory in implying that the woman has ceased being a mother after the physical act of giving birth. Proponents of HAL liken this to the mother being treated as a \"breeder\" or \"incubator\". Terms included in HAL include terms that were used before PAL, including \"natural mother\", \"first mother\", and \"surrendered for adoption\".",
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"plaintext": "There are supporters of various lists, developed over many decades, and there are persons who find them lacking, created to support an agenda, or furthering division. All terminology can be used to demean or diminish, uplift or embrace. In addressing the linguistic problem of naming, Edna Andrews says that using \"inclusive\" and \"neutral\" language is based upon the concept that \"language represents thought, and may even control thought.\"",
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"plaintext": " The rights, opportunities, and freedoms of certain people are restricted because they are reduced to stereotypes.",
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"plaintext": " Stereotyping is mostly implicit, unconscious, and facilitated by the availability of pejorative labels and terms.",
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"plaintext": " Rendering the labels and terms socially unacceptable, people then must consciously think about how they describe someone unlike themselves.",
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"plaintext": " When labeling is a conscious activity, the described person's individual merits become apparent, rather than his or her stereotype.",
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"plaintext": "A common problem is that terms chosen by an identity group, as acceptable descriptors of themselves, can be used in negative ways by detractors. This compromises the integrity of the language and turns what was intended to be positive into negative or vice versa, thus often devaluing acceptability, meaning and use.",
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"plaintext": "Language at its best honors the self-referencing choices of the persons involved, uses inclusive terms and phrases, and is sensitive to the feelings of the primary parties. Language evolves with social attitudes and experiences.",
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"plaintext": "Attitudes and laws regarding adoption vary greatly. Whereas all cultures make arrangements whereby children whose birth parents are unavailable to rear them can be brought up by others, not all cultures have the concept of adoption, that is treating unrelated children as equivalent to biological children of the adoptive parents. Under Islamic Law, for example, adopted children must keep their original surname to be identified with blood relations, and, traditionally, women wear a hijab in the presence of males in their adoptive households. In Egypt, these cultural distinctions have led to making adoption illegal opting instead for a system of foster care.",
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"plaintext": "In some countries, such as the United States, \"Homecoming Day\" is the day when an adoptee is officially united with their new adoptive family.",
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"plaintext": "Barbara Melosh, the American Way of Adoption page 10",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Argent, Hedi. Related by Adoption: a handbook for grandparents and other relatives (2014)",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Askeland, Lori. Children and Youth in Adoption, Orphanages, and Foster Care: A Historical Handbook and Guide (2005) excerpt and text search",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Carp, E. Wayne, ed. Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives (2002)",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Carp, E. Wayne. Family Matters: Secrecy and Disclosure in the History of Adoption (2000)",
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"plaintext": " Carp, E. Wayne. Jean Paton and the Struggle to Reform American Adoption (University of Michigan Press; 2014) 422 pages; Scholarly biography of an activist (1908–2002) who led the struggle for open adoption records",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Conn, Peter. Adoption: A Brief Social and Cultural History (2013) excerpt and text search",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Eskin, Michael. The Wisdom of Parenthood: An Essay (New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2013)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fessler, Ann. The Girls Who Went Away: The Hidden History of Women Who Surrendered Children for Adoption in the Decades Before Roe v. Wade (2007) excerpt and text search",
"section_idx": 11,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Gailey, Christine Ward. Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race, Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice (University of Texas Press; 185 pages; 2010). Uses interviews with 131 adoptive parents in a study of how adopters' attitudes uphold, accommodate, or subvert prevailing ideologies of kinship in the United States.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Melosh, Barbara. Strangers and Kin: the American Way of Adoption (2002) excerpt and text search",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Minchella, Tina Danielle. Adoption in post-Soviet Russia: Nationalism and the re-invention of the \"Russian family\" (2011)",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pertman, A. (2000). Adoption Nation: How the Adoption Revolution Is Transforming America. New York: Basic Books.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seligmann, Linda J. Broken Links, Enduring Ties: American Adoption Across Race, Class, and Nation (Stanford University Press; 2013) 336 pages); comparative ethnographic study of transnational and interracial adoption.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fictive Kinship: Making Maladaptation Palatable ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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] | [
"Adoption",
"Family_law",
"Adoption,_fostering,_orphan_care_and_displacement"
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38,536 | 1,080,857,723 | Synchronous_optical_networking | [
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"plaintext": "Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) are standardized protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At low transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting large amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without the problems of synchronization.",
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"plaintext": "SONET and SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but they were primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM format. The primary difficulty in doing this prior to SONET/SDH was that the synchronization sources of these various circuits were different. This meant that each circuit was actually operating at a slightly different rate and with different phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many different circuits of differing origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not a complete communications protocol in itself, but a transport protocol (not a ‘transport’ in the OSI Model sense).",
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"plaintext": "Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH was the obvious choice for transporting the fixed length Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames also known as cells. It quickly evolved mapping structures and concatenated payload containers to transport ATM connections. In other words, for ATM (and eventually other protocols such as Ethernet), the internal complex structure previously used to transport circuit-oriented connections was removed and replaced with a large and concatenated frame (such as STS-3c) into which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet frames are placed.",
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"plaintext": "Both SDH and SONET are widely used today: SONET in the United States and Canada, and SDH in the rest of the world. Although the SONET standards were developed before SDH, it is considered a variation of SDH because of SDH's greater worldwide market penetration.",
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"plaintext": "SONET is subdivided into four sublayers with some factor such as the path, line, section and physical layer.",
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"plaintext": "The SDH standard was originally defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and is formalised as International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards G.707, G.783, G.784, and G.803. The SONET standard was defined by Telcordia and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard T1.105. which define the set of transmission formats and transmission rates in the range above 51.840 Mbit/s.",
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"plaintext": "SDH differs from Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) in that the exact rates that are used to transport the data on SONET/SDH are tightly synchronized across the entire network, using atomic clocks. This synchronization system allows entire inter-country networks to operate synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required between elements in the network.",
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"plaintext": "Both SONET and SDH can be used to encapsulate earlier digital transmission standards, such as the PDH standard, or they can be used to directly support either Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or so-called packet over SONET/SDH (POS) networking. Therefore, it is inaccurate to think of SDH or SONET as communications protocols in and of themselves; they are generic, all-purpose transport containers for moving both voice and data. The basic format of a SONET/SDH signal allows it to carry many different services in its virtual container (VC), because it is bandwidth-flexible.",
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"plaintext": "SONET and SDH often use different terms to describe identical features or functions. This can cause confusion and exaggerate their differences. With a few exceptions, SDH can be thought of as a superset of SONET.",
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"plaintext": "SONET is a set of transport containers that allow for delivery of a variety of protocols, including traditional telephony, ATM, Ethernet, and TCP/IP traffic. SONET therefore is not in itself a native communications protocol and should not be confused as being necessarily connection-oriented in the way that term is usually used.",
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"plaintext": "The protocol is a heavily multiplexed structure, with the header interleaved between the data in a complex way. This permits the encapsulated data to have its own frame rate and be able to \"float around\" relative to the SDH/SONET frame structure and rate. This interleaving permits a very low latency for the encapsulated data. Data passing through equipment can be delayed by at most 32microseconds(μs), compared to a frame rate of 125μs; many competing protocols buffer the data during such transits for at least one frame or packet before sending it on. Extra padding is allowed for the multiplexed data to move within the overall framing, as the data is clocked at a different rate than the frame rate. The protocol is made more complex by the decision to permit this padding at most levels of the multiplexing structure, but it improves all-around performance.",
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"plaintext": "The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1), which operates at 155.520 megabits per second (Mbit/s). SONET refers to this basic unit as an STS-3c (Synchronous Transport Signal 3, concatenated). When the STS-3c is carried over OC-3, it is often colloquially referred to as OC-3c, but this is not an official designation within the SONET standard as there is no physical layer (i.e. optical) difference between an STS-3c and 3 STS-1s carried within an OC-3.",
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"plaintext": "SONET offers an additional basic unit of transmission, the STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1) or OC-1, operating at 51.84 Mbit/s—exactly one third of an STM-1/STS-3c/OC-3c carrier. This speed is dictated by the bandwidth requirements for PCM-encoded telephonic voice signals: at this rate, an STS-1/OC-1 circuit can carry the bandwidth equivalent of a standard DS-3 channel, which can carry 672 64-kbit/s voice channels. In SONET, the STS-3c signal is composed of three multiplexed STS-1 signals; the STS-3c may be carried on an OC-3 signal. Some manufacturers also support the SDH equivalent of the STS-1/OC-1, known as STM-0.",
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"plaintext": "In packet-oriented data transmission, such as Ethernet, a packet frame usually consists of a header and a payload. The header is transmitted first, followed by the payload (and possibly a trailer, such as a CRC). In synchronous optical networking, this is modified slightly. The header is termed the overhead, and instead of being transmitted before the payload, is interleaved with it during transmission. Part of the overhead is transmitted, then part of the payload, then the next part of the overhead, then the next part of the payload, until the entire frame has been transmitted.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of an STS-1, the frame is 810 octets in size, while the STM-1/STS-3c frame is 2,430 octets in size. For STS-1, the frame is transmitted as three octets of overhead, followed by 87 octets of payload. This is repeated nine times, until 810 octets have been transmitted, taking 125μs. In the case of an STS-3c/STM-1, which operates three times faster than an STS-1, nine octets of overhead are transmitted, followed by 261 octets of payload. This is also repeated nine times until 2,430 octets have been transmitted, also taking 125μs. For both SONET and SDH, this is often represented by displaying the frame graphically: as a block of 90 columns and nine rows for STS-1, and 270 columns and nine rows for STM1/STS-3c. This representation aligns all the overhead columns, so the overhead appears as a contiguous block, as does the payload.",
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"plaintext": "The internal structure of the overhead and payload within the frame differs slightly between SONET and SDH, and different terms are used in the standards to describe these structures. Their standards are extremely similar in implementation, making it easy to interoperate between SDH and SONET at any given bandwidth.",
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"plaintext": "In practice, the terms STS-1 and OC-1 are sometimes used interchangeably, though the OC designation refers to the signal in its optical form. It is therefore incorrect to say that an OC-3 contains 3 OC-1's: an OC-3 can be said to contain 3 STS-1's.",
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"plaintext": "The Synchronous Transport Module, level 1 (STM-1) frame is the basic transmission format for SDH—the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1 frame is transmitted in exactly 125μs, therefore, there are 8,000 frames per second on a 155.52Mbit/s OC-3 fiber-optic circuit. The STM-1 frame consists of overhead and pointers plus information payload. The first nine columns of each frame make up the section overhead and administrative unit pointers, and the last 261 columns make up the information payload. The pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes) identify administrative units (AU) within the information payload. Thus, an OC-3 circuit can carry 150.336Mbit/s of payload, after accounting for the overhead.",
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"plaintext": "Carried within the information payload, which has its own frame structure of nine rows and 261 columns, are administrative units identified by pointers. Also within the administrative unit are one or more virtual containers (VCs). VCs contain path overhead and VC payload. The first column is for path overhead; it is followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other containers. Administrative units can have any phase alignment within the STM frame, and this alignment is indicated by the pointer in row four.",
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"plaintext": "The section overhead (SOH) of a STM-1 signal is divided into two parts: the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The overheads contain information from the transmission system itself, which is used for a wide range of management functions, such as monitoring transmission quality, detecting failures, managing alarms, data communication channels, service channels, etc.",
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"plaintext": "The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion: byte-by-byte, row-by-row.",
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"plaintext": "The transport overhead is used for signaling and measuring transmission error rates, and is composed as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Section overhead Called regenerator section overhead (RSOH) in SDH terminology: 27 octets containing information about the frame structure required by the terminal equipment.",
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"plaintext": "Line overhead Called multiplex section overhead (MSOH) in SDH: 45 octets containing information about error correction and Automatic Protection Switching messages (e.g., alarms and maintenance messages) as may be required within the network. The error correction is included for STM-16 and above.",
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"plaintext": "Administrative unit (AU) pointer Points to the location of the J1 byte in the payload (the first byte in the virtual container).",
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"plaintext": "Data transmitted from end to end is referred to as path data. It is composed of two components:",
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"plaintext": "Payload overhead (POH) 9 octets used for end-to-end signaling and error measurement.",
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"plaintext": "Payload User data (774 bytes for STM-0/STS-1, or 2,430 octets for STM-1/STS-3c)",
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"plaintext": "For STS-1, the payload is referred to as the synchronous payload envelope (SPE), which in turn has 18 stuffing bytes, leading to the STS-1 payload capacity of 756 bytes.",
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"plaintext": "The STS-1 payload is designed to carry a full PDH DS3 frame. When the DS3 enters a SONET network, path overhead is added, and that SONET network element (NE) is said to be a path generator and terminator. The SONET NE is line terminating if it processes the line overhead. Note that wherever the line or path is terminated, the section is terminated also. SONET regenerators terminate the section, but not the paths or line.",
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"plaintext": "An STS-1 payload can also be subdivided into seven virtual tributary groups (VTGs). Each VTG can then be subdivided into four VT1.5 signals, each of which can carry a PDH DS1 signal. A VTG may instead be subdivided into three VT2 signals, each of which can carry a PDH E1 signal. The SDH equivalent of a VTG is a TUG-2; VT1.5 is equivalent to VC-11, and VT2 is equivalent to VC-12.",
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"plaintext": "Three STS-1 signals may be multiplexed by time-division multiplexing to form the next level of the SONET hierarchy, the OC-3 (STS-3), running at 155.52Mbit/s. The signal is multiplexed by interleaving the bytes of the three STS-1 frames to form the STS-3 frame, containing 2,430 bytes and transmitted in 125μs.",
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"plaintext": "Higher-speed circuits are formed by successively aggregating multiples of slower circuits, their speed always being immediately apparent from their designation. For example, four STS-3 or AU4 signals can be aggregated to form a 622.08Mbit/s signal designated OC-12 or STM-4.",
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"plaintext": "The highest rate commonly deployed is the OC-768 or STM-256 circuit, which operates at rate of just under 38.5 Gbit/s. Where fiber exhaustion is a concern, multiple SONET signals can be transported over multiple wavelengths on a single fiber pair by means of wavelength-division multiplexing, including dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) and coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM). DWDM circuits are the basis for all modern submarine communications cable systems and other long-haul circuits.",
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"plaintext": "Another type of high-speed data networking circuit is 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE). The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance created two 10 Gigabit Ethernet variants: a local area variant (LAN PHY) with a line rate of 10.3125Gbit/s, and a wide area variant (WAN PHY) with the same line rate as OC-192/STM-64 (9,953,280kbit/s). The WAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using a lightweight SDH/SONET frame, so as to be compatible at a low level with equipment designed to carry SDH/SONET signals, whereas the LAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using 64B/66B line coding.",
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"section_name": "SONET/SDH and relationship to 10 Gigabit Ethernet",
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"plaintext": "However, 10 Gigabit Ethernet does not explicitly provide any interoperability at the bitstream level with other SDH/SONET systems. This differs from WDM system transponders, including both coarse and dense wavelength-division multiplexing systems (CWDM and DWDM) that currently support OC-192 SONET signals, which can normally support thin-SONET–framed 10 Gigabit Ethernet.",
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"plaintext": "User throughput must not deduct path overhead from the payload bandwidth, but path-overhead bandwidth is variable based on the types of cross-connects built across the optical system.",
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"plaintext": "Note that the data-rate progression starts at 155 Mbit/s and increases by multiples of four. The only exception is OC-24, which is standardized in ANSI T1.105, but not a SDH standard rate in ITU-T G.707. Other rates, such as OC-9, OC-18, OC-36, OC-96, and OC-1536, are defined but not commonly deployed; most are considered orphaned rates.",
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"plaintext": "The physical layer refers to the first layer in the OSI networking model. The ATM and SDH layers are the regenerator section level, digital line level, transmission path level, virtual path level, and virtual channel level. The physical layer is modeled on three major entities: transmission path, digital line and the regenerator section. The regenerator section refers to the section and photonic layers. The photonic layer is the lowest SONET layer and it is responsible for transmitting the bits to the physical medium. The section layer is responsible for generating the proper STS-N frames which are to be transmitted across the physical medium. It deals with issues such as proper framing, error monitoring, section maintenance, and orderwire. The line layer ensures reliable transport of the payload and overhead generated by the path layer. It provides synchronization and multiplexing for multiple paths. It modifies overhead bits relating to quality control. The path layer is SONET's highest level layer. It takes data to be transmitted and transforms them into signals required by the line layer, and adds or modifies the path overhead bits for performance monitoring and protection switching.",
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"plaintext": "Network management systems are used to configure and monitor SDH and SONET equipment either locally or remotely.",
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"plaintext": "The systems consist of three essential parts, covered later in more detail:",
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"plaintext": " Software running on a 'network management system terminal' e.g. workstation, dumb terminal or laptop housed in an exchange/ central office.",
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"section_name": "SONET/SDH network management protocols",
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"plaintext": " Transport of network management data between the 'network management system terminal' and the SONET/ SDH equipment e.g. using TL1/ Q3 protocols.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "SONET/SDH network management protocols",
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"plaintext": " Transport of network management data between SDH/ SONET equipment using 'dedicated embedded data communication channels' (DCCs) within the section and line overhead.",
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"plaintext": "The main functions of network management thereby include:",
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"section_name": "SONET/SDH network management protocols",
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"plaintext": "Network and network-element provisioning",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "In order to allocate bandwidth throughout a network, each network element must be configured. Although this can be done locally, through a craft interface, it is normally done through a network management system (sitting at a higher layer) that in turn operates through the SONET/SDH network management network.",
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"plaintext": "Software upgrade",
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"plaintext": "Network-element software upgrades are done mostly through the SONET/SDH management network in modern equipment.",
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"plaintext": "Performance management",
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"plaintext": "Network elements have a very large set of standards for performance management. The performance-management criteria allow not only monitoring the health of individual network elements, but isolating and identifying most network defects or outages. Higher-layer network monitoring and management software allows the proper filtering and troubleshooting of network-wide performance management, so that defects and outages can be quickly identified and resolved.",
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"plaintext": "Consider the three parts defined above:",
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"plaintext": "Local Craft interface",
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"plaintext": "Local \"craftspersons\" (telephone network engineers) can access a SDH/ SONET network element on a \"craft port\" and issue commands through a dumb terminal or terminal emulation program running on a laptop. This interface can also be attached to a console server, allowing for remote out-of-band management and logging.",
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"plaintext": " Network management system (sitting at a higher layer)",
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"plaintext": "This will often consist of software running on a Workstation covering a number of SDH/SONET network elements",
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"plaintext": "TL1",
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"plaintext": "SONET equipment is often managed with the TL1 protocol. TL1 is an telecom language for managing and reconfiguring SONET network elements. The command language used by a SONET network element, such as TL1, must be carried by other management protocols, such as SNMP, CORBA, or XML.",
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"plaintext": "Q3",
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"plaintext": "SDH has been mainly managed using the Q3 interface protocol suite defined in ITU recommendations Q.811 and Q.812. With the convergence of SONET and SDH on switching matrix and network elements architecture, newer implementations have also offered TL1.",
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"plaintext": "Most SONET NEs have a limited number of management interfaces defined:",
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"plaintext": "TL1 Electrical interface",
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"plaintext": "The electrical interface, often a 50-ohm coaxial cable, sends SONET TL1 commands from a local management network physically housed in the central office where the SONET network element is located. This is for local management of that network element and, possibly, remote management of other SONET network elements.",
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"plaintext": " SONET and SDH have dedicated data communication channels (DCCs) within the section and line overhead for management traffic. Generally, section overhead (regenerator section in SDH) is used. According to ITU-T G.7712, there are three modes used for management:",
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"plaintext": "IP-only stack, using PPP as data-link",
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"plaintext": "OSI-only stack, using LAP-D as data-link",
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"plaintext": "Dual (IP+OSI) stack using PPP or LAP-D with tunneling functions to communicate between stacks.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": "To handle all of the possible management channels and signals, most modern network elements contain a router for the network commands and underlying (data) protocols.",
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"plaintext": "With advances in SONET and SDH chipsets, the traditional categories of network elements are no longer distinct. Nevertheless, as network architectures have remained relatively constant, even newer equipment (including multi-service provisioning platforms) can be examined in light of the architectures they will support. Thus, there is value in viewing new, as well as traditional, equipment in terms of the older categories.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional regenerators terminate the section overhead, but not the line or path. Regenerators extend long-haul routes in a way similar to most regenerators, by converting an optical signal that has already traveled a long distance into electrical format and then retransmitting a regenerated high-power signal.",
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"plaintext": "Since the late 1990s, regenerators have been largely replaced by optical amplifiers. Also, some of the functionality of regenerators has been absorbed by the transponders of wavelength-division multiplexing systems.",
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"plaintext": "STS multiplexer and demultiplexer provide the interface between an electrical tributary network and the optical network.",
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"plaintext": "Add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) are the most common type of network elements. Traditional ADMs were designed to support one of the network architectures, though new generation systems can often support several architectures, sometimes simultaneously. ADMs traditionally have a high-speed side (where the full line rate signal is supported), and a low-speed side, which can consist of electrical as well as optical interfaces. The low-speed side takes in low-speed signals, which are multiplexed by the network element and sent out from the high-speed side, or vice versa.",
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"plaintext": "Recent digital cross connect systems (DCSs or DXCs) support numerous high-speed signals, and allow for cross-connection of DS1s, DS3s and even STS-3s/12c and so on, from any input to any output. Advanced DCSs can support numerous subtending rings simultaneously.",
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"plaintext": "SONET and SDH have a limited number of architectures defined. These architectures allow for efficient bandwidth usage as well as protection (i.e. the ability to transmit traffic even when part of the network has failed), and are fundamental to the worldwide deployment of SONET and SDH for moving digital traffic. Every SDH/SONET connection on the optical physical layer uses two optical fibers, regardless of the transmission speed.",
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"plaintext": "Linear Automatic Protection Switching (APS), also known as 1+1, involves four fibers: two working fibers (one in each direction), and two protection fibers. Switching is based on the line state, and may be unidirectional (with each direction switching independently), or bidirectional (where the network elements at each end negotiate so that both directions are generally carried on the same pair of fibers).",
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"plaintext": "In unidirectional path-switched rings (UPSRs), two redundant (path-level) copies of protected traffic are sent in either direction around a ring. A selector at the egress node determines which copy has the highest quality, and uses that copy, thus coping if one copy deteriorates due to a broken fiber or other failure. UPSRs tend to sit nearer to the edge of a network, and as such are sometimes called collector rings. Because the same data is sent around the ring in both directions, the total capacity of a UPSR is equal to the line rate N of the OC-N ring. For example, in an OC-3 ring with 3 STS-1s used to transport 3 DS-3s from ingress node A to the egress node D, 100 percent of the ring bandwidth (N=3) would be consumed by nodes A and D. Any other nodes on the ring could only act as pass-through nodes. The SDH equivalent of UPSR is subnetwork connection protection (SNCP); SNCP does not impose a ring topology, but may also be used in mesh topologies.",
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"plaintext": "Bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR) comes in two varieties: two-fiber BLSR and four-fiber BLSR. BLSRs switch at the line layer. Unlike UPSR, BLSR does not send redundant copies from ingress to egress. Rather, the ring nodes adjacent to the failure reroute the traffic \"the long way\" around the ring on the protection fibers. BLSRs trade cost and complexity for bandwidth efficiency, as well as the ability to support \"extra traffic\" that can be pre-empted when a protection switching event occurs. In four-fiber ring, either single node failures, or multiple line failures can be supported, since a failure or maintenance action on one line causes the protection fiber connecting two nodes to be used rather than looping it around the ring.",
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"plaintext": "BLSRs can operate within a metropolitan region or, often, will move traffic between municipalities. Because a BLSR does not send redundant copies from ingress to egress, the total bandwidth that a BLSR can support is not limited to the line rate N of the OC-N ring, and can actually be larger than N depending upon the traffic pattern on the ring. In the best case, all traffic is between adjacent nodes. The worst case is when all traffic on the ring egresses from a single node, i.e., the BLSR is serving as a collector ring. In this case, the bandwidth that the ring can support is equal to the line rate N of the OC-N ring. This is why BLSRs are seldom, if ever, deployed in collector rings, but often deployed in inter-office rings. The SDH equivalent of BLSR is called Multiplex Section-Shared Protection Ring (MS-SPRING).",
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"plaintext": "Clock sources used for synchronization in telecommunications networks are rated by quality, commonly called a stratum. Typically, a network element uses the highest quality stratum available to it, which can be determined by monitoring the synchronization status messages (SSM) of selected clock sources.",
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"plaintext": "Synchronization sources available to a network element are:",
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"plaintext": "Local external timing",
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"plaintext": "This is generated by an atomic cesium clock or a satellite-derived clock by a device in the same central office as the network element. The interface is often a DS1, with sync-status messages supplied by the clock and placed into the DS1 overhead.",
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"plaintext": "Line-derived timing",
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"plaintext": "A network element can choose (or be configured) to derive its timing from the line-level, by monitoring the S1 sync-status bytes to ensure quality.",
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"plaintext": "Holdover",
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"plaintext": "As a last resort, in the absence of higher quality timing, a network element can go into a holdover mode until higher-quality external timing becomes available again. In this mode, the network element uses its own timing circuits as a reference.",
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"plaintext": "A timing loop occurs when network elements in a network are each deriving their timing from other network elements, without any of them being a \"master\" timing source. This network loop will eventually see its own timing \"float away\" from any external networks, causing mysterious bit errors—and ultimately, in the worst cases, massive loss of traffic. The source of these kinds of errors can be hard to diagnose. In general, a network that has been properly configured should never find itself in a timing loop, but some classes of silent failures could nevertheless cause this issue.",
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"plaintext": "SONET/SDH development was originally driven by the need to transport multiple PDH signals—like DS1, E1, DS3, and E3—along with other groups of multiplexed 64kbit/s pulse-code modulated voice traffic. The ability to transport ATM traffic was another early application. In order to support large ATM bandwidths, concatenation was developed, whereby smaller multiplexing containers (e.g., STS-1) are inversely multiplexed to build up a larger container (e.g., STS-3c) to support large data-oriented pipes.",
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"plaintext": "One problem with traditional concatenation, however, is inflexibility. Depending on the data and voice traffic mix that must be carried, there can be a large amount of unused bandwidth left over, due to the fixed sizes of concatenated containers. For example, fitting a 100Mbit/s Fast Ethernet connection inside a 155Mbit/s STS-3c container leads to considerable waste. More important is the need for all intermediate network elements to support newly introduced concatenation sizes. This problem was overcome with the introduction of Virtual Concatenation.",
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"plaintext": "Virtual concatenation (VCAT) allows for a more arbitrary assembly of lower-order multiplexing containers, building larger containers of fairly arbitrary size (e.g., 100Mbit/s) without the need for intermediate network elements to support this particular form of concatenation. Virtual concatenation leverages the X.86 or Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) protocols in order to map payloads of arbitrary bandwidth into the virtually concatenated container.",
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"plaintext": "The Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) allows for dynamically changing the bandwidth via dynamic virtual concatenation, multiplexing containers based on the short-term bandwidth needs in the network.",
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"plaintext": "The set of next-generation SONET/SDH protocols that enable Ethernet transport is referred to as Ethernet over SONET/SDH (EoS).",
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"plaintext": "SONET/SDH is no longer competitive in the supply of private circuits. Development has stagnated for the last decade (2020) and both suppliers of equipment and operators of SONET/SDH networks are migrating to other technologies such as OTN and wide area Ethernet.",
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"plaintext": "British Telecom has recently (March 2020) closed down their KiloStream and Mega Stream products which were the last large scale uses of the BT SDH. BT has also ceased new connections to their SDH network which indicates withdrawal of services soon.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "End of Life and Retirement",
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"plaintext": " List of device bandwidths",
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"plaintext": " Routing and wavelength assignment",
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"plaintext": " Multiwavelength optical networking",
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"plaintext": " Optical mesh network",
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38,537 | 1,102,013,515 | Yorkshire_pudding | [
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"plaintext": "Originally, the Yorkshire pudding was served as a first course with thick gravy to dull the appetite with the low-cost ingredients so that the diners would not eat so much of the more expensive meat in the next course. Because the rich gravy from the roast meat drippings was used with the first course, the main meat and vegetable course was often served with a parsley or white sauce. In poorer households, the pudding was often served as the only course. Using dripping, a simple meal was made with flour, eggs and milk. This was traditionally eaten with a gravy or sauce, to moisten the pudding.",
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"plaintext": "Producer George Schlatter capitalized on the advent of videotape to create Real People, a surprise hit for NBC, and it ran from 1979 to 1984. The success of Real People was quickly copied by ABC with That's Incredible, a stunt show produced by Alan Landsburg and co-hosted by Fran Tarkenton; CBS's entry into the genre was That's My Line, a series hosted by Bob Barker. The Canadian series Thrill of a Lifetime, a fantasies-fulfilled reality show, originally ran from 1982 to 1988. It was revived from 2001 to 2003. In 1985, underwater cinematographer Al Giddings teamed with former Miss Universe Shawn Weatherly on the NBC series Oceanquest, which chronicled Weatherly's adventures scuba diving in various exotic locales. Weatherly was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in informational programming.",
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"plaintext": "The series Expedition Robinson, created by television producer Charlie Parsons, which first aired in 1997 in Sweden (and was later produced in a large number of other countries as Survivor), added to the Nummer 28/Real World template the idea of competition and elimination. Cast members or contestants battled against each other and were removed from the show until only one winner remained (these shows are now sometimes called elimination shows). Changing Rooms, a program that began in 1996, showed couples redecorating each other's houses, and was the first reality show with a self-improvement or makeover theme. The dating reality show Streetmate premiered in the UK in 1998. Originally created by Gabe Sachs as Street Match, it was a flop in the United States. But the show was revamped in the UK by Tiger Aspect Productions and became a cult hit. The production team from the original series later created the popular reality shows Strictly Come Dancing, Location, Location, Location, and the revamped MasterChef, among others. The 1980s and 1990s were also a time when tabloid talk shows became more popular. Many of these featured the same types of unusual or dysfunctional guests who would later become popular as cast members of reality shows.",
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"plaintext": "Reality television became globally popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s, with the successes of the Big Brother and Survivor/Expedition Robinson franchises. In the United States, reality television programs suffered a temporary decline in viewership in 2001, leading some entertainment industry columnists to speculate that the genre was a temporary fad that had run its course. Reality shows that suffered from low ratings included The Amazing Race (although the show has since recovered and is in its 32nd edition), Lost (unrelated to the better-known serial drama of the same name) and The Mole (which was successful in other countries). But stronghold shows Survivor and American Idol continued to thrive: both topped the U.S. season-average television ratings in the 2000s. Survivor led the ratings in 2001–02, and Idol has the longest hold on the No. 1 rank in the American television ratings, dominating over all other primetime programs and other television series in the overall viewership tallies for eight consecutive years, from the 2003–2004 to the 2010–2011 television seasons.",
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"plaintext": "Internationally, a number of shows created in the late 1990s and 2000s have had massive global success. Reality-television franchises created during that time that have had more than 30 international adaptations each include the singing competition franchises Idols, Star Academy and The X Factor, other competition franchises Survivor/Expedition Robinson, Big Brother, The Biggest Loser, Come Dine with Me, Got Talent, Top Model, MasterChef, Project Runway and Dancing with the Stars, and the investment franchise Dragons' Den. Several \"reality game shows\" from the same period have had even greater success, including Deal or No Deal, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, and Weakest Link, with over 50 international adaptions each. (All but four of these franchises, Top Model, Project Runway, The Biggest Loser and Dragons' Den, were created by either British producers or the Dutch production company Endemol. Although Dragons' Den originated in Japan, most of its adaptations are based on the British version.) In India, the competition show Indian Idol was the most popular television program for its first six seasons.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2000s, several cable networks, including Bravo, A&E, E!, TLC, History, VH1, and MTV, changed their programming to feature mostly reality television series. In addition, three cable channels were started around that time that were devoted exclusively to reality television: Fox Reality in the United States, which operated from 2005 to 2010; Global Reality Channel in Canada, which lasted two years from 2010 to 2012; and CBS Reality (formerly known as Reality TV and then Zone Reality) in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, which has run from 1999 to the present.",
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"plaintext": "During the early part of the 2000s, network executives expressed concern that reality-television programming was limited in its appeal for DVD reissue and syndication. But DVDs for reality shows sold briskly; The Real Orange County, The Amazing Race, Project Runway, and America's Next Top Model all ranked in the top DVDs sold on Amazon.com. In the mid-2000s, DVDs of The Simple Life outranked scripted shows such as The O.C. and Desperate Housewives. Syndication, however, has been problematic; shows such as Fear Factor, COPS, and Wife Swap, in which each episode is self-contained, can be rerun fairly easily, but usually only on cable television or during the daytime (COPS and America's Funniest Home Videos being exceptions). Season-long competitions, such as The Amazing Race, Survivor, and America's Next Top Model generally perform more poorly and usually must be rerun in marathons to draw the necessary viewers to make it worthwhile. (Even in these cases, it is not always successful: the first ten seasons of Dancing with the Stars were picked up by GSN in 2012 and was run in marathon format, but attracted low viewership and had very poor ratings). Another option is to create documentaries around series, including extended interviews with the participants and outtakes not seen in the original airings; the syndicated series American Idol Rewind is an example of this strategy.",
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"plaintext": "COPS has had huge success in syndication, direct response sales, and DVD. A Fox staple since 1989, COPS has, as of 2013 (when it moved to cable channel Spike), outlasted all competing scripted police shows. Another series that had wide success is Cheaters, which has been running since 2000 in the U.S. and is syndicated in over 100 countries worldwide. In 2001, the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences added the reality genre to the Emmy Awards in the category of Outstanding Reality Program. In 2003, to better differentiate between competition and informational reality programs, a second category, Outstanding Reality-Competition Program, was added. In 2008, a third category, Outstanding Host for a Reality or Reality-Competition Program, was added. In 2007, the web series The Next Internet Millionaire appeared; it was a competition show based in part on The Apprentice, and was billed as the world's first Internet reality show.",
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"plaintext": "The Voice, a singing competition franchise created by John de Mol that started in 2010, remains the newest highly successful reality television franchise, with almost 50 international adaptations. The Tester (2010-2012) was the first reality television show aired over a video game console.",
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"plaintext": "By 2012, many of the long-running reality television show franchises in the United States, such as American Idol, Dancing with the Stars and The Bachelor, had begun to see declining ratings. However, reality television as a whole remained durable in the U.S., with hundreds of shows across many channels. In 2012, New York Magazine's Vulture blog published a humorous Venn diagram showing popular themes across American reality shows then running, including shows set in the U.S. states of Alaska, Louisiana and Texas, shows about cakes, weddings and pawnbrokers, and shows, usually competition-based, whose title includes the word \"Wars\".",
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"plaintext": "Duck Dynasty (2012-2017), which focused on the Robertson family that founded Duck Commander, in 2013 became the most popular reality series in U.S. cable television history. Its fourth-season premiere was viewed by nearly 12million viewers in the United States, most of which were in rural markets. Its rural audience share ranked in the 30s, an extremely high number for any series, broadcast or cable.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Entertainment Weekly and Variety again noted a stagnation in reality television programs' ratings in the U.S., which they attributed to \"The diminishing returns of cable TV's sea of reality sameness\". They noted that a number of networks that featured reality programming, including Bravo and E!, were launching their first scripted shows, and others, including AMC, were abandoning plans to launch further reality programs; though they clarified that the genre as a whole \"isn't going anywhere.\" Ratings and profits from reality TV continued to decline in the late 2010s.",
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"plaintext": "The South Korean music competition King of Mask Singer emerged in 2015, which features celebrities performing under pseudonyms and concealed by a mask. Each contestant competed against the titular returning champion (the \"mask king\"), with the loser being eliminated and forced to reveal their identity. The format was first exported to other Asian countries, such as Thailand; in 2017, television producer Craig Plestis acquired the U.S. rights to the format and sold a retooled American version—The Masked Singer—to Fox, which premiered in January 2019. The Masked Singer became one of Fox's biggest premieres since 2019, and was the highest-rated non-NFL program and third highest-rated series overall of the 2018–19 (tied with sitcom The Big Bang Theory) and 2019–20 television seasons. In an attempt to ride off the popularity of The Masked Singer, Fox subsequently pursued other reality competitions and game shows based around mysteries, such as Game of Talents, and another South Korean format in I Can See Your Voice.",
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"plaintext": "Television development across all genres was impacted in 2020 by the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many reality competition series to suspend production (and in some cases curtail a competition already in progress, such as Canadian and Malayalam versions of Big Brother), until such time that production could recommence with appropriate health and safety protocols approved by local authorities. Due to their quicker turnaround times, the U.S. networks used reality series and other unscripted content (including those delayed from their summer lineups) to fill gaps in their schedules while the production of scripted programming resumed.",
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"plaintext": "There have been various attempts to classify reality television shows into different subgenres:",
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"plaintext": " A 2006 study proposed six subgenres: romance, crime, informational, reality-drama, competition or game, and talent.",
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"plaintext": " A 2007 study proposed five subgenres: infotainment, docusoap, lifestyle, reality game shows, and lifestyle experiment programs.",
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"plaintext": " A 2009 study proposed eight subgenres: \"gamedocs\", dating programs, makeover programs, docusoaps, talent contests, court programs, reality sitcoms, and celebrity variations of other programs.",
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"plaintext": "Another categorization divides reality television into two types: shows that purport to document real life, and shows that place participants in new circumstances. In a 2003 paper, theorists Elisabeth Klaus and Stephanie Lücke referred to the former category as \"docusoaps\", which consist of \"narrative reality\", and the latter category as \"reality soaps\", which consist of \"performative reality\". Since 2014, the Primetime Emmy Awards have used a similar classification, with separate awards for \"unstructured reality\" and \"structured reality\" programs, as well as a third award for \"reality-competition\" programs.",
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"plaintext": "In many reality television programs, camera shooting and footage editing give the viewer the impression that they are passive observers following people going about their daily personal and professional activities; this style of filming is sometimes referred to as fly on the wall or factual television. Story \"plots\" are often constructed via editing or planned situations, with the results resembling soap operas – hence the terms docusoap and docudrama. Documentary-style programs give viewers a private look into the lives of the subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Within documentary-style reality television are several subcategories or variants:",
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"plaintext": "Although the term \"docusoap\" has been used for many documentary-style reality television shows, there have been shows that have deliberately tried to mimic the appearance and structure of soap operas. Such shows often focus on a close-knit group of people and their shifting friendships and romantic relationships. One highly influential such series was the American 2004–2006 series The Real Orange County, which attempted to specifically mimic the primetime soap opera The O.C., which had begun airing in 2003. Laguna Beach had a more cinematic feel than any previous reality television show, through the use of higher-quality lighting and cameras, voice-over narration instead of on-screen \"confessionals\", and slower pacing. Laguna Beach led to several spinoff series, most notably the 2006–2010 series The Hills. It also inspired various other series, including the highly successful British series The Only Way Is Essex and Made in Chelsea, and the Australian series Freshwater Blue.",
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"plaintext": "Due to their cinematic feel, many of these shows have been accused of being pre-scripted, more so than other reality television shows have. The producers of The Only Way Is Essex and Made in Chelsea have admitted to coaching cast members on what to say in order to draw more emotion from each scene, although they insist that the underlying stories are real.",
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"plaintext": "Another highly successful group of soap-opera-style shows is the Real Housewives franchise, which began with The Real Housewives of Orange County in 2006 and has since spawned nearly twenty other series, in the U.S. and internationally. The franchise has an older cast and different personal dynamics than that of Laguna Beach and its imitators, as well as lower production values, but similarly is meant to resemble scripted soap operas – in this case, the television series Desperate Housewives and Peyton Place.",
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"plaintext": "A notable subset of such series focus on a group of women who are romantically connected to male celebrities; these include Basketball Wives (2010), Love & Hip Hop (2011), Hollywood Exes (2012), Ex-Wives of Rock (2012) and WAGS (2015). Most of these shows have had spin-offs in multiple locations.",
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"plaintext": "There are also fly-on-the-wall-style shows directly involving celebrities. Often these show a celebrity going about their everyday life: notable examples include The Anna Nicole Show, The Osbournes, Gene Simmons Family Jewels, Nick and Jessica, Keeping Up with the Kardashians and Hogan Knows Best. VH1 in the mid-2000s had an entire block of such shows, known as \"Celebreality\". Shows such as these are often created with the idea of promoting a celebrity product or upcoming project.",
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"plaintext": "Some documentary-style shows shed light on rarely seen cultures and lifestyles. One example is shows about people with disabilities or people who have unusual physical circumstances, such as the American series Push Girls and Little People, Big World, and the British programmes Beyond Boundaries, Britain's Missing Top Model, The Undateables and Seven Dwarves.",
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"plaintext": "Another example is shows that portray the lives of ethnic or religious minorities. Examples include All-American Muslim (Lebanese-American Muslims), Shahs of Sunset (affluent Persian-Americans), Sister Wives (polygamists from a Mormon splinter group), Breaking Amish and Amish Mafia (the Amish), and Big Fat Gypsy Weddings and its spinoffs (Romani people).",
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"plaintext": "The Real Housewives franchise offers a window into the lives of social-striving urban and suburban housewives. Many shows focus on wealth and conspicuous consumption, including Platinum Weddings, and My Super Sweet 16, which documented huge coming of age celebrations thrown by wealthy parents. Conversely, the highly successful Here Comes Honey Boo Boo and Duck Dynasty are set in poorer rural areas of the Southern United States.",
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"plaintext": "Shows that portray a set of people in the same line of work, occasionally competing with each other, include Deadliest Catch, Ice Road Truckers and Million Dollar Listing Los Angeles and its spinoffs.",
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"plaintext": "One notable subset of shows about professional activities is those in which the professionals haggle and engage in financial transactions, often over unique or rare items whose value must first be appraised. Two such shows, both of which have led to multiple spinoff shows, are Pawn Stars (about pawn shops) and American Pickers. Other shows, while based around such financial transactions, also show elements of its main cast members' personal and professional lives; these shows include Hardcore Pawn and Comic Book Men. Such shows have some antecedent in the British series Antiques Roadshow, which began airing in 1979 and has since spawned numerous international versions, although that show includes only appraisals and does not include bargaining or other dramatic elements.",
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"plaintext": "While for \"documentary-style\" shows it is implied that the events shown would still be taking place even if the cameras were not there, in other shows the events taking place are done overtly for the sake of the show. These shows differ from \"reality competition\" shows or \"reality game shows\" (see below) in that participants do not compete against one another.",
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"plaintext": "Some documentary-style programs place cast members, who in most cases previously did not know each other, in staged living environments; The Real World was the originator of this format. In almost every other such type of programming, cast members are given specific challenges or obstacles to overcome. Road Rules, which first aired in 1995 as a spin-off of The Real World, created a show structure where the cast would travel to various countries performing challenges for prizes.",
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"plaintext": "Big Brother is probably the best-known program of this type in the world, with around 50 international versions having been produced. Other shows in this category, such as The 1900 House and Lads' Army, involve historical re-enactment, with cast members living and working as people of a specific time and place. 2001's Temptation Island achieved some notoriety by placing several couples on an island surrounded by single people in order to test the couples' commitment to each other. The Challenge has contestants living together in an overseas residence, and has been around for over 30 seasons. The format of each season changes, however the main premise of the series involves a daily challenge, nomination process and elimination round. The Lofters combined the \"special living environment\" format with the \"professional activity\" format noted earlier; in addition to living together in a loft, each member of the show's cast was hired to host a television program for a Canadian cable channel.",
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"plaintext": "The Simple Life, Tommy Lee Goes to College and The Surreal Life are all shows in which celebrities are put into an unnatural environment.",
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"plaintext": "Originally, court shows were all dramatized and staged programs, with actors playing the litigants, witnesses and lawyers. The cases were either reenactments of real-life cases or cases that were fictionalized altogether. Among examples of staged courtroom dramas are Famous Jury Trials, Your Witness, and the first two eras of Divorce Court. The People's Court revolutionized the genre by introducing the arbitration-based \"reality\" format in 1981, later adopted by the vast majority of court shows. The genre experienced a lull in programming after The People's Court was canceled in 1993, but then soared after the emergence of Judge Judy in 1996. This led to a slew of other reality court shows, such as Judge Mathis, Judge Joe Brown, Judge Alex, Judge Mills Lane and Judge Hatchett.",
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"plaintext": "Though the litigants are legitimate, the \"judges\" in such shows are actually arbitrators, as these pseudo-judges are not actually presiding in a court of law. Typically, however, they are retired judges or at least individuals who have had some legal experience.",
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"plaintext": "Courtroom programs are typically daytime television shows that air on weekdays.",
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"plaintext": "The globally syndicated format Dragons' Den shows a group of wealthy investors choosing whether or not to invest in a series of pitched startup companies and entrepreneurial ventures. The series Restaurant Startup similarly involves investors, but involves more of a game show element in which restaurant owners compete to prove their worth. The British series Show Me the Monet offers a twist in which artworks' artistic value, rather than their financial value, is appraised by a panel of judges, who determine whether each one will be featured at an exhibition.",
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"plaintext": "Another subgenre places people in wild and challenging natural settings. This includes such shows as Survivorman, Man vs. Wild, Marooned with Ed Stafford, Naked and Afraid and Alaskan Bush People. The shows Survivor and Get Out Alive with Bear Grylls combine outdoor survival with a competition format, although in Survivor the competition also involves social dynamics.",
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"plaintext": "Some reality television shows cover a person or group of people improving their lives. Sometimes the same group of people are covered over an entire season (as in The Swan and Celebrity Fit Club), but usually there is a new target for improvement in each episode. Despite differences in the content, the format is usually the same: first the show introduces the subjects in their current, less-than-ideal environment. Then the subjects meet with a group of experts, who give the subjects instructions on how to improve things; they offer aid and encouragement along the way. Finally, the subjects are placed back in their environment and they, along with their friends and family and the experts, appraise the changes that have occurred. Other self-improvement or makeover shows include The Biggest Loser, Extreme Weight Loss and Fat March (which cover weight loss), Extreme Makeover (entire physical appearance), Queer Eye, What Not to Wear, How Do I Look?, Trinny & Susannah Undress... and Snog Marry Avoid? (style and grooming), Supernanny (child-rearing), Made (life transformation), Tool Academy (relationship building) and Charm School and From G's to Gents (self-improvement and manners).",
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"plaintext": "The concept of self-improvement was taken to its extreme with the British show Life Laundry, in which people who had become hoarders, even living in squalor, were given professional assistance. The American television series Hoarders and Buried Alive follow similar premises, presenting interventions in the lives of people who suffer from compulsive hoarding.",
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"plaintext": "In one study, participants who admitted to watching more reality television were more likely to proceed with a desired plastic surgery than those who watched less.",
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"plaintext": "Some shows makeover part or all of a person's living space, workspace, or vehicle. The American series This Old House, which debuted in 1979, features the start-to-finish renovation of different houses through a season; media critic Jeff Jarvis has speculated that it is \"the original reality TV show.\" The British show Changing Rooms, beginning in 1996 (later remade in the U.S. as Trading Spaces) was the first such renovation show that added a game show feel with different weekly contestants.",
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"plaintext": "House renovation shows are a mainstay on the American and Canadian cable channel HGTV, whose renovation shows include the successful franchises Flip or Flop, Love It or List It and Property Brothers, as well as shows such as Debbie Travis' Facelift, Designed to Sell and Holmes on Homes. Non-HGTV shows in this category include Home Edition and While You Were Out.",
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"plaintext": "Pimp My Ride and Overhaulin' show vehicles being rebuilt in a customized way.",
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"plaintext": "In some shows, one or more experts try to improve a failing small business over the course of each episode. Examples that cover many types of business include We Mean Business and The Profit. Shows geared for a specific type of business include Ramsay's Kitchen Nightmares and Impossible (for restaurants), Bar Rescue (for bars) and Hotel Hell (for hotels).",
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"plaintext": "Another type of reality program is the social experiment that produces drama, conflict, and sometimes transformation. British TV series Wife Swap, which began in 2003, and has had many spinoffs in the UK and other countries, is a notable example. In the show, people with different values agree to live by each other's social rules for a brief period of time. Other shows in this category include Trading Spouses, Bad Girls Club and Holiday Showdown. Faking It was a series where people had to learn a new skill and pass themselves off as experts in that skill. Shattered was a controversial 2004 UK series in which contestants competed for how long they could go without sleep. Solitary was a controversial 2006-2010 Fox Reality series that isolated contestants for weeks in solitary confinement pods with limited sleep, food and information while competing in elimination challenges ended by a quit button, causing winners to go on for much longer than needed as a blind gamble to not be the first person to quit.",
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"plaintext": "Another type of reality programming features hidden cameras rolling when random passers-by encounter a staged situation. Candid Camera, which first aired on television in 1948, pioneered the format. Modern variants of this type of production include Punk'd, Trigger Happy TV, What Would You Do?, The Jamie Kennedy Experiment and Gags. The series Scare Tactics and Room 401 are hidden-camera programs in which the goal is to frighten contestants rather than just befuddle or amuse them. Not all hidden camera shows use strictly staged situations. For example, the syndicated program Cheaters purports to use hidden cameras to record suspected cheating partners, although the authenticity of the show has been questioned, and even refuted by some who have been featured on the series. Once the evidence has been gathered, the accuser confronts the cheating partner with the assistance of the host. In many special-living documentary programs, hidden cameras are set up all over the residence in order to capture moments missed by the regular camera crew, or intimate bedroom footage.",
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"plaintext": "Supernatural and paranormal reality shows such as MTV's Fear, place participants into frightening situations which ostensibly involve paranormal phenomena such as ghosts, telekinesis or haunted houses. In series such as Celebrity Paranormal Project, the stated aim is investigation, and some series like Scariest Places on Earth challenge participants to survive the investigation; whereas others such as Paranormal State and Ghost Hunters use a recurring crew of paranormal researchers. In general, the shows follow similar stylized patterns of night vision, surveillance, and hand held camera footage; odd angles; subtitles establishing place and time; desaturated imagery; and non-melodic soundtracks. Noting the trend in reality shows that take the paranormal at face value, New York Times culture editor Mike Hale characterized ghost hunting shows as \"pure theater\" and compared the genre to professional wrestling or softcore pornography for its formulaic, teasing approach.",
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"plaintext": "Another subgenre of reality television is \"reality competition\", \"reality playoffs\", or so-called \"reality game shows,\" which follow the format of non-tournament elimination contests. Typically, participants are filmed competing to win a prize, often while living together in a confined environment. In many cases, participants are removed until only one person or team remains, who is then declared the winner. Usually this is done by eliminating participants one at a time (or sometimes two at a time, as an episodic twist due to the number of contestants involved and the length of a given season), through either disapproval voting or by voting for the most popular to win. Voting is done by the viewing audience, the show's own participants, a panel of judges, or some combination of the three.",
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"plaintext": "A well-known example of a reality-competition show is the globally syndicated Big Brother, in which cast members live together in the same house, with participants removed at regular intervals by either the viewing audience or, in the American version, by the participants themselves. There remains disagreement over whether talent-search shows such as the Idol series, the Got Talent series and the Dancing with the Stars series are truly reality television or just newer incarnations of shows such as Star Search. Although the shows involve a traditional talent search, the shows follow the reality-competition conventions of removing one or more contestants in every episode, allowing the public to vote on who is removed, and interspersing performances with video clips showing the contestants' \"back stories\", their thoughts about the competition, their rehearsals and unguarded behind-the-scenes moments. Additionally, there is a good deal of unscripted interaction shown between contestants and judges. The American Primetime Emmy Awards have nominated both American Idol and Dancing with the Stars for the Outstanding Reality-Competition Program Emmy.",
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"plaintext": "Game shows like Weakest Link, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, American Gladiators and Deal or No Deal, which were popular in the 2000s, also lie in a gray area: like traditional game shows (e.g., The Price Is Right, Jeopardy!), the action takes place in an enclosed television studio over a short period of time; however, they have higher production values, more dramatic background music, and higher stakes than traditional shows (done either through putting contestants into physical danger or offering large cash prizes). In addition, there is more interaction between contestants and hosts, and in some cases, they feature reality-style contestant competition or elimination as well. These factors, as well as these shows' rise in global popularity at the same time as the arrival of the reality craze, have led to such shows often being grouped under both the reality television and game show umbrellas. There have been various hybrid reality-competition shows, like the worldwide-syndicated Star Academy, which combines the Big Brother and Idol formats, The Biggest Loser, which combines competition with the self-improvement format, and American Inventor, which uses the Idol format for products instead of people. Some reality shows that aired mostly during the early 2000s, such as Popstars, Making the Band and Project Greenlight, devoted the first part of the season to selecting a winner, and the second part to showing that person or group of people working on a project.",
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"plaintext": "Popular variants of the competition-based format include the following:",
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"plaintext": "Dating-based competition shows follow a contestant choosing one out of a group of suitors. Over the course of either a single episode or an entire season, suitors are eliminated until only the contestant and the final suitor remains. In the early 2000s, this type of reality show dominated the other genres on the major U.S. networks. Examples include The Bachelor, its spin-off The Bachelorette, Temptation Island, Average Joe, Flavor of Love (a dating show featuring rapper Flavor Flav that led directly and indirectly to over 10 spinoffs), The Cougar and Love in the Wild. In Married by America, contestants were chosen by viewer voting. This is one of the older variants of the format; shows such as The Dating Game that date to the 1960s had similar premises (though each episode was self-contained, and not the serial format of more modern shows).",
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"plaintext": "In this category, the competition revolves around a skill that contestants were pre-screened for. Competitors perform a variety of tasks based on that skill, are judged, and are then kept or removed by a single expert or a panel of experts. The show is usually presented as a job search of some kind, in which the prize for the winner includes a contract to perform that kind of work and an undisclosed salary, although the award can simply be a sum of money and ancillary prizes, like a cover article in a magazine. The show also features judges who act as counselors, mediators and sometimes mentors to help contestants develop their skills further or perhaps decide their future position in the competition. Popstars, which debuted in 1999, may have been the first such show, while the Idol series has been the longest-running and, for most of its run, the most popular such franchise. The first job-search show which showed dramatic, unscripted situations may have been America's Next Top Model, which premiered in May 2003. Other examples include The Apprentice (which judges business skills); Hell's Kitchen, MasterChef and Top Chef (for chefs), The Great British Bake Off (for bakers), Shear Genius (for hair styling), Project Runway (for clothing design), Top Design and The Great Interior Design Challenge (for interior design), American Dream Builders (for home builders), Stylista (for fashion editors), Last Comic Standing (for comedians), I Know My Kid's a Star (for child performers), On the Lot (for filmmakers), RuPaul's Drag Race (for drag queens), The Shot (for fashion photographers), So You Think You Can Dance (for dancers), MuchMusic VJ Search and Food Network Star (for television hosts), Dream Job (for sportscasters), American Candidate (for aspiring politicians), Work of Art (for artists), Face Off (for prosthetic makeup artists), Ink Master and Best Ink (for tattoo artists), Platinum Hit (for songwriters), Top Shot (for marksmen) and The Tester (for game testers).",
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"plaintext": "One notable subset, popular from approximately 2005 to 2012, consisted of shows in which the winner gets a specific part in a known film, television show, musical or performing group. Examples include Scream Queens (where the prize was a role in the Saw film series), The Glee Project (for a role on the television show Glee) and How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria? (the lead role in a revival of the musical The Sound of Music). The most extreme prize for such a show may have been for one of the first such shows, 2005's INXS, where the winner became the lead singer of the rock band INXS. J.D. Fortune, who won the show, went on to be INXS's lead singer until 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Some shows use the same format with celebrities: in this case, there is no expectation that the winner will continue this line of work, and prize winnings often go to charity. The most popular such shows have been the Dancing with the Stars and Dancing on Ice franchises. Other examples of celebrity competition programs include Deadline, Celebracadabra and Celebrity Apprentice.",
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"plaintext": "Some job-related competition shows have a different set of contestants competing on every episode, and thus more closely resemble game shows, although the \"confessional\" commentary provided by contestants gives them a reality TV aspect. The 1993-1999 Japanese cooking competition Iron Chef could be considered an early example, although it does not include commentary by the participants, only by announcers and judges. Cooking competition shows with different contestants per episode that are considered reality shows include the Chopped, Come Dine with Me and Nailed It! franchises, along with Cupcake Wars, Cutthroat Kitchen, The Great Food Truck Race and Guy's Grocery Games.",
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"plaintext": "Non-cooking competition shows with a similar format include Forged in Fire and The Butcher, with the former of which was directly ",
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"plaintext": "One concept pioneered by, and unique to, reality competition shows is the idea of immunity, in which a contestant can win the right to be exempt the next time contestants are eliminated from the show. Possibly the first instance of immunity in reality TV was on Survivor, which premiered in 1997 in Sweden as Expedition Robinson, before gaining international prominence after the American edition (titled Survivor) premiered in 2000. On that show, there are complex rules around immunity: a player can achieve it by winning challenges (either as a team in the tribal phase or individually in the merged phase), or, in more recent seasons, through finding a hidden totem. They can also pass on their immunity to someone else and in the latter case, they can keep their immunity secret from other players. ",
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"plaintext": "On most shows, immunity is quite a bit simpler: it is usually achieved by winning a task, often a relatively minor task during the first half of the episode; the announcement of immunity is made publicly and immunity is usually non-transferable. At some point in the season, immunity ceases to be available, and all contestants are susceptible to elimination. Competition shows that have featured immunity include the Apprentice, Big Brother, Biggest Loser, Top Model, Project Runway, Lego Masters, and Top Chef franchises. Immunity may come with additional power as well, such as in Big Brother where the winning contestant usually has influence over deciding who faces an elimination vote later in the week. In one Apprentice episode, a participant chose to waive his earned immunity and was immediately \"fired\" by Donald Trump for giving up this powerful asset.",
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"plaintext": "Sport-related reality shows can fall within the aforementioned sub-genres, either using it as the basis of competition, or by following sport as a profession:",
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"plaintext": " Competition-based programs, featuring groups of athletes completing against each other in challenges and events within a specific sport, such as athletics (American Ninja Warrior, Exatlon), golf (The Big Break), auto racing (Crash Course, Hyperdrive, Pinks), and combat sports (The Contender, The Ultimate Fighter) for example. In the case of combat sports examples, the UFC-produced mixed martial arts competition series The Ultimate Fighter, and the WWE's professional wrestling talent searches Tough Enough, Diva Search, and NXT (before it was reformatted as a standard wrestling show focusing upon up-and-coming talent), a contract with the respective organization is the grand prize.",
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"plaintext": " Some series may follow non-sportspeople (usually celebrities, or in some cases athletes known for their participation in a different sport) training and participating in a sporting event, such as The Games, Irish series Celebrity Bainisteoir (where celebrities are tasked to become the managers of mid-level Gaelic football teams), and Dancing on Ice (a figure skating competition series with similarities to Dancing with the Stars).",
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"plaintext": " Documentary-style series following specific competitions, teams, or athletes, such as Hard Knocks (NFL), Drive to Survive (Formula One), Knight School (which followed students at Texas Tech University vying for a walk-on roster position on the school's men's basketball team under legendary coach Bob Knight) and All or Nothing.",
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"plaintext": " Docusoaps following the lives of sportspeople or their families, such as Total Divas and WAGS.",
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"plaintext": "Some reality shows present a false premise to one or more participants, with the rest of the cast consisting of actors and other figures that are in on the joke. Such shows usually aim to parody the conventions and cliches of the reality genre for comedic effect, and focus on the participants' reactions to the ensuing scenario:",
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"plaintext": " The Joe Schmo Show, a series in which a civilian was set up as a contestant on a purported reality competition known as Lap of Luxury, but the other contestants were actors representing stereotypical archetypes of reality television contestants. Subsequent seasons of The Joe Schmo Show parodied other types of reality shows, such as dating shows, and bounty hunting.",
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"plaintext": " My Big Fat Obnoxious Boss, a parody of The Apprentice in which the contestants were given challenges with inane objectives by businessman Mr. N. Paul Todd (an anagram of Apprentice host Donald Trump). The final decision on eliminations in each episode was always given to Todd's \"real boss\"—revealed in the season finale to have been a chimpanzee spinning a wheel.",
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"plaintext": " Superstar USA, a parody of American Idol attempting to find the worst singer; the judges criticized good singers and eliminated them, but bad singers were praised and allowed to progress further through the competition.",
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"plaintext": " Space Cadets, a series in which a group of contestants were set up on the purported reality competition series Thrill Seekers, where they would allegedly receive astronaut training in Russia and compete to be the Britain's first space tourists.",
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"plaintext": " I Wanna Marry \"Harry\", a hoax dating competition where single women were manipulated into believing they were competing for the affection of Prince Harry, but in reality \"Harry\" was actually a lookalike.",
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"plaintext": " Nathan for You, a reality mockumentary series parodying business improvement shows, featuring Nathan Fielder employing unusual and outlandish strategies to help struggling businesses. Although aware they are on a reality program, the employees of the businesses featured were unaware of the show's comedic nature, and reacted genuinely to Fielder's antics. On multiple occasions, the show received media attention related to its stunts prior to broadcast.",
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"plaintext": " The Dutch reality show De Grote Donorshow—where a group of patients competed to receive a kidney donation from a terminally-ill woman—was, by contrast, not intended for comedic effect, and was a hoax directed at viewers to help raise awareness for kidney donation.",
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"plaintext": "The authenticity of reality television is often called into question by its detractors. The genre's title of \"reality\" is often criticized as being inaccurate because of claims that the genre frequently includes elements such as premeditated scripting (including a practice called \"soft-scripting\"), acting, urgings from behind-the-scenes crew to create specified situations of adversity and drama, and misleading editing. It has often been described as \"scripting without paper\".",
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"plaintext": "In many cases, the entire premise of the show is contrived, based around a competition or another unusual situation. Some shows have been accused of using fakery in order to create more compelling television, such as having premeditated storylines and in some cases feeding participants lines of dialogue, focusing only on participants' most outlandish behavior, and altering events through editing and re-shoots.",
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"plaintext": "Shows such as Survivor and Amazing Race that offer a monetary prize are regulated by federal \"game show\" law, , and are monitored during the filming by the legal staff and standards and practice staff of the parent network. These shows cannot be manipulated in any way that affects the outcome of the game. However, misleading editing does not fall into altering the fairness of the competition.",
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"plaintext": "Television shows that have been accused of, or admitted to, deception include The Real World, the American version of Survivor, Joe Millionaire, The Hills, A Shot at Love with Tila Tequila, Hogan Knows Best, Home Edition, The Bachelor and The Bachelorette, Pawn Stars, Storage Wars, and Keeping Up with the Kardashians.",
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"plaintext": "Reality television's global successes has become, in the view of some analysts, an important political phenomenon. In some authoritarian countries, reality-television voting has provided the first opportunity for many citizens to vote in any free and fair wide-scale \"elections\". In addition, the frankness of the settings on some reality shows presents situations that are often taboo in certain conservative cultures, like Star Academy Arab World, which began airing in 2003, and which shows male and female contestants living together. A Pan-Arab version of Big Brother was cancelled in 2004 after less than two weeks on the air after a public outcry and street protests. In 2004 journalist Matt Labash, noting both of these issues, wrote that \"the best hope of little Americas developing in the Middle East could be Arab-produced reality TV\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, Abu Dhabi TV began airing Million's Poet, a show featuring Pop Idol-style voting and elimination, but for the writing and oration of Arabic poetry. The show became popular in Arab countries, with around 18million viewers, partly because it was able to combine the excitement of reality television with a traditional, culturally relevant topic. In April 2010, however, the show also become a subject of political controversy, when Hissa Hilal, a 43-year-old female Saudi competitor, read out a poem criticizing her country's Muslim clerics. Both critics and the public reacted favorably to Hilal's poetry; she received the highest scores from the judges throughout the competition and came in third place overall.",
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"plaintext": "In India, in the summer of 2007, coverage of the third season of Indian Idol focused on the breaking down of cultural and socioeconomic barriers as the public rallied around the show's top two contestants.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese singing competition Super Girl (a local imitation of Pop Idol) has similarly been cited for its political and cultural impact. After the finale of the show's 2005 season drew an audience of around 400million people, and eight million text-message votes, the state-run English-language newspaper Beijing Today ran the front-page headline: \"Is Super Girl a Force for Democracy?\" The Chinese government criticized the show, citing both its democratic nature and its excessive vulgarity, or \"worldliness\", and in 2006 banned it outright. It was later reintroduced in 2009, before being banned again in 2011. Super Girl has also been criticized by non-government commentators for creating seemingly impossible ideals that may be harmful to Chinese youth.",
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"plaintext": "In Indonesia, reality television shows have surpassed soap operas as the most-watched broadcast programs. One popular program, Jika Aku Menjadi (\"If I Were\"), follows young, middle-class people as they are temporarily placed into lower-class life, where they learn to appreciate their circumstances back home by experiencing daily life for the less fortunate. Critics have claimed that this and similar programs in Indonesia reinforce traditionally Western ideals of materialism and consumerism. However, Eko Nugroho, reality-show producer and president of Dreamlight World Media, insists that these reality shows are not promoting American lifestyles but rather reaching people through their universal desires.",
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"plaintext": "Reality television has also received criticism in Britain and the United States for its ideological relationship with surveillance societies and consumerism. Writing in The New York Times in 2012, author Mark Andrejevic characterised the role of reality television in a post-9/11 society as the normalisation of surveillance in participatory monitoring, the \"logic of the emerging surveillance economy\", and in the promise of a societal self-image that is contrived. An LSE paper by Nick Couldry associates reality television with neoliberalism, condemning the ritualised enactment and consumption of what must be legitimised for the society it serves.",
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"plaintext": "Reality television generally costs less to produce than scripted series.",
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"plaintext": "VH1 executive vice president Michael Hirschorn wrote in 2007 that the plots and subject matters on reality television are more authentic and more engaging than in scripted dramas, writing that scripted network television \"remains dominated by variants on the police procedural... in which a stock group of characters (ethnically, sexually, and generationally diverse) grapples with endless versions of the same dilemma. The episodes have all the ritual predictability of Japanese Noh theater,\" while reality television is \"the liveliest genre on the set right now. It has engaged hot-button cultural issues – class, sex, race – that respectable television... rarely touches.\"",
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"plaintext": "Television critic James Poniewozik wrote in 2008 that reality shows like Deadliest Catch and Ice Road Truckers showcase working-class people of the kind that \"used to be routine\" on scripted network television, but that became a rarity in the 2000s: \"The better to woo upscale viewers, TV has evicted its mechanics and dockworkers to collect higher rents from yuppies in coffeehouses.\"",
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"plaintext": "In a 2021 interview, filmmaker Mike White (who had previously competed on The Amazing Race and Survivor) said that reality competition shows like Survivor accurately conveyed how, in real life, \"so much of self is situational\", so that, as circumstances change, \"the oppressed becomes the oppressor, the bully becomes the bullied.\" In contrast, he felt that in scripted drama \"there's a lot of religiosity around humanity.\"",
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"plaintext": "Reality television has the potential to turn its participants into national celebrities, at least for a short period. This is most notable in talent-search programs such as Idol and The X Factor, which have spawned music stars in many of the countries in which they have aired. Many other shows, however, have made at least temporary celebrities out of their participants; some participants have then been able to parlay this fame into media and merchandising careers. Participants of non-talent-search programs who have had subsequent acting careers include Lilian Afegbai, Jacinda Barrett, Jamie Chung, Stephen Colletti, David Giuntoli, Vishal Karwal, NeNe Leakes and Angela Trimbur; though Barrett and Trimbur were already aspiring actresses when they appeared on reality television. Reality TV participants who have become television hosts and personalities include Nabilla Benattia, Rachel Campos-Duffy, Kristin Cavallari, Colby Donaldson, Raffaella Fico, Elisabeth Hasselbeck, Katie Hopkins, Rebecca Jarvis, Jodie Marsh, Heidi Montag, Tiffany Pollard and Whitney Port; some of them have had acting careers as well. Reality TV participants who have become television personalities as well as successful entrepreneurs include Gemma Collins, Lauren Conrad, Jade Goody, Bethenny Frankel and Spencer Matthews. Several cast members of MTV's Jersey Shore have had lucrative endorsement deals, and in some cases their own product lines. Wrestlers Mike \"The Miz\" Mizanin and David Otunga got their start on non-athletic reality shows.",
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"plaintext": "Several socialites, or children of famous parents, who were somewhat well known before they appeared on reality television shows have become much more famous as a result, including Paris Hilton, Nicole Richie, Kelly Osbourne, Kim Kardashian, and many of the rest of the Kardashian family.",
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"plaintext": "Two international franchises, The Apprentice and Dragons' Den, are notable for having some of the business people who appeared there as judges and investors go on to win political office. The prime example is former U.S. President Donald Trump: his stint as host of the original The Apprentice from 2004 to 2015 has been credited by some commentators as a factor in his political success, since it greatly increased his fame, and showcased him as a tough and experienced authority figure. Lado Gurgenidze, who hosted the Georgian version of The Apprentice in 2005, was appointed Prime Minister of Georgia from 2007 to 2008. Harry Harkimo, who hosted the Finnish version of The Apprentice from 2009 to 2013, has been a member of the Parliament of Finland since 2015. João Doria, who hosted seasons 7-8 of the Brazilian version of The Apprentice, O Aprendiz, from 2010 to 2011, served as Mayor of São Paulo from 2017 to 2018 and is currently Governor of São Paulo. Bruno Bonnell, who hosted the short-lived French version of The Apprentice in 2015, has been a member of France's National Assembly since 2017. Israeli tech entrepreneur Nir Barkat, who appeared in 2007 as an investor on HaKrishim, Israel's version of Dragons' Den, was Mayor of Jerusalem from 2008 to 2018. Dragon's Den investors who have unsuccessfully run for office include Serhiy Tihipko of Ukraine, Kevin O'Leary of Canada and Seán Gallagher of Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "In a rare case of a previously-unknown reality television alumnus succeeding in the political arena, Boston cast member Sean Duffy was a U.S. Representative from Wisconsin from 2010 to 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, four of the ten most popular programs among viewers under 17 were reality shows. Studies have shown that young people emulate the behavior displayed on these programs, gathering much of their knowledge of the social world, particularly about consumer practices, from television. Some critics have decried the positive representation of sexually objectified women in shows like The Girls Next Door.",
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"plaintext": "A number of studies have tried to pinpoint the appeal of reality television. Factors that have been cited in its appeal include personal identification with the onscreen participants; pure entertainment; diversion from scripted TV; vicarious participation; a feeling of self-importance compared to onscreen participants; enjoyment of competition; and an appeal to voyeurism, especially given \"scenes which take place in private settings, contain nudity, or include gossip\".",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 survey by Today.com found that Americans who watch reality television regularly are more extroverted, more neurotic, and have lower self-esteem than those who do not.",
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"plaintext": "A number of fictional works since the 1940s have contained elements similar to elements of reality television. They tended to be set in a dystopian future, with subjects being recorded against their will and often involved violence.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Seventh Victim\" (1953) is a short story by science fiction author Robert Sheckley that depicted a futuristic game in which one player gets to hunt down another player and kill him. The first player who can score ten kills wins the grand prize. This story was the basis for the Italian film The 10th Victim (1965).",
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"plaintext": " You're Another, a 1955 short story by Damon Knight, is about a man who discovers that he is an actor in a \"livie\", a live-action show that is viewed by billions of people in the future.",
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"plaintext": " A King in New York, a 1957 film written and directed by Charlie Chaplin has the main character, a fictional European monarch portrayed by Chaplin, secretly filmed while talking to people at a New York cocktail party. The footage is later turned into a television show within the film.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Prize of Peril\" (1958), another Robert Sheckley story, is about a television show in which a contestant volunteers to be hunted for a week by trained killers, with a large cash prize if he survives. It was adapted in 1970 as the TV movie Das Millionenspiel, and again in 1983 as the movie Le Prix du Danger.",
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"plaintext": " Richard G. Stern's novel Golk (1960) is about a hidden-camera show similar to Candid Camera.",
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"plaintext": " \"It Could Be You\" (1964), a short story by Australian Frank Roberts, features a day-in-day-out televised blood sport.",
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"plaintext": " Survivor (1965), a science fiction story by Walter F. Moudy, depicted the 2050 \"Olympic War Games\" between Russia and the United States. The games are fought to show the world the futility of war and thus deter further conflict. Each side has one hundred soldiers who fight in a large natural arena. The goal is for one side to wipe out the other; the few who survive the battle become heroes. The games are televised, complete with color commentary discussing tactics, soldiers' personal backgrounds, and slow-motion replays of their deaths.",
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"plaintext": " \"Bread and Circuses\" (1968) is an episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek in which the crew visits a planet resembling the Roman Empire, but with 20th-century technology. The planet's \"Empire TV\" features regular gladiatorial games, with the announcer urging viewers at home to vote for their favorites, stating, \"This is your program. You pick the winner.\"",
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"plaintext": " The Year of the Sex Olympics (1968) is a BBC television play in which a dissident in a dictatorship is forced onto a secluded island and taped for a reality show in order to keep the masses entertained.",
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"plaintext": " The Unsleeping Eye (1973), a novel by D.G. Compton (also published as The Continuous Katherine Mortenhoe), is about a woman dying of cancer whose last days are recorded without her knowledge for a television show. It was later adapted as the 1980 movie Death Watch.",
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"plaintext": " \"Ladies And Gentlemen, This Is Your Crisis\" (1976) is a short story by science fiction author Kate Wilhelm about a television show in which contestants (including a B-list actress who is hoping to revitalize her career) attempt to make their way to a checkpoint after being dropped off in the Alaskan wilderness, while being filmed and broadcast around the clock through an entire weekend. The story focuses primarily on the show's effect on a couple whose domestic tensions and eventual reconciliation parallel the dangers faced by the contestants.",
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"plaintext": " Network (1976) includes a subplot in which network executives negotiate with an urban terrorist group for the production of a weekly series, each episode of which was to feature an act of terrorism. The climax of the film has the terrorist group being turned against the network's own unstable star, news commentator Howard Beale.",
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"plaintext": " The Running Man (1982) is a book by Stephen King depicting a game show in which a contestant flees around the world from \"hunters\" trying to chase him down and kill him; it has been speculated that the book was inspired by \"The Prize of Peril\". The book was loosely adapted as a 1987 movie of the same name. The movie removed most of the reality-TV element of the book: its competition now took place entirely within a large television studio, and more closely resembled an athletic competition (though a deadly one).",
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"plaintext": " The film 20 Minutes into the Future (1985), and the spin-off television series Max Headroom, revolved around television mainly based on live, often candid, broadcasts. In one episode of Max Headroom, \"Academy\", the character Blank Reg fights for his life on a courtroom game show, with the audience deciding his fate.",
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"plaintext": " Vengeance on Varos (1985) is an episode of the television show Doctor Who in which the population of a planet watches live television broadcasts of the torture and executions of those who oppose the government. The planet's political system is based on the leaders themselves facing disintegration if the population votes 'no' to their propositions.",
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"plaintext": "Some scripted and written works have used reality television as a plot device:",
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"plaintext": " Real Life (1979) is a comedic film about the creation of a show similar to An American Family gone horribly wrong.",
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"plaintext": " Louis the 19th, King of the Airwaves (1994) is a Québécois film about a man who signs up to star in a 24-hour-a-day reality television show.",
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"plaintext": " The Truman Show (1998) is a film about a man (Jim Carrey) who discovers that his entire life is being staged and filmed for a 24-hour-a-day reality television show.",
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"plaintext": " EDtv (1999) was a remake of Louis the 19th, King of the Airwaves.",
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"plaintext": " The Contenders (2001) is a film about a reality show in which contestants have to kill each other to win.",
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"plaintext": " Resurrection (2002) is a horror slasher film that takes place in a wired house full of surveillance cameras. Each \"contestant\" is recorded as they attempt to survive and solve the mystery of the murders.",
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"plaintext": " American Dreamz (2006) is a film set partially on an American Idol-like show.",
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"plaintext": " Slumdog Millionaire (2008) is a film in which a contestant on the Indian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? is interrogated because he knows all the answers.",
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"plaintext": " The Comeback (2005) satirizes the indignity of reality television by presenting itself as \"raw footage\" of a new reality show documenting the attempted comeback of has-been star Valerie Cherish.",
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"plaintext": " \"Damien Sands\" is an episode in the season 5 of Nip/Tuck (2007), that satirizes reality television. Christian Troy, jealous over Sean McNamara's newfound fame, convinces Sean to tape a reality show based on their careers as plastic surgeons, with desastrous results.",
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"plaintext": " Dead Set (2008) is a British television program featuring a zombie apocalypse affecting the Big Brother house. Part of the film was shot during an actual eviction with host Davina McCall making a cameo appearance.",
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"plaintext": " Britain's Got the Pop Factor... and Possibly a New Celebrity Jesus Christ Soapstar Superstar Strictly on Ice (2008) is a British comedy special that satirized reality music competitions, and in particular the reliance on emotional backstories, depicting the series finale of the fictitious reality competition Britain's Got the Pop Factor (an amalgamation of Britain's Got Talent, Pop Idol, and The X Factor).",
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"plaintext": " Rock Rivals (2008) is a British television show about two judges on a televised singing contest whose marriage is falling apart.",
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"plaintext": " \"Fifteen Million Merits\" (2011) is an episode in the first season of British television anthology series Black Mirror, set in a dystopian future in which appearing on reality television is the only way in which people can escape their miserable, jail-like conditions.",
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"plaintext": " Unreal (2015) is an American television show that depicts the behind-the-scenes drama on a show similar to The Bachelor.",
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"plaintext": " \"Bad Wolf\" in the TV Series Doctor Who is about a future where the population of the earth is chosen at random to compete in deadly game shows and reality TV. This includes the game show The Weakest Link.",
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"plaintext": " Chart Throb (2006) is a comic novel by Ben Elton that parodies The X Factor and The Osbournes, among other reality shows.",
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"plaintext": " Dead Famous (2001) is a comedic whodunit novel, also by Ben Elton, in which a contestant is murdered while on a Big Brother-like show.",
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"plaintext": " Oryx and Crake (2003), a speculative fiction novel by Margaret Atwood, occasionally makes mentions of the protagonist and his friend entertaining themselves by watching reality television shows of live executions, Noodie News, frog squashing, graphic surgery, and child pornography.",
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"plaintext": " L.A. Candy (2009) is a young adult novel series by Lauren Conrad, which is based on her experiences on Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County and The Hills.",
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"plaintext": "A number of scripted television comedy and satire shows have adopted the format of the documentary-type reality television show, in \"mockumentary\" style. The first such show was the BBC series Operation Good Guys, which premiered in 1997. Arguably the best-known and most influential such show is the BBC's The Office (2001), which spawned numerous international remakes, including a successful American version. Other examples include People Like Us (BBC UK, 1998), The Games (ABC Australia, 1999), Trailer Park Boys (2001), Reno 911! (2003), The Naked Brothers Band (2006), Summer Heights High (2007), Parks and Recreation (2009), Modern Family (2009), Come Fly With Me (2010), Real Husbands of Hollywood (2013), Trial & Error (2017) and Abbott Elementary (2021). The genre has even encompassed cartoons (Drawn Together (2004) and Total Drama (2007)) and a show about puppets (The Muppets, 2015).",
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"plaintext": "Not all reality-television-style mockumentary series are comedic: the 2013 American series Siberia has a science fiction-horror bent, while the 2014 Dutch series The First Years is a drama.",
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"plaintext": "The 2013–2015 American sketch comedy series Kroll Show set most of its sketches as excerpts from various fictional reality television shows, which one critic wrote \"aren't far off from the lineups at E!, Bravo, and VH1\", and parodied those shows' participants' \"lack of self-awareness\". The show also satirized the often incestuous nature of reality television, in which some series lead to a cascade of spinoffs. Kroll Show executive producer John Levenstein said in an interview that reality TV \"has so many tools for telling stories in terms of text and flashbacks and ways to show things to the audience that it's incredibly convenient for comedy and storytelling if you use the full reality show toolkit.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some feature films have been produced that use some of the conventions of reality television; such films are sometimes referred to as reality films, and sometimes simply as documentaries. Allen Funt's 1970 hidden camera movie What Do You Say to a Naked Lady? was based on his reality-television show Candid Camera. The series Jackass spawned five feature films, starting with The Movie in 2002. A similar Finnish show, The Dudesons, was adapted for the film The Dudesons Movie, and a similar British show, Dirty Sanchez, was adapted for Dirty Sanchez: The Movie, both in 2006. The producers of The Real World created The Real Cancun in 2003. The Chinese reality show Keep Running was adapted for the 2015 film Running Man.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, broadcaster Krishnan Guru-Murthy stated that reality television is \"a firm and embedded part of television's vocabulary, used in every genre from game-shows and drama to news and current affairs.\"",
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"plaintext": " Hill, Annette (2005). Reality TV: Audiences and Popular Factual Television. Routledge. .",
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"plaintext": " Murray, Susan, and Laurie Ouellette, eds. (2004). Reality TV: Remaking Television Culture. New York University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Nichols, Bill (1994). Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture. Indiana University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Lord of the fly-on-the-walls - Observer article: Paul Watson's UK & Australian docusoaps",
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"plaintext": " Gillan, J. (2004). From Ozzie Nelson to Ozzy Osbourne: The genesis and the development of the reality (star) sitcom. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp.54–70). London and New York: Routledge.",
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"plaintext": " Gray, J. (2009). Cinderella burps: Gender, performativity, and the dating show. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette. Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.243–259). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Grazian, D. (2010). Neoliberalism and the realities of reality TV. Contexts, 9(2), 68–71. ",
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"plaintext": " Griffen-Foley, B. (2004). From Tit-Bits to Big Brother: A century of audience participation in the media. Media, Culture & Society, 26(4), 533-548",
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"plaintext": " Grimm, J. (2010). From reality TV to coaching TV: Elements of theory and empirical findings towards understanding the genre. In A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp.211–258). New York: Nova. ",
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"plaintext": " Grindstaff, L. (2011). Just be yourself—only more so: ordinary celebrity. in M. M. Kraidy & K. Sender (eds.), The politics of reality television: Global perspectives (pp.44–58). London and New York: Routledge.",
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"plaintext": " Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Hearn, A. (2009). Hoaxing the \"real\": on the metanarrative of reality television. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.165–178). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Hellmueller, L. C., & Aeschbacher, N. (2010). Media and celebrity: Production and consumption of \"wellKnownness.\" Communication Research Trends, 29(4), 3-35. ",
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"plaintext": " Hendershot, H. (2009). Belabored reality: Making it work on The Simple Life and Project Runway. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.243–259). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Hetsroni, A., & Tukachinsky, R. H. (2003). \"Who wants to be a millionaire\" in America, Russia, and Saudi Arabia: A celebration of differences or a unified global culture? The Communication Review, 6(2), 165–178. ",
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"plaintext": " Ho, H. (June 16, 2006). Parasocial identification, reality television, and viewer self-worth. Paper presented at the 56th annual meeting of the international Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Holmes, S., & Jermyn, D. (2004). Introduction: Understanding reality TV. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp.1–32). London and New York: Routledge. ",
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"plaintext": " James, C. (January 26, 2003). Bachelor No.1 and the birth of reality TV. The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from 1-and-the-birthof-reality-tv.html. ",
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"plaintext": " Jenkins, H. (2009). Buying into American idol: How we are being sold on reality television. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.343–362). 2nd edition, New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Jermyn, D. (2004). \"This is about real people!\" Video technologies, actuality and affect in the television crime appeal. In S. Holmes & D. Jermyn, (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp.71–90). London and New York: Routledge. ",
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{
"plaintext": " Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and gratifications research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509–523. ",
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"plaintext": " Kilborn, R. M. (2003). Staging the real. Factual TV programming in the age of Big Brother. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Klaus, E., & Lucke, S. (2003). Reality TV: Definition und Merkmale einer erfolgreichen Genrefamilie am Beispiel von Reality Soap und Docu Soap. Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft, 51 (2), 195–212. ",
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"plaintext": " Kompare, D. (2009). Extraordinarily ordinary: The Osbournes as \"An American Family.\" in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.100–119). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Livio, o. (2010). Performing the nation: A cross-cultural comparison of idol shows in four countries. in A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp.165–188). New York: Nova. ",
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"plaintext": " McCarthy, A. (2009). \"Stanley Milgram, Allen Funt and Me\": Postwar social science and the first wave of reality TV. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.23–43). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " McGee, M. (2005). Self-help Inc.: Makeover culture in American life. Oxford/New York: oxford University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Murray, S. (2009). \"I think we need a new name for it\": The meeting of documentary and reality TV. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.65–81). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Murray, S., & Ouellette, L. (2009). Introduction. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.1–20). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ouellette, L. (2009). \"Take responsibility for yourself\": Judge Judy and the neoliberal citizen. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.223–242). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Ouellette, L., & Hay, J. (2008). Better living through reality TV. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Palmer, G. (2004). 'The new you': Class and transformation in lifestyle television. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (p.173-190). London and New York: Routledge. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L. A., & Rosengren, K. E. (1985). Uses and gratifications research: The past ten years. in K. E. Rosengren, L. A. Wenner & P. Palmgreen (eds.), Media gratifications research: Current perspectives (pp.11–37). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Riley, S. G. (2010). Temporary celebrity. in S. G. Riley (ed.), Star struck: An encyclopedia of celebrity culture (pp.294–299). Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Shattuc, J. (2001). Confessional talk shows. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp.84–87). London: British Film institute. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Shoemaker, P. J., & Vos, T. P. (2009). Gatekeeping theory. New York / Abingdon: Routledge. ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Watts, A. (2009). Melancholy, merit, and merchandise: The postwar audience participation show. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp.301–320). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " West, E. (2010). Reality nations: An international comparison of the historical reality genre. in A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp.259277). New York: Nova. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Zillmann, D. (1988). Mood management: Using entertainment to full advantage. in L. Donohew, H. E. Sypher, & T. E. Higgins (eds.), Communication, social cognition and affect (pp.147–171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Andrejevic, M. (2004). Reality TV: The work of being watched. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Andrejevic, M. (2009). Visceral literacy: Reality-TV, savvy viewers, and auto-spies. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV. Remaking television culture (pp.321–342). 2nd edition, New York and London: New York University Press. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Boddy, W. (2001). Quiz shows. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp.79–81). London: British Film institute. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cooper-Chen, A. (2005). A world of \"millionaires\": Global, local and \"glocal\" TV game shows. In A. Cooper-Chen (ed.), Global entertainment media. Content, audiences, issues (pp.237–251). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " The Reality of Reality Television, Mark Greif's assessment of Reality TV from n+1",
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38,542 | 1,095,698,273 | Multiplexer | [
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"plaintext": "Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input and selecting signals of the output of the compatible mux, which is connected to the single input, and a shared selection line. A multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.",
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"plaintext": "An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch. The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles trapezoid with the longer parallel side containing the input pins and the short parallel side containing the output pin. The schematic on the right shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer on the left and an equivalent switch on the right. The wire connects the desired input to the output.",
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"plaintext": "Multiplexers are part of computer systems to select data from a specific source, be it a memory chip or a hardware peripheral. A computer uses multiplexers to control the data and address buses, allowing the processor to select data from multiple data sources",
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"plaintext": "In digital communications, multiplexers allow several connections over a single channel, by connecting the multiplexer's single output to the demultiplexer's single input (Time-Division Multiplexing). The image to the right demonstrates this benefit. In this case, the cost of implementing separate channels for each data source is higher than the cost and inconvenience of providing the multiplexing/demultiplexing functions.",
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"plaintext": "At the receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer is usually required to break the single data stream back down into the original streams. In some cases, the far end system may have functionality greater than a simple demultiplexer; and while the demultiplexing still occurs technically, it may never be implemented discretely. This would be the case when, for instance, a multiplexer serves a number of IP network users; and then feeds directly into a router, which immediately reads the content of the entire link into its routing processor; and then does the demultiplexing in memory from where it will be converted directly into IP sections.",
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"plaintext": "Often, a multiplexer and demultiplexer are combined into a single piece of equipment, which is simply referred to as a multiplexer. Both circuit elements are needed at both ends of a transmission link because most communications systems transmit in both directions.",
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"plaintext": "In analog circuit design, a multiplexer is a special type of analog switch that connects one signal selected from several inputs to a single output.",
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"plaintext": "In digital circuit design, the selector wires are of digital value. In the case of a 2-to-1 multiplexer, a logic value of 0 would connect to the output while a logic value of 1 would connect to the output.",
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"plaintext": "In larger multiplexers, the number of selector pins is equal to where is the number of inputs.",
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"plaintext": "For example, 9 to 16 inputs would require no fewer than 4 selector pins and 17 to 32 inputs would require no fewer than 5 selector pins. The binary value expressed on these selector pins determines the selected input pin.",
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"plaintext": "A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where and are the two inputs, is the selector input, and is the output:",
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"plaintext": "Which can be expressed as a truth table:",
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"plaintext": "Or, in simpler notation:",
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"plaintext": "These tables show that when then but when then . A straightforward realization of this 2-to-1 multiplexer would need 2 AND gates, an OR gate, and a NOT gate. While this is mathematically correct, a direct physical implementation would be prone to race conditions that require additional gates to suppress.",
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"plaintext": "Larger multiplexers are also common and, as stated above, require selector pins for inputs. Other common sizes are 4-to-1, 8-to-1, and 16-to-1. Since digital logic uses binary values, powers of 2 are used (4, 8, 16) to maximally control a number of inputs for the given number of selector inputs.",
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"plaintext": "The boolean equation for a 4-to-1 multiplexer is:",
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"plaintext": "The following 4-to-1 multiplexer is constructed from 3-state buffers and AND gates (the AND gates are acting as the decoder):",
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"plaintext": "The subscripts on the inputs indicate the decimal value of the binary control inputs at which that input is let through.",
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"plaintext": "Larger Multiplexers can be constructed by using smaller multiplexers by chaining them together. For example, an 8-to-1 multiplexer can be made with two 4-to-1 and one 2-to-1 multiplexers. The two 4-to-1 multiplexer outputs are fed into the 2-to-1 with the selector pins on the 4-to-1's put in parallel giving a total number of selector inputs to 3, which is equivalent to an 8-to-1.",
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"plaintext": "For 7400 series part numbers in the following table, \"x\" is the logic family.",
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"plaintext": "Demultiplexers take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs.",
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"plaintext": "They forward the data input to one of the outputs depending on the values of the selection inputs.",
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"plaintext": "Demultiplexers are sometimes convenient for designing general-purpose logic because if the demultiplexer's input is always true, the demultiplexer acts as a binary decoder.",
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"plaintext": "This means that any function of the selection bits can be constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs.",
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"plaintext": "If X is the input and S is the selector, and A and B are the outputs:",
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"plaintext": "For 7400 series part numbers in the following table, \"x\" is the logic family.",
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"plaintext": "Multiplexers can also be used as programmable logic devices, to implement Boolean functions. Any Boolean function of n variables and one result can be implemented with a multiplexer with n selector inputs. The variables are connected to the selector inputs, and the function result, 0 or 1, for each possible combination of selector inputs is connected to the corresponding data input. If one of the variables (for example, D) is also available inverted, a multiplexer with n-1 selector inputs is sufficient; the data inputs are connected to 0, 1, D, or ~D, according to the desired output for each combination of the selector inputs.",
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"plaintext": " Digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM)",
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"plaintext": " Inverse multiplexer",
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"plaintext": " Code-division multiplexing",
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"plaintext": " Frequency-division multiplexing",
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"plaintext": " Wavelength-division multiplexing",
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"plaintext": " Rule 184, a cellular automaton in which each cell acts as a multiplexer for the values from the two adjacent cells",
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38,543 | 1,097,375,247 | The_Ones_Who_Walk_Away_from_Omelas | [
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"plaintext": "\"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas\" is a 1973 work of short philosophical fiction by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin. With deliberately both vague and vivid descriptions, the narrator depicts a summer festival in the utopian city of Omelas, whose prosperity depends on the perpetual misery of a single child. \"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas\" was nominated for the Locus Award for Best Short Fiction in 1974 and won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "The only chronological element of the work is that it begins by describing the first day of summer in Omelas, a shimmering city of unbelievable happiness and delight. In Omelas, the summer solstice is celebrated with a glorious festival and a race featuring young people on horseback. The vibrant festival atmosphere, however, seems to be an everyday characteristic of the blissful community, whose citizens, though limited in their advanced technology and communal (rather than private) resources, are still intelligent, sophisticated, and cultured. Omelas has no kings, soldiers, priests, or slaves. The specific socio-politico-economic setup of the community is not mentioned; the narrator merely claims not to be sure of every particular.",
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"plaintext": "The narrator reflects that \"Omelas sounds in my words like a city in a fairy tale, long ago and far away, once upon a time. Perhaps it would be best if you imagined it as your own fancy bids, assuming it will rise to the occasion, for certainly I cannot suit you all.\" Everything about Omelas is so abundantly pleasing that the narrator decides the reader is not yet truly convinced of its existence and so elaborates upon the final element of the city: its one atrocity. The city's constant state of serenity and splendor requires that a single unfortunate child be kept in perpetual filth, darkness, and misery.",
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"plaintext": "Once citizens are old enough to know the truth, most, though initially shocked and disgusted, ultimately acquiesce to this one injustice that secures the happiness of the rest of the city. However, some citizens, young and old, walk away from the city after seeing the child. Each is alone, and no one knows where they go, but none come back. The story ends with \"The place they go towards is a place even less imaginable to most of us than the city of happiness. I cannot describe it at all. It is possible it does not exist. But they seem to know where they are going, the ones who walk away from Omelas.\"",
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"plaintext": "Le Guin stated that the city's name is pronounced \"OH-meh-lahss\". Le Guin hit upon the name of the town on seeing a road sign for Salem, Oregon, in a car mirror. \"[… People ask me] 'Where do you get your ideas from, Ms. Le Guin?' From forgetting Dostoyevsky and reading road signs backwards, naturally. Where else?\"",
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"plaintext": "\"The central idea of this psychomyth, the scapegoat\", writes Le Guin, \"turns up in Dostoyevsky's Brothers Karamazov, and several people have asked me, rather suspiciously, why I gave the credit to William James. The fact is, I haven't been able to re-read Dostoyevsky, much as I loved him, since I was twenty-five, and I'd simply forgotten he used the idea. But when I met it in James' 'The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life,' it was with a shock of recognition.\"",
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"plaintext": "The quote from William James is:",
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"plaintext": "Dostoyevsky's original description of the dilemma refers to the doctrine of salvation through the crucifixion of Jesus.",
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"plaintext": "Le Guin's piece was originally published in New Dimensions 3, a hardcover science fiction anthology edited by Robert Silverberg, in October 1973. It was reprinted in Le Guin's The Wind's Twelve Quarters in 1975, and has been frequently anthologized elsewhere. It has also appeared as an independently published, 31-page hardcover book for young adults in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "It was republished in the second volume of the short-story anthology The Unreal and the Real in 2014. Introducing the short work in her 2012 collection The Unreal and the Real, Volume Two, Le Guin noted that \"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas\" \"has a long and happy career of being used by teachers to upset students and make them argue fiercely about morality.\"",
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"plaintext": "Game Designers Ricardo Bare and Harvey Smith drew upon \"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas\" as inspiration for the supernatural being of the Outsider in the Dishonored video game series.",
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"plaintext": "In A Literary Atlas, artist and author Andrew DeGraff illustrated a map visualizing Le Guin's story. DeGraff wrote that: \"Le Guin provides us with the building blocks to construct the city of Omelas, but if we want to forsake it afterward, then we too have to strike out alone.\"",
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"plaintext": "The 2017 music video for \"Spring Day\" by South Korean boy band BTS references Le Guin's short story, both thematically and in displaying a hotel named 'Omelas'.",
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"plaintext": "N. K. Jemisin's 2018 anthology How Long 'til Black Future Month? opens with a piece titled \"The Ones Who Stay And Fight\", which is a direct response to Le Guin's story. In an interview with The Paris Review, the writer stated that many readers misunderstand that Le Guin meant that the only way to create a better society is to leave and that Le Guin was arguing that one has to \"fix\" their society, \"especially when there's nowhere to walk away to.\"",
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"plaintext": "In a 2019 Tor.com article, Joe George argued that the 2017 film Us was influenced by both Le Guin's short story as well as Octavia E. Butler's \"Speech Sounds\".",
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"plaintext": "Catherine Lacey's 2020 novel Pew begins with an epigraph from \"The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas\", quoting the last paragraph of the story. The novel itself is heavily tied to Le Guin's work, with several key similarities present.",
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"plaintext": "Executive Producers and co-showrunners Michelle Paradise and Alex Kurtzman cited Le Guin's short story as inspiration for the plot line of the third season of Discovery, with Kurtzman noting that both creators were interested in the central dilemma being solely caused by a child. Several reviewers also noted a strong similarity between the story and the episode \"Lift Us Where Suffering Cannot Reach\" of Strange New Worlds. One such was Anthony Pascale, who called the episode \"almost a beat-for-beat recreation\" of Le Guin's work. On the satirical website Cracked, JM McNab pointed out the long history of Le Guin's influence on the Star Trek franchise and that while the writers of Star Trek: Discovery did name a ship after her, the honor is \"still not as good as being credited\".",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg is the seed or ground spice of several species of the genus Myristica. Myristica fragrans (fragrant nutmeg or true nutmeg) is a dark-leaved evergreen tree cultivated for two spices derived from its fruit: nutmeg, from its seed, and mace, from the seed covering. It is also a commercial source of an essential oil and nutmeg butter. The California nutmeg, Torreya californica, has a seed of similar appearance, but is not closely related to Myristica fragrans, and is not used as a spice. Indonesia is the main producer of nutmeg and mace.",
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"plaintext": "If consumed in amounts exceeding its typical use as a spice, nutmeg powder may produce allergic reactions, cause contact dermatitis, or have psychoactive effects. Although used in traditional medicine for treating various disorders, nutmeg has no scientifically confirmed medicinal value.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg is the spice made by grinding the seed of the fragrant nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) into powder. The spice has a distinctive pungent fragrance and a warm, slightly sweet taste; it is used to flavor many kinds of baked goods, confections, puddings, potatoes, meats, sausages, sauces, vegetables, and such beverages as eggnog.",
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"plaintext": "The seeds are dried gradually in the sun over a period of six to eight weeks. During this time the nutmeg shrinks away from its hard seed coat until the kernels rattle in their shells when shaken. The shell is then broken with a wooden club and the nutmegs are picked out. Dried nutmegs are grayish brown ovoids with furrowed surfaces. The nutmegs are roughly egg-shaped, about long and wide, weighing dried.",
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"plaintext": "In the processing of mace, the crimson-colored aril is removed from the nutmeg seed that it envelops and is flattened out and dried for 10 to 14 days. Its color changes to pale yellow, orange, or tan. Whole dry mace consists of flat pieces—smooth, horn-like, and brittle—about long.",
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"plaintext": "The most important commercial species is the common, true or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae), native to the Moluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia. It is also cultivated on Penang Island in Malaysia, in the Caribbean, especially in Grenada, and in Kerala, a state formerly known as Malabar in ancient writings as the hub of spice trading, in southern India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants (individual plants are either male or female) which are propagated sexually from seeds and asexually from cuttings or grafting. Sexual propagation yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive. Because there is no reliable method of determining plant sex before flowering in the sixth to eighth year, and sexual reproduction bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting (a variation of cleft grafting using seedlings), approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air layering is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low (35–40%) success rate.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes. Whole nutmeg can also be ground at home using a grater specifically designed for nutmeg or a multi-purpose grating tool.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg is a common spice for pumpkin pie and in recipes for other winter squashes, such as baked acorn squash. In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks, such as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and Barbados rum punch. Typically, it is a sprinkle on top of the drink.",
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"plaintext": "The pericarp (fruit covering) is used to make jam, or is finely sliced, cooked with sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh is made as manisan (sweets), either wet, which is seasoned in sugary syrup liquid, or dry coated with sugar, a dessert called manisan pala in Indonesia. In Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended (creating a fresh, green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown juice) to make iced nutmeg juice. In Kerala Malabar region of India, it is used for juice, pickles and chutney.",
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"plaintext": "The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of ground nutmeg is used in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The volatile fraction contains dozens of terpenes and phenylpropanoids, including -pinene, limonene, -borneol, -terpineol, geraniol, safrol, and myristicin. In its pure form, myristicin is a toxin, and consumption of excessive amounts of nutmeg can result in myristicin poisoning.",
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"plaintext": "The oil is colorless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It is used as a natural food flavoring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the manufacturing of toothpaste and cough syrups.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semisolid, reddish-brown in colour, and has the taste and smell of nutmeg itself. About 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid, which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like cottonseed oil or palm oil, and has applications as an industrial lubricant.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest evidence of use of nutmeg comes in the form of 3,500 year old potsherd residues from the island of Pulau Ai, one of the Banda Islands in eastern Indonesia. The Banda Islands consist of eleven small volcanic islands, and are part of the larger Maluku Islands group. These islands were the only source of nutmeg and mace production until the mid-19th century. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 6th century AD, nutmeg spread to India, then further west to Constantinople. By the 13th century, Arab traders had pinpointed the origin of nutmeg to the Indonesian islands, but kept this location a secret from European traders.",
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"plaintext": "The Banda Islands became the scene of the earliest European ventures in Asia, in order to get a grip on the spice trade. In August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade, on behalf of the king of Portugal. In November of the same year, after having secured Malacca and learning of Banda's location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friend António de Abreu to find it. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas, and Ambon to the Banda Islands, arriving in early 1512. The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained for about a month, buying and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade. An early account of Banda is in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires, based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants without a foothold in the islands.",
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"plaintext": "In order to obtain a monopoly on the production and trade of nutmeg, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) waged a bloody battle with the Bandanese in 1621. Historian Willard Hanna estimated that before this struggle the islands were populated by approximately 15,000 people, and only 1,000 were left (the Bandanese were killed, starved while fleeing, exiled, or sold as slaves). The Company constructed a comprehensive nutmeg plantation system on the islands during the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars, the British invaded and temporarily took control of the Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees, complete with soil, to Sri Lanka, Penang, Bencoolen, and Singapore. From these locations they were transplanted to their other colonial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada. The national flag of Grenada, adopted in 1974, shows a stylised split-open nutmeg fruit. The Dutch retained control of the Spice Islands until World War II.",
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"plaintext": "It has been suggested that Connecticut received its nickname (\"the Nutmeg State\", \"Nutmegger\") from the claim that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle \"nutmeg\" out of wood, creating a \"wooden nutmeg\", a term which later came to mean any type of fraud. This narrative may have to do with the issue that one has to grate to obtain the spice powder, not crack a nutmeg, and this may not have been widely known by some purchasers of the product.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, global production of nutmeg was 142,000 tonnes, led by Indonesia, Guatemala, and India, having 38,000 to 43,000 tonnes each and a combined 85% of the world total.",
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"plaintext": "Although used as a folk treatment for some ailments, nutmeg has no proven medicinal value. ",
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"plaintext": "Ingested in small amounts as a spice, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, both raw nutmeg freshly ground from kernels and nutmeg oil have psychoactive effects, which appear to derive from anticholinergic-like hallucinogenic mechanisms attributed to myristicin and elemicin. Myristicin—a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and psychoactive substance—can cause convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain when consumed in large amounts. Nutmeg usage may increase endocannabinoids like anandamide and 2-AG levels or delay their breakdown by inhibiting FAAH and MAGL. Nutmeg may interact with anxiolytic drugs, produce allergic reactions, cause contact dermatitis, and evoke acute episodes of psychosis.",
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"plaintext": "Varying considerably from person to person, nutmeg intoxication may occur with side effects, such as delirium, anxiety, confusion, headaches, nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, eye irritation, and amnesia. Intoxication takes several hours to reach maximum effect, and effects may last for several days.",
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"plaintext": "Rarely, nutmeg overdose causes death, especially if the nutmeg is combined with other drugs. Incidents of fatal poisoning from nutmeg and myristicin individually are uncommon.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg poisonings occur by accidental consumption in children and by intentional recreational use. Relatively large doses of nutmeg are required to produce effects, therefore a majority of reported nutmeg intoxication cases appear to be the result of recreational use. It is used recreationally with the intention of achieving a low-cost high resembling psychedelics, particularly by adolescents, drug users, college students, and prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may be safe during pregnancy if used only in flavoring amounts. If consumed in large amounts, nutmeg could cause premature labor and miscarriage. Nutmeg may also interact with pain-relievers such as pethidine, so it is recommended that it be avoided during pregnancy.",
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"plaintext": "The scent of nutmeg may attract pets, but it can be poisonous to them if they consume too much.",
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38,550 | 1,082,949,642 | 1714 | [
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"plaintext": " January 21 – Anna Morandi Manzolini, internationally known Italian anatomist and anatomical wax modeler (d. 1774)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
23751607,
19030747,
34901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
36
],
[
109,
113
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 24 – Henri Joseph Bouchard d'Esparbès de Lussan d'Aubeterre, Marshal of France (d. 1788)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15954,
36778249,
34627
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
68
],
[
92,
96
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 26 – Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, French sculptor (d. 1785)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15791,
629019,
35801
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
35
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 1",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10846
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nicolaus Christian Friis, Norwegian priest and writer (d. 1777)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
36865830,
35815
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph Verney, 2nd Earl Verney of Ireland (d. 1791)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22993754,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 – Gottfried August Homilius, German composer, cantor and organist (d. 1785)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11322,
2741980,
35801
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
39
],
[
82,
86
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 5 – Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch, German botanist (d. 1786)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11119,
39898662,
35800
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
39
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 11 – Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein, German-Prussian diplomat and later Prime Minister of Prussia (d. 1800)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11184,
20997051,
34963
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
56
],
[
123,
127
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 12 – Sebastian Sailer, German Premonstratensian preacher, writer (d. 1777)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11158,
4048628,
35815
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
31
],
[
79,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 14 – William Vane, 2nd Viscount Vane of Ireland (d. 1789)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10882,
38206676,
34697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
46
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 18 – John Howe, 2nd Baron Chedworth of England, eldest son of John Howe (d. 1762)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11363,
11795455,
34977
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
45
],
[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 22",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11009
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French scholar (d. 1795)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
628839,
35799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sarah Osborn, American writer (d. 1796)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8881513,
34764
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
35,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 25",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10930
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, Chancellor of France (d. 1792)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
632694,
597226,
34914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
41
],
[
43,
63
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet, Royal Navy vice admiral (d. 1782)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8078078,
34698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
29
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 – James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (d. 1758)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11141,
957601,
35408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
27
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 28 – Gioacchino Conti, Italian opera singer (d. 1761)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11311,
4809406,
35823
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
31
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 1 – Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Menshikov, Russian army officer (d. 1764)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19346,
36549823,
34720
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
45
],
[
72,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 2 – John Hamilton, Royal Navy officer (d. 1755)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19516,
6528258,
34961
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
24
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 6 – Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre, French painter (d. 1789)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19865,
20611006,
34697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
37
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 7 – Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort, German nobleman, head of the House of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort (d. 1789)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18935042,
43979717,
34697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
66
],
[
140,
144
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 8 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German Classical composer (d. 1788)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20053,
58237,
34627
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
36
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 11 – Cornelis Elout, Dutch regent (d. 1779)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19530,
35766208,
35738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
26
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 – Maximilian Reichsgraf von Hamilton, German-born Czech Catholic bishop (d. 1776)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20223,
33964792,
8380114
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
46
],
[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 19 – Aymar Joseph de Roquefeuil et du Bousquet, French admiral (d. 1782)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20316,
20195728,
34698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
53
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 21 – Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, British judge (d. 1794)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20329,
406159,
34946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
42
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 25",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19773
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Friedrich Christian Glume, German artist (d. 1752)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22604634,
34869
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matthew Griswold (governor), 17th Governor of Connecticut (1784–1786) (d. 1799)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
433611,
35496
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 27 – Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian (d. 1795)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20585,
1686218,
35799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
38
],
[
63,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 29 – Mahadhammaraza Dipadi, last Toungoo Dynasty king of Burma (Myanmar) (1733–1752) (d. 1754)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20586,
24161370,
34899
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
33
],
[
96,
100
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 1 – Jean-François de Neufforge, Flemish architect and engraver (d. 1791)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1175,
38182812,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
37
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 7 – John Elwes (politician), British politician (d. 1789)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2735,
19316197,
34697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
34
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 14 – Adam Gib, Scottish religious leader (d. 1788)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1862,
557095,
34627
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
20
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 15 – Claude Yvon, French encyclopedist (d. 1791)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1010,
30535888,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
23
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 16 – Pedro António Avondano, Italian composer (d. 1782)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1334,
30016825,
34698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
34
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 18 – Jacques-Nompar III de Caumont, duc de La Force, French nobleman (d. 1755)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1826,
41499276,
34961
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
58
],
[
80,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 25 – Emer de Vattel, Swiss philosopher (d. 1767)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2733,
1789028,
35230
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
26
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 6",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19514
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anton Raaff, German opera tenor (d. 1797)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18128699,
34747
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
37,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Townley, British dramatist (d. 1778)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2954111,
35814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 10 – Sophie Charlotte Ackermann, German actress from Berlin (d. 1792)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19629,
968677,
34914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
36
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 12 – Johan Daniel Berlin, Norwegian composer and organist (d. 1787)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19497,
40496461,
34634
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
29
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 14 – William Whitmore, British general (d. 1771)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19676,
38190901,
35675
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
26
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 17 – Princess Anne Charlotte of Lorraine, French royal (d. 1773)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19631,
23895300,
35817
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
45
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 20 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, British lawyer and politician (d. 1794)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19677,
406186,
34946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
43
],
[
79,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 – Joseph I of Portugal, Prince of Brazil (d. 1777)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15794,
254366,
35815
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
30
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 17 – César-François Cassini de Thury, French astronomer and cartographer (d. 1784)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15798,
465797,
35802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
42
],
[
83,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 23 – Giovanni Sarnelli, Italian painter (d. 1793)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15831,
43391536,
35416
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
28
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 – Michael Lally (brigadier-general), Irish-born French brigadier-general (d. 1773)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15844,
26792502,
35817
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
43
],
[
85,
89
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 – Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer (d. 1787)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15846,
99636,
34634
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
35
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 8",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15874
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Friedrich Gottfried Abel, German physician (d. 1794)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4455667,
34946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pieter van Reede van Oudtshoorn, Dutch administrator of the Cape Colony (d. 1773)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
43390706,
35817
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
32
],
[
77,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 12 – Mikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov, Russian noble, politician (d. 1767)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15971,
492098,
35230
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
42
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 16 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French military engineer and writer (d. 1800)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15947,
883857,
34963
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
45
],
[
87,
91
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 17",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16089
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher (d. 1762)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
295569,
34977
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Forbes (Royal Navy officer), British admiral of the fleet (d. 1796)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15997799,
34764
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 21 – Grand Duchess Natalya Alexeyevna of Russia (1714–1728), Russian grand duchess (d. 1728)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16179,
25089453,
34766
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
65
],
[
93,
97
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 1",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edward Penny, British painter (d. 1791)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35197263,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
35,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Wilson (painter), Welsh landscape painter (d. 1782)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
153930,
34698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1417,
1029110,
34697
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
13,
33
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 15 – Philip Stanhope, 2nd Earl Stanhope of Great Britain (d. 1786)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1442,
10165383,
35800
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
13,
47
],
[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 18 – Landgravine Caroline of Hesse-Rotenburg, German noble (d. 1741)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1496,
22767594,
35844
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
52
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 23 – Hans Jacob Scheel, Norwegian general (d. 1774)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1628,
39912232,
34901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
30
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 28",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1781
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick, Russian general (d. 1774)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2867097,
34901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean-Baptiste Descamps, Flemish painter and art historian (d. 1791)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2648409,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
63,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 29 – Princess Friederike Luise of Prussia, Prussian princess (d. 1784)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1793,
13734215,
35802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
49
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 – Samuel Martin (Secretary to the Treasury), British politician (d. 1788)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27530,
2897344,
34627
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
56
],
[
81,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer (d. 1774)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28020,
214105,
34901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
32
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 – Gottlieb Rabener, German writer of prose satires (d. 1771)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27993,
1183843,
35675
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
32
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 – Charles Humphreys, miller and statesman from Haverford Township, Pennsylvania (d. 1786)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28147,
1344620,
35800
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
33
],
[
98,
102
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 23 – Eugene Jean, Count of Soissons, Prince of Savoy (d. 1734)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27651,
32198523,
35850
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
46
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 – Alaungpaya, King of Burma (d. 1760)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28202,
1417207,
35824
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
26
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 29",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28204
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Petrus Albertus van der Parra, Dutch colonial governor (d. 1775)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20236276,
35816
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Joachim Schwabe, German poet (d. 1784)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35682547,
35802
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 30 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French academic (d. 1780)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27843,
174004,
35803
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
43
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 1",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22340
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Georg David Anthon, Danish architect (d. 1781)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16674260,
35490
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " António of Braganza, Child of Palhavã, Portuguese nobleman (d. 1800)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18245076,
34963
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 3 – Joseph Spencer, American general (d. 1789)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22347,
851542,
34697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
27
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 14 – Christoph Anton Migazzi, Austrian Catholic bishop (d. 1803)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22525,
6456654,
35072
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
37
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 16 – Giovanni Arduino (geologist), Italian geologist (d. 1795)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22556,
5724981,
35799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
42
],
[
66,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 19 – Joseph von Petrasch, German philologist (d. 1772)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22568,
31489950,
35818
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
33
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 25 – James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, Scottish judge, scholar of language evolution and philosopher (d. 1799)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22333,
981728,
35496
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
42
],
[
110,
114
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 26 – Princess Marie Victoire d'Arenberg, Margravine of Baden-Baden as consort of Augustus George (d. 1793)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22403,
27893060,
35416
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
48
],
[
110,
114
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 27 – Fernando de Silva, 12th Duke of Alba, Spanish duke (d. 1776)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22434,
23049544,
8380114
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
50
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 31 – Hedvig Taube, Swedish courtier (d. 1744)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22437,
322826,
35843
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
26
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 1 – Johann Joachim Spalding, German theologian (d. 1804)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21460,
21068634,
35073
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
37
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 2 – Camillo Almici, Italian priest (d. 1779)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21461,
7076902,
35738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 3 – Anica Bošković, Ragusan writer (d. 1804)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21764,
45402547,
35073
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 4 – John Boyle, 3rd Earl of Glasgow, Scottish nobleman (d. 1775)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21805,
26631046,
35816
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
45
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 10 – Mathieu Tillet, French botanist (d. 1791)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21760,
10607225,
34590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
29
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 18 – William Shenstone, English poet and landscape gardener (d. 1763)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21452,
598888,
35822
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
32
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 24 – Thomas Zebrowski, Lithuanian Jesuit scientist (d. 1758)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21522,
25434949,
35408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
31
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 26 – Pierre-François Brice, French artist (d. 1794)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21581,
19144234,
34946
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
36
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 – Jean Philippe Goujon de Grondel, French general (d. 1807)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21448,
3733334,
34745
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
46
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 1 – Pierre Gaultier de La Vérendrye, French-Canadian explorer (d. 1755)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8357,
3192925,
34961
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
45
],
[
76,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 3 – Edward Pickard, British minister (d. 1778)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8355,
26250240,
35814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4 – Israel Acrelius, Swedish missionary and clergyman (d. 1800)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8354,
6790680,
34963
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
29
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 – Leonard Lispenard, American politician (d. 1790)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8851,
35338408,
34916
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
32
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 15 – Étienne Mignot de Montigny, French engineer, geographer (d. 1782)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8145,
35613603,
34698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
41
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 16 – George Whitefield, English Anglican priest (d. 1770)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8219,
40405,
35076
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
32
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 18",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8334
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippine Élisabeth d'Orléans, French princess (d. 1734)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19187676,
35850
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy, Hungarian prince (d. 1790)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2034808,
34916
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
29
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 19 – John Winthrop (educator), 2nd Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Harvard College (d. 1779)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8848,
588568,
35738
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
39
],
[
123,
127
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 21",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8850
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Bradstreet, British Army officer during King George's War (d. 1774)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1174444,
34901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paschen von Cossel, German lawyer (d. 1805)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
40203240,
35074
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 23",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14750344
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ranieri de' Calzabigi, Italian poet and librettist (d. 1795)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
6170182,
35799
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Howard, Viscount Andover, British MP (d. 1756)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
41400483,
34589
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 31",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8204
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly, French astronomer (d. 1769)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22899106,
35819
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arima Yoriyuki, Japanese daimyō (d. 1783)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
543739,
35523
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
37,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 4 – Atto Melani, Italian opera singer (b. 1626)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15982,
27734890,
34586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
24
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 5 – Mamia III Gurieli, Prince of Guria",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19279054,
13259584
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 10 – Constantin Ranst de Jonge, son of Hieronimus Rans(t) (1607–1660) (b. 1635)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16076,
23324552,
35192
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
39
],
[
83,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 17 – Gabriel Álvarez de Toledo, Royal Librarian of King Felipe V of Spain (b. 1662)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15920,
18646744,
34688
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
39
],
[
87,
91
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 – John Sharp, English Archbishop of Yorkshire (b. 1643)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11322,
8873233,
35220
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
24
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 – Eugen Alexander Franz, 1st Prince of Thurn and Taxis (b. 1652)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11010,
25553309,
34918
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
67
],
[
72,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 24 – Edmund Andros, English governor in North America (b. 1637)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11007,
250831,
35193
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
28
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 – Hans Carl von Carlowitz, German forester (b. 1645)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19633,
8998606,
38607
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
34
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 13 – John Talbot of Lacock, British politician and general (b. 1630)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22693343,
31126378,
35078
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
33
],
[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 27 ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=tan|Hakon (Håkan Magnusson) 15 February 1362 – 15 February 1364 <small>(joint-rule with father)||||1340 son of Magnus IV Eriksson and Blanche of Namur||bgcolor=#ccddff| 9 April 1363 in CopenhagenMargaret Valdemarsdotter (see below)||Oslo, 11 September 1380, aged about 40, buried in Oslo",
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"plaintext": "|Albert (Albrekt av Mecklenburg) 15 February 1364 – 24 February 1389 ||||Mecklenburg, 1338, son of Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg and Euphemia of Sweden||(1) Richardis of SchwerinHouse of Hagen(2, after his Swedish reign)Agnes of Brunswick-LüneburgHouse of Welf||Mecklenburg, 1 April 1412, aged about 74, buried in Doberan Abbey, Germany",
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"plaintext": " October 1438 – Autumn 1440 : Regent Karl Knutsson Bonde later King Charles VIII",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=PaleGreen|Christopher (Kristoffer av Bayern)Autumn 1441 – 6 January 1448||||Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz in Bavaria, February 26, 1418 son of Duke John of Pfalz-Neumarkt and Catherine Vratislava||Dorothea of BrandenburgHouse of Hohenzollern||Helsingborg, 5 January or 6 January 1448, aged 29, buried at Roskilde Cathedral",
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"plaintext": " January – 20 June 1448: Regents Bengt Jönsson (Oxenstierna) and Nils Jönsson (Oxenstierna)",
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"plaintext": "|Charles VIII (Karl Knutsson Bonde) 20 June 1448 – 24 February 1457, 9 August 1464 – 30 January 1465 and 12 November 1467 – 15 May 1470House of Bonde||||Ekholmen Castle, 1408 or 1409 son of Knut Tordsson (Bonde) and Margareta Karlsdotter (Sparre av Tofta)||(1, before his reign)Birgitta TuresdotterHouse of Bielke(2) Catherine of BjurumHouse of Gumsehuvud(3) Christina Abrahamsdotter||15 May 1470, aged about 61 or 62, buried at Riddarholmen Church",
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"plaintext": "|align=left colspan=5|",
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"plaintext": " March – 23 June 1457: Regents Jöns Bengtsson (Oxenstierna), archbishop of Upsala, and Erik Axelsson (Tott) ",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=orange|Christian I (Kristian I) 23 June 1457 – 23 June 1464||||Oldenburg, Lower Saxony, February 1426, son of Dietrich of Oldenburg and Helvig of Schauenburg||Dorothea of BrandenburgHouse of Hohenzollern||Copenhagen, 21 May 1481, aged 55, buried at Roskilde Cathedral",
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"plaintext": "|align=left colspan=5|9 August 1464 – 30 January 1465 Charles VIII (Karl Knutsson Bonde) (second period)",
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"plaintext": " 26 December 1464 – 11 August 1465 : Regent Kettil Karlsson (Vasa), bishop of Linköping",
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"plaintext": " 11 August 1465 – 18 October 1466 : Regent Jöns Bengtsson (Oxenstierna)",
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"plaintext": " 18 October 1466 – 12 November 1467 : Regent Erik Axelsson (Tott)",
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"plaintext": "|align=left colspan=5|12 November 1467 – 15 May 1470 Charles VIII (Karl Knutsson Bonde) (third period)",
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"plaintext": " 16 May 1470 – 6 October 1497 : Regent Sten Sture the Elder (Sten Sture den äldre) ",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=orange|John II (\"Hans\") 6 October 1497 – August 1501||||Aalborg Castle, 2 February 1455, son of Christian I and Dorothea of Brandenburg||Christina of SaxonyHouse of Wettin||Aalborg Castle, 20 February 1513, aged 58, buried in St. Canute's Cathedral, Odense",
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"plaintext": " 12 November 1501 – 14 December 1503 : Regent Sten Sture the Elder",
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"plaintext": " 21 January 1504 – 31 December 1511 or 2 January 1512 : Regent Svante Nilsson (Svante Nilsson, herre till Ekesjö)",
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"plaintext": " Middle of January – 23 July 1512 : Regent Erik Arvidsson Trolle",
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"plaintext": " 23 July 1512 – 3 February 1520 : Regent Sten Sture the Younger (Sten Sture den yngre)",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=orange|Christian II (Kristian Tyrann, \"Christian the Tyrant\") 1 November 1520 – 23 August 1521||||Nyborg Castle, 1 July 1481 son of Hans and Christina of Saxony||Isabella of AustriaHouse of Habsburg||Kalundborg Castle, 25 January 1559, aged 77, buried in St. Canute's Cathedral, Odense",
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"plaintext": " House of Vasa House of Wittelsbach House of Oldenburg",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=violet|Eric XIV (Erik XIV) 29 September 1560 – 29 September 1568||||Tre Kronor (castle), 13 December 1533 son of Gustav I and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg||Karin Månsdotter||Died (Poisoned) while imprisoned in Örbyhus Castle, 26 February 1577. Aged 43, buried at Västerås Cathedral",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=violet|Sigmund (Sigismund) 17 November 1592 – 24 July 1599||||Gripsholm Castle, 20 June 1566, son of John III and Catherine Jagellonica of Poland.||(1) Anne of AustriaHouse of Habsburg(2, after his Swedish reign)Constance of AustriaHouse of Habsburg||Warsaw, Poland, 30 April 1632, aged 65, buried at Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=violet rowspan=\"2\"|Charles IX (Karl IX) 22 March 1604 – 30 October 1611 also as regent Duke Charles, 1599–1604||rowspan=\"2\"|||rowspan=\"2\"|Tre Kronor (castle), 4 October 1550 son of Gustav I and Margaret Leijonhufvud||bgcolor=PaleGreen|(1, before his reign)Maria of Palatinate-SimmernHouse of Wittelsbach||rowspan=\"2\"|Nyköping Castle, 30 October 1611, aged 61, buried at Strängnäs Cathedral",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=orange|(2) Christina of Holstein-GottorpHouse of Oldenburg",
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"plaintext": "|bgcolor=violet|Gustavus Adolphus the Great (Gustav II Adolph, Gustav II Adolf, \"Gustav Adolf den Store\", Lion of the North) 30 October 1611 – 6 November 1632||||Tre Kronor (castle), 9 December 1594, son of Charles IX and Christina of Holstein-Gottorp.||Maria Eleonora of BrandenburgHouse of Hohenzollern||6 November 1632, in the Battle of Lützen, Electorate of Saxony, aged 37, buried in Riddarholmen Church",
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"plaintext": " House of Wittelsbach House of Oldenburg House of Hesse",
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"plaintext": " Morby John E. Dynasties of the World. Oxford University Press, 2002 ().",
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"plaintext": " Liljegren, Bengt. Rulers of Sweden. Historiska Media, 2004 ().",
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"plaintext": " Lagerqvist Lars O., Åberg Nils. Kings and Rulers of Sweden. Vincent Publications, 2002 ().",
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38,557 | 1,105,211,978 | Outpatient_commitment | [
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"plaintext": "Outpatient commitment—also called assisted outpatient treatment (AOT) or community treatment orders (CTO)—refers to a civil court procedure wherein a legal process orders an individual diagnosed with a severe mental disorder to adhere to an outpatient treatment plan designed to prevent further deterioration or recurrence that is harmful to themselves or others.",
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"plaintext": "This form of involuntary treatment is distinct from involuntary commitment in that the individual subject to the order continues to live in their home community rather than being detained in hospital or incarcerated. The individual may be subject to rapid recall to hospital, including medication over objections, if the conditions of the order are broken, and the person's mental health deteriorates. This generally means taking psychiatric medication as directed and may also include attending appointments with a mental health professional, and sometimes even not to take non-prescribed illicit drugs and not associate with certain people or in certain places deemed to have been linked to a deterioration in mental health in that individual.",
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"plaintext": "The criteria and process for outpatient commitment are established by law, which vary among nations and, in the U.S. and Canada, among states or provinces. Some jurisdictions require court hearings, where a judge will make a court order, and others require that treating psychiatrists comply with a set of requirements before compulsory treatment is instituted. When a court process is not required, there is usually a form of appeal to the courts or appeal to or scrutiny by tribunals set up for that purpose. Community treatment laws have generally followed the worldwide trend of community treatment. See mental health law for details of countries which do not have laws that regulate compulsory treatment.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States the term \"assisted outpatient treatment\" (AOT) is often used and refers to a process whereby a judge orders a qualifying person with symptoms of severe untreated mental illness to adhere to a mental health treatment plan while living in the community. The plan typically includes medication and may include other forms of treatment as well. Patients are often monitored and assigned to case managers or a community dedicated to treating mental health known as assertive community treatment (ACT).",
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"plaintext": "Australia, Canada, England, and New Zealand use the term \"community treatment order\" (CTO).",
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"plaintext": "The terminology, \"outpatient commitment\", and legal construction often equate outpatient commitment with inpatient commitment but providing the patient more freedom. In practice, outpatient commitment may be used in situations where commitment would not be used because it is cheaper than inpatient commitment; seen as less draconian; and protects mental health professionals from moral, civil or criminal liability.",
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"plaintext": "Outpatient commitment is used in some countries to prevent relapse of mental disorders, as many mental disorders are episodic in natural (for example bipolar disorder or schizophrenia) and it can be difficult to predict whether a mental disorder with reoccur.Some countries use outpatient commitment for first episode psychosis (FEP).",
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"plaintext": "Discussions of \"outpatient commitment\" began in the psychiatry community in the 1980s following deinstitutionalization, a trend that led to the widespread closure of public psychiatric hospitals and resulted in the discharge of large numbers of people with mental illness to the community.",
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"plaintext": "Denmark introduced outpatient commitment in 2010 with the Mental Health Act ().",
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"plaintext": "In Germany, CTOs were resumed in 2015 (formerly only for forensic psychiatry).",
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"plaintext": "Laws regarding implementations are distincts between lander.",
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"plaintext": "The CTOs are renewed every month. They were introduced under Nicolas Sarkosy presidency. Persons committed are registered on a national file accessible by police, even if they are not suspected of breaking the law.",
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"plaintext": " Dutch law provides for community treatment orders, and an individual who does not comply with the terms of their CTO may be subject to immediate involuntary commitment.",
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"plaintext": "When Norway introduced outpatient commitment in the 1961 Mental Health Act, it could only be mandated for individuals who had previously been admitted for inpatient treatment. Revisions in 1999 and 2006 provided for outpatient commitment without previous inpatient treatment, but this provision is seldom used.",
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"plaintext": "In Sweden, the Compulsory Psychiatric Care Act () provides for an administrative court to mandate psychiatric treatment to prevent harm to the individual or others. The law was created in 1991 and revised in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Changes in service provision and amendments to the Mental Health Act in England and Wales have increased the scope for compulsion in the community. The Mental Health Act 2007 introduced community treatment orders (CTOs). CTOs are legally defined as a form of outpatient leave for individuals detained under section 3 of the Mental Health Act. As such, only members of the medical community are involved in issuing a CTO, though both the section 3 detention underlying the CTO and the CTO itself can be appealed to the Mental Health Tribunal where a panel consisting of medical doctors and a judge will make a decision.The legislation in the UK specifically allows CTOs to be issued after a single admission to hospital for treatment. However, the Royal College of Psychiatrists suggested limiting CTOs to patients with a history of noncompliance and hospitalization, when it reviewed the current mental health legislation.",
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"plaintext": "John Mayer Chamberlain argues that this legislation was triggered by the Killing of Jonathan Zito by an individual who had interactions with mental health services prior this event, which led the then conservative government to argue for CTOs.",
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"plaintext": "A review of patient data in London found that the average duration of a CTO in the UK was 3 years. Black people in the UK are more than ten times as likely to be under a CTO as white people. Concerns have been raised about the inability of Independent mental health advocates (IHMAs) to provide services to those under CTOs, since IMHAs cannot make contact with service users under CTOs and case workers could act as gatekeepers not providing referrals.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2021 paper reviewing the mental health act, the UK government proposed a new form of indefinite outpatient commitment allowing for deprivation of liberties an continuous supervision termed supervised discharge. This discharge would be reviewed yearly, and only apply to individuals who would not benefit from treatment in a hospital setting and would be based on risk. Further, this legislation would only apply to restricted patients who have been diverted to the mental health care system from courts.",
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"plaintext": "Scotland has a different community commitment regime from England and Wales introduced in the 2003 Mental Health Act. There is ongoing debate in the UK on the place of coercion and compulsion in community mental health care.",
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"plaintext": "Patients may be recalled if they don't abide to conditions on residence or medical supervision decided by a psychiatrist on discharge for 3 months after having been released from an involuntary commitment.",
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"plaintext": "In the last decade of the 20th century and the first of the 21st, \"outpatient commitment\" laws were passed in a number of U.S. states and jurisdictions in Canada.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-1990s, Saskatchewan became the first Canadian province to implement community treatment orders, and Ontario followed in 2000. New Brunswick was the only province without legislation that provided for either CTOs or extended leave.",
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"plaintext": " 44 U.S. states had enacted some version of an outpatient commitment law. In some cases, passage of the laws followed widely publicized tragedies, such as the murders of Laura Wilcox and Kendra Webdale.",
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"plaintext": "Australia and New Zealand introduced community treatment orders in the 1980s and 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "In the Australian state of Victoria, community treatment orders last for a maximum of twelve months but can be renewed after review by a tribunal.",
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"plaintext": "Proponents have argued that outpatient commitment improves mental health, increases the effectiveness of treatment, lowers incidence of homelessness, arrest, incarceration and hospitalization and reduces costs. Opponents of outpatient commitment laws argue that they unnecessarily limit freedom, force people to ingest dangerous medications, impead on their human rights, or are applied with racial and socioeconomic biases.",
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"plaintext": "While many outpatient commitment laws have been passed in response to violent acts committed by people with mental illness, most proponents involved in the outpatient commitment debate also make arguments based on the quality of life and cost associated with untreated mental illness and \"revolving door patients\" who experience a cycle of hospitalization, treatment and stabilization, release, and decompensation. While the cost of repeated hospitalizations is indisputable, quality-of-life arguments rest on an understanding of mental illness as an undesirable and dangerous state of being. Outpatient commitment proponents point to studies performed in North Carolina and New York that have found some positive impact of court-ordered outpatient treatment. Proponents include: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), U.S. Department of Justice, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), U. S Department of Health and Human Services, American Psychiatric Association, National Alliance on Mental Illness, International Association of Chiefs of Police. SAMHSA included Assisted Outpatient Treatment in their National Registry of Evidence Based Program and Practices. Crime Solutions: Management Strategies to Reduce Psychiatric Readmissions. The Treatment Advocacy Center are an advocacy group that campaign for the use of outpatient commitment.",
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"plaintext": "A systematic review in 2016 that looked at around 200 papers investigating effectiveness of CTOs for patient outcomes. It found that non-randomized trials had dramatically varying results and found that no randomized controlled trials showed any benefits to the patient for outpatient commitment apart from a reduction in the risk of being the victim of crime.",
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"plaintext": "The same interventions can have different effects in different countries due to legal, bureaucratic and social factors.",
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"plaintext": "Research published in 2013 showed that Kendra's Law in New York, which served about 2,500 patients at a cost of $32 million, had positive results in terms of net cost, reduced arrests. About $125 million is also spent annually on improved outpatient treatment for patients who are not subject to the law. In contrast to New York, despite wide adoption of outpatient commitment, the programs were generally not adequately funded.",
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"plaintext": "\"Although numerous AOT programs currently operate across the United States, it is clear that the intervention is vastly underutilized.\"",
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"plaintext": "The National Institute of Justice considers assisted outpatient treatment an effective crime prevention program. Some studies in the US have found that AOT programs have reduced the chances of arrest. Kendra's Law has lowered risk of violent behaviors, reduced thoughts about suicide. ",
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"plaintext": "AOT \"programs improve adherence with outpatient treatment and have been shown to lead to significantly fewer emergency commitments, hospital admissions, and hospital days as well as a reduction in arrests and violent behavior.\"",
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"plaintext": "74% fewer participants experienced homelessness. 77% fewer experienced psychiatric hospitalization. 56% reduction in length of hospitalization. 83% fewer experienced arrest. 87% fewer experienced incarceration. 49% fewer abused alcohol. 48% fewer abused drugs. Consumer participation and medication compliance improved. The number of individuals exhibiting good adherence to meds increased 51%. The number of individuals exhibiting good service engagement increased 103%. Consumer perceptions were positive. 75% reported that AOT helped them gain control over their lives. 81% said AOT helped them get and stay well. 90% said AOT made them more likely to keep appointments and take meds. 87% of participants said they were confident in their case manager's ability. 88% said they and their case manager agreed on what was important to work on.",
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"plaintext": "In Nevada County, CA, AOT (\"Laura's Law\") decreased the number of psychiatric hospital days 46.7%, the number of incarceration days 65.1%, the number of homeless days 61.9%, and the number of emergency interventions 44.1%. Laura's Law implementation saved $1.81–$2.52 for every dollar spent, and receiving services under Laura's Law caused a \"reduction in actual hospital costs of $213,300\" and a \"reduction in actual incarceration costs of $75,600.\"",
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"plaintext": "In New Jersey, Kim Veith, director of clinical services at Ocean Mental Health Services, noted the AOT pilot program performed \"beyond wildest dreams.\" AOT reduced hospitalizations, shortened inpatient stays, reduced crime and incarceration, stabilized housing, and reduced homelessness. Of clients who were homeless, 20% are now in supportive housing, 40% are in boarding homes, and 20% are living successfully with family members.",
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"plaintext": "Writing in the British Journal of Psychiatry in 2013, Jorun Rugkåsa and John Dawson stated, \"The current evidence from suggests that do not reduce readmission rates over 12 months.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"We find that New York State's AOT Program improves a range of important outcomes for its recipients, apparently without feared negative consequences to recipients.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"The increased services available under AOT clearly improve recipient outcomes, however, the AOT court order, itself, and its monitoring do appear to offer additional benefits in improving outcomes.\"",
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"plaintext": "In New York City net costs declined 50% in the first year after assisted outpatient treatment began and an additional 13% in the second year. In non-NYC counties, costs declined 62% in the first year and an additional 27% in the second year. This was in spite of the fact that psychotropic drug costs increased during the first year after initiation of assisted outpatient treatment, by 40% and 44% in the city and five-county samples, respectively. The increased community-based mental health costs were more than offset by the reduction in inpatient and incarceration costs. Cost declines associated with assisted outpatient treatment were about twice as large as those seen for voluntary services.",
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"plaintext": "Consumers approve. Despite being under a court order to participate in treatment, current AOT recipients feel neither more positive nor more negative about their treatment experiences than comparable individuals who are not under AOT.\"",
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"plaintext": "In Los Angeles, CA, the AOT pilot program reduced incarceration 78%, hospitalization 86%, hospitalization after discharge from the program 77%, and cut taxpayer costs 40%.",
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"plaintext": "In North Carolina, AOT reduced the percentage of persons refusing medications to 30%, compared to 66% of patients not under AOT.",
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"plaintext": "In Ohio, AOT increased attendance at outpatient psychiatric appointments from 5.7 to 13.0 per year. It increased attendance at day treatment sessions from 23 to 60 per year. \"During the first 12 months of outpatient commitment, patients experienced significant reductions in visits to the psychiatric emergency service, hospital admissions, and lengths of stay compared with the 12 months before commitment.\"",
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"plaintext": "In Arizona, \"71% [of AOT patients] ... voluntarily maintained treatment contacts six months after their orders expired\" compared with \"almost no patients\" who were not court-ordered to outpatient treatment.",
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"plaintext": "In Iowa, \"it appears as though outpatient commitment promotes treatment compliance in about 80% of patients... After commitment is terminated, about ¾ of that group remain in treatment on a voluntary basis.\"",
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"plaintext": "Human rights advocate considers it a violation of freedom of thought or opinion, or views the use of neuroleptic as degrading treatment that can also impede on their right to work due to sometimes handicapping side effects. Other argue for a right of self-determination or self ownership, considering it a paternalistic approach that can be wrongly applied considering psychiatry criteria for diagnosis are very subjective backed by some studies questioning diagnosis (see Rosenhan experiment), the unlimited duration with often lack or no foresight to an end from the patient is also criticised. ",
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"plaintext": "Some opponents dispute the effects of compulsory treatment as positive, questioning the methodology of studies that show effectiveness. Some point to disparities in the way these laws are applied.",
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"plaintext": "Opponents claim they are giving medication to the patient, but there are no brain chemical imbalances to correct in \"mental illness\". Our ability to control ourselves and reason comes from the mind, and the brain is being reduced in size from the psychiatric medications.",
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"plaintext": "The slippery slope argument of \"If government bodies are given power, they will use it in excess.\" was proven when 350–450 CTOs were expected to be issued in 2008 and more than five times that number were issued in the first few months. Every year there are increasing numbers of people subject to CTO's.",
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"plaintext": "The psychiatric survivors movement opposes compulsory treatment on the basis that the ordered drugs often have serious or unpleasant side-effects such as tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, akathisia, excessive weight gain leading to diabetes, addiction, sexual side effects, increased risk of suicide and QT prolongation. The New York Civil Liberties Union has denounced what they see as racial and socioeconomic biases in the issuing of outpatient commitment orders. The main opponents to any kind of coercion, including the outpatient commitment and any other form of involuntary commitment, are Giorgio Antonucci and Thomas Szasz.",
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"plaintext": " Laura's Law",
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"plaintext": " Giorgio Antonucci",
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"plaintext": " Treatment Advocacy Center",
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"plaintext": " Civil commitment laws and standards by state",
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38,563 | 1,099,156,221 | Eileen_Heckart | [
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38,565 | 1,083,766,053 | Royal_and_noble_styles | [
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"plaintext": "Styles represent the fashion by which monarchs and noblemen are properly addressed. Throughout history, many different styles were used, with little standardization. This page will detail the various styles used by royalty and nobility in Europe, in the final form arrived at in the nineteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "Only those classified within the social class of royalty and upper nobility have a style of \"Highness\" attached before their titles. Reigning bearers of forms of Highness included grand princes, grand dukes, reigning princes, reigning dukes, and princely counts, their families, and the agnatic (of the male bloodline) descendants of emperors and kings. Royalty (usually emperors to princely counts) are all considered sovereign princes ().",
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"plaintext": "In the Austrian Empire, the Emperor was also the King of Hungary, and thus bore the style of Imperial and Royal Majesty. Subsequently, members of the imperial family, who were also members of the royal family of Hungary, held the style of Imperial and Royal Highness (HI&RH). Abbreviation to Imperial Highness is common and accepted.",
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"plaintext": "In the German Empire, the other \"heir\" to the Holy Roman Empire, the emperor and empress were also addressed as Imperial and Royal Majesty, as they ruled over both the German Empire and Kingdom of Prussia. Similarly, the crown prince of the Empire and Prussia was styled Imperial and Royal Highness. Other members of the House of Prussia, having no constitutional place in the Empire as such, were only entitled to the style of Royal Highness.",
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"plaintext": "In Imperial Russia, children and male-line grandchildren of the Emperor bore the style of Imperial Highness. Male-line great-grandchildren held the style of Highness; also, the eldest son of any person who held the style of Highness also held the style of Highness. All other male-line descendants held the style of Serenity, often translated as \"Serene Highness\". Some Russian noble princes also hold the style of Serenity; all others and Russian princely counts hold the style of Illustriousness, often translated as \"Illustrious Highness\".",
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"plaintext": "The styles of members of grand ducal families have been inconsistent. In Luxembourg, more senior members of the family have also been Royal Highnesses, but only due to their status as Princes of Bourbon-Parma (itself an inconsistency as Parma was only ducal, but this family has male-line descent from kings of Etruria, Spain and France). In Baden and Hesse and by Rhine, junior members held the style of Grand Ducal Highness. Members of other grand ducal families (for instance, Oldenburg) generally held the style of Highness.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to their national royal styles, many monarchs had \"treaty styles\" to distinguish one monarch from another in international settings. For example, the sovereign of the United Kingdom was customarily referred to as \"Britannic Majesty\", of France as \"Most Christian Majesty\", of Spain as \"Catholic Majesty\", of Hungary as \"Apostolic Majesty\", of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation as \"August Majesty\", etc. Monarchs also typically had a longer style than other princely members within the same royal house. For example, the monarch of the United Kingdom has a much longer style than that of other members of the British royal family. The full style of Elizabeth II in the United Kingdom is, \"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\".",
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"plaintext": " Before the French Revolution, and from 1814 to 1830 (apart from a brief period in 1815), the King of France used the formal style of Most High, Most Potent and Most Excellent Prince () or Most Christian Majesty (). For general usage, however, until the final end of the Bourbon monarchy in 1830, kings and queens of France were styled Majesty () ",
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"plaintext": " Younger unmarried daughters of the King were referred to by the title Madame followed by their first name, while retaining the style of Royal Highness",
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"plaintext": " The oldest brother of the King was referred to by the title Monsieur only, while retaining the style of Royal Highness",
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"plaintext": " Dukes and Peers used the style of Most High and Most Potent Lord (), but in the 18th century, that style was used by lesser-ranked nobles",
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"plaintext": " Other titled nobility used the style of Most High and Potent Lord () or High and Potent Lord ()",
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"plaintext": "Dukes and duchesses in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland, and the United Kingdom (who are not royalty of highness) bear the style of Grace (e.g. \"His Grace\", \"Her Grace\", or \"Your Grace\"). They also hold the style of Most High, Potent, and Noble Prince, but even in the most formal situations, this is usually shortened to The Most Noble, which is still considered to be very formal.",
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"plaintext": " Princes and Princessess of noble blood, Your Serene Highness, and addressed Hteik Tin (Burmese: ထိပ်တင်).",
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"plaintext": "Other German nobles below the rank of count bore the style of High Well-born (). Another style was Well-born (), which ranked below High Well-born but was not used for proper nobility and therefore fell out of use.",
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"plaintext": " Genealogists Discover Royal Roots for All",
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38,566 | 1,089,858,294 | Inverse_multiplexer | [
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"plaintext": "An inverse multiplexer (often abbreviated to inverse MUX or IMUX) allows a data stream to be broken into multiple lower data rate communication links. An inverse multiplexer differs from a demultiplexer because the multiple output streams from the former stay inter-related, whereas those from the latter are unrelated. An inverse multiplexer is the opposite of a multiplexer in that it divides one high-speed link into multiple low-speed links, whereas a multiplexer combines multiple low-speed links into one high-speed link.",
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"plaintext": "This provides an end to end connection of several times the data rate available on each of the low rate data links. Note that, as with multiplexers, links are often used in bi-directional pairs and, at either end of the link, an inverse multiplexer will be combined with its reverse (an inverse demultiplexer) and still be called an inverse MUX.",
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"plaintext": "Inverse multiplexers are used, for example, to combine a number of ISDN channels together into one high rate circuit, where a higher rate connection than is available from a single ISDN connection is needed. This is typically useful in areas where higher rate circuits are not available.",
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"plaintext": "A simple analogy to transport can help explain the distinction between multiplexing and inverse multiplexing. When small cargoes such as pencils are shipped overseas, they are generally not carried one at a time, but are assembled into small boxes, which are grouped into larger cartons, which go into intermodal containers, which are packed onto a container ship. Each step is analogous to a multiplexing process. Conversely a large cargo, for example in structure relocation, may be disassembled for carriage on multiple vehicles and reassembled at the destination. This is analogous to inverse multiplexing.",
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38,567 | 1,107,644,796 | Princess_Margaret,_Countess_of_Snowdon | [
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"plaintext": "At the outbreak of World War II, Margaret and her sister were at Birkhall, on the Balmoral Castle estate, where they stayed until Christmas 1939, enduring nights so cold that drinking water in carafes by their bedside froze. They spent Christmas at Sandringham House before moving to Windsor Castle, just outside London, for much of the remainder of the war. Viscount Hailsham wrote to Prime Minister Winston Churchill to advise the evacuation of the princesses to the greater safety of Canada, to which their mother famously replied, \"The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave.\"",
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"plaintext": "Unlike other members of the royal family, Margaret was not expected to undertake any public or official duties during the war. She developed her skills at singing and playing the piano, often show tunes from stage musicals. Her contemporaries thought she was spoiled by her parents, especially her father, who allowed her to take liberties not usually permissible, such as being allowed to stay up to dinner at the age of 13.",
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"plaintext": "Crawford despaired at the attention Margaret was getting, writing to friends: \"Could you this year only ask Princess Elizabeth to your party?... Princess Margaret does draw all the attention and Princess Elizabeth lets her do that.\" Elizabeth, however, did not mind this, and commented, \"Oh, it's so much easier when Margaret's there—everybody laughs at what Margaret says\". King George described Elizabeth as his pride and Margaret as his joy.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the war in 1945, Margaret appeared on the balcony at Buckingham Palace with her family and Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Afterwards, both Elizabeth and Margaret joined the crowds outside the palace, incognito, chanting, \"We want the King, we want the Queen!\"",
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"plaintext": "On 15 April 1946, Margaret was confirmed into the Church of England. On 1 February 1947, she, Elizabeth and their parents embarked on a state tour of Southern Africa. The three-month-long visit was Margaret's first visit abroad, and she later claimed that she remembered \"every minute of it\". Margaret's chaperone was Peter Townsend, the King's equerry and very firm toward Margaret, who he apparently considered an indulged child. Later that year, Margaret was a bridesmaid at Elizabeth's wedding. In the next three years Elizabeth had two children, Charles and Anne, whose births moved Margaret further down the line of succession.",
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"plaintext": "In 1950, the former royal governess, Marion Crawford, published an unauthorised biography of Elizabeth's and Margaret's childhood years, titled The Little Princesses, in which she described Margaret's \"light-hearted fun and frolics\" and her \"amusing and outrageous... antics\".",
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"plaintext": "Around the time of Princess Elizabeth's wedding in November 1947, the press started to follow the social life of \"unconventional\" Margaret and her reputation for vivacity and wit. As a beautiful young woman, with an 18-inch waist and \"vivid blue eyes\", Margaret enjoyed socialising with high society and young aristocrats, including Sharman Douglas, the daughter of the American ambassador, Lewis Williams Douglas. A celebrated beauty known for her glamour and fashion sense, Margaret was often featured in the press at balls, parties, and nightclubs with friends who became known as the \"Margaret Set\". The number of her official engagements increased (they included a tour of Italy, Switzerland, and France), and she joined a growing number of charitable organisations as president or patron.",
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"plaintext": "Favoured haunts of the Margaret Set were The 400 Club, the Café de Paris and the Mirabelle restaurant. Anticipation of an engagement or romance between Margaret and a member of her set were often reported. In 1948, international news grew that her engagement to \"Sunny\", the Marquess of Blandford, would be announced on her 18th birthday. Similar speculation moved to the Hon. Peter Ward, then Billy Wallace and others. The set also mixed with celebrities, including Danny Kaye, whom she met after watching him perform at the London Palladium in February 1948. He was soon accepted by the royal social circle. In July 1949, at a fancy dress ball at the American Ambassador's residence, Margaret performed the can-can on stage, accompanied by Douglas and ten other costumed girls. A press commotion ensued, with Kaye denying he had taught Margaret the dance. Press interest could be intrusive. During a private visit to Paris in 1951, Margaret and Prince Nicholas of Yugoslavia were followed into a nightclub by a paparazzo who took photographs of them until British detectives physically removed him from the club.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, although the Princess attended parties and debutante balls with friends such as Douglas and Mark Bonham Carter, the set were seen infrequently together. They regrouped in time for Coronation season social functions. In May 1953, Margaret met singer Eddie Fisher when he performed at the Red, White and Blue Ball. She asked him to her table and he was \"invited to all sorts of parties\". Margaret fell out with him in 1957, but years later, Fisher still claimed the night he was introduced to her was the greatest thrill of his lifetime. In June 1954, the Set performed the Edgar Wallace play The Frog at the Scala Theatre. It was organised by Margaret's by now best girlfriend Judy Montagu with Margaret as Assistant Director. It drew praise for raising £10,500 for charity, but criticism for incompetent performances. By the mid 1950s, although still seen at fashionable nightspots and theatre premieres, the set was depleted by its members getting married. As she reached her late twenties unmarried, the press increasingly turned from predicting whom she might marry to suspecting she would remain a spinster.",
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"plaintext": "The press avidly discussed \"the world's most eligible bachelor-girl\" and her alleged romances with more than 30 bachelors, including David Mountbatten and Michael of Romania, the Hon. Dominic Elliot, Colin Tennant (later Baron Glenconner), and future Prime Minister of Canada John Turner. Most had titles and almost all were wealthy. Blandford and Lord Dalkeith, both wealthy sons of dukes, were the likeliest potential husbands. Her family reportedly hoped that Margaret would marry Dalkeith, but unlike him the princess was uninterested in the outdoors. Billy Wallace, sole heir to a £2.8 million (£ million today) fortune and an old friend, was reportedly Margaret's favourite date during the mid-1950s. During her 21st birthday party at Balmoral in August 1951 the press was disappointed to only photograph Margaret with Townsend, always in the background of pictures of royal appearances, and to her parents a safe companion as Elizabeth's duties increased. The following month her father underwent surgery for lung cancer, and Margaret was appointed one of the Counsellors of State who undertook the King's official duties while he was incapacitated. Her father died five months later, on 6 February 1952, and her sister became Queen.",
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"plaintext": "During the war the King suggested choosing palace aides who were highly qualified men from the military, instead of only aristocrats. Told that a handsome war hero had arrived, the princesses met Townsend, the new equerry, on his first day at Buckingham Palace in 1944; Elizabeth reportedly told her sister, 13 years old, \"Bad luck, he's married\". A temporary assignment of three months from the RAF became permanent. George VI and the Queen Mother were fond of Townsend; the king reportedly saw the calm and efficient combat veteran as the son he never had. He may have been aware of his daughter's infatuation with the non-titled and non-wealthy Townsend, reportedly seeing the courtier reluctantly obey the princess's order to carry her up palace stairs after a party.",
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"plaintext": "Townsend was so often near Margaret that gossip columnists overlooked him as a suitor for the princess. When their relationship began is unclear. The princess told friends she fell in love with the equerry during the 1947 South Africa tour, where they often went riding together. Her biographer Craig Brown stated that, according to a National Trust curator, Townsend requested the bedroom next to hers during a trip to Belfast in October 1947. In November 1948 they attended the inauguration of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. In later life Townsend admitted at this point there was an attraction between them, but neither of them ever acknowledged it to one another. Not long after he discovered his wife was involved in an extramarital affair, which ended. Contemporary anecdotes about their closeness then dissipated until late 1950, when friendship seems to have rekindled, coinciding with Townsend's appointment as Deputy Master of the Household and the breakdown of his marriage.",
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"plaintext": "From spring 1951 came several testimonies of a growing romantic attraction. A footman told how the King diverted the pair's picnic plans, adding that whatever the King and Queen knew about the developing relationship, few royal staff failed to notice as it was obvious to them. Townsend said that his love for her began in Balmoral in 1951, and recalled an incident there in August when the princess woke him from a nap after a picnic lunch while the king watched, to suggest the King knew. Townsend and his wife separated in 1951, which was noticed by the press by July. ",
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"plaintext": "Margaret was grief-stricken by her father's death and was prescribed sedatives to help her sleep. Of her father she wrote, \"He was such a wonderful person, the very heart and centre of our happy family.\" She was consoled by her deeply held Christian beliefs, sometimes attending church twice daily. She re-emerged attending events with her family in April and returned to public duties and the social scene when official mourning ended in June. American newspapers noted her increasing vitality and speculated she must be in love. With the widowed Queen Mother, Margaret moved out of Buckingham Palace and into Clarence House in May 1953, while her sister, now Queen, and her family moved out of Clarence House and into Buckingham Palace. After the king's death, Townsend was appointed Comptroller of Margaret's mother's restructured household. ",
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"plaintext": "In June 1952 the estranged Townsends hosted Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Philip and Princess Margaret at a cocktail party at their home. A month later, Mrs Townsend and her new partner attended judging at the Royal Windsor Horse Show. It is thought the romance between Margaret and Townsend began around this time. The first reports that Townsend and Margaret wished to marry began in August 1952, but these remained uncommon. The Townsend divorce in November was mentioned little in Britain and in greater detail abroad. After the divorce was finalised in December 1952, however, rumours spread about him and Margaret; the divorce, and shared grief over the death of the king in February 1952, likely helped them come together within the privacy of Clarence House, where the princess had her own apartment.",
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"plaintext": "Private Secretary to the Queen Sir Alan Lascelles wrote that Townsend came to tell him he had asked Margaret to marry him shortly before Christmas 1952. Other sources claim it occurred in April 1953. He was 15 years her senior and had two children from his previous marriage. Margaret accepted and informed her sister, the Queen, whose consent was required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772. As during the abdication crisis, the Church of England refused to countenance the remarriage of the divorced. Queen Mary had recently died, and after the coronation of Elizabeth II the new Queen planned to tour the Commonwealth for six months. She told her sister, \"Under the circumstances, it isn't unreasonable for me to ask you to wait a year\", and to keep the relationship secret until after the coronation.",
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"plaintext": "Although foreign media speculated on Margaret and Townsend's relationship, the British press did not. After reporters saw her plucking fluff from his coat during the coronation on 2 June 1953—\"I never thought a thing about it, and neither did Margaret\", Townsend later said; \"After that the storm broke\"—The People first mentioned the relationship in Britain on 14 June. With the headline \"They Must Deny it NOW\", the front-page article warned that \"scandalous rumours about Princess Margaret are racing around the world\", which the newspaper stated were \"of course, utterly untrue\". The foreign press believed that the Regency Act 1953—which made Prince Philip, the Queen's husband, regent instead of Margaret on the Queen's death—was enacted to allow the princess to marry Townsend, but as late as 23 July most other British newspapers except the Daily Mirror did not discuss the rumours. Acting Prime Minister Rab Butler asked that \"deplorable speculation\" end, without mentioning Margaret or Townsend.",
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"plaintext": "The constitutional crisis that the proposed marriage caused was public. The Queen was advised by Lascelles to post Townsend abroad, but she refused and instead transferred him from the Queen Mother's household to her own, although Townsend did not accompany Margaret as planned on a tour of Southern Rhodesia. Prime Minister Churchill personally approved of \"a lovely young royal lady married to a gallant young airman\" but his wife reminded Churchill that he had made the same mistake during the abdication crisis. His Cabinet refused to approve the marriage, and Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury, did not approve of Margaret marrying a divorced man; opponents said that the marriage would threaten the monarchy as Edward VIII's had. The Church of England Newspaper said that Margaret \"is a dutiful churchwoman who knows what strong views leaders of the church hold in this matter\", but the Sunday Express—which had supported Edward and Wallis—asked, \"IF THEY WANT TO MARRY, WHY SHOULDN'T THEY?\".",
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"plaintext": "Churchill discussed the marriage at the 1953 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference held with the coronation; the Statute of Westminster 1931 requires Dominion parliaments to also approve any Bill of Renunciation changing the line of succession. The Canadian government stated that altering the line twice in 25 years would harm the monarchy. Churchill informed the Queen that both his Cabinet and Dominion prime ministers were against the marriage, and that Parliament would not approve a marriage that would be unrecognised by the Church of England unless Margaret renounced her rights to the throne.",
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"plaintext": "Prince Philip was reportedly the most opposed to Townsend in the royal family, while Margaret's mother and sister wanted her to be happy but could not approve of the marriage. Besides Townsend's divorce, two major problems were financial and constitutional. Margaret did not possess her sister's large fortune and would need the £6,000 annual civil list allowance and £15,000 additional allowance Parliament had provided for her upon a suitable marriage. She did not object to being removed from the line of succession to the throne as the Queen and all her children dying was unlikely, but receiving parliamentary approval for the marriage would be difficult and uncertain. At the age of 25 Margaret would not need Elizabeth's permission under the 1772 Act; she could, after notifying the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, marry in one year if Parliament did not prevent her. If, Churchill told the Queen however, one could easily leave the line of succession, another could easily enter the line, dangerous for a hereditary monarchy.",
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"plaintext": "The Queen told the couple to wait until 1955, when Margaret would be 25, avoiding the Queen having to publicly disapprove of her sister's marriage. Lascelles—who compared Townsend to Theudas \"boasting himself to be somebody\"—hoped that separating him and Margaret would end their romance. Churchill arranged for Townsend's assignment as air attaché at the British Embassy in Brussels; he was sent on 15 July 1953, before Margaret's return from Rhodesia on 30 July. The assignment was so sudden that the British ambassador learned about it from a newspaper. Although the princess and Townsend knew about his new job, they had reportedly been promised a few days together before his departure.",
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"plaintext": "For two years, press speculation continued. In Brussels, Townsend only said that \"The word must come from somebody else\". He avoided parties and being seen with women. With few duties (the sinecure was abolished after him), Townsend improved his French and horsemanship. He joined a Belgian show jumping club and rode in races around Europe. Margaret was told by the Church that she would be unable to receive communion if she married a divorced man. Three quarters of Sunday Express readers opposed the relationship, and Mass-Observation recorded criticism of the \"silly little fool\" as a poor example for young women who emulated her. Other newspaper polls showed popular support for Margaret's personal choice, regardless of Church teaching or government. Ninety-seven per cent of Daily Mirror readers supported marriage, and a Daily Express editorial stated that even if the Archbishop of Canterbury was displeased, \"she would best please the vast majority of ordinary folk [by finding] happiness for herself\".",
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"plaintext": "The couple were not restricted on communicating by mail and telephone. Margaret worked with friends on charity productions of Lord and Lady Algy and The Frog, and publicly dated men such as Tennant and Wallace. In January 1955 she made the first of many trips to the Caribbean, perhaps to distract, and as a reward for being apart, from Townsend. The attaché secretly travelled to Britain; while the palace was aware of one visit, he reportedly made other trips for nights and weekends with the princess at Clarence House—her apartment had its own front door—and friends' homes.",
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"plaintext": "That spring Townsend for the first time spoke to the press: \"I am sick of being made to hide in my apartment like a thief\", but whether he could marry \"involves more people than myself\". He reportedly believed that his exile from Margaret would soon end, their love was strong, and that the British people would support marrying. Townsend received a bodyguard and police guard around his apartment after the Belgian government received threats on his life, but the British government still said nothing. Stating that people were more interested in the couple than the recent 1955 United Kingdom general election, on 29 May the Daily Express published an editorial demanding that Buckingham Palace confirm or deny the rumours.",
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"plaintext": "The press described Margaret's 25th birthday, 21 August 1955, as the day she was free to marry, and expected an announcement about Townsend soon. Three hundred journalists waited outside Balmoral, four times as many as those later following Diana, Princess of Wales. \"COME ON MARGARET!\", the Daily Mirrors front page said two days earlier, asking her to \"please make up your mind!\". On 12 October Townsend returned from Brussels as Margaret's suitor. The royal family devised a system in which it did not host Townsend, but he and Margaret formally courted each other at dinner parties hosted by friends such as Mark Bonham Carter. A Gallup poll found that 59% of Britons approved of their marrying, with 17% opposed. Women in the East End of London shouted \"Go on, Marg, do what you want\" at the princess. Although the couple was never seen together in public during this time, the general consensus was that they would marry. Crowds waited outside Clarence House, and a global audience read daily updates and rumours on newspaper front pages.",
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"plaintext": "\"Nothing much else than Princess Margaret's affairs is being talked of in this country\", The Manchester Guardian said on 15 October. \"NOW – THE NATION WAITS\" was a typical headline. Observers interpreted Buckingham Palace's request to the press to respect Margaret's privacy—the first time the palace discussed the princess's recent personal life—as evidence of an imminent betrothal announcement, probably before the Opening of Parliament on 25 October. As no announcement occurred—the Daily Mirror on 17 October showed a photograph of Margaret's left hand with the headline \"NO RING YET!\"—the press wondered why. Parliamentarians \"are frankly puzzled by the way the affair has been handled\", the News Chronicle wrote. \"If a marriage is on, they ask, why not announce it quickly? If there is to be no marriage, why allow the couple to continue to meet without a clear denial of the rumours?\"",
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"plaintext": "Why a betrothal did not occur is unclear. Margaret may have been uncertain of her desire, having written to Prime Minister Anthony Eden in August that \"It is only by seeing him in this way that I feel I can properly decide whether I can marry him or not\". Margaret may have told Townsend as early as 12 October that governmental and familial opposition to their marriage had not changed; it is possible that neither they nor the Queen fully understood until that year how difficult the 1772 Act made a royal marriage without the monarch's permission. An influential 26 October editorial in The Times stating that \"The QUEEN's sister married to a divorced man (even though the innocent party) would be irrevocably disqualified from playing her part in the essential royal function\" represented The Establishment's view of what it considered a possibly dangerous crisis. It convinced many, who had believed that the media was exaggerating, that the princess really might defy the Church and royal standards. Leslie Weatherhead, President of the Methodist Conference, now criticised the proposed marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Townsend recalled that \"we felt mute and numbed at the centre of this maelstrom\"; the Queen also wanted the media circus to end. Townsend only had his RAF income and, other than a talent for writing, had no experience in other work. He wrote in his autobiography that the princess \"could have married me only if she had been prepared to give up everything -- her position, her prestige, her privy purse. I simply hadn't the weight, I knew it, to counterbalance all she would have lost\" for what Kenneth Rose described as \"life in a cottage on a Group Captain's salary\". Royal historian Hugo Vickers wrote that \"Lascelles's separation plan had worked and the love between them had died\". Margaret's authorised biographer Christopher Warwick said that \"having spent two years apart, they were no longer as in love as they had been. Townsend was not the love of her life – the love of her life was her father, King George VI, whom she adored\".",
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"plaintext": "More than 100 journalists waited at Balmoral when Eden arrived to discuss the marriage with the Queen and Margaret on 1 October 1955. Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, that month prepared a secret government document on the proposed marriage. According to a 1958 biography of Townsend by Norman Barrymaine and other accounts, Eden said that his government would oppose in Parliament Margaret retaining her royal status. Parliament might pass resolutions opposing the marriage, which the people would see as a disagreement between government and monarchy; Lord Salisbury, a High Anglican, might resign from the government rather than help pass a Bill of Renunciation. While the government could not prevent the marriage when Margaret become a private individual after a Bill of Renunciation, she would no longer be a Counsellor of State and would lose her civil list allowance; otherwise, taxpayers would subsidise a divorced man and the princess's new stepsons. The Church would consider any children from the marriage to be illegitimate. Eden recommended that, like Edward VIII and Wallis, Margaret and Townsend leave Britain for several years.",
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"plaintext": "Papers released in 2004 to the National Archives disagree. They show that the Queen and Eden (who had been divorced and remarried himself) planned to amend the 1772 Act. Margaret would have been able to marry Townsend by removing her and any children from the marriage from the line of succession, and thus the Queen's permission would no longer be necessary. Margaret would be allowed to keep her royal title and her allowance, stay in the country, and even continue with her public duties. Eden described the Queen's attitude in a letter on the subject to the Commonwealth prime ministers as \"Her Majesty would not wish to stand in the way of her sister's happiness\". Eden himself was sympathetic; \"Exclusion from the Succession would not entail any other change in Princess Margaret's position as a member of the Royal Family\", he wrote.",
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"plaintext": "In the 28 October 1955 final draft of the plan, Margaret would announce that she would marry Townsend and leave the line of succession. As prearranged by Eden, the Queen would consult with the British and Commonwealth governments, then ask them to amend the 1772 Act. Eden would have told Parliament that it was \"out of harmony with modern conditions\"; Kilmuir estimated that 75% of Britons would approve of allowing the marriage. He advised Eden that the 1772 Act was flawed and might not apply to Margaret anyway. The decision not to marry was made on 24th October and for the following week, Margaret was in disputes about the release and wording of her statement, which was released on the 31st. It is unverified what or when she was told about proposals, drafted on the 28th, four days after the decision was made. By the early 1980s she was still protesting to biographers that the couple had been given false hope marriage was possible and she would have ended the relationship sooner had she been informed otherwise.",
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"plaintext": "The Daily Mirror on 28 October discussed The Timess editorial with the headline \"THIS CRUEL PLAN MUST BE EXPOSED\". Although Margaret and Townsend had read the editorial the newspaper denounced as from \"a dusty world and a forgotten age\", they had earlier made their decision and written an announcement.",
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"plaintext": "On 31 October 1955, Margaret issued a statement:",
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"plaintext": "\"Thoroughly drained, thoroughly demoralised\", Margaret later said, she and Townsend wrote the statement together. She refused when Oliver Dawnay, the Queen Mother's private secretary, asked to remove the word \"devotion\". The written statement, signed \"Margaret\", was the first official confirmation of the relationship. Some Britons were disbelieving or angry while others, including clergy, were proud of the princess for choosing duty and faith; newspapers were evenly divided on the decision. Mass-Observation recorded indifference or criticism of the couple among men, but great interest among women, whether for or against. Kenneth Tynan, John Minton, Ronald Searle, and others signed an open letter from \"the younger generation\". Published in the Daily Express on 4 November, the letter said that the end of the relationship had exposed The Establishment and \"our national hypocrisy\".",
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"plaintext": "Townsend recalled that \"We had reached the end of the road, our feelings for one another were unchanged, but they had incurred for us a burden so great that we decided together to lay it down\". The Associated Press said that Margaret's statement was almost \"a rededication of her life to the duties of royalty, making unlikely any marriage for her in the near future\"; the princess may have expected to never marry after the long relationship ended, because most of her eligible male friends were no longer bachelors. Barrymaine agreed that Margaret intended the statement to mean that she would never marry, but wrote that Townsend likely did not accept any such vow to him by the princess, and his subsequent departure from Britain for two years was to not interfere with her life. \"We both had a feeling of unimaginable relief. We were liberated at last from this monstrous problem\", Townsend said.",
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"plaintext": "After resigning from the RAF and travelling around the world for 18 months Townsend returned in March 1958; he and Margaret met several times, but could not avoid the press (\"TOGETHER AGAIN\") or royal disapproval. Townsend again left Britain to write a book about his trip; Barrymaine concluded in 1958 that \"none of the fundamental obstacles to their marriage has been overcome – or shows any prospects of being overcome\". Townsend said during a 1970 book tour that he and Margaret did not correspond and they had not seen each other since a \"friendly\" 1958 meeting, \"just like I think a lot of people never see their old girl friends\". Their love letters are in the Royal Archives and will not be available to the public until 100 years after Margaret's birth, February 2030. These are unlikely to include Margaret's letters. In 1959 she wrote to Townsend in response to him informing her of his remarriage plans, accusing him of betraying their vow not to marry anyone else and requesting her love letters to him be destroyed. He claimed he complied with her wishes, but kept this letter and an envelope of burned shards of the vow she had sent, eventually destroying these also. He was apparently unaware Margaret had already broken the pact by her engagement to Billy Wallace as it wasn't revealed until many years later. ",
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"plaintext": "In October 1993, a friend of Margaret revealed she had met Townsend for what turned out to be the last time before his death in 1995. She hadn't wanted to attend the reunion they'd both been invited to, in 1992, for fear it might be picked up by the press, so she asked to see him privately instead. Margaret said that he looked \"exactly the same, except he had grey hair\". Guests said he hadn't really changed, and that they just sat chatting like old friends. They also found him disgruntled and had convinced himself that in agreeing to part, he and Margaret had set a noble example which seemed to have been in vain.",
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"plaintext": "Billy Wallace later said that \"The thing with Townsend was a girlish nonsense that got out of hand. It was never the big thing on her part that people claim\". Margaret accepted one of Wallace's many proposals to marry in 1956, but the engagement ended before an official announcement when he admitted to a romance in the Bahamas; \"I had my chance and blew it with my big mouth\", Wallace said. Margaret did not reveal this publicly until an interview and subsequent biography with Nigel Dempster in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Margaret met the photographer Antony Armstrong-Jones at a supper party in 1958. They became engaged in October 1959. Armstrong-Jones proposed to Margaret with a ruby engagement ring surrounded by diamonds in the shape of a rosebud. She reportedly accepted his proposal a day after learning from Townsend that he intended to marry a young Belgian woman, Marie-Luce Jamagne, who was half his age and greatly resembled Margaret. Margaret's announcement of her engagement, on 26 February 1960, surprised the press, as she had concealed the romance from reporters.",
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"plaintext": "Margaret married Armstrong-Jones at Westminster Abbey on 6 May 1960. The ceremony was the first royal wedding to be broadcast on television, and it attracted viewing figures of 300 million worldwide. 2,000 guests were invited for the wedding ceremony. Margaret's wedding dress was designed by Norman Hartnell and worn with the Poltimore tiara. She had eight young bridesmaids, led by her niece, Princess Anne. The Duke of Edinburgh escorted the bride, and the best man was Dr Roger Gilliatt. The Archbishop of Canterbury Geoffrey Fisher conducted the marriage service. Following the ceremony, the couple made the traditional appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace. The honeymoon was a six-week Caribbean cruise aboard the royal yacht Britannia. As a wedding present, Colin Tennant gave her a plot of land on his private Caribbean island, Mustique. The newlyweds moved into rooms in Kensington Palace.",
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"plaintext": "In 1961, Margaret's husband was created Earl of Snowdon. The couple had two children (both born by Caesarean section at Margaret's request): David, born 3 November 1961, and Sarah, born 1 May 1964. The marriage widened Margaret's social circle beyond the Court and aristocracy to include show business celebrities and bohemians. At the time, it was thought to reflect the breaking down of British class barriers. The Snowdons experimented with the styles and fashions of the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Reportedly, Margaret had her first extramarital affair in 1966, with her daughter's godfather Anthony Barton, a Bordeaux wine producer. A year later she had a one-month liaison with Robin Douglas-Home, a nephew of former British Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home. Margaret claimed that her relationship with Douglas-Home was platonic, but her letters to him (which were later sold) were intimate. Douglas-Home, who suffered from depression, died by suicide 18 months after the split with Margaret. Claims that she was romantically involved with musician Mick Jagger, actor Peter Sellers, and Australian cricketer Keith Miller are unproven. According to biographer Charlotte Breese, entertainer Leslie Hutchinson had a \"brief liaison\" with Margaret in 1955. A 2009 biography of actor David Niven included assertions, based on information from Niven's widow and a good friend of Niven's, that he had had an affair with the princess, who was 20 years his junior. In 1975, the Princess was listed among women with whom actor Warren Beatty had had romantic relationships. John Bindon, an actor from Fulham, who had spent time in prison, sold his story to the Daily Mirror, boasting of a close relationship with Margaret.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 1970s, the Snowdons had drifted apart. In September 1973, Colin Tennant introduced Margaret to Roddy Llewellyn. Llewellyn was 17 years her junior. In 1974, she invited him as a guest to Les Jolies Eaux, the holiday home she had built on Mustique. It was the first of several visits. Margaret described their relationship as \"a loving friendship\". Once, when Llewellyn left on an impulsive trip to Turkey, Margaret became emotionally distraught and took an overdose of sleeping tablets. \"I was so exhausted because of everything\", she later said, \"that all I wanted to do was sleep\". As she recovered, her ladies-in-waiting kept Lord Snowdon away from her, afraid that seeing him would distress her further.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1976, a picture of Margaret and Llewellyn in swimsuits on Mustique was published on the front page of a tabloid, the News of the World. The press portrayed Margaret as a predatory older woman and Llewellyn as her toyboy lover. On 19 March 1976, the Snowdons publicly acknowledged that their marriage had irretrievably broken down. Some politicians suggested removing Margaret from the civil list. Labour MPs denounced her as \"a royal parasite\" and a \"floosie\". On 24 May 1978, the decree nisi for their divorce was granted. In the same month, Margaret was taken ill, and diagnosed as suffering from gastroenteritis and alcoholic hepatitis, although Warwick denied that she was ever an alcoholic. On 11 July 1978, the Snowdons' divorce was finalised. It was the first divorce of a senior member of the British royal family since Princess Victoria Melita of Edinburgh's in 1901. On 15 December 1978, Snowdon married Lucy Lindsay-Hogg, but he and Margaret remained close friends.",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, Llewellyn married Tatiana Soskin, whom he had known for 10 years. Margaret remained close friends with them both.",
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"plaintext": "Among Margaret's first official engagements was launching the ocean liner Edinburgh Castle in Belfast in 1947. Subsequently, Margaret went on multiple tours of various places; in her first major tour she joined her parents and sister for a tour of South Africa in 1947. Her tour aboard Britannia to the British colonies in the Caribbean in 1955 created a sensation throughout the West Indies, and calypsos were dedicated to her. As colonies of the British Commonwealth of Nations sought nationhood, Princess Margaret represented the Crown at independence ceremonies in Jamaica in 1962 and Tuvalu and Dominica in 1978. Her visit to Tuvalu was cut short by an illness, which may have been viral pneumonia, and she was flown to Australia to recuperate. Other overseas tours included East Africa and Mauritius in 1956, the United States in 1965, Japan in 1969 and 1979, the United States and Canada in 1974, Australia in 1975, the Philippines in 1980, Swaziland in 1981, and China in 1987.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1979, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, and members of his family were killed by a bomb planted by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. That October, while on a fundraising tour of the United States on behalf of the Royal Opera House, Margaret was seated at a dinner reception in Chicago with columnist Abra Anderson and Mayor Jane Byrne. Margaret told them that the royal family had been moved by the many letters of condolence from Ireland. The following day, Anderson's rival Irv Kupcinet published a claim that Margaret had referred to the Irish as \"pigs\". Margaret, Anderson and Byrne all issued immediate denials, but the damage was already done. The rest of the tour drew demonstrations, and Margaret's security was doubled in the face of physical threats.",
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"plaintext": "Her main interests were welfare charities, music and ballet. She was president of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) and of the Royal Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (Children 1st) and Invalid Children's Aid Nationwide (also called 'I CAN'). She was Grand President of the St John Ambulance Brigade and Colonel-in-Chief of Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. She was also the president or patron of numerous organisations, such as the West Indies Olympic Association, the Girl Guides, Northern Ballet Theatre, Birmingham Royal Ballet, Scottish Ballet, Tenovus Cancer Care, the Royal College of Nursing, and the London Lighthouse (an AIDS charity that has since merged with the Terrence Higgins Trust). In her capacity as president of the Royal Ballet, she played a key role in launching a fund for Dame Margot Fonteyn, who was experiencing financial troubles. With the help of the Children's Royal Variety Performance, she also organised yearly fundraisers for NSPCC. At some points Margaret was criticised for not being as active as other members of the royal family.",
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"plaintext": "The Princess's later life was marred by illness and disability. She began smoking cigarettes in her early teens and had continued to smoke heavily for many years thereafter. In the 1970s, she suffered a nervous breakdown and was treated for depression by Mark Collins, a psychiatrist from the Priory Clinic. Later on, she suffered from migraines, laryngitis, and bronchitis. On 5 January 1985, she had part of her left lung removed; the operation drew parallels with that of her father over 30 years earlier. In 1991, she gave up smoking, though she continued to drink heavily.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1993, she was admitted to hospital for pneumonia. She experienced a mild stroke on 23 February 1998 at her holiday home in Mustique. Early the following year, the Princess suffered severe scalds to her feet in a bathroom accident, which affected her mobility in that she required support when walking and sometimes used a wheelchair. She was hospitalised on 10 January 2001, due to loss of appetite and swallowing problems after a further stroke. By March 2001, strokes had left her with partial vision and paralysis on the left side. Margaret's last public appearances were at the 101st birthday celebrations of her mother in August 2001, and the 100th birthday celebration of her aunt, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, that December.",
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"plaintext": "Princess Margaret died in the King Edward VII's Hospital, London, at 06:30 (GMT) on 9 February 2002, at the age of 71, one day after having suffered another stroke that was followed by cardiac problems and three days after the 50th anniversary of her father's death. The Prince of Wales paid tribute to his aunt in a television broadcast. UK politicians and foreign leaders sent their condolences as well. Following her death, private memorial services were held at St Mary Magdalene Church and Glamis Castle.",
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"plaintext": "Margaret's coffin, draped in her personal standard, was taken from Kensington Palace to St James's Palace before her funeral. The funeral was held on 15 February 2002, the 50th anniversary of her father's funeral. In line with her wishes, the ceremony was a private service at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, for family and friends. Unlike most other members of the royal family, Princess Margaret was cremated, at Slough Crematorium. Her ashes were placed in the Royal Vault in St George's Chapel before being transferred to the tomb of her parents, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (who died seven weeks after Margaret), in the King George VI Memorial Chapel two months later. A state memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 19 April 2002. Another memorial service to mark the 10th anniversary of Margaret and the Queen Mother's death was held on 30 March 2012 at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, which was attended by the Queen and other members of the royal family.",
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"plaintext": "Observers often characterised Margaret as a spoiled snob capable of cutting remarks and hauteur. Critics claimed that she even looked down on her grandmother Queen Mary because Mary was born a princess with the lower \"Serene Highness\" style, whereas Margaret was a \"Royal Highness\" by birth. Their letters, however, provide no indication of friction between them.",
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"plaintext": "Margaret could also be charming and informal. People who came into contact with her could be perplexed by her swings between frivolity and formality. Former governess Marion Crawford wrote in her memoir: \"Impulsive and bright remarks she made became headlines and, taken out of their context, began to produce in the public eye an oddly distorted personality that bore little resemblance to the Margaret we knew.\"",
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"plaintext": "Margaret's acquaintance Gore Vidal, the American writer, wrote: \"She was far too intelligent for her station in life\". He recalled a conversation with Margaret in which, discussing her public notoriety, she said: \"It was inevitable, when there are two sisters and one is the Queen, who must be the source of honour and all that is good, while the other must be the focus of the most creative malice, the evil sister\".",
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"plaintext": "As a child, Margaret enjoyed pony shows, but unlike other family members she did not express interest in hunting, shooting, and fishing in adulthood. She became interested in ballet from a very young age and enjoyed participating in amateur plays. She directed one such play, titled The Frogs, with her aristocratic friends as cast members. Actors and movie stars were among the regular visitors to her residence at Kensington Palace. In January 1981, she was the castaway in an episode of BBC Radio 4‘s Desert Island Discs. There she chose Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake as her favourite piece of music. In 1984, she appeared as herself in an episode of the radio drama The Archers, becoming the first member of the royal family to take part in a BBC drama.",
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"plaintext": "The Independent wrote in Townsend's 1995 obituary that \"The immense display of popular sentiment and interest [in the relationship] can now be seen to have constituted a watershed in the nation's attitude towards divorce\". The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Church received much of the popular anger toward the end of the relationship. Randolph Churchill believed that rumours \"that Fisher had intervened to prevent the Princess from marrying Townsend has done incalculable harm to the Church of England\"; a Gallup poll found that 28% agreed, and 59% disagreed, with the Church's refusal to remarry a divorced person while the other spouse was alive. Biographer Warwick suggests that Margaret's most enduring legacy is an accidental one. Perhaps unwittingly, Margaret paved the way for public acceptance of royal divorce. Her life, if not her actions, made the decisions and choices of her sister's children, three of whom divorced, easier than they otherwise would have been.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2007, an exhibition titled Princess Line – The Fashion Legacy of Princess Margaret opened at Kensington Palace, showcasing contemporary fashion from British designers such as Vivienne Westwood inspired by Princess Margaret's legacy of style. Christopher Bailey's Spring 2006 collection for Burberry was inspired by Margaret's look from the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "In her lifetime, Margaret's fortune was estimated to be around £20 million, with most of it being inherited from her father. She also inherited pieces of art and antiques from Queen Mary, and Dame Margaret Greville left her £20,000 in 1943. In 1999, her son, Lord Linley, sold his mother's Caribbean residence Les Jolies Eaux for a reported £2.4 million. At the time of her death Margaret received £219,000 from the Civil List. Following her death, she left a £7.6 million estate to her two children, which was cut down to £4.5 million after inheritance tax. In June 2006, much of Margaret's estate was auctioned by Christie's to meet the tax and, in her son's words, \"normal family requirements such as educating her grandchildren\", though some of the items were sold in aid of charities such as the Stroke Association. Reportedly, the Queen had made it clear that the proceeds from any item that was given to her sister in an official capacity must be donated to charities. A world record price of £1.24million was set by a Fabergé clock. The Poltimore Tiara, which she wore for her wedding in 1960, sold for £926,400. The sale of her effects totalled £13,658,000.",
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"plaintext": "Actresses who have portrayed Margaret include Lucy Cohu (The Queen's Sister, 2005), Katie McGrath (The Queen, 2009), Ramona Marquez (The King's Speech, 2010), Bel Powley (A Royal Night Out, 2015), and Vanessa Kirby and Helena Bonham Carter (The Crown, 2016–present). Lesley Manville will portray her in seasons 5 and 6 of The Crown. The 2008 bank heist movie, The Bank Job, revolves around alleged photos of Margaret. The character \"Pantomime Princess Margaret\" appeared in four separate sketches, in three different episodes, of the BBC's 1970s surreal comedy show Monty Python's Flying Circus.",
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"plaintext": "11 December 1936 – 6 October 1961: Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret",
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"plaintext": ", Japanese princess",
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38,569 | 1,100,083,415 | 1155 | [
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38,571 | 1,106,671,462 | Adenine | [
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"plaintext": "|- ",
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"plaintext": "| ",
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"plaintext": "| ",
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"plaintext": "|- ",
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"plaintext": "| Adenosine, A",
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"plaintext": "| Deoxyadenosine, dA",
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"plaintext": "In older literature, adenine was sometimes called Vitamin B4. Due to it being synthesized by the body and not essential to be obtained by diet, it does not meet the definition of vitamin and is no longer part of the Vitamin B complex. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), respectively. Hermann Emil Fischer was one of the early scientists to study adenine.",
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"plaintext": "It was named in 1885 by Albrecht Kossel after Greek ἀδήν aden \"gland\", in reference to the pancreas, from which Kossel's sample had been extracted.",
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"plaintext": "Experiments performed in 1961 by Joan Oró have shown that a large quantity of adenine can be synthesized from the polymerization of ammonia with five hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules in aqueous solution; whether this has implications for the origin of life on Earth is under debate.",
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"plaintext": "On August 8, 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting building blocks of DNA and RNA (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space. In 2011, physicists reported that adenine has an \"unexpectedly variable range of ionization energies along its reaction pathways\" which suggested that \"understanding experimental data on how adenine survives exposure to UV light is much more complicated than previously thought\"; these findings have implications for spectroscopic measurements of heterocyclic compounds, according to one report.",
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"plaintext": " Vitamin B4 MS Spectrum",
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"Purines",
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38,572 | 1,100,083,421 | 1192 | [
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"plaintext": " King Stefan Radoslav of Serbia (d. 1234)",
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"plaintext": " Saint Margaret of England, English saint",
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"plaintext": " Rashid ad-Din Sinan, the \"Old Man of the Mountain\", leader of the Hashashin sect (b. 1132/1135)",
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"plaintext": " Prithviraj Chauhan, King of the Chauhan Dynasty (b. 1166)",
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"1192"
] | 19,739 | 407 | 40 | 48 | 0 | 0 | 1192 | year | [] |
38,574 | 1,100,083,442 | 1158 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1158 (MCLVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " Albert I (the Proud), margrave of Meissen (d. 1195)",
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"plaintext": " Baldwin of Bethune, French nobleman (d. 1212)",
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"plaintext": " Ermengol VIII (or Armengol), count of Urgell (d. 1208)",
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"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Ietaka, Japanese (waka) poet (d. 1237)",
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"plaintext": " Giordano Forzatè, Italian religious leader (d. 1248)",
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"plaintext": " Jinul (or Chinul), Korean Zen Master (d. 1210)",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early Bronze Age, covering some 24–30 dunams centered around Tel Rumeida. The city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age. This older Hebron was originally a Canaanite royal city. Abrahamic legend associates the city with the Hittites. It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital of Shuwardata of Gath, an Indo-European (Canaanite) contemporary of Jerusalem's regent, Abdi-Kheba, although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age. The Abrahamic traditions associated with Hebron are nomadic. This may also reflect a Kenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city, and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan. In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of Anak (benê/yelîdê hā'ănaq). or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian. This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population. In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim. The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath-arba, or \"city of four\", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters, four hills, or a confederated settlement of four families.",
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"plaintext": "The story of Abraham's purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land in that it signified the first \"real estate\" of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua. In settling here, Abraham is described as making his first covenant, an alliance with two local Amorite clans who became his ba’alei brit or masters of the covenant.",
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"plaintext": "The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre.",
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"plaintext": "It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either Joshua, who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants, \"destroying everything that drew breath, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded\", or the Tribe of Judah as a whole, or specifically Caleb the Judahite. The town itself, with some contiguous pasture land, is then said to have been granted to the Levites of the clan of Kohath, while the fields of the city, as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb (), who expels the three giants, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, who ruled the city. Later, the biblical narrative has King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years (). It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel. It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David (). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge.",
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"plaintext": "As is shown by the discovery at Lachish, the second most important city in the Kingdom of Judah after Jerusalem, of seals with the inscription lmlk Hebron (to the king Hebron), Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic centre, given its strategic position on the crossroads between the Dead Sea to the east, Jerusalem to the north, the Negev and Egypt to the south, and the Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west. Lying along trading routes, it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.",
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"plaintext": "After the destruction of the First Temple, most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled, and according to the conventional view, some researchers found traces of Edomite presence after the 5th–4th centuries BCE, as the area became Achaemenid province, and, in the wake of Alexander the Great's conquest, Hebron was throughout the Hellenistic period under the influence of Idumea (as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods), as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with the Edomite God Qōs. Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the Babylonian exile (). During the Maccabean revolt, Hebron was burnt and plundered by Judah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE. The city appears to have long resisted Hasmonean dominance, however, and indeed as late as the First Jewish–Roman War was still considered Idumean.",
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"plaintext": "The present day city of Hebron was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times.",
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"plaintext": "Herod the Great, king of Judea, built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Hebron was captured and plundered by Simon Bar Giora, a leader of the Zealots, without bloodshed. The \"little town\" was later laid to waste by Vespasian's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis. Josephus wrote that he \"slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town.\" After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's Terebinth slave-market.",
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"plaintext": "The city was part of the Byzantine Empire in Palaestina Prima province at the Diocese of the East. The Byzantine emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE, which was later destroyed by the Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II's armies besieged and took Jerusalem. Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule. The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians, in deference to the Jewish population, who were numerous in the Sassanid army.",
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"plaintext": "Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest. When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque. It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus. After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.",
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"plaintext": "Catholic bishop Arculf, who visited the Holy Land during the Umayyad period, described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time. Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev (al-Naqab) and the population to the east of the Dead Sea (Baḥr Lūṭ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and Tyre) founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century.",
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"plaintext": "Islam did not view the town as significant before the 10th century, it being almost absent in Muslim literature of the period. Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi, writing in 985 described the town as follows:Habra (Hebron) is the village of Abraham al-Khalil (the Friend of God)...Within it is a strong fortress...being of enormous squared stones. In the middle of this stands a dome of stone, built in Islamic times, over the sepulchre of Abraham. The tomb of Isaac lies forward, in the main building of the mosque, the tomb of Jacob to the rear; facing each prophet lies his wife. The enclosure has been converted into a mosque, and built around it are rest houses for the pilgrims, so that they adjoin the main edifice on all sides. A small water conduit has been conducted to them. All the countryside around this town for about half a stage has villages in every direction, with vineyards and grounds producing grapes and apples called Jabal Nahra...being fruit of unsurpassed excellence...Much of this fruit is dried, and sent to Egypt.",
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"plaintext": "In Hebron is a public guest house continuously open, with a cook, a baker and servants in regular attendance. These offer a dish of lentils and olive oil to every poor person who arrives, and it is set before the rich, too, should they wish to partake. Most men express the opinion this is a continuation of the guest house of Abraham, however, it is, in fact from the bequest of the sahaba (companion) of the prophet Muhammad Tamim-al Dari and others.... The Amir of Khurasan...has assigned to this charity one thousand dirhams yearly, ...al-Shar al-Adil bestowed on it a substantial bequest. At present time I do not know in all the realm of al-Islam any house of hospitality and charity more excellent than this one.",
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"plaintext": "The custom, known as the 'table of Abraham' (simāt al-khalil), was similar to the one established by the Fatimids, and in Hebron's version, it found its most famous expression. The Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusraw who visited Hebron in 1047 records in his Safarnama that",
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"plaintext": "Geniza documents from this period refer only to \"the graves of the patriarchs\" and reveal there was an organised Jewish community in Hebron who had a synagogue near the tomb, and were occupied with accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During the Seljuk period, the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, who was known as the \"haver of the graves of the patriarchs.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Caliphate lasted in the area until 1099, when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it \"Castellion Saint Abraham\". It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and given, in turn, as the fief of Saint Abraham, to Geldemar Carpinel, the bishop Gerard of Avesnes, Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As a Frankish garrison of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, its defence was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'. The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem, according to Ali of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and \"a number of Franks had made their entrance therein\". And they discovered \"(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob\", \"their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more\". Similar information is given in Ibn at Athir's Chronicle under the year 1119; \"In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver.\" The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian. Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote,On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.",
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"plaintext": "A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to Philip of Milly in 1161 and joined with the Seigneurie of Transjordan. A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram. In 1167, the episcopal see of Hebron was created along with that of Kerak and Sebastia (the tomb of John the Baptist).",
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"plaintext": "In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the city, which he called by its Frankish name, St. Abram de Bron. He reported:Here there is the great church called St. Abram, and this was a Jewish place of worship at the time of the Mohammedan rule, but the Gentiles have erected there six tombs, respectively called those of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah. The custodians tell the pilgrims that these are the tombs of the Patriarchs, for which information the pilgrims give them money. If a Jew comes, however, and gives a special reward, the custodian of the cave opens unto him a gate of iron, which was constructed by our forefathers, and then he is able to descend below by means of steps, holding a lighted candle in his hand. He then reaches a cave, in which nothing is to be found, and a cave beyond, which is likewise empty, but when he reaches the third cave behold there are six sepulchres, those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, respectively facing those of Sarah, Rebekah and Leah.",
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"plaintext": "The Kurdish Muslim Saladin retook Hebron in 1187 – again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition, in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to the city and build a synagogue there. The name of the city was changed back to Al-Khalil. A Kurdish quarter still existed in the town during the early period of Ottoman rule. Richard the Lionheart retook the city soon after. Richard of Cornwall, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan As-Salih Ayyub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.",
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"plaintext": "In 1244, the Khwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.",
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"plaintext": "In 1260, after Mamluk Sultan Baibars defeated the Mongol army, the minarets were built onto the sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary, and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior Ayyubid rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th-century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns.",
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"plaintext": "The mill at Artas was built in 1307, and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron. Between 1318–20, the Na'ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.",
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"plaintext": "Hebron was visited by some important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them Nachmanides (1270) and Ishtori HaParchi (1322) who noted the old Jewish cemetery there. Sunni imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) was penalised by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognise Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site, a view also held by his teacher Ibn Taymiyyah.",
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"plaintext": "The Italian traveller, Meshulam of Volterra (1481) found not more that twenty Jewish families living in Hebron. and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with a veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews.",
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"plaintext": "Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), by Felix Fabri (1483) and by Mejr ed-Din It was in this period, also, that the Mamluk Sultan Qa'it Bay revived the old custom of the Hebron \"table of Abraham,\" and exported it as a model for his own madrasa in Medina. This became an immense charitable establishment near the Haram, distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travellers of all faiths. The Italian rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490: I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.",
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"plaintext": "The expansion of the Ottoman Empire along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan Selim I coincided with the establishment of Inquisition commissions by the Catholic Monarchs in Spain in 1478, which ended centuries of the Iberian convivencia (coexistence). The ensuing expulsions of the Jews drove many Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with some notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron. Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.",
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"plaintext": "The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century. In 1540, renowned kabbalist Malkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard from the small Karaite community, in which he established the Sephardic Abraham Avinu Synagogue. In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le'Abraham yeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students. In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717–1729, and were \"almost crushed\" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community, who paid up to avert a threatened catastrophe, after a false allegation was made accusing them of having murdered the son of a local sheikh and throwing his body into a cesspit.> Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds.",
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"plaintext": "During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity. Ali Bey who, under Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham. Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production, abetted by Bedouin trade networks which brought up minerals from the Dead Sea, and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century Western travellers to Palestine. For example, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron, based on 26 kilns. In 1833, a report on the town appearing in a weekly paper printed by the London-based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron's population had 400 Arab families, had numerous well-provisioned shops and that there was a manufactory of glass lamps, which were exported to Egypt. Early 19th-century travellers also noticed Hebron's flourishing agriculture. Apart from glassware, it was a major exporter of dibse, grape sugar, from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.",
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"plaintext": "An Arab peasants' revolt broke out in April 1834 when Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population. Hebron, headed by its nazir Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising. The town was invested and, when its defences fell on 4 August, it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army. An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during the general pillage of the town at least five were killed. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000. When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem. In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (serasker), Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha, waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman, the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of Bayt Jibrin), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.",
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"plaintext": "According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that:\"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian, the Lubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823. The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha devastated for a time the local glass industry for, aside from the loss of life, his plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, and firewood for the kilns grew rarer. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass, the rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan eliminated Hebron as a staging point, and the Suez canal (1869) dispensed with caravan trade. The consequence was a steady decline in the local economy.",
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"plaintext": "At this time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter (Harat al-Kadim) near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south, the Quarter of the Silk Merchant (Harat al-Kazaz), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter (Harat ash Sheikh) to the north-west;and further north, the Dense Quarter (Harat al-Harbah). In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman pasha (\"governor\") of the sanjak (\"district\") of Jerusalem, Kamil Pasha, attempted to subdue the rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855, with representatives from the English, French and other Western consulates as witnesses. After crushing all opposition, Kamil appointed Salama Amr, the brother and strong rival of Abd al Rachman, as nazir of the Hebron region. After this relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years. Hungarian Jews of the Karlin Hasidic court settled in another part of the city in 1866. According to Nadav Shragai Arab-Jewish relations were good, and Alter Rivlin, who spoke Arabic and Syrian-Aramaic, was appointed Jewish representative to the city council. Hebron suffered from a severe drought during 1869–71 and food sold for ten times the normal value. From 1874 the Hebron district as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem was administered directly from Istanbul. By 1874, during C.R. Conder's visit to Hebron under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, the city's Jewish community had swollen to about 600, compared to 17,000 Muslims. The Jews were confined to the Quarter of the Corner Gate.",
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"plaintext": "Late in the 19th century the production of Hebron glass declined due to competition from imported European glass-ware, however, the products of Hebron continued to be sold, particularly among the poorer populace and travelling Jewish traders from the city. At the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna, Hebron was represented with glass ornaments. A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly. While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, Hebron was the only city in Palestine that combined agriculture, livestock herding and trade, including the manufacture of glassware and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits. The city, nevertheless, was considered unproductive and had a reputation \"being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual.\" Differing in architectural style from Nablus, whose wealthy merchants built handsome houses, Hebron's main characteristic was its semi-urban, semi-peasant dwellings.",
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"plaintext": "Hebron was 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic', and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook, with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews. It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, but both the Jewish and Christian communities were apparently well integrated into the town's economic life. As a result of its commercial decline, tax revenues diminished significantly, and the Ottoman government, avoiding meddling in complex local politics, left Hebron relatively undisturbed, to become 'one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine.'.",
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"plaintext": "The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.",
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"plaintext": "The British occupied Hebron on 8 December 1917; governance transited to a mandate in 1920. Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments (waqfs), with about 60% of all the land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamīm al-Dārī waqf. In 1922, its population stood at 16,577, of which 16,074 (97%) were Muslim, 430 (2.5%) were Jewish and 73 (0.4%) were Christian. During the 1920s, Abd al-Ḥayy al-Khaṭīb was appointed Mufti of Hebron. Before his appointment, he had been a staunch opponent of Haj Amin, supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists. Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron. During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership. The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress, after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections. Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927.",
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"plaintext": "The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council.",
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"plaintext": "At this time following attempts by the Lithuanian government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the Lithuanian Hebron Yeshiva (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between Rabbi Nosson Tzvi Finkel, Yechezkel Sarna and Moshe Mordechai Epstein. and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States. The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues. During the 1929 Hebron massacre, Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbours, who hid them. Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre. Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of the Palestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the UN partition vote, the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city. Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed. By late 1948, part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and Glubb Pasha sent 350 Arab Legionnaires and an armoured car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When the Armistice was signed, the city thus fell under Jordanian military control. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1948, the Jericho Conference was convened to decide the future of the West Bank which was held by Jordan. Hebron notables, headed by mayor Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari, voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.",
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"plaintext": "Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period, Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town. During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.",
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"plaintext": "After the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel occupied Hebron along with the rest of the West Bank, establishing a military government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal, Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan. According to the Allon Plan, the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron. David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement. Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable, settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters. For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.",
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"plaintext": "Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout. Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron. In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace. On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood. Beit HaShalom, established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation. All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel. He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929. The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers', and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus. Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers.",
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"plaintext": "Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja’bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.",
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"plaintext": "Following the 1995 Oslo Agreement and subsequent 1997 Hebron Agreement, Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, with the exception of Hebron, which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the Old City of Hebron – remained under the military control of Israel. Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. , a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron. The IDF (Israel Defense Forces) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF. The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.",
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"plaintext": "The Palestinian population in H2 has greatly declined because of the impact of Israeli security measures, including extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement, and the closure of Palestinian commercial activities near settler areas, and also due to settler harassment.",
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"plaintext": "Palestinians are barred from using Al-Shuhada Street, a principal commercial thoroughfare. As a result, about half the Arab shops in H2 have gone out of business since 1994.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of observing the situation in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incident reports over those 20 years, found that Israel routinely violates international law in Hebron and that it is in \"severe and regular breach\" of the rights to non-discrimination laid out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights over the lack of freedom to movement for the Palestinian residents of Hebron. The report found that Israel is in regular violation of Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. The report also found the presence of any Israeli settlement in Hebron to violate international law.",
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"plaintext": "Post-1967 settlement was impelled by theological doctrines developed in the Mercaz HaRav Kook under both its founder Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, and his son Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, according to which the Land of Israel is holy, the people, endowed with a divine spark, are holy, and that the messianic Age of Redemption has arrived, requiring that the Land and People be united in occupying the land and fulfilling the commandments. Hebron has a particular role in the unfolding 'cosmic drama': traditions hold that Abraham purchased land there, that King David was its king, and the tomb of Abraham covers the entrance to the Garden of Eden, and was a site excavated by Adam, who is buried there with Eve. The doctrines hold that redemption will occur when the feminine and masculine characteristics of God are united at the site. In this meta, settling Hebron is not only a right and duty, but is doing the world at large a favour, with the community's acts an example of the Jews of Hebron being \"a light unto the nations\" (Or la-Goyim) and bringing about their redemption, even if this means breaching secular laws, expressed in religiously motivated violence towards Palestinians, who are widely viewed as \"mendacious, vicious, self-centered, and impossible to trust\". Clashes with Palestinians in the settlement project have theological significance in the Jewish Hebron community: the frictions of war were, in Kook's view, conducive to the messianic process, and that Arabs will have to leave. There is no kin connection between the new settlers and the traditional Old Families of Jewish Hebronites, who vigorously oppose the new settler presence in Hebron.",
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"plaintext": "In the spring of 1968, Rabbi Moshe Levinger, together with a group of Israelis posing as Swiss tourists, rented from its owner Faiz Qawasmeh the main hotel in Hebron and then refused to leave. The Labor government's survival depended on the religious Zionism-associated National Religious Party and was, under pressure of this party, reluctant to evacuate the settlers. Defence Minister Moshe Dayan ordered their evacuation but agreed to their relocation to the nearby military base on the eastern outskirts of Hebron which was to become the settlement Kiryat Arba. After heavy lobbying by Levinger, the settlement gained the tacit support of Levi Eshkol and Yigal Allon, while it was opposed by Abba Eban and Pinhas Sapir. After more than a year and a half, the government agreed to legitimize the settlement. The settlement was later expanded with the nearby outpost Givat Ha’avot, north of the Cave of the Patriarchs. ",
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"plaintext": "Much of the Hebron-Kiryat Arba operation was planned and financed by the Movement for Greater Israel. According to a ruling given by the Israeli Supreme Court in 2011, Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron and Tel Rumeida before 1948, and have no right to compensation for their losses.",
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"plaintext": "Originally named Hesed l'Avraham clinic, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of Jewish Baghdadi families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed after Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.",
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"plaintext": "In 1979, after several attempts by Israeli men had failed to succeed in taking possession of the building, then known as the Dabouia, 15 settler mothers and their 35 children drove down to it and squatted there, and managed to camp in the building for a year, exploiting the government's indecision at the time, when it was engaged in negotiations with Egypt to hand back the Sinai peninsula The calculation was that the state would 'balance out' the unpopular decision to hand back conquered territory by committing itself to greater control of the West Bank. A group of settlers led by Miriam Levinger moved into the Dabouia, the former Hadassah Hospital in central Hebron, then under Arab administration. They turned it into a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement inside Hebron and founded the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron near the Abraham Avinu Synagogue. The take-over created severe conflict with Arab shopkeepers in the same area; a retaliatory action by a Palestinian guerilla group killed six yeshiva students. The shopkeepers appealed twice to the Israeli Supreme Court, without success. With this precedent, in February of the following year, the Government legitimized residency in the city of Hebron proper, allowing 50 armed families under military guard to dwell in a fortified structure in the heart of the Old City of Palestinian Hebron. The pattern of settlement followed by an outbreak of hostilities with local Palestinians was repeated later at Tel Rumeida.",
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"plaintext": "Beit Romano was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano of Constantinople and served Sephardi Jews from Turkey. In 1901, a Yeshiva was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students.",
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},
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"plaintext": "In 1982, Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office (Osama Ben Munqez School) and the adjacent bus station. The school was turned into a settlement, and the bus station into a military base against an order of the Israeli Supreme Court.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Israeli settlements",
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"plaintext": "In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri (Haim the Jewish Egyptian) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots in Tel Rumeida. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called (Ramat Yeshai). In 1998, the Government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 the Defence Minister approved the building of the first housing units.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Israeli settlements",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Abraham Avinu Synagogue was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine. It was the centre of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the 1929 riots. In 1948 under Jordanian rule, the remaining ruins were razed.",
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"plaintext": "The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets on Al-Shuhada Street in the south of the Old City. The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighbouring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers. Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores, despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation. The IDF has enforced settler demands against the flying of Palestinian flags on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice. In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of Plugat Hamitkanim in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "In late 2019, the Israeli Defense Minister Naftali Bennett instructed the military administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighbourhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after the Cave of the Patriarch's massacre. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron. In 1838, Hebron had an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, in addition to 41 Jewish tax-payers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'. The total population was estimated at 10,000. In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the latter having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Demographics",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: the suq and Harat al-Masharqa adjacent to the Ibrahimi mosque, the silk merchant quarter (Haret Kheitun) to the south and the Sheikh quarter (Haret al-Sheikh) to the north. It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Urban development",
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"plaintext": "In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared. The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding the cave of Machpelah, the Haret Kheitun (the Jewish quarter, Haret el-Yahud), the Haret el-Sheikh and the Druze quarter. As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighbourhoods. By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial centre, Bab el-Zawiye, emerged. As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west. In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it. By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters: el-Sheikh and Bab el-Zawiye to the west, el-Kazzazin, el-Akkabi and el-Haram in the centre, el-Musharika to the south and el-Kheitun in the east. Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945. The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along the Hebron-Jerusalem highway, stretching northwards for over at a depth of 600ft (200m) either way. Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land. There was less development to the south-east, where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile (1.5km).",
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"plaintext": "In 1971, with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments, the Hebron University, an Islamic university, was founded.",
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"plaintext": "In an attempt to enhance the view of the Ibrahami Mosque, Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site. The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Urban development",
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"plaintext": "Today, the area along the north-south axis to the east comprises the modern town of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron, Khalil Foq). It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who from there from the crowded old city, Balde al-Qadime (also called Lower Hebron, Khalil Takht). The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two hotels in the city. The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along the Jerusalem Road, and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls. Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the krum, rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period. The southern part is where the working-class neighbourhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and the Hebron Polytechnic University.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Urban development",
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},
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"plaintext": "The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the centre of the city. This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads which lead to the entrance of the old city. Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial centre of the city, known as the vegetable market (hesbe), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s. The vegetable market is now located in the square of Bab el-Zawiye.",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
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"plaintext": "From the 1970s to the early 1990s, a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry. According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat, the number reached least 35,000 people and there were more than 1,000 workshops around the city. Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40,000 people employed in 1,200 shoe businesses. However, the 1993 Oslo Accords and 1994 Protocol on Economic Relations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority, which was created after the Oslo Accords, did not regulate it. They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat, who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries's chairman, said more is still needed. The Palestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Shoe industry",
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"plaintext": "90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper, and the Chinese are more aesthetic. Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry is Israeli restrictions on Palestinian exports.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Shoe industry",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Today, there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry, who only run part-time, and they employ around 3,000–4,000 people. More than 50% of the shoes are exported to Israel, where consumers have a better economy. Less than 25% goes to the Palestinian market, with some going to Jordan, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.",
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{
"plaintext": "Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League) rejected it, opposing any partition. The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of Jordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with the Hebron Agreement, Israel withdrew from 80 per cent of Hebron which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.",
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"plaintext": "An international unarmed observer force—the Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) was subsequently established to help the normalization of the situation and to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jewish population residing in their enclave in the old city. The TIPH operates with the permission of the Israeli government, meeting regularly with the Israeli army and the Israeli Civil Administration, and is granted free access throughout the city. In 2018, the TIPH came under criticism in Israel due to incidents where an employee was, according to the Israeli police, filmed puncturing the tires of the car of an Israeli settler, and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.",
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{
"plaintext": "Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the Palestinian Authority. IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police the Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with.",
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"plaintext": "Since The Oslo Agreement, violent episodes have been recurrent in the city. The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre took place on February 25, 1994 when Baruch Goldstein, an Israeli physician and resident of Kiryat Arba, opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Ibrahimi Mosque, killing 29, and wounding 125 before the survivors overcame and killed him. Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews, even if they were shooting Arabs. This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing Kach party was banned as a result. The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street. The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites.",
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"plaintext": "Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada, the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada, and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighbourhoods. 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in an ambush. Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass. The sniper was caught in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Kach movement, a designated terrorist organization, whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behaviour in other settlements. Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from where the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks. In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "Israeli organization B'Tselem states that there have been \"grave violations\" of Palestinian human rights in Hebron because of the \"presence of the settlers within the city.\" The organization cites regular incidents of \"almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city\", curfews and restrictions of movement that are \"among the harshest in the Occupied Territories\", and violence by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city's H2 sector. According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian areas of Hebron are frequently subject to indiscriminate firing by the IDF, leading to many casualties. One former IDF soldier, with experience in policing Hebron, has testified to Breaking the Silence, that on the briefing wall of his unit a sign describing their mission aim was hung that read: \"To disrupt the routine of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood.\" Hebron mayor Mustafa Abdel Nabi invited the Christian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment, home demolitions and land expropriation.",
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"plaintext": "A violent episode occurred on 2 May 1980, when an Al Fatah squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at the Tomb of the Patriarchs. The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join the Jewish Underground. On July 26, 1983, Israeli settlers attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.",
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"plaintext": "The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to \"ensure the security of the Jewish settlers\" and that Israeli \"soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Old City of Hebron was a declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 7 July 2017, despite opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it not being called Israeli or Jewish.",
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"plaintext": "The most famous historic site in Hebron is the Cave of the Patriarchs. The Herodian era structure is said to enclose the tombs of the biblical Patriarchs and Matriarchs. The Isaac Hall now serves as the Ibrahimi mosque, while the Abraham and Jacob Hall serve as a synagogue. The tombs of other biblical figures (Abner ben Ner, Otniel ben Kenaz, Ruth and Jesse) are also located in the city.",
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"plaintext": "The Oak of Sibta (Oak of Abraham) is an ancient tree which, in non-Jewish tradition, is said to mark the place where Abraham pitched his tent. The Russian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearby Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery, consecrated in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its Mamluk architecture. Many structures were built during the period, especially Sufi zawiyas. Mosques from the era include the Sheikh Ali al-Bakka and Al-Jawali mosque. The early Ottoman Abraham Avinu Synagogue in the city's historic Jewish quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738.",
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"plaintext": "Some Jewish traditions regarding Adam place him in Hebron after his expulsion from Eden. Another has Cain kill Abel there. A third has Adam and Eve buried in the cave of Machpelah. A Jewish-Christian tradition had it that Adam was formed from the red clay of the field of Damascus, near Hebron. A tradition arose in medieval Jewish texts that the Cave of the Patriarchs itself was the very entrance to the Garden of Eden. During the Middle Ages, pilgrims and the inhabitants of Hebron would eat the red earth as a charm against misfortune. Others report that the soil was harvested for export as a precious medicinal spice in Egypt, Arabia, Ethiopia and India and that the earth refilled after every digging. Legend also tells that Noah planted his vineyard on Mount Hebron. In medieval Christian tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities where Elizabeth was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of John the Baptist.",
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"plaintext": "One Islamic tradition has it that Muhammad alighted in Hebron during his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes. Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part of Tamim al-Dari's domain; this was implemented during Umar's reign as caliph. According to the arrangement, al-Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and the waqf of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them.",
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"plaintext": "The simat al-Khalil or \"Table of Abraham\" is attested to in the writings of the 11th century Persian traveller Nasir-i Khusraw. According to the account, this early Islamic food distribution center — which predates the Ottoman imarets — gave all visitors to Hebron a loaf of bread, a bowl of lentils in olive oil, and some raisins.",
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"plaintext": "Frenkel, Yehoshua (2011). Hebron — An Islamic Sacred City (634–1099) (in JSTOR) (חברון — עיר קודש אסלאמית 634–1099 לסה\"נ) (Catedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv, issue 141, p.27 – 52) ",
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"plaintext": "Settlement Encroachments in Hebron Old City. Photo's/maps of settlements and closed roads. Hebron Rehabilitation Committee, 1 April 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight paths in curved spacetime. These straight paths are called geodesics. As in Newton's first law of motion, Einstein believed that a force applied to an object would cause it to deviate from a geodesic. For instance, people standing on the surface of the Earth are prevented from following a geodesic path because the mechanical resistance of the Earth exerts an upward force on them. This explains why moving along the geodesics in spacetime is considered inertial.",
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"plaintext": "Einstein's description of gravity was quickly accepted by the majority of physicists, as it was able to explain a wide variety of previously baffling experimental results. In the coming years, a wide range of experiments provided additional support for the idea of general relativity. Today, Einstein's theory of relativity is used for all gravitational calculations where absolute precision is desired, although Newton's inverse-square law continues to be a useful and fairly accurate approximation.",
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"plaintext": "In modern physics, general relativity remains the framework for the understanding of gravity. Physicists continue to work to find solutions to the Einstein field equations that form the basis of general relativity, while some scientists have speculated that general relativity may not be applicable at all in certain scenarios. ",
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"plaintext": "The Einstein field equations are a system of 10 partial differential equations which describe how matter effects the curvature of spacetime. The system is often expressed in the following simplified form:",
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"plaintext": "where is the Einstein tensor, is the metric tensor, is the stress–energy tensor, is the cosmological constant, is Newton's gravitational constant and is the speed of light. The term is sometimes referred to as the Einstein gravitational constant .",
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"plaintext": "A major area of research is the discovery of exact solutions to the Einstein field equations. Solving these equations amounts to calculating a precise value for the metric tensor (which defines the curvature and geometry of spacetime) under certain physical conditions. There is no formal definition for what constitutes such solutions, but most scientists agree that they should be expressable using elementary functions or linear differential equations. Some of the most notable solutions of the equations include: ",
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"plaintext": " The Schwarzschild solution, which describes spacetime surrounding a spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged massive object. For compact enough objects, this solution generated a black hole with a central singularity. At points far away from the central mass, the accelerations predicted by the Schwarzschild solution are practically identical to those predicted by Newton's theory of gravity.",
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"plaintext": " The Reissner-Nordström solution, which analyzes a non-rotating spherically symmetric object with charge and was independently discovered by several different researchers between 1916 and 1921. In some cases, this solution can predict the existence of black holes with double event horizons.",
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"plaintext": " The Kerr solution, which generalizes the Schwarzchild solution to rotating massive objects. Because of the difficulty of factoring in the effects of rotation into Einstein's field equations, this solution was not discovered until 1963.",
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"plaintext": " The Kerr-Newman solution for charged, rotating massive objects. This solution was derived in 1964, using the same technique of complex coordinate transformation that was used for the Kerr solution. ",
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"plaintext": " The cosmological Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker solution, discovered in 1922 by Alexander Friedmann and then confirmed in 1927 by Georges Lemaître. This solution was revolutionary for predicting the expansion of the Universe, which was confirmed seven years later after a series of measurements by Edwin Hubble. It even showed that general relativity was incompatible with a static universe, and Einstein later conceded that he had been wrong to design his field equations to account for a Universe that was not expanding.",
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"plaintext": "Today, there remain many important situations in which the Einstein field equations have not been solved. Chief among these is the two-body problem, which concerns the geometry of spacetime around two mutually interacting massive objects (such as the Sun and the Earth, or the two stars in a binary star system). The situation gets even more complicated when considering the interactions of three or more massive bodies (the \"n-body problem\"), and some scientists suspect that the Einstein field equations will never be solved in this context. However, it is still possible to construct an approximate solution to the field equations in the n-body problem by using the technique of post-Newtonian expansion. In general, the extreme nonlinearity of Einstein's field equations makes it difficult to solve them in all but the most specific cases.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its success in predicting the effects of gravity at large scales, general relativity is ultimately incompatible with quantum mechanics. This is because general relativity describes gravity as a smooth, continuous distortion of spacetime, while quantum mechanics holds that all forces arise from the exchange of discrete particles known as quanta. This contradiction is especially vexing to physicists because the other three fundamental forces (strong force, weak force and electromagnetism) were reconciled with a quantum framework decades ago. As a result, modern researchers have begun to search for a theory that could unite both gravity and quantum mechanics under a more general framework.",
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"plaintext": "One path is to describe gravity in the framework of quantum field theory, which has been successful to accurately describe the other fundamental interactions. The electromagnetic force arises from an exchange of virtual photons, where the QFT description of gravity is that there is an exchange of virtual gravitons. This description reproduces general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length, where a more complete theory of quantum gravity (or a new approach to quantum mechanics) is required.",
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"plaintext": "Testing the predictions of general relativity has historically been difficult, because they are almost identical to the predictions of Newtonian gravity for small energies and masses. Still, since its development, an ongoing series of experimental results have provided support for the theory:",
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"plaintext": " In 1919, the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington was able to confirm the predicted gravitational lensing of light during that year's solar eclipse. Eddington measured starlight deflections twice those predicted by Newtonian corpuscular theory, in accordance with the predictions of general relativity. Although Eddington's analysis was later disputed, this experiment made Einstein famous almost overnight and caused general relativity to become widely accepted in the scientific community.",
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"plaintext": " In 1959, American physicists Robert Pound and Glen Rebka performed an experiment in which they used gamma rays to confirm the prediction of gravitational time dilation. By sending the rays down a 74-foot tower and measuring their frequency at the bottom, the scientists confirmed that light is redshifted as it moves towards a source of gravity. The observed redshift also supported the idea that time runs more slowly in the presence of a gravitational field.",
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"plaintext": " The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was first identified by Irwin I. Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals.",
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"plaintext": "In 1971, scientists discovered the first-ever black hole in the galaxy Cygnus. The black hole was detected because it was emitting bursts of x-rays as it consumed a smaller star, and it came to be known as Cygnus X-1. This discovery confirmed yet another prediction of general relativity, because Einstein's equations implied that light could not escape from a sufficiently large and compact object.",
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"plaintext": "General relativity states that gravity acts on light and matter equally, meaning that a sufficiently massive object could warp light around it and create a gravitational lens. This phenomenon was first confirmed by observation in 1979 using the 2.1 meter telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, which saw two mirror images of the same quasar whose light had been bent around the galaxy YGKOW G1.",
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"plaintext": "Frame dragging, the idea that a rotating massive object should twist spacetime around it, was confirmed by Gravity Probe B results in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the LIGO observatory detected faint gravitational waves, the existence of which had been predicted by general relativity. Scientists believe that the waves emanated from a black hole merger that occurred 1.5 billion light-years away.",
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"plaintext": "Every planetary body (including the Earth) is surrounded by its own gravitational field, which can be conceptualized with Newtonian physics as exerting an attractive force on all objects. Assuming a spherically symmetrical planet, the strength of this field at any given point above the surface is proportional to the planetary body's mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the center of the body.",
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"plaintext": "The strength of the gravitational field is numerically equal to the acceleration of objects under its influence. The rate of acceleration of falling objects near the Earth's surface varies very slightly depending on latitude, surface features such as mountains and ridges, and perhaps unusually high or low sub-surface densities. For purposes of weights and measures, a standard gravity value is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, under the International System of Units (SI).",
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"plaintext": "The force of gravity on Earth is the resultant (vector sum) of two forces: (a) The gravitational attraction in accordance with Newton's universal law of gravitation, and (b) the centrifugal force, which results from the choice of an earthbound, rotating frame of reference. The force of gravity is weakest at the equator because of the centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation and because points on the equator are furthest from the center of the Earth. The force of gravity varies with latitude and increases from about 9.780m/s2 at the Equator to about 9.832m/s2 at the poles. Canada's Hudson Bay has less gravity than any place on Earth.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest gravity (possibly in the form of quantum gravity, supergravity or a gravitational singularity), along with ordinary space and time, developed during the Planck epoch (up to 10−43 seconds after the birth of the Universe), possibly from a primeval state (such as a false vacuum, quantum vacuum or virtual particle), in a currently unknown manner.",
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"plaintext": "General relativity predicts that energy can be transported out of a system through gravitational radiation. The first indirect evidence for gravitational radiation was through measurements of the Hulse–Taylor binary in 1973. This system consists of a pulsar and neutron star in orbit around one another. Its orbital period has decreased since its initial discovery due to a loss of energy, which is consistent for the amount of energy loss due to gravitational radiation. This research was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1993.",
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"plaintext": "The first direct evidence for gravitational radiation was measured on 14 September 2015 by the LIGO detectors. The gravitational waves emitted during the collision of two black holes 1.3 billion-light years from Earth were measured. This observation confirms the theoretical predictions of Einstein and others that such waves exist. It also opens the way for practical observation and understanding of the nature of gravity and events in the Universe including the Big Bang. Neutron star and black hole formation also create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation. This research was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2012, a research team in China announced that it had produced measurements of the phase lag of Earth tides during full and new moons which seem to prove that the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light. This means that if the Sun suddenly disappeared, the Earth would keep orbiting the vacant point normally for 8 minutes, which is the time light takes to travel that distance. The team's findings were released in the Chinese Science Bulletin in February 2013.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2017, the LIGO and Virgo detectors received gravitational wave signals within 2 seconds of gamma ray satellites and optical telescopes seeing signals from the same direction. This confirmed that the speed of gravitational waves was the same as the speed of light.",
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"plaintext": "There are some observations that are not adequately accounted for, which may point to the need for better theories of gravity or perhaps be explained in other ways.",
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"plaintext": " Extra-fast stars: Stars in galaxies follow a distribution of velocities where stars on the outskirts are moving faster than they should according to the observed distributions of normal matter. Galaxies within galaxy clusters show a similar pattern. Dark matter, which would interact through gravitation but not electromagnetically, would account for the discrepancy. Various modifications to Newtonian dynamics have also been proposed.",
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"plaintext": " Flyby anomaly: Various spacecraft have experienced greater acceleration than expected during gravity assist maneuvers.",
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"plaintext": " Accelerating expansion: The metric expansion of space seems to be speeding up. Dark energy has been proposed to explain this. A recent alternative explanation is that the geometry of space is not homogeneous (due to clusters of galaxies) and that when the data are reinterpreted to take this into account, the expansion is not speeding up after all, however this conclusion is disputed.",
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"plaintext": " Anomalous increase of the astronomical unit: Recent measurements indicate that planetary orbits are widening faster than if this were solely through the Sun losing mass by radiating energy.",
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"plaintext": " Extra energetic photons: Photons travelling through galaxy clusters should gain energy and then lose it again on the way out. The accelerating expansion of the Universe should stop the photons returning all the energy, but even taking this into account photons from the cosmic microwave background radiation gain twice as much energy as expected. This may indicate that gravity falls off faster than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.",
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"plaintext": " Extra massive hydrogen clouds: The spectral lines of the Lyman-alpha forest suggest that hydrogen clouds are more clumped together at certain scales than expected and, like dark flow, may indicate that gravity falls off slower than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.",
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"plaintext": " Aristotelian theory of gravity",
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"plaintext": " Le Sage's theory of gravitation (1784) also called LeSage gravity but originally proposed by Fatio and further elaborated by Georges-Louis Le Sage, based on a fluid-based explanation where a light gas fills the entire Universe.",
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"plaintext": " Ritz's theory of gravitation, Ann. Chem. Phys. 13, 145, (1908) pp.267–271, Weber-Gauss electrodynamics applied to gravitation. Classical advancement of perihelia.",
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"plaintext": " Nordström's theory of gravitation (1912, 1913), an early competitor of general relativity.",
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"plaintext": " Kaluza Klein theory (1921)",
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"plaintext": " Whitehead's theory of gravitation (1922), another early competitor of general relativity.",
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"plaintext": " Brans–Dicke theory of gravity (1961)",
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"plaintext": " Induced gravity (1967), a proposal by Andrei Sakharov according to which general relativity might arise from quantum field theories of matter",
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"plaintext": "String theory (late 1960s)",
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"plaintext": " ƒ(R) gravity (1970)",
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"plaintext": " Horndeski theory (1974)",
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"plaintext": " Supergravity (1976)",
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"plaintext": " In the modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) (1981), Mordehai Milgrom proposes a modification of Newton's second law of motion for small accelerations",
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"plaintext": " The self-creation cosmology theory of gravity (1982) by G.A. Barber in which the Brans-Dicke theory is modified to allow mass creation",
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"plaintext": " Loop quantum gravity (1988) by Carlo Rovelli, Lee Smolin, and Abhay Ashtekar",
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38,581 | 1,101,059,745 | Poltava | [
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"plaintext": "Poltava (, ; ) is a city located on the Vorskla River in central Ukraine. It is the capital city of the Poltava Oblast (province) and of the surrounding Poltava Raion (district) of the oblast. Poltava is administratively incorporated as a city of oblast significance and does not belong to the raion. It has a population of ",
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"plaintext": "It is still unknown when Poltava was founded, although the town was not attested before 1174. However, for reasons unknown, municipal authorities chose to celebrate the city's 1100th anniversary in 1999. The settlement is indeed an old one, as archeologists unearthed a Paleolithic dwelling as well as Scythian remains within the city limits.",
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"plaintext": "The present name of the city is traditionally connected to the settlement Ltava which is mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle in 1174. According to the chronicle, on Saint Peter's Day (12 July) of 1182, Igor Sviatoslavich, chasing hordes of the Cuman khans Konchak and Kobiak, crossed the Vorskla River near Ltava and moved towards Pereiaslav), where Igor's army was victorious over the Cumans. During the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1238–39 many cities of the middle Dnipro region were destroyed, possibly including Ltava.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid 14th century the region was part of the Duchy of Kyiv, which was a vassal of the Algirdas' Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to the Russian historian Aleksandr Shennikov, the region around modern Poltava was a Cuman Duchy belonging to Mansur, who was a son of Mamai. Shennikov also claims that the Mansur Duchy joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as an associated state rather than a vassal state, and that the city of Poltava already existed at that time. In 1399, Mansur's army assisted the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army in the battle of the Vorskla River, while a legend says that after the battle, the Cossack Mamay helped Vytautas to escape his death.",
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"plaintext": "The city is mentioned for the first time under the name of Poltava no later than 1430. Supposedly, in 1430 the Lithuanian duke Vytautas gave the city, along with Glinsk (today a village near the city of Romny) and Glinitsa, to Murza Olexa (Loxada Mansurxanovich), who moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the Golden Horde. In 1430 Murza Olexa was baptized as Alexander Glinsky, who was a progenitor of the Glinsky family. According to Shenninkov, Alexander Glinsky must have been baptized in 1390 by Cyprian, Metropolitan of Kyiv, who had just regained his title of Metropolitan of Kyiv and all Russia (rather than the Metropolitan of Russia Minor and Lithuania) and on 6 March 1390 permanently moved to Muscovy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1482 Poltava was razed by the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray.",
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"plaintext": "In 1537 Ografena Vasylivna Glinska (Baibuza) passed Poltava to her son-in-law Mykhailo Ivanovych Hrybunov-Baibuza.",
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"plaintext": "After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the territory around Poltava became part of the Crown of Poland. In 1630 Poltava was passed to a Polish magnate, Bartholomew Obalkowski. In 1641 it changed ownership again, to Alexander Koniecpolski. In 1646 Poltava became part of Wiśniowiecki Ordynatsia (a large Wiśniowiecki estate in Left-bank Ukraine centered in Lubny), governed by the Ruthenian-Polish magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki (1612–51). ",
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"plaintext": "In 1648 the city became the base of a distinguished regiment of Ukrainian Cossacks, and served as a Cossack stronghold during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. In 1650, to commemorate a victory of the Cossack Host over the Polish army at the Poltavka River, the Metropolitan of Kyiv, Sylvester Kossov, ordered the establishment of the monastery of the Exaltation of the Cross in Poltava. The project was financed by a number of prominent local residents, including Martyn Pushkar, Ivan Iskra, Ivan Kramar and many others.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1654 Pereyaslav Council, the Poltava city delegates pledged their allegiance to the Czar of Muscovy, after which stolnik Andrei Spasitelev arrived in Poltava and recorded 1,335 residents who had pledged their allegiance. In 1658 Poltava became a center of anti-government revolt led by Martyn Pushkar, who contested the legitimacy of Ivan Vyhovsky's election to the post of Hetman of Zaporizhian Host. The uprising was extinguished with the help of Crimean Tatars. ",
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"plaintext": "On the issue boyar Vasily Borisovich Sheremetev wrote to Alexei Mikhailovich on 8 June 1658: \"... the Cherkas [Cossack] city of Plotava is ravaged and burned to the ground and only if the Great Sovereign orders to rebuilt on the Tatar Sokma (pathway) of Bakeyev Route and protect many his sovereign cities from Tatar visits. And if the Great Sovereign allows to place a voivode in the city and rebuilt the city until the fall that in Plotava Cherkasy [Cossacks] and residents built their houses and stock-piled their food\". With the signing of the 1667 truce of Andrusovo, the city was finally subjected to the Tsardom of Muscovy, while remaining part of the Cossack Hetmanate.",
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"plaintext": "The city suffered from the Great Turkish War when in 1695 Petro Ivanenko led an anti-Muscovite uprising with the help of Crimean Tatars, who ravaged the local monastery. The same year the Poltava Regiment actively participated in the Azov campaigns which resulted in the taking of the Turkish fortress of Kyzy-Kermen (today the city of Beryslav, Kherson Oblast). On 8 July (New Style) or 27 June (Old Style) 1709 the Battle of Poltava took place near the city during the Great Northern War. The battle ended in a decisive victory of Peter I of Russia over the Swedish forces and had great historical importance for the Russians. In 1710 there was a plague in the city and its surrounding area. In the mid-18th century the Kolomak Woods near Poltava became a base of haidamaks (Cossack paramilitary bands).",
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"plaintext": "By 1770 Poltava had several brick factories, a regimental doctor, and a pharmacy; that same year the city conducted four fairs. In 1775 it became a city of Novorossiysk Governorate, guarded by the 8th Company of the Dnieper Pike Regiment headquartered in Kobeliaky. In 1775 Poltava's Monastery of the Exaltation of the Cross (, Krestovozdvizhensky Monastyr) became the seat of bishops of the newly created Eparchy (Diocese) of Slaviansk and Kherson. This large new diocese included the lands of the Novorossiya Governorate and the Azov Governorate north of the Black Sea.",
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"plaintext": "Since much of that area had only recently been seized from the Ottoman Empire by Russia, and a large number of Orthodox Greek settlers had been invited to settle in the region, the Imperial Government selected a renowned Greek scholar, Eugenios Voulgaris, to preside over the new diocese. After his retirement in 1779, he was replaced by another Greek theologian, Nikephoros Theotokis.",
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"plaintext": "In 1779 the city established the Poltava county school, which became its first secular educational institution. In 1787 Catherine the Great stopped in Poltava on the way from Crimea, escorted by Grigori Potemkin, Alexander Suvorov and Mikhail Kutuzov. In Poltava, on 7 June 1787, before another Russo-Turkish War, Potemkin received his title \"Prince of Taurida\", while Suvorov received a snuffbox with monogram. In 1802 the city became the seat of the newly established Poltava Governorate. The city's population in 1802 consisted of some 8,000 residents. That same year Poltava opened a government-funded hospital of 20 beds.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 February 1808 the Poltava Male Gymnasium was established. On 20 June 1808 some 54 families of craftsmen were invited to the city from German principalities and settled in the newly established German Sloboda neighborhood with about 50 clay-made houses. In 1810 there were 8,328 people living in Poltava; that same year, the city's first theater was built. In August 1812, on orders of Little Russia Governor General Lobanov-Rostovsky, the famed Ukrainian writer and statesman Ivan Kotlyarevsky formed the 5th Poltava Cavalry Cossack Regiment.",
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"plaintext": "In World War II, the Nazi Wehrmacht occupied Poltava from 18 September 1941 until 23 September 1943, when it was retaken during the Chernigov-Poltava Strategic Offensive of the Battle of the Dnieper. During the Nazi occupation the Jewish population (9.9% of the total population in 1939) was imprisoned in a ghetto before being murdered during mass executions perpetrated by an Einsatzgruppe and buried in mass graves in the area. ",
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"plaintext": "By the summer of 1944 the United States Army Air Forces conducted a number of shuttle bombing raids against Nazi Germany under the name of Operation Frantic. Poltava Air Base, as well as Myrhorod Air Base, were used as eastern locations for landing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers involved in those operations.",
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"plaintext": "The post-war restoration of Poltava continued in the 1950s and 1960s. The city became an important centre of military education in the Soviet Union, where missile and communications officers were prepared, and was also home to a Soviet Air Force division of heavy bombers.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb), with four distinct seasons, it is one of the coldest cities in Ukraine. The annual precipitation is fairly evenly distributed, with the highest concentration in summer, and which falls as snow in winter.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava's government consists of the 50-member Poltava City Council () which is headed by the Secretary (currently Oleksandr Kozub). The city's current mayor is Oleksandr Mamay, who was sworn in on 4 November 2010 after being elected with more than 61 percent of the vote. In 2015 he was re-elected as a candidate of Conscience of Ukraine with 62.9% in a second round of Mayoral election.",
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"plaintext": " Shevchenkivsky Raion, to the south-west with an area of 2077 hectares and a population of 147,600 in 2005. It's a largely residential area and includes the city centre.",
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"plaintext": " Kyivsky Raion, is the largest by area, comprising 5437 hectares, or 52.8% of the city total situated in the north and north-west. Its census in 2005 was 111,900. This district has a large industrial zone.",
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"plaintext": " Podilsky Raion, to the east and south-east, in the valley of the Vorskla river, with an area of 2988 hectares and a population of 53,700 in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava's transportation infrastructure consists of two major train stations with railway links to Kyiv, Kharkiv, and Kremenchuk. Poltava's Kyiv line is electrified and is used by the Poltava Express. The electrification of the Poltava-Kharkiv line was completed in August 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava is also served by an International Airport, situated outside the city limits near the village of Ivashky. The international highway M03, linking Poltava with Kyiv and Kharkiv, passes through the southern outskirts of the city. There is also a regional highway P-17 crossing Poltava and linking it with Kremenchuk and Sumy.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava has always been one of the most important science and education centres in Ukraine. Major universities and institutions of higher education include the following:",
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"plaintext": " Poltava National Pedagogical University named after V. G. Korolenko",
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"plaintext": " National University \"Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic\"",
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"plaintext": " Poltava Agrarian State Academy",
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"plaintext": " Poltava State Medical University as Poltava Medical And Dental University In 2021, Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy(UMSA) changed to Poltava State Medical University(PSMU)",
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"plaintext": " Poltava University of Economics and Trade",
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"plaintext": " Poltava Military Institute of Connections",
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"plaintext": " Poltava Law Institute of Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University",
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"plaintext": "Poltava branch of the State Academy of Statistics, region and audit to the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine",
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"plaintext": "Astronomy",
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"plaintext": " Poltava gravimetric observatory (PGO) is situated a bit north from city centre (27–29 Miasoyedov St.). Its main work directions are measurements of Earth rotation, latitude variations (applying zenith stars observations, lunar occultation observations and other)",
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"plaintext": " Observational station of PGO in rural area, some 20km east along the M03-E40 highway. Radiotelescope URAN-2 (Ukrainian: УРАН-2) is situated there too.",
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"plaintext": "Poltava is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria (1963)",
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"plaintext": " Ostfildern, Germany",
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"plaintext": " The murder of the Jews of Poltava during World War II, at Yad Vashem website.",
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"plaintext": "Charles XIV John (; born Jean Bernadotte; 26 January 1763 – 8 March 1844) was King of Sweden and Norway from 1818 until his death in 1844. Before his reign he was a Marshal of France during the Napoleonic Wars and participated in several battles. In modern Norwegian lists of kings he is called Charles III John (). He was the first monarch of the Bernadotte dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Pau in southern France, Bernadotte joined the French Royal Army in 1780. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, he exhibited great military talent, rapidly rising through the ranks, and was made a brigadier general by 1794. He served with distinction in Italy and Germany, and was briefly Minister of War. His relationship with Napoleon was turbulent; nevertheless, Napoleon named him a Marshal of the Empire on the proclamation of the French Empire. Bernadotte played a significant role in the French victory at Austerlitz, and was made Prince of Pontecorvo as a reward. Bernadotte was, through marriage to Désirée Clary, brother-in-law to Joseph Bonaparte, and thus a member of the extended Imperial family.",
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"plaintext": "In 1810, Bernadotte was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive (Crown Prince) to the childless King Charles XIII of Sweden, thanks to the advocacy of Baron Carl Otto Mörner, a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates. He assumed the name Charles John and was named regent, and generalissimo of the Swedish Armed Forces, soon after his arrival becoming de facto head of state for most of his time as Crown Prince. In 1813, following the sudden unprovoked French invasion of Swedish Pomerania, Crown Prince Charles John was instrumental in the creation of the Sixth Coalition by allying with Tsar Alexander and using Swedish diplomacy to bring warring Russia and Britain together in alliance. He then authored the Trachenberg Plan, the war winning Allied campaign plan, and commanded the Allied Army of the North that defeated two concerted French attempts to capture Berlin and made the decisive attack on the last day of the catastrophic French defeat at Leipzig.",
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"plaintext": "After the War of the Sixth Coalition, Charles John forced King Frederick VI of Denmark to cede Norway to Sweden, leading to the Swedish–Norwegian War of 1814 where Norway was defeated after a single summer's conflict. This put Norway into a union with Sweden, which lasted for almost a century before being peacefully dissolved in 1905. The Swedish–Norwegian war is credited as Sweden's last direct conflict and war.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the death of Charles XIII in 1818, Charles John ascended to the thrones. He presided over a period of peace and prosperity, and reigned until his death in 1844.",
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"plaintext": "Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte was born on 26 January 1763 in Pau, the capital of the province of Béarn in the southwestern part of the Kingdom of France. He was the son of Jean Henri Bernadotte (1711–1780), prosecutor at Pau, and his wife (married at Boeil, 20 February 1754) Jeanne de Saint-Jean (1728–1809), niece of the lay abbot of Sireix. The family name was originally du Poey (or de Pouey), but was changed to Bernadotte—a surname of an ancestress at the beginning of the 17th century. He was the youngest of five siblings, two of whom died in childhood. Soon after his birth, Baptiste was added to his name, to distinguish him from his elder brother Jean Évangeliste. Bernadotte himself added Jules to his first names as a tribute to the French Empire under Napoleon I.",
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"plaintext": "Bernadotte joined the army as a private in the Régiment Royal–La Marine on 3 September 1780, and first served in the newly conquered territory of Corsica. Subsequently, the Régiment stationed in Besançon, Grenoble, Vienne, Marseille and Île de Ré. He reached the rank of sergeant in August 1785 and was nicknamed Sergeant Belle-Jambe, for his smart appearance. In early 1790 he was promoted to Adjutant-Major, the highest rank for non-commissioned officers in the Ancien Régime.",
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"plaintext": "Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. Bernadotte's promotions came both from the esteem of his commanders as well as from his men; having been elected to the rank of lieutenant colonel and colonel by his men, though he refused both nominations in favor of traditional advancement.",
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"plaintext": "It was during this period of rapid advancement that the military qualities he became known for, daring assaults and gasconades, came to the fore. Of the latter, Bernadotte was gifted in his ability to inspire his men to prodigious feats of valor. As Colonel and commander of the 71st Demi-Brigade, Bernadotte rallied his men, who were retreating in disorder before an Austrian attack, by tearing off his epaulettes, throwing them to the ground before his men and shouting “If you dishonor yourselves by flight, I refuse to remain your colonel!” Soldiers left the ranks, gathered his epaulettes, pressed them into his hands, formed ranks and reformed the line and counter-attacked.",
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"plaintext": "By 1794 he was promoted to brigadier, attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794), where he distinguished himself with a decisive attack and seizure of key terrain that led to the Austrian retreat, he became a divisional general.",
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"plaintext": "Bernadotte played key roles throughout the next 18 months during the three French invasions into Germany; often employed in the place of honor during offensives leading the vanguard, and in retreat as a defensive specialist commanding the rearguard.",
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"plaintext": "At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), where the Austrians outnumbered the French three to one, Bernadotte's rear-guard successfully repulsed numerous attacks while inflicting heavy losses on the enemy, preventing the Archduke Charles from cutting off the retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Austrians at the Battle of Würzburg.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of 1797 he was ordered by the Directory to march with 20,000 men as reinforcements to Napoleon Bonaparte's army in Italy. His successful crossing of the Alps through the storm in midwinter was highly praised but coldly received by the Italian Army. Upon receiving insult from Dominique Martin Dupuy, the commander of Milan, Bernadotte was to arrest him for insubordination. However, Dupuy was a close friend of Louis-Alexandre Berthier and this started a long-lasting feud between Bernadotte and Napoleon's Chief of Staff.",
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"plaintext": "He had his first interview with Napoleon in Mantua and was appointed the commander of the 4th division. During the invasion of Friuli and Istria, Bernadotte distinguished himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento where he led the vanguard, and at the capture of the fortress of Gradisca (19 March 1797). After the 18th Fructidor, Napoleon ordered his generals to collect from their respective divisions' addresses in favor of the coup d'état of that day; but Bernadotte sent an address to the directory different from that which Napoleon wished for and without conveying it through Napoleon's hands.",
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"plaintext": "After the Treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon gave Bernadotte a friendly visit at his headquarters at Udine, but immediately after deprived him of half his division of the army of the Rhine, and commanded him to march the other half back to France. Paul Barras, one of five directors, was cautious that Napoleon would overturn the Republic, so he appointed Bernadotte commander-in-chief of the Italian Army in order to offset Napoleon's power. Bernadotte was pleased with this appointment but Napoleon lobbied Talleyrand-Périgord, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, to appoint him to the embassy of Vienna instead. Bernadotte was very dissatisfied; he finally accepted the post in Vienna, but had to quit owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy.",
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"plaintext": "After returning from Vienna, he resided in Paris. He married Désirée Clary in August 1798, the daughter of a Marseilles merchant, and once engaged to Napoleon, and Joseph Bonaparte's sister-in-law. In November of the same year he was made commander of the army of observation on the upper Rhine. Although solicited to do so by Barras and Joseph Bonaparte, he did not take part in the coup d'état of the 30th Prairial. From 2 July to 14 September he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability. However, his popularity and contacts with radical Jacobins aroused antipathy towards him in the government. On the morning of 13 September he found his resignation announced in the Moniteur before he was aware that he had tendered it. This was a trick; played upon him by Sieyès and Roger Ducos, the directors allied to Napoleon.",
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"plaintext": "Though Bernadotte declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his coup d'état of November 1799, Napoleon was resolved to win over the \"Obstacle Man\" and showered him with honors. Napoleon acknowledged Bernadotte's administrative ability and influence by naming him a Councillor of State in February 1800. In April 1800, despite his Republican sympathies, Bernadotte was offered, and freely accepted, from April 1800 to 18 August 1801, the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the West in the rebellious Vendée where he successfully restored its tranquility. This was seen as an appointment of trust as while Napoleon embarked on his summer Italian Campaign, where he ultimately prevailed at the Battle of Marengo, he left Bernadotte not far from Paris with an army. In his farewell note to Bernadotte on his way to Italy, Napoleon wrote: \"I am going to fling myself once more into the hazards of war. We do not know how it may turn out. If I fall, you will find yourself with 40,000 men at the gates of Paris. In your hands will be the fate of the Republic.\" As Bernadotte was brother-in-law to Joseph and close friends with his other brothers and sisters, Napoleon is thought to have been considering the welfare of his family in the possible event of his death on the battlefield, as well as the future of the country, by leaving his erstwhile rival in a position to seize the reins of government as, of his former rivals, only Bernadotte had the political and military skill and popularity to maintain the Republic.",
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"plaintext": "In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte proposed that Bernadotte head to New France to serve as governor of Louisiana, which was to be transferred back to French control following the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. In accepting the position, Bernadotte requested additional soldiers, settlers, and funding to support the colony, but Napoleon refused. In response, Bernadotte, declined the posting and instead was named plenipotentiary ambassador to the United States. His posting was cancelled, however, after the Sale of Louisiana.",
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"plaintext": "On the introduction of the First French Empire, Bernadotte became one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire, and from June 1804 to September 1805 served as governor of the recently occupied Hanover. In this capacity, as well as during his later command of the army of northern Germany, he created for himself a reputation for independence, incorruptibility, moderation, and administrative ability. Bernadotte's rule was popular, and despite the exactions taken from the populace as part of Napoleon's policy of making occupations pay for themselves, Hanover's economy prospered. Bernadotte extended his protection, and made private contributions to, Gottingen University, befriending many of the professors and other men of learning whom he often had over for dinner and employed to tutor himself and his wife. ",
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"plaintext": "During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte, with his army corps from Hanover formed into the I Corps, commanded the Left Wing of the Grand Army overseeing Auguste de Marmont's II Corps and having the majority of the Bavarian Army attached to his command; some 65,000 men or 1/4th of the Army. Bernadotte was also tasked with assuring France's newest ally, the Elector of Bavaria, Maximillian Joseph, that the Austrians would be driven from his country.",
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"plaintext": "Bernadotte, with Davout's III Corps attached to his command, and the Bavarians, gained a victory over the Austrians driving them out of Munich on 12 October, taking some 3000 prisoners and 19 guns and installing Maximillian Joseph back onto his throne. I Corps then co-operated in the great movement which resulted in the shutting off of Mack in the Battle of Ulm. Bernadotte's troops then captured Salzburg on 30 October.",
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"plaintext": "In the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805) he was posted with his corps in the center between Soult and Lannes, and contributed to defeating the attempt of the right wing of the allies to outflank the French army. As a reward for his services at Austerlitz, he became the 1st Sovereign Prince of Ponte Corvo (5 June 1806), a district of Naples formerly subject to the Pope.",
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"plaintext": "However, during the campaign against Prussia, in the same year, he was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstädt (14 October 1806). Napoleon, on the night of 13 October, thinking he had faced the whole Prussian army at Jena, sent orders to Davout, through Marshal Berthier, Davout relayed the order to Bernadotte at 0400 on 14 October with the order stating: \"If the Prince of Ponte Corvo [Bernadotte] is with you, you may both march together, but the Emperor hopes that he will be in the position which had been indicated at Dornburg.\" This was in accordance with Bernadotte's last set of written orders from 12 October which ordered him and Davout to get across the Prussian line of retreat. In pursuance of these orders, Bernadotte, separately from Davout, left Naumburg at dawn on the morning of the 14th for Dornburg and marched towards Apolda, which he reached by 16:00. Hampered by the very poor state of the roads, and a steep defile within which Dornburg is situated and the narrow bridge which passes over the Saale, that could pass but one artillery piece at a time according to General Dupont, he could not engage in the Battle of Jena, though he effectively compelled the Prussians to retreat from both battlefields by posting his troops on the heights of Apolda.",
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"plaintext": "The defile was such an obstacle that Bernadotte's 3rd Infantry division, commanded by Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon, was still in the midst of crossing the bridge well after nightfall, making it unlikely that Bernadotte could have intervened at Auerstädt in any event. Afterwards, Bernadotte was accused of deliberately refusing to support Davout, who had unexpectedly encountered the Prussian main army at Auerstädt, out of jealousy, and Napoleon, if reminiscences from St. Helena may be believed, once intended to put Bernadotte before a court-martial. In fact, he did what he had been ordered to do, and more fundamental responsibility for his absence rests upon the ambiguous and indirect orders issued by Berthier and Napoleon's unawareness of the Prussian position. Documentary evidence supports Bernadotte's assertion that he was ordered to Dornberg as no orders from Napoleon to Bernadotte to march with Davout were ever found in French Imperial Archives while Berthier's order of 14 October were confirmed.",
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"plaintext": "After the Battle of Jena, Bernadotte crushed the Prussian Reserve Army, all fresh troops fortified behind a marsh and the River Saale, under Duke Eugen of Württemberg at Halle (17 October 1806), though Imperial Headquarters did not much appreciate this victory. When visiting Halle after the battle, and commenting on the degree of difficulty of storming a fortified position accessible only by a single bridge, Napoleon enigmatically commented \"Bernadotte stops at nothing. Someday the Gascon will get caught.\" Subsequently, Bernadotte pursued, conjointly with Soult and Murat (known as the \"Pursuit of the Three Marshals\"), Prussian general Blücher's Corps to Lübeck, where his troops stormed the Prussian defenses, taking the city and forcing Blücher's capitulation at Radkow (7 November 1806). When the French forced their way into Lübeck, the city became the target of large-scale looting and rampage by the French soldiers. Bernadotte, struggling desperately to prevent his men from sacking the city, was given six horses from the Council of Lübeck as a token of their appreciation. He also treated with courtesy 1600 Swedish prisoners, under the command of Colonel Count Gustave Mörner, and allowed them to return to their home country. The impressed Swedes went home with a tale of Bernadotte's fairness in maintaining order within the city. Count Mörner would later play a prominent role in the election of Bernadotte as Crown Prince of Sweden.",
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"plaintext": "Thereafter he marched to Poland in command of the French Left Wing, composed of his I Corps and Ney's VI Corps. Left unsupported by Ney's unexpected movement toward Königsberg, the Russians under Levin August von Bennigsen, passed over to the offensive and attempted to destroy Bernadotte's and Ney's isolated Corps. Napoleon, having received word of the Russian offensive, gave word to Bernadotte to retreat West as to draw the Russians toward him so that Napoleon could then cut-off and surround the Russians. Bernadotte moved West as ordered, pursued by Bennigsen where he defeated the numerically superior Russian vanguard at Mohrungen (25 January 1807).",
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"plaintext": "During the battle Bernadotte's personal wagon was captured by the Russians and he was accused, by the Cossacks who looted his baggage, of having extorted a large quantity of silver plate from minor German states, however the claim was never substantiated and ran contrary to Bernadotte's reputation. Bernadotte was known throughout the Army for his probity and honesty in the conduct of his affairs on campaign and he refrained from the looting and brigandage that many of his fellow marshals engaged in. As a consequence, Bernadotte's table fare was considered poor by his brother marshals and while others dined on fine service and employed chefs, Bernadotte habitually used his own money to pay for food for his troops, and to give money awards to those who merited recognition. Bernadotte held his troops to the same high standard and punished looting and raping severely and was known to intervene with his sword drawn against those engaged in pillaging, as was the case following the capture of Lübeck.",
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"plaintext": " Due to the capture of a courier carrying the Emperor's latest orders, Bernadotte was not informed of a change of strategy to move East toward the rest of the French Army. As a consequence, Bernadotte's I Corps was too far away to take part in the Battle of Eylau (7 to 8 February 1807). Napoleon rebuked him for his absence but it became acknowledged that it was not due to Bernadotte, but Berthier's carelessness in dispatching the orderly. The Russians resumed the offensive that summer and Bernadotte was attacked by, and defeated, a strong Prussian Corps at Spanden, preserving the French bridgehead over the Pasłęka, where he was nearly killed when a spent ball struck him in the neck. Due to this near fatal wound, Bernadotte was invalided to the rear and missed the remainder of the Polish Campaign.",
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"plaintext": "After the Peace of Tilsit, on 14 July 1807, he became governor of the Hanseatic towns, where he once again proved his administrative and diplomatic abilities and was well-liked. He was to direct the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the Spanish contingent, which went back to Spain to fight against Napoleon at the start of the Peninsular War. Pursuant to the projected invasion of Sweden, and by virtue of Denmark becoming an ally of France in 1808, Bernadotte found himself de facto head of a French occupation of Denmark. However, Bernadotte maintained strict discipline amongst his troops and his good treatment of the Danes made him popular with the populace and Danish Royal Family. Upon his departure from Denmark he was one of few Frenchmen of the period to be awarded the Order of the Elephant.",
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"plaintext": "During Bernadotte's time as governor of the Hanseatic cities, the Abdications of Bayonne occurred, an event that triggered the Peninsular War that would play so large a role in Napoleon's defeat. For a time Napoleon considered the notion of placing Bernadotte on the Spanish throne; going so far as to hint at it in a letter to him. However, Bernadotte made it known to Napoleon that he did not want the Spanish Crown. Joseph Bonaparte, Bernadotte's friend and brother-in-law, was chosen instead. It was not the first, or last time, that Napoleon thought of placing Bernadotte on a foreign throne. Indeed, Napoleon on several occasions, both during his days as First Consul and then as Emperor, thought of naming Bernadotte (Napoleon also considered Murat) as his successor by adoption. Despite their rivalry, Napoleon felt that Bernadotte alone had the popularity, administrative and military skill to safeguard the Empire he had built. However, the birth of the King of Rome put an end to Napoleon's need for an heir. Ironically, Bernadotte did eventually wear a crown, not through the auspices of Napoleon, but as an enemy of France.",
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"plaintext": "Being recalled to Germany to assist in the new war between France and Austria, he received the command of the 9th Corps, which was mainly composed of Saxons. Further difficulties with Berthier, and being saddled with ill-prepared Saxons, combined with an illness, compelled Bernadotte to beg for release from service. Bernadotte wrote to Napoleon that \"I see my efforts perpetually paralyzed by a hidden force over which I can not prevail.\" Napoleon disregarded these appeals and Bernadotte proceeded with the campaign, commanding mostly foreign troops with few French troops under his command.",
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"plaintext": "At the Battle of Wagram (5 July 1809), he entered battle with his Saxon corps, to which the division of Dupas was attached and which formed his reserve. Resting on the French Left, Bernadotte's corps was battered during the night but resisted the full fury of the Austrian attack facing superior numbers. At a critical moment he ordered Dupas forward to his support; the latter replied that he had orders from the emperor to remain where he was. Having been badly mauled, and fully exposed ahead of the main French line, IX Corps withdrew from the village of Aderklaa against Napoleon's orders. On the second day of battle, 6 July 1809, IX Corps, having been mauled the night before, wherein Bernadotte struggled to rally his demoralized Saxons, was attacked by two Austrian corps, as part of Archduke Charles's effort to break the French line. This time Bernadotte's depleted forces—he had only 6,000 infantry left—broke and fled (Bernadotte's Corps was not the only one to break that day, Masséna's troops were also routed by the attack). The routed Saxons retreated in disorder toward Raasdorf as Bernadotte attempted to rally his men, where he encountered Napoleon. IX Corps rallied and played a further role in the battle. Rumors that Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command on the spot at Raasdorf have long been the stuff of legend, but are not verified. After the battle, Bernadotte complained to Napoleon for having, in violation of all military rules, ordered Dupas to act independently of his command, and for having thereby caused great loss of life to the Saxons, and tendered his resignation. Napoleon accepted after he had become aware of an order of the day issued by Bernadotte in which he gave the Saxons credit for their courage in terms inconsistent with the emperor's official bulletin. Accounts of Bernadotte's role at Wagram are contradictory. While it is true that IX Corps broke on 6 July, as did other French formations, they later rallied and played a part in the victory. Moreover, Bernadotte fought with exceptional personal courage, at the head of his troops, and narrowly avoided death when attacked by Austrian cavalry. It is likely that IX Corps' poor performance would have been forgotten, and Bernadotte would have retained his command, had he never published the controversial Order of the Day. However, Bernadotte's praise for the Saxons, as well as his mild and courteous treatment of them while under his command, was never forgotten by the Saxon officers and this would later have disastrous consequences for the French when a whole Saxon division defected to Bernadotte's Army of the North during a key moment of the Battle of Leipzig.",
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"plaintext": "With Bernadotte having returned to Paris, the Walcheren Campaign (July 1809) caused the French ministry in the absence of the emperor to entrust him with the defense of Antwerp with both regular French and Dutch troops along with the National Guard. Bernadotte took command of a chaotic situation wherein troops from all over the Empire and its vassal states, and raw conscripts, were sent to Holland under divided command. He re-organized and trained his forces, named by the Emperor as the Army of Antwerp, by instilling discipline in old soldiers too long at the depots and teaching raw conscripts their trade. Everywhere he instilled a fighting spirit, making an army out of a mob, and thus he rapidly brought the defenses of Antwerp to a high order of readiness. With Antwerp bristling with cannon and numerous defenders, and with the Army of Antwerp whipped into fighting shape, the British, vexed by poor leadership and with half the army immobilized with fever thanks to the insalubrious islands upon which they were quartered, realized that it was no longer possible to close the Scheldt, or take Antwerp, and they withdrew their forces. In a proclamation issued to his troops at Antwerp he made an implied charge against Napoleon of having neglected to prepare the proper means of defense for the Belgian coast. A displeased Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command of his ad hoc army, and ordered his return to Paris to leave for Catalonia and take command of the Army there. Refusing to comply with the order, he was summoned to Vienna, and after an interview with Napoleon at Schönbrunn accepted the general government of the Roman states.",
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"plaintext": "In 1810 Bernadotte was about to enter his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden. The problem of Charles's successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier. He was 61 years old and in poor health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. Soon after his coronation, the king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, who had died just a few months after his arrival. Despite the fact that Napoleon favored his ally Danish King Frederick VI, Danish Prince Frederick Christian initially had the most support to become Swedish Crown Prince as well.",
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"plaintext": "The political situation internally and externally for Sweden meant that selecting a foreign king was an attractive option. Sweden wanted to strengthen its relationship with Napoleon for militaristic reasons so sought to select a king who would be able to attract Napoleon's support. The Swedish court initially sounded out the emperor for his preferences on candidates for crown prince, whereupon Napoleon made it clear he preferred his adopted stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, or one of his nephews or brothers. The Swedish envoys did not accept Eugène as a candidate. Baron Lagerbielke, the Swedish envoy in Paris, reported to Stockholm that Eugène was \"gentle and good,\" \"but he does not seem to be a man of strong character; and, although he had had great opportunities, he does not appear to have developed any distinguishing talents.\" Also, Eugène, serving as viceroy in Italy, did not wish to convert to Lutheranism, a prerequisite for accepting the Swedish offer. Moreover, none of Napoleon's brothers were interested in going to Sweden and his nephews were too young, as the Swedes did not want the hazards of minority rule in the event King Charles died prematurely. The matter was decided by an obscure Swedish courtier, Baron Karl Otto Mörner (nephew of Count Gustav Mörner, the commander of the Swedish force captured by Bernadotte at Lübeck), who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon who at first treated the situation as an absurdity, but later came around to the idea and supported Bernadotte's candidacy both financially and diplomatically.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810 he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates in Örebro to be the new crown prince, and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. Several factors benefitted Bernadotte's election. Being foreign was, although problematic, also to his favour due to geopolitical factors and the internal situation at the time. One benefit was his (presumed) close ties to French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, with whom a relationship would provide military backing as the intention at the time was to re-acquire Finland. The current King, Charles XIII, viewed Napoleon in a more positive way than Gustav IV Adolf had, who had held him in very ill regard. Another point in favour was that a large part of the Swedish Army, anticipating conflict with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier. Also, Bernadotte was personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners in Lübeck and his reputation as the well-liked governor of the Hanseatic Cities from 1807 to 1809; as many Swedish merchants had operated under his auspices. Finally, Bernadotte had no qualms about converting to Lutheranism, recalling the conversion of Henry IV for the benefit of France with whom he felt a kinship with as both hailed from Pau, nor converting his son Oscar (though his wife Désirée never did renounce Catholicism).",
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"plaintext": "Before freeing Bernadotte from his allegiance to France, Napoleon asked him to agree never to take up arms against France. Bernadotte refused to make any such agreement, upon the ground that his obligations to Sweden would not allow it; Napoleon exclaimed \"Go, and let our destinies be accomplished\" and signed the act of emancipation unconditionally. Many were also optimistic that Sweden would capture Finland under Charles John. The Swedish crown prince even unsuccessfully sought Napoleon's support to assist Sweden in conquering Norway.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 November 1810 Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of \"Charles John\" (Karl Johan). At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court; Swedish law required the monarch to be Lutheran.",
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"plaintext": "The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden and quickly impressed his adoptive father. Following his first meeting with his new heir, Charles XIII (who had initially opposed Bernadotte's candidacy) remarked to his aide-de-camp count Charles de Suremain \"My dear Suremain, I have gambled heavily, and I believe that after all I have won.\" He also made himself well liked by Queen Charlotte, who regarded him a \"gentleman in every sense of the word\", and established a net of contact within the Swedish aristocracy, befriending in particular the Brahe family through his favorite Magnus Brahe and countess Aurora Wilhelmina Brahe, whose cousin Mariana Koskull became his lover.",
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"plaintext": "The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign policy, entirely in his hands. Amongst the first of Charles John's acts as Crown Prince was to address the dire state of the Swedish economy. The Swedish economy was in shambles after years of mismanagement since the reign of Gustav III and aggravated during the reign of his son Gustav IV Adolf. The economic turmoil had been caused, in part, by the debts accrued from Gustav III's Russian War, in part to the failure of several of Gustav IV Adolf's well intentioned economic reforms (Gustav IV Adolf was rather more successful in his agrarian reforms) and the costs of the more recent wars against France and Russia. Under Gustav IV Adolf genuine attempts at economic reform, including paying down the national debt by some 700,000 Riksdalers in the first years of his active reign, and revitalizing the currency, met with limited success.",
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"plaintext": "However, such measures were undermined by his other policies. Gustav IV Adolf's personal dislike of the Riksdag, which had the power to raise taxes, led to his refusal to call them into session after 1800, crippling his attempts to raise state revenues. Gustav IV Adolf's foreign policy plunged Sweden into disastrous (and expensive) wars against France and Russia. The cost of years of war, several poor harvests in the years between 1798 and 1809, the ineptitude of his ministers in carrying out fiscal reforms, and the loss of the tax base of Finland had ballooned Sweden's national debt. The impending demands of Napoleon to adhere to the Continental System forecasted even greater difficulties. Charles John immediately began making reforms, and used his sizable fortune, accrued honestly during his time as French Marshal, to pay off much of the debt, and to stabilize the economy by both grants and via a loan to the state of £300,000 sterling at five percent interest. Charles John also purchased back from the French private estates that had been confiscated during the occupation of Swedish Pomerania from 1808 to 1810 and returned them to their original Swedish and German owners.",
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"plaintext": "However, the keynote of his foreign and domestic policy was maintaining Swedish independence of action, often in the face of French demands, and the acquisition of Norway as a compensation for the loss of Finland. Many Swedes expected him to reconquer Finland, which had been ceded to Russia; however, the Crown Prince was aware of its difficulty for reasons of the desperate situation of the state finance and the reluctance of the Finnish people to return to Sweden. Even if Finland was regained, he thought, it would put Sweden into a new cycle of conflicts with a powerful neighbor because there was no guarantee Russia would accept the loss as final. Therefore, he made up his mind to make a united Scandinavian peninsula, which was easier to defend, by taking Norway (intentionally without the ancient and remote provinces of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands) from Denmark and uniting her to Sweden. He tried to divert public opinion from Finland to Norway, by arguing that to create a compact peninsula, with sea for its natural boundary, was to inaugurate an era of peace, and that waging war with Russia would lead to ruinous consequences.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after Charles John's arrival in Sweden, Napoleon compelled him to accede to the Continental System and declare war against Great Britain; otherwise, Sweden would have to face the determination of France, Denmark and Russia. This demand would mean a hard blow to the national economy and the Swedish population. Sweden reluctantly declared war against the UK but it was treated by both countries as being merely nominal, although Swedish imports of British goods decreased from £4,871 million in 1810 to £523 million in the following year.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1812, French troops suddenly invaded Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. Officially, the French claimed that Sweden had repeatedly violated the Continental System and that the occupation of Stralsund and Swedish Pomerania was closing an entrepôt for illegal British goods. However, the decisive reason was that Napoleon, before marching to Moscow, had to secure his rear and dared not allow a Swedish continental foothold behind him as he did not trust Charles John. Charles John believed that Napoleon scheduled the occupation to occur on the Crown Prince's birthday, and ordered Charles John's old rival Marshal Davout to execute the operation, as a personal insult, adding another dimension of personal enmity to the incident. As a result, the initially amicable relationship which Charles John had with Napoleon, following his election as Crown Prince, soon changed because of the invasion. The invasion was a clear violation of international law as well as an act of war and public opinion in Sweden was outraged. Moreover, it antagonized the pro-French faction at the Swedish court. Thereafter, the Crown Prince declared the neutrality of Sweden and opened negotiations with the UK and Russia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1812, he allied Sweden with its traditional enemy Russia, and sought to make peace with the United Kingdom with whom Sweden was technically at war. Charles John's personal diplomacy served as the bridge between Russia and the UK as on 18 July 1812 the Treaty of Örebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia and formed an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden; creating the Sixth Coalition. The treaty stipulated that Sweden would land an army of no less than 25,000 on the continent for the express purpose of fighting France, as well as liberating Swedish Pomerania, and in exchange, Russia and the UK would diplomatically and militarily support the cession of Norway from the doggedly French-allied Denmark to Sweden. Throughout summer and fall 1812, Bernadotte sought to add more allies to the Coalition, and negotiated a treaty with the Spanish Bourbons against his own brother-in-law who was currently King of Spain. Although Napoleon had forced Frederick Wilhelm III to break off relations with Sweden, Charles John corresponded with the King of Prussia, encouraging him to renounce the forced alliance with France and join the Coalition. Following the Convention of Tauroggen, which broke the Prussian/French Alliance, Frederick Wilhelm signed the Treaty of Kalisz with Russia, and then a separate peace treaty with Sweden, on the basis of Prussian recognition of the Norwegian cession to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania, thus formally joining the Coalition in spring 1813.",
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"plaintext": "After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the Trachenberg Plan, the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pläswitz.",
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"plaintext": "Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Großbeeren and Dennewitz. Bernadotte's Army of the North would continue to guard Berlin and keep watch on Davout's forces in Hamburg while the Allies, in accordance with the plan conceived at Trachenberg, maneuvered toward Napoleon's army at Leipzig. With the other Allied armies engaged in battle on 17 October, Bernadotte's army finally crossed the Elbe and joined in the Battle of Leipzig on 19 October. His fresh troops, reinforced by 30,000 Prussians, joined the fray against the already battered French lines where Swedish forces entered battle in numbers for the first time in the campaign. At a critical moment entire Saxon regiments went over to his army in response to a proclamation released a week prior in which Bernadotte invited the Saxons to join their old commander in defeating Napoleon. The Army of the North committed the coup de grâce on the already depleted French and Bernadotte was the first of the Allied sovereigns to enter Leipzig.",
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"plaintext": "After the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway, defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control.",
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"plaintext": "However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish control. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship. The military operations in 1814 were to be Sweden's last war to this day. Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution and its own political autonomy. This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year.",
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"plaintext": "During the period of the Allied invasion of France in the winter and spring of 1814, when it was unclear who would rule France after the war, the Russian Tsar Alexander I, with support from French liberals like Benjamin Constant and Madame de Staël, advocated placing Charles John on the French throne in place of Napoleon. He would rule France as a Constitutional Monarch and leave Oscar as Regent in Sweden and Norway. Ultimately the British and Austrians vetoed the idea, and the Allies agreed that if Napoleon were to be deposed, the only acceptable alternative was the restoration of the House of Bourbon.",
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"plaintext": "Charles John had been regent and de facto head of state upon his arrival, and took an increasing role in government from 1812 onward, with Charles XIII reduced to a mute witness in government councils following a stroke.",
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"plaintext": "Upon Charles's death on 5 February 1818, Charles John ascended the throne. He was initially popular in both countries. The democratic process and forces steadily matured under the King's restrained executive power.",
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"plaintext": "The foreign policy applied by Charles John in the post-Napoleonic era was characterized by the maintenance of balance between the Great Powers and non-involvement into conflicts that took place outside of the Scandinavian peninsula. It made a sharp contrast with Sweden's previous hegemonic expansionism resulting in uninterrupted wars with neighboring countries for centuries, and he successfully kept his kingdoms in a state of peace from 1814 until his death. He was especially concerned about the conflict between the UK and Russia. In 1834, when the relationship between the two countries strained regarding the Near East Crisis, he sent memoranda to British and Russian governments and proclaimed neutrality in advance. It is pointed out as the origin of Swedish neutrality.",
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"plaintext": "His domestic policy particularly focused on promotion of economy and investment in social overhead capital, and the long peace since 1814 led to an increased prosperity for the country. During his long reign of 26 years (34 years if one counts his time as regent of the Kingdom from 1810 to 1818), the population of the Kingdom was so increased that the inhabitants of Sweden alone became equal in number to those of Sweden and Finland before the latter province was torn from the former, the national debt was paid off, a civil and a penal code were proposed for promulgation, education was promoted, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures prospered, and the means of internal communication were increased.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.",
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"plaintext": "He also faced challenges in Norway. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down. Charles John's difficult relationship with Norway was also demonstrated by the Storting's unwillingness to grant funds for the construction of a Royal Palace in the Norwegian capital Oslo. The construction began in 1825, but the Storting halted the funding after the costly foundation was laid and demanded that the appointed architect, Hans Linstow, construct a simpler palace. This was seen by many as a protest against unnecessary spending and the king's authority. The palace itself was not completed until 1849, long after the death of Charles John, and was inaugurated by Oscar I. The main street in Oslo, Slottsgaten, would later be named after Charles John as Karl Johans gate.",
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"plaintext": "His popularity decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the Rabulist riots after the Lèse-majesté conviction of the journalist Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe, and some calls for his abdication. Charles John survived the abdication controversy and he went on to have his silver jubilee, which was celebrated with great enthusiasm on 18 February 1843. He reigned as King of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 until his death in 1844.",
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"plaintext": " The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854.",
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"plaintext": " The Karlsborg Fortress (), located in present-day Karlsborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County, was also named in honour of him.",
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"plaintext": " The bronze equestrian statue of the King at the Royal Palace, Oslo, unveiled in 1875, is the largest bronze statue in Norway.",
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"plaintext": "Louis-Émile Vanderburch and Ferdinand Langlé's 1833 play (\"The Bedfellow\") depicts Bernadotte as King of Sweden; an old grenadier claims that, as a young man, Bernadotte received a tattoo of a scandalous republican motto: either (\"Death to kings\"), or (\"Death to tyrants\"), or (\"Death to the king\"). The tattoo is finally revealed to read (\"Long live the Republic\") and a Phrygian cap: a highly ironic image and text for the skin of a king. This play was so popular that the idea that King Charles XIV John had a tattoo reading \"Death to kings\" is often repeated as fact, although there is no basis to it. However, it is true that Bernadotte, for reasons of discretion publicly, proclaimed himself in 1797 \"a Republican both by principle and conviction\" who would “to the moment of my death, oppose all Royalists and enemies to the Directory\".",
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"plaintext": "Désirée Clary's relationships with Bonaparte and Bernadotte were the subject of the novel Désirée by Annemarie Selinko.",
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"plaintext": "Bernadotte is a primary supporting character in the historical fiction novel by New York Times Bestselling author Allison Pataki A Queen's Fortune: A Novel of Désirée, Napoleon, and the Dynasty that outlasted the Empire, that tells the life story of his wife (and Queen of Sweden and Norway) Désirée Clary.",
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"plaintext": " Agius, Christine (2006). The social construction of Swedish neutrality: Challenges to Swedish Identity and Sovereignty, Manchester University Press, Manchester. ",
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"plaintext": " Alm, Mikael; Johansson, Brittinger (Eds) (2008). Script of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution, Reklam & katalogtryck AB, Uppsala. ",
"section_idx": 13,
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"plaintext": " Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King 1810–1844, John Murray, London.",
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"plaintext": " Berdah, Jean-Francois (2009). \"The Triumph of Neutrality : Bernadotte and European Geopolitics (1810–1844)\", Revue D’ Histoire Nordique, No. 6–7.",
"section_idx": 13,
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"plaintext": " Smith, Digby (2001). 1813 Leipzig. Napoleon and the Battle of Nations. Greenhill, London. ",
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"plaintext": " Wahlbäck, Krister (1986). The Roots of Swedish Neutrality, The Swedish Institute, Stockholm.",
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"plaintext": "Attribution",
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"plaintext": " Alm, Mikael and Britt-Inger Johansson, eds. Scripts of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution (Uppsala: Swedish Science Press, 2008)",
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"plaintext": " Review by Rasmus Glenthøj, English Historical Review (2010) 125#512 pp.205–08.",
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"plaintext": " Barton, Dunbar B.: The amazing career of Bernadotte, 1930; condensed one-volume biography based on Barton's detailed 3 vol biography 1914–1925, which contained many documents",
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"plaintext": " Koht, Halvdan. \"Bernadotte and Swedish-American Relations, 1810–1814,\" Journal of Modern History (1944) 16#4 pp.265–85 in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": " Kurtz, Harold. \"Sergeant, Marshal and King: Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, 1763–1844\" History Today (Jan 1964) 14#1 pp 3–13 and part 2, . (Mar 1964) 14#3 pp171–180",
"section_idx": 14,
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"plaintext": " Lord Russell of Liverpool: Bernadotte: Marshal of France & King of Sweden, 1981",
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"plaintext": " Jean-Marc Olivier. \"Bernadotte Revisited, or the Complexity of a Long Reign (1810–1844)\", in Nordic Historical Review, n°2, 2006.",
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"plaintext": " Moncure, James A. ed. Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450–Present (4 vol. 1992); vol. 1, pp.126–34",
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] | 52,927 | 17,735 | 677 | 254 | 0 | 0 | Charles XIV John of Sweden | King of Sweden and Norway between 1818–1844. Prince of Ponte Corvo 1806–1810 and French field marshal | [
"King of Sweden Charles XIV John",
"King of Sweden and Norway Carolus Joannes",
"King of Norway Charles III John",
"King of Sweden and Norway Karl XIV",
"Prince of Ponte Corvo Charles Jean",
"Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte",
"King of Sweden and Norway Carl XIV Johan",
"King of Sweden and Norway Charles XIV John",
"King of Sweden and Norway Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte",
"King of Sweden and Norway Karl XIV Johan",
"John Baptiste Julius Bernadotte",
"Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte",
"Charles Jean, Prince of Ponte Corvo",
"Jean Baptiste Bernadotte"
] |
38,586 | 1,072,082,133 | Esperanto_symbols | [
{
"plaintext": "Esperanto symbols, primarily the Esperanto flag, have seen much consistency over the time of the language's existence (namely in the consistent usage of the colour green), though a few variations in exact flag patterning and symbology exist.",
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"plaintext": "The main flag of Esperanto, featuring the ('Green Star'), was adopted in 1905 for use as a symbol of mutual recognition among Esperantists, and is used by most Esperantists. As an alternative to the flag, the jubilea simbolo ('jubilee symbol') has been more recently proposed (in 1987).",
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"plaintext": "Since the earliest days of Esperanto, the colour green has been used as a symbol of mutual recognition, and it appears prominently in all Esperanto symbols. In a letter to The British Esperantist in 1911, L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, wrote: \"It seems to me, that my attention was drawn to the color green by Mr. Richard H. Geoghegan and from that time I began to publish all of my works with green covers . . . Looking at one of my pamphlets that I had entirely by chance printed with a green cover, he pointed out that this was the color of his homeland, Ireland; at that time it came to me, that we could certainly look at that color as a symbol of HOPE. About the five-pointed star, it seems to me, that at first Mr. de Beaufront had it imprinted on his grammar [of Esperanto]. I liked that and I adopted it as a symbol. Afterward by association of ideas, the star appeared with a green color.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Verda Stelo was first proposed in an 1892 article in La Esperantisto for use as a symbol of mutual recognition among Esperantists. The flag was created by the Esperanto Club of Boulogne-sur-Mer, initially for their own use, but was adopted as the flag of the worldwide Esperanto movement by a decision of the first World Esperanto Congress, which took place in 1905 in that town.",
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"plaintext": "In 1905, delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer, unanimously approved a version differing from the modern only by the superimposition of an \"E\" over the green star. Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the field changed from green to red.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "Some Esperanto speakers consider the traditional flag too nationalistic for an international language, so many organizations no longer recommend its use and, instead, use the jubilea simbolo (jubilee symbol, two green \"E\"s facing each other—or alternatively a Latin-alphabet \"E\" facing a Cyrillic-alphabet \"Э\", the first letter of \"Эсперанто\", the Russian name for Esperanto—on a white field). This symbol was created in 1987 by a Brazilian Esperantist to mark the centenary of the creation of Esperanto.",
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{
"plaintext": "The Esperanto flag is composed of a green background with a white square (canton) in the upper lefthand corner, which in turn contains a green star. The green field symbolizes hope, the white symbolizes peace and neutrality, and the five-pointed star represents the five continents (Europe, America, Asia, Oceania, Africa). ",
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"plaintext": "By recommendation of the board of the Universal Esperanto Association, the flag should have the following proportions: The ratio of the width of the flag to the height of the flag to a side of the white square should be 3 to 2 to 1. The ratio of a side of the white square to the radius of a circle enclosing the star should be 10 to 3.5.",
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"plaintext": "Most Esperantists continue to hold the verda stelo dear as a symbol of international or supranational solidarity (with the jubilea simbolo jokingly called la melono ('the melon') by some), though many also regard the preference of one symbol over another as a purely personal choice. At most Esperanto congresses, all three main symbols can be seen in use on displays or being worn as badges. Sometimes, Esperanto travelers will display the flag, wear a badge with one of the above symbols, or even wear green clothes, to make themselves known to other Esperanto speakers.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In popular culture",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "On December 15, 2009, the Verda Stelo flew on the Google home search page \"Google\" logo to mark L. L. Zamenhof's 150th birthday. The flag flew on a flagstaff consisting of the \"L\" in the search-company's name.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "In popular culture",
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},
{
"plaintext": "One hypothesis about the red star as a symbol of socialism relates to an alleged encounter between Leon Trotsky and Nikolai Krylenko. Krylenko, an Esperantist, was wearing a green-star lapel badge; Trotsky enquired as to its meaning and received an explanation that each arm of the star represented one of the five traditional continents. On hearing this, he specified that a similar red star should be worn by soldiers of the Red Army.",
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"section_name": "Influence",
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}
] | [
"Esperanto_culture",
"Lists_of_symbols",
"Star_symbols",
"Peace_symbols"
] | 997,396 | 797 | 18 | 36 | 0 | 0 | Esperanto symbols | various symbols that represent Esperanto | [] |
38,587 | 974,517,987 | Charles_IX | [
{
"plaintext": "Charles IX may refer to:",
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{
"plaintext": " Charles IX of France (1550–1574)",
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"plaintext": " Charles IX of Sweden (1550–1611)",
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"plaintext": " King Charles (disambiguation)",
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"plaintext": " Charles",
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}
] | [] | 227,904 | 66 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Charles IX | Wikimedia disambiguation page | [] |
38,588 | 1,072,613,333 | 1599 | [
{
"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 22 – Robert Petre, 3rd Baron Petre, English baron (d. 1638)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 31 – Juraj V Zrinski, Ban of Croatia (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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{
"plaintext": " February 12",
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{
"plaintext": " Duke Friedrich of Saxe-Altenburg, third son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm I of Saxe-Weimar (d. 1625)",
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{
"plaintext": " Thomas Whitmore, English lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons (d. 1677)",
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"plaintext": " February 13 – Pope Alexander VII (d. 1667)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 1 – John Mennes, English Royal Navy admiral (d. 1671)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 – Juan Alfonso Enríquez de Cabrera, Viceroy of Sicily and Viceroy of Naples (d. 1647)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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"plaintext": " March 13 – John Berchmans, Belgian Jesuit scholastic and saint (d. 1621)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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12,
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"plaintext": " March 22 – Anthony van Dyck, Flemish painter (d. 1641)",
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"plaintext": " March 23 – Thomas Selle, German baroque composer (d. 1663)",
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"plaintext": " March 28 – Witte de With, famous Dutch naval officer of the 17th century (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 9 – Sir Thomas Mauleverer, 1st Baronet (d. 1655)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " April 17 – Patrick Fleming, Irish Franciscan friar and scholar (murdered) (d. 1631)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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"plaintext": " April 25 – Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland (d. 1658)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " May 16 – Nicolaes Olycan, Dutch businessman (d. 1639)",
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},
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"plaintext": " May 30 – Samuel Bochart, French Protestant biblical scholar (d. 1667)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 – Elizabeth Lucretia, Duchess of Cieszyn, Duchess suo jure of Cieszyn (d. 1653)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter (d. 1660)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " July 23 – Stephanius, Danish historian (d. 1650)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " July 27 – Albert IV, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach (1640–1644) (d. 1644)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 11 – Christian II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg (1630–1656) (d. 1656)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 13 – Johannes Buxtorf II, Swiss theologian (d. 1664)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 – Méric Casaubon, English classicist (d. 1671)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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13,
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 16 – Diego López Pacheco, 7th Duke of Escalona, Spanish noble (d. 1653)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " August 22 – Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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13,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 7 – Jacob Westerbaen, Dutch poet (d. 1670)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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15,
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},
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"plaintext": " September 20 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (d. 1626)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " September 24 – Adam Olearius, German scholar (d. 1671)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
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"plaintext": " September 25 – Francesco Borromini, Swiss sculptor and architect (d. 1667)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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16,
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},
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"plaintext": " September 30 – Frances Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (d. 1674)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 10",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Samuel Clarke, English writer and priest (d. 1683)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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"plaintext": " Étienne Moulinié, French Baroque composer (d. 1676)",
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"plaintext": " October 11 – Abraham de Fabert, Marshal of France (d. 1662)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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"plaintext": " October 15 – Cornelis de Graeff, Dutch mayor (d. 1664)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
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"plaintext": " October 28 – Marie of the Incarnation, French foundress of the Ursuline Monastery in Quebec (d. 1672)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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"plaintext": " October 31 – Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles, English statesman and writer (d. 1680)",
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{
"plaintext": " November 5 – Carlo Emanuele Madruzzo, Italian prince-bishop (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21565,
31602268,
38614
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
37
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 11",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21447
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, German princess and queen consort of Sweden (d. 1655)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20158,
36177
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
],
[
80,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ottavio Piccolomini, Austrian-Italian field marshal (d. 1656)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
761337,
38613
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 13 – Otto Christoph von Sparr, German general (d. 1668)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21761,
14546435,
38624
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
15,
39
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 – Werner Rolfinck, German physician, chemist, botanist and philosopher (d. 1673)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21763,
18421489,
38659
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
15,
30
],
[
88,
92
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 – Peter Heylin, English ecclesiastic and author of many polemical works (d. 1662)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21578,
1078778,
34688
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
27
],
[
89,
93
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 30 – Andrea Sacchi, Italian painter of High Baroque Classicism (d. 1661)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21577,
2321821,
34588
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
15,
28
],
[
77,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 2",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8356
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Bruce, 1st Earl of Elgin, Scottish nobleman (d. 1663)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
37055322,
38620
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
32
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander Daniell, sole proprietor of the Manor of Alverton, Cornwall (d. 1668)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
48482191,
38624
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 11 – Pieter Codde, Dutch painter (d. 1678)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8396,
12560936,
38654
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
27
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 – Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge, English politician (d. 1668)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8851,
30934718,
38624
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
58
],
[
83,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 16 – Jacques Vallée, Sieur Des Barreaux, French poet (d. 1673)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8219,
2396547,
38659
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
49
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 20 – Niels Trolle, Governor General of Norway (d. 1667)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8849,
38657397,
38623
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
27
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 29 – Gabriel Bucelin, German historian (d. 1681)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8893,
12271928,
38653
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
30
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Alden, English settler of Plymouth Colony (d. 1687)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15975,
34894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stefan Czarniecki, Polish military commander (d. 1665)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
334740,
35095
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lucy Hay, Countess of Carlisle, English courtier (d. 1660)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
495444,
38618
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charlotte Stanley, Countess of Derby defender of Latham House (d. 1664)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2626322,
38622
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
37
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jirgalang, Qing Dynasty prince (d. 1655)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20304934,
36177
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
36,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 13 – Edmund Spenser, English poet (b. 1552)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16191,
9536,
38668
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 22 – Cristofano Malvezzi, Italian composer (b. 1547)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15940,
315150,
38671
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
33
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 8 – Robert Rollock, Scottish Presbyterian, first principal of the university of Edinburgh (b. 1555)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11360,
901971,
36175
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
],
[
104,
108
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 19 – Stanisław Radziwiłł, Grand Marshal of Lithuania (b. 1559)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20316,
17788398,
38665
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
31
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 10 – Gabrielle d'Estrées, mistress of King Henry IV of France (b. 1573)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2564,
97098,
57876,
34757
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
31
],
[
50,
68
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 14 – Henry Wallop, English statesman (b. c. 1540)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1862,
2118415,
35144
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
24
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 22 – Lorenz Scholz von Rosenau, German botanist (b. 1552)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1710,
29199001,
38668
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
37
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 27 – Maeda Toshiie, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1538)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2326,
315861,
38679
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
25
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 12 – Sultan Murad Mirza, Mughal prince (b. 1570)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19497,
38178589,
38604
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
28
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 28 – Maria of Nassau, Dutch Countess (b. 1539)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19672,
22048276,
38680
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
25
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 2 – Philipp V, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (b. 1541)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15855,
33278646,
38677
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
10,
47
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 14 – Kōriki Masanaga, Japanese military commander (b. 1558)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15797,
1752632,
38664
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
26
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 29 – Archduchess Catherine Renata of Austria, Austrian archduchess (b. 1576)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15842,
30488481,
38601
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
50
],
[
77,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July – Kwon Yul, Korean military commander (b. 1537)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15786,
3522146,
35528
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
8,
16
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 11 – Chōsokabe Motochika, Japanese Sengoku Period daimyō",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15873,
7753779
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
11,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 22 – Luca Marenzio, Italian composer (b. 1553)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1012,
748810,
38667
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
13,
26
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 – Cornelis de Houtman, Dutch explorer (b.1565)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27530,
113054,
35229
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
34
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 11 – Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman (executed for patricide) (b. 1577)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27935,
1565527,
38600
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
16,
30
],
[
80,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 8 – Song Ik-pil, Korean scholar (b. 1534)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1333,
35131147,
36116
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
12,
23
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 – Daniel Adam z Veleslavína, Czech lexicographer (b. 1546)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22545,
2066193,
35081
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
39
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 3 – Andrew Báthory, deposed Prince of Transylvania (decapitated) (b. c. 1563)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21764,
12172125
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 7 – Gasparo Tagliacozzi, Italian surgeon (b. 1545)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21667,
1278609,
38675
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
33
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 8 – Francisco Guerrero, Spanish composer (b. 1528)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21759,
738784,
36227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
14,
32
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 22 – Nanbu Nobunao, Japanese daimyō (b. 1546)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21526,
13958142,
35081
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
28
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 13 – Enrico Caetani, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1550)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8852,
32788553,
35099
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
29
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 – Joan Boyle, English noble, first spouse of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork (b. 1578)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8851,
193533,
38599
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
25
],
[
94,
98
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 27 – Francisco Pérez de Valenzuela, Spanish noble (b. 1528)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8452,
28754215,
36227
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
15,
44
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " After December 18 – Minye Kyawswa II of Ava, Burmese defecting crown prince of the Toungoo Empire (killed by invading forces) (b. 1567)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
47401787,
38606
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
44
],
[
131,
135
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown – Chand Bibi, Indian regent and warrior (b. 1550)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8609595,
14533,
35099
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
26
],
[
28,
33
],
[
58,
62
]
]
}
] | [
"1599"
] | 6,803 | 535 | 130 | 242 | 0 | 0 | 1599 | year | [
"1599 AD",
"1599 CE"
] |
38,589 | 1,077,379,742 | 1591 | [
{
"plaintext": " The Siamese-Cambodian War begins.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Events",
"target_page_ids": [
48430408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The defeated Askia Dynasty move to the Dendi province in modern-day Niger.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "Events",
"target_page_ids": [
12484091,
7700301,
21373
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
27
],
[
40,
54
],
[
69,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 3 Valentin de Boulogne, French painter (d. 1632)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15789,
4911485,
34990
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
32
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 4 William Spencer, 2nd Baron Spencer of Wormleighton, British baron (d. 1636)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15982,
14264354,
34935
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
62
],
[
82,
86
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 7 Princess Dorothea, Abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 1617)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15987,
33668623,
34892
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
21,
52
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 11 Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, English Civil War general (d. 1646)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15847,
77985,
35060
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
47
],
[
79,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 12 Jusepe de Ribera, Spanish Tenebrist painter and printmaker (d. 1652)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16112,
902105,
34918
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
],
[
76,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 15 David van Goorle, Dutch theologian and theoretical scientist (d. 1612)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15790,
14851998,
35098
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
],
[
78,
82
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 26 Matthew Boynton, English politician (d. 1647)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15791,
9507567,
38608
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 29 Franciscus Junius, pioneer of Germanic philology (d. 1677)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15814,
3128745,
35057
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
30
],
[
66,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 8",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11360
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hervey Bagot, English politician (d. 1660)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
26188282,
38618
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guercino, Italian painter (d. 1666)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
151335,
36223
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
31,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 13 Antonio Sabino, Italian composer (d. 1650)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11170,
39367951,
34974
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 (or March 2) Girard Desargues, French mathematician (d. 1661)",
"section_idx": 2,
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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]
},
{
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},
{
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[
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74
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},
{
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},
{
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1,
6
],
[
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[
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67
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]
},
{
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7
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[
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28
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 16 Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, Italian physician, mathematician, and music theorist (d. 1655)",
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},
{
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[
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[
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58
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},
{
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27
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},
{
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[
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},
{
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60
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},
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},
{
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},
{
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49
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},
{
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[
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 8 Marie Angélique Arnauld, French abbess of the Abbey of Port-Royal (d. 1661)",
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],
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[
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88
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 29 Michael de Sanctis, Spanish saint (d. 1625)",
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57
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]
},
{
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 7 Pierre Le Muet, French architect (d. 1669)",
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12,
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 22 Alfonso III d'Este, Duke of Modena, Italian noble (d. 1644)",
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11
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 George Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg (d. 1615)",
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1,
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64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 Bernhard von Mallinckrodt, German bibliophile (d. 1664)",
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12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 22 Tommaso Dingli, Maltese architect and sculptor (d. 1666)",
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12
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14,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Joseph Furttenbach, German architect (d. 1667)",
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12
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14,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " David Blondel, French Protestant clergyman (d. 1655)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Andrew Bobola, Polish Jesuit missionary and martyr (d. 1657)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Goffe, English dramatist (d. 1629)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " William Lenthall, English politician of the Civil War period (d. 1662)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 6 Anna Sophia of Prussia, Duchess of Prussia and Duchess of Mecklenburg (b. 1527)",
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1,
11
],
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 Vespasiano I Gonzaga, Italian noble and diplomat (b. 1531)",
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 Jost Amman, Swiss printmaker (b. 1539)",
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1,
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11,
21
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 9 Emilie of Saxony, German noble (b. 1516)",
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1,
8
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10,
26
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 21 Sen no Rikyū, Japanese exponent of the tea ceremony (b. 1522)",
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11,
23
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 19 Elizabeth Cecil, 16th Baroness de Ros, English noblewoman (b. c. 1574)",
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 15 Tsarevich Dimitri, of Russia (b. 1582)",
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1,
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26
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46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 21 Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian Jesuit and saint (b. 1568)",
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1,
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10,
26
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61
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 Vincenzo Galilei, Italian composer (b. 1520)",
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25
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52
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 Anna of Hesse, Countess Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1529)",
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1,
8
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10,
23
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 18 Jacobus Gallus Carniolus, Slovenian composer (b. 1550)",
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1,
8
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10,
34
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63
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 23 Luis Ponce de León, Spanish lyric poet (b. 1527)",
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10
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12,
30
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[
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59
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 27 Katheryn of Berain, Welsh noblewoman (b. 1534)",
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1,
10
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12,
30
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 7 Heinrich Sudermann, German politician (b. 1520)",
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1,
12
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14,
32
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56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 Richard Grenville, English soldier and explorer (b. 1542)",
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1,
13
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15,
32
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71
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 Alonso de Orozco Mena, Spanish Catholic priest (b. 1500)",
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1,
13
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15,
36
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70
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 25 Christian I, Elector of Saxony (b. 1560)",
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1,
13
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15,
45
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54
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 29 Count Johan II of East Frisia (b. 1538)",
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1,
13
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[
49,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 15 Duke Otto Henry of Brunswick-Harburg, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Harburg (b. 1555)",
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11
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13,
49
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{
"plaintext": " October 16 Pope Gregory XIV (b. 1535)",
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1,
11
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13,
29
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38
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 Christopher Hatton, English politician (b. 1540)",
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12
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14,
32
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61
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 Saint John of the Cross, Spanish Carmelite friar and poet (b. 1542)",
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1,
12
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14,
37
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 18 Marigje Arriens, Dutch woman executed for witchcraft (b. c. 1520)",
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12
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14,
29
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{
"plaintext": " December 30 Pope Innocent IX (b. 1519)",
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{
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},
{
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] | [
"1591"
] | 6,766 | 370 | 112 | 240 | 0 | 0 | 1591 | year | [] |
38,590 | 1,100,664,667 | 1590 | [
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 10 Dietrich Reinkingk, German lawyer and politician (d. 1664)",
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},
{
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34
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{
"plaintext": " March 29 Michael Reyniersz Pauw, Dutch businessman (d. 1640)",
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},
{
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1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Louis de Dieu, Dutch theologian (d. 1642)",
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12585281,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Upton, English politician (d. 1641)",
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31532655,
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1,
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},
{
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1,
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " May William Cecil, 17th Baron de Ros (d. 1618)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 3 Franco Burgersdijk, Dutch logician (d. 1635)",
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1,
6
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26
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51
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 5",
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19352
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1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1636)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jakub Sobieski, Polish noble (d. 1646)",
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1,
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},
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 31 Frances Carr, Countess of Somerset (d. 1632)",
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52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 Isaac Manasses de Pas, Marquis de Feuquieres, French soldier (d. 1640)",
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1,
7
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[
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53
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78
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},
{
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24
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60
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},
{
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1,
8
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10,
21
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[
53,
57
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 24 Samuel Ampzing, Dutch linguist and historian (d. 1632)",
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15812,
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1,
8
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10,
24
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63
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 29 Edward Rodney, English politician (d. 1657)",
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1,
8
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10,
23
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48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 3 Lucrezia Orsina Vizzana, Italian singer and composer (d. 1662)",
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1,
7
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32
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},
{
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38656
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1,
8
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10,
24
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29,
33
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]
},
{
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358081,
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1,
8
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10,
27
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61
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 6 Count John Louis of Nassau-Hadamar (d. 1653)",
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54
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},
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"plaintext": " August 7 Charles of Austria, Bishop of Wroclaw (d. 1624)",
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1,
9
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11,
48
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53,
57
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 9 John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661)",
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1,
9
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11,
23
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78
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 19 Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier (d. 1649)",
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36176
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1,
10
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12,
43
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65,
69
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 27 Ferruccio Baffa Trasci, Italian bishop (d. 1656)",
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1013,
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38613
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1,
10
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12,
34
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55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 30 Anthony Stapley, English politician (d. 1655)",
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1,
10
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12,
27
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 12 María de Zayas, Spanish writer (d. 1661)",
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28021,
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34588
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1,
13
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15,
29
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50,
54
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},
{
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28145,
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1,
13
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15,
28
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},
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38618
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1,
10
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12,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 11 William Pynchon, English colonist and fur trader in North America (d. 1662)",
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22440,
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1,
11
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13,
28
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},
{
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1,
12
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14,
45
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110,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 3 Daniel Seghers, Flemish Jesuit brother and painter (d. 1661)",
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8355,
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1,
11
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13,
27
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72
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 John West, colonial governor of Virginia (d. 1659)",
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12
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14,
23
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63
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 18 William Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (d. 1640)",
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1,
12
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14,
56
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65
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},
{
"plaintext": " Angelica Veronica Airola, Italian painter (d. 1670)",
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35082
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1,
25
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},
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"plaintext": " Boris Morozov, Russian statesman and boyar (d. 1661)",
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14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Isaac de Caus, French landscaper (d. 1648)",
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34685
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1,
14
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38,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yamada Nagamasa, Japanese adventurer (d. 1630)",
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1276376,
35078
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1,
16
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{
"plaintext": " William Bradford, English leader of Plymouth Colony (d. 1657)",
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34962
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1,
17
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61
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},
{
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38607
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1,
15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Theophilus Eaton, Puritan colonial merchant (d. 1658)",
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"plaintext": " Kösem Sultan (d. 1651)",
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"plaintext": " Mícheál Ó Cléirigh, Irish chronicler (d. 1643)",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Marie Vernier, French actress (d. 1627)",
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[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
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1,
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[
13,
35
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[
77,
81
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 1 Lawrence Humphrey, president of Magdalen College, Oxford (b. 1527)",
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1597295,
38685
],
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
30
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 Catherine of Ricci, Catholic prioress and saint (b. 1522)",
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11322,
23624351,
34995
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
31
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 4 Gioseffo Zarlino, Italian music theorist and composer (b. 1517)",
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38691
],
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
29
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 12",
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11158
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " François Hotman, French Protestant lawyer and writer (b. 1524)",
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313733,
38688
],
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[
1,
16
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Blanche Parry, personal attendant to Elizabeth I of England (b. c. 1508)",
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4368414,
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],
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[
1,
14
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 18 Asahi no kata, Japanese lady, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's half-sister (b. 1543)",
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11363,
5795435,
31182,
34943
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
27
],
[
44,
62
],
[
81,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 19 Philipp IV, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (b. 1514)",
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33281890,
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],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
52
],
[
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick, English nobleman and general (b. 1528)",
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36227
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
49
],
[
84,
88
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 4 Duchess Hedwig of Württemberg, by marriage countess of Hesse-Marburg (b. 1547)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
39
],
[
83,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Elisabeth of Saxony, Countess Palatine of Simmern (b. 1552)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 6 Francis Walsingham, English spymaster (b. 1530)",
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1008,
51106,
38683
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
28
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 9 Charles de Bourbon French cardinal and pretender to the throne (b. 1523)",
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19524,
9865485,
36226
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
26
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 28 Hori Hidemasa, Japanese warlord (b. 1553)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15802,
8505136,
38667
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
23
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 30 Maha Thammaracha (b. 1509)",
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15843,
14659707,
38700
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
],
[
31,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 Charles II, Archduke of Austria, regent of Inner Austria (b. 1540)",
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15809,
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35144
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
41
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 21 Sophie of Württemberg, German noble (b. 1563)",
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16179,
44017749,
38661
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
31
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 10",
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2315
],
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hōjō Ujimasa, Japanese warlord (b. 1538)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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2164643,
38679
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
36,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hōjō Ujiteru, Japanese warlord (b. 1540？)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2916383,
35144
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[
1,
13
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 James III, Margrave of Baden-Hachberg (b. 1562)",
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
49
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 27 Pope Sixtus V (b. 1521)",
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[
1,
10
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12,
25
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[
30,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 Archduchess Magdalena of Austria, Member of the House of Habsburg (b. 1532)",
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
47
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[
85,
89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 13 Pedro Téllez-Girón, 1st Duke of Osuna, Spanish duke (b. 1537)",
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
52
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 20 Lodovico Agostini, Italian composer (b. 1534)",
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1355585,
36116
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
32
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 27 Pope Urban VII (b. 1521)",
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24303,
35225
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
29
],
[
34,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 4 Jacques Cujas, French legal expert (b. 1522)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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165661,
34995
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 12 Kanō Eitoku, Japanese painter (b. 1543)",
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"target_page_ids": [
22530,
201584,
34943
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
24
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 16 Archduchess Anna of Austria, Duchess of Bavaria (b. 1528)",
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22556,
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36227
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
40
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (b. 1570)",
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22545,
36291339,
38604
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 23 Bernardino de Sahagún, Franciscan missionary (b. 1499)",
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"target_page_ids": [
22572,
613525,
39484
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
34
],
[
62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 29 Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert, Dutch politician and theologian (b. 1522)",
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"target_page_ids": [
2627387,
34995
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[
14,
43
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[
81,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 18 George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, English statesman (b. 1528)",
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21452,
1611082,
36227
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
51
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 19 Girolamo Zanchi, Italian theologian (b. 1516)",
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38692
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
29
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 Philipp Nicodemus Frischlin, German philologist and poet (b. 1547)",
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"target_page_ids": [
21578,
573642,
38671
],
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
41
],
[
75,
79
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 20 Ambroise Paré, French surgeon (b. 1510)",
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617550,
38697
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
27
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 27 Emanuel Philibert de Lalaing, Belgian noble and army commander (b. 1557)",
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
42
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[
81,
85
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nicholas Bobadilla, one of the first Spanish Jesuits (b. 1511)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1187701,
38696
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[
1,
19
],
[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marietta Robusti, Venetian Renaissance painter (b. 1555 or 1560)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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36175,
35145
],
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[
1,
17
],
[
52,
56
],
[
60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Roger Dudley, British soldier (b. 1535)",
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854733,
34958
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[
1,
13
],
[
35,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sorley Boy MacDonnell, Irish chieftain (b. 1505)",
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"target_page_ids": [
262230,
38701
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[
1,
22
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Juan Bautista de Pomar, Spanish colonial historian and writer",
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606154
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[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Catherine Salvaresso, Wallachian regent",
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35283662,
46026
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[
1,
21
],
[
23,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maddalena Casulana, Italian composer, lutenist and singer (d. 1544)",
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1357351,
38676
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[
1,
19
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67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bernard Palissy, French potter (b. 1510)",
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38697
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[
0,
15
],
[
35,
39
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]
}
] | [
"1590"
] | 6,764 | 583 | 131 | 276 | 0 | 0 | 1590 | year | [] |
38,591 | 1,077,379,725 | 1589 | [
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"plaintext": " January 8 Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (d. 1638)",
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15988,
451186,
35146
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1,
10
],
[
12,
25
],
[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 11 William Strode, English politician (d. 1666)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15847,
31397893,
36223
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
27
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 28 Francisco Ximénez de Urrea, Spanish historian (d. 1647)",
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1,
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[
13,
39
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[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 5",
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"target_page_ids": [
11119
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Honorat de Bueil, seigneur de Racan (d. 1670)",
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2777392,
35082
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
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41,
45
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},
{
"plaintext": " Esteban Manuel de Villegas, Spanish poet (d. 1669)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2307653,
38625
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
],
[
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 7 Jacob de Witt, Mayor of Dordrecht (d. 1674)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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13715855,
38658
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
26
],
[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 8 Peter Melander Graf von Holzappel, Protestant military leader in the Thirty Years' War (d. 1648)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11360,
33828666,
34685
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
46
],
[
104,
108
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 18",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11363
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry Vane the Elder, English politician (d. 1655)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18091591,
36177
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maarten Gerritsz Vries, Dutch explorer (d. 1646)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22287315,
35060
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[
1,
23
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 1 Thomas Middleton, English politician (d. 1662)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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10,
26
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55
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 Gisbertus Voetius, Dutch theologian (d. 1676)",
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19633,
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[
1,
8
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10,
27
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54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 18 Richard Sackville, 3rd Earl of Dorset, English noble (d. 1624)",
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34585
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[
1,
9
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11,
48
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[
68,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 16 Nicolaes le Febure, Dutch Golden Age member of the Haarlem schutterij (d. 1641)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1334,
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35202
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1,
9
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[
11,
29
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[
85,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 17 Martin Zeiler, German author (d. 1661)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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35271755,
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1,
9
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[
11,
24
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 18 John, Duke of Östergötland, Swedish prince (d. 1618)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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34909
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
37
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 20 John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg, son of John I (d. 1652)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
9
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11,
51
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[
71,
75
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 28 Margaret of Savoy, Vicereine of Portugal (d. 1655)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1639,
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36177
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
51
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[
56,
60
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 12 François L’Anglois, French artist (d. 1647)",
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"plaintext": " Domenico Fiasella, Italian painter (d. 1669)",
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"plaintext": " September 7 August of Saxony, German prince (d. 1615)",
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{
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"plaintext": " October 8 Pedro de Villagómez Vivanco, Roman Catholic prelate, Archbishop of Lima, then Bishop of Arequipa (d. 1671)",
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},
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"plaintext": " October 24 Giuseppe Marcinò, Italian priest, member of the Order of Friars Minor - or Capuchins (d. 1655)",
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{
"plaintext": " October 25 Jan Stanisław Sapieha, Grand Hetman of Lithuania (d. 1635)",
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"plaintext": " December 21 Otto, Count of Lippe-Brake (1621–1657) (d. 1657)",
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{
"plaintext": " Tsar Feodor II of Russia (d. 1605)",
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"plaintext": " Yönten Gyatso, 4th Dalai Lama",
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{
"plaintext": " John Bankes, Attorney General and Chief Justice to King Charles I of England (d. 1644)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jusepa Vaca, Spanish stage actress (d. 1653)",
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"plaintext": " January 5 Catherine de' Medici, queen of Henry II of France (b. 1519)",
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{
"plaintext": " January 18 Magnus Heinason, Faroese naval hero (b. 1545)",
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"plaintext": " February 19 Philothei, Greek Orthodox religious sister, martyr and saint (b. 1522)",
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14,
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25,
39
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[
79,
83
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 2 Alessandro Farnese, Italian cardinal (b. 1530)",
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28
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 Johannes Sturm, German educator (b. 1507)",
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24
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 22 Lodovico Guicciardini, Italian historian (b. 1521)",
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},
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"plaintext": " March 23 Marcin Kromer, Prince-Bishop of Warmia (b. 1512)",
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11,
24
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 26 Benedict the Moor, Italian Franciscan friar and saint (b. 1526)",
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"plaintext": " May 3 Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1528)",
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"plaintext": " May 17 Charles II, Lord of Monaco (b. 1555)",
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44
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},
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"plaintext": " May 20 Anna Maria of Brandenburg-Ansbach, German princess (b. 1526)",
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7
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42
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 Lady Saigō, Japanese concubine (b. 1552)",
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15844,
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19
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"plaintext": " July 16 Petrus Peckius the Elder, Dutch jurist, writer on international maritime law (b. 1529)",
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8
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10,
34
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Maria of the Palatinate-Simmern, Duchess consort of Södermanland (1579-1589) (b. 1561)",
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10,
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},
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"plaintext": " August 1 Jacques Clément, French assassin of Henry III of France (b. 1567)",
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1,
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11,
26
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75
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 2 King Henry III of France (b. 1551)",
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40,
44
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 16 Michael Baius, Flemish theologian (b. 1513)",
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15,
28
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57
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 Jean-Antoine de Baïf, French poet (b. 1532)",
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35
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57
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 1 William Darrell of Littlecote, English politician (b. 1539)",
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41
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},
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"plaintext": " October 15 Jacopo Zabarella, Italian philosopher (b. 1532)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 Philipp Apian, German mathematician and medic (b. 1531)",
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"plaintext": " December 10 Henry Compton, 1st Baron Compton, English politician (b. 1544)",
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},
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"plaintext": " December 12 Francisco Balbi di Correggio, Italian soldier in the service of Spain during the Siege of Malta (b. 1505)",
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1,
12
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14,
42
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118
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pietro de' Mariscalchi, Italian painter (b. 1520)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tansen, Indian musician (b. 1506)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Heo Nanseolheon, Korean poet (b. 1563)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Charles Dançay, French diplomat (b. 1510)",
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] | [
"1589"
] | 6,759 | 718 | 99 | 208 | 0 | 0 | 1589 | year | [] |
38,592 | 1,085,266,979 | 1587 | [
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"plaintext": " Hailuoto, an island in the Bothnian Bay, is separated from the grand parish of Saloinen into an independent parish.",
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"plaintext": " January 2 Anders Arrebo, Danish writer (d. 1637)",
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"plaintext": " January 5 Xu Xiake, Chinese adventurer and geographer (d. 1641)",
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"plaintext": " January 6 Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish politician (d. 1645)",
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"plaintext": " January 8",
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"plaintext": " Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1629)",
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"plaintext": " Johannes Fabricius, Frisian/German astronomer (d. 1616)",
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"plaintext": " January 12 John Winthrop, English Puritan lawyer (d. 1649)",
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"plaintext": " February 1 Pál Esterházy, Hungarian noble (d. 1645)",
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1,
11
],
[
13,
26
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[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
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11323,
32093241,
35096
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
54
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[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 20 Emanuel Sueyro, Dutch historian, translator, spymaster (d. 1629)",
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11025,
45039353,
35143
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 Stefano Landi, Italian composer (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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11141,
1376341,
35195
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
27
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[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 David Lindsay, 1st Lord Balcarres, Scottish politician and noble (d. 1642)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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20223,
13729342,
34587
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
44
],
[
80,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 1 Sir John Mill, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1648)",
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1175,
31924720,
34685
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
36
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Virginia Centurione Bracelli, Italian saint (d. 1651)",
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1777,
9746266,
36373
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
38
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 18 Sir Charles Morrison, 1st Baronet, Member of the Parliament of England (d. 1628)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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33477660,
35142
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
44
],
[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 26",
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1261
],
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ferdinando Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7836832,
34586
],
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[
1,
35
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abraham van der Haagen, Dutch painter (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
41987499,
35195
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 28 Krzysztof Ossoliński, Polish nobleman (d. 1645)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1639,
1264153,
38607
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
31
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
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"section_name": "Births",
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1416,
34288463,
35192
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
49
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 30 Éléonore de Bourbon, Dutch princess (d. 1619)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1011,
25572331,
35108
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
30
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 7 Richard Newport, 1st Baron Newport, English politician (d. 1651)",
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19582,
8056908,
36373
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
42
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
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19353,
69525,
35193
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
39
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 17 Esaias van de Velde, Dutch painter (d. 1630)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19631,
2682720,
35078
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
28
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "May - Esaias van de Velde, Dutch landscape painter (died 1630)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2682720,
21148,
205135,
10534924
],
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[
6,
25
],
[
27,
32
],
[
33,
42
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 26 Susan de Vere, Countess of Montgomery, English noblewoman (d. 1628)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19648,
27502615,
35142
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
46
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 2 Willem Bontekoe, skipper in the Dutch East India Company (d. 1657)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15855,
1469816,
34962
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
24
],
[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 5 Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick, English colonial administrator and admiral (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15820,
213060,
38614
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
41
],
[
90,
94
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 11 Sir Thomas Jervoise, English politician (d. 1654)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15796,
30298631,
36224
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 15 Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna, Swedish statesman (d. 1640)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15936,
205461,
34893
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
40
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 21 Kaspar von Barth, German philologist and writer (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15819,
178346,
38614
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 24",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15812
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Arnold, American settler (d. 1676)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
6245560,
38656
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger, Danish architect (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
25519599,
35195
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 4 Magdalene of Bavaria, Consort of Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg (d. 1628)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15849,
5746162,
35142
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
29
],
[
90,
94
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 16 Khusrau Mirza, Mughal prince (d. 1622)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1448,
10895765,
34973
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 18 Virginia Dare, Virginia colony settler",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1496,
152308
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 23 Johann Friedrich, Count Palatine of Sulzbach-Hilpoltstein (1614–1644) (d. 1644)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1628,
21458611,
34860
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
69
],
[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 28 Christian William of Brandenburg, administrator of bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt (d. 1665)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1781,
36953819,
35095
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
44
],
[
107,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, 3rd Duke of Feria, Spanish general (d. 1634)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27530,
11557624,
35191
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
57
],
[
79,
83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 3 Countess Juliane of Nassau-Siegen, Landgravine of Hesse-kassel (d. 1643)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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27989,
32356600,
35220
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
23,
47
],
[
81,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Francesca Caccini, Italian composer",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28146,
1146944
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 19",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28147
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Sanderson, English theologian and casuist (d. 1663)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1241783,
38620
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mu Zeng, Chinese politician (d. 1646)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
43228521,
35060
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
33,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 8 Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Berkshire, English politician (d. 1669)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22543,
2063312,
38625
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
48
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 17 Nathan Field, English dramatist and actor (d. 1620)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22366,
1002207,
35109
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
25
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 Philippe-Charles, 3rd Count of Arenberg (d. 1640)",
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22545,
18704637,
34893
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
52
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 19 Thomas Dacres, English politician (d. 1668)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22568,
31185144,
38624
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
26
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 22 Joachim Jungius, German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1657)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22571,
18957081,
34962
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 23 Sir Gilbert Gerard, 1st Baronet of Harrow on the Hill, English politician (d. 1670)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22572,
24135351,
35082
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
66
],
[
91,
95
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 3 Samuel Scheidt, German composer (d. 1653)",
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"target_page_ids": [
21764,
586960,
38610
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
27
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 17",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21798
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Lallemant, French Jesuit (d. 1674)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4148295,
38658
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joost van den Vondel, Dutch dramatist and poet (d. 1679)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
573710,
38655
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 25 Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1666)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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21580,
24180223,
36223
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
46
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 13 Emmanuel Stupanus, Swiss physician (d. 1664)",
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"target_page_ids": [
8852,
20483035,
38622
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 19 Dorothea Sophia, Abbess of Quedlinburg Abbey (1618–1645) (d. 1645)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8848,
23542749,
38607
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
52
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Simon VII, Count of Lippe-Detmold (1613–1627) (d. 1627)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8677,
34610981,
35141
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
39
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh (d. 1643)",
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1634417,
35220
],
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[
1,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Kynaston, English courtier and poet (d. 1642)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1034282,
34587
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[
1,
17
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yun Seondo, Korean politician and poet (d. 1671)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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579373,
35833
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[
1,
11
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Song Yingxing, Chinese encyclopedist (d. 1666)",
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8611724,
36223
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[
1,
14
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " George Yeardley, English colonial administrator in America (d. 1627)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
727561,
35141
],
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[
1,
16
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 31 Juraj Drašković, Croatian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1525)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15793,
37775026,
606848,
38687
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
39,
53
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January Thomas Seckford, English official (b. 1515)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
469046,
38693
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
25
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 8 Mary, Queen of Scots (executed) (b. 1542)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11360,
20603,
34782
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
33
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Vincenzo Ruffo, Italian composer (b. 1510)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11361,
1036224,
38697
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
27
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 13 Dorothea of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (b. 1563)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11170,
32432454,
38661
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
32
],
[
72,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 22 Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach, princess of Brandenburg-Ansbach (b. 1535)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11009,
31295968,
34958
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
43
],
[
81,
85
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 Magdalene of Lippe, Countess of Lippe by birth, and Landgravine of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1552)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11141,
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38668
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
32
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[
101,
105
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 15 Caspar Olevian, German theologian (b. 1536)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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19635,
758801,
36117
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1,
9
],
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11,
25
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 30 Ralph Sadler, English statesman (b. 1507)",
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
"plaintext": " April 16 Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (b. c. 1510)",
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1,
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11,
44
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 9 Jakob Schegk, German physician (b. 1511)",
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20
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},
{
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1,
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},
{
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19355,
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1,
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9,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 11 Ōtomo Sōrin, Japanese Christian daimyō (b. 1530)",
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15796,
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1,
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21
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 15 Frederick II, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (b. 1568)",
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10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 23 Ōmura Sumitada, Japanese Christian daimyō (b. 1533)",
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15831,
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1,
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10,
24
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56,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Joachim of Zollern, Titular Count of Hohenzollern (b. 1554)",
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27
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63,
67
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 28 Godfried van Mierlo, Dutch Dominican friar and bishop (b. 1518)",
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16040,
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1,
8
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[
10,
29
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[
37,
46
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[
68,
72
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (b. 1538)",
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1417,
2650235,
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[
1,
10
],
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12,
45
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[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 29 Vincenzo Bellavere, Italian composer (b. c. 1540)",
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1793,
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35144
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1,
10
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12,
30
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56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 3 Henry Cheyne, 1st Baron Cheyne, English politician and baron (b. 1540)",
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27989,
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1,
12
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14,
44
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79,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 Jacobus Pamelius, Belgian bishop (b. 1536)",
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28147,
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36117
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
31
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 19 Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1541)",
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22568,
1576167,
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1,
11
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13,
58
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63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 1 Alfonso d'Este, Lord of Montecchio, Italian nobleman (b. 1527)",
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[
1,
11
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13,
47
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[
70,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 10 Abe Motozane, Japanese warlord (b. 1513)",
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21760,
18368940,
38695
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
26
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[
49,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 13 Hai Rui, Ming Dynasty \"model official\" (b. 1514)",
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8852,
3635498,
38694
],
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
21
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 11 Andreas Gaill, German jurist and statesman (b. 1526)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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8396,
20338681,
38686
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
27
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[
61,
65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Dudley Fenner, English Puritan divine (b. c. 1558)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1516982,
38664
],
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[
1,
14
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jan Tarło, Polish nobleman (b. 1527)",
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1850114,
38685
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[
1,
10
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32,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " probable George Whetstone, English writer (b. 1544)",
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314354,
38676
],
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[
11,
27
],
[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Huang, Ray. 1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline (Yale University Press, 1982), on China during the Ming dynasty.",
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1426008,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
44
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[
125,
137
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ott, Michael R. Fünfzehnhundertsiebenundachtzig: Literatur, Geschichte und die Historia von D. Johann Fausten (Frankfurt am Main, 2014) online.",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
] | [
"1587"
] | 6,744 | 536 | 116 | 270 | 0 | 0 | 1587 | year | [] |
38,593 | 1,096,696,118 | 1586 | [
{
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1,
10
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12,
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62,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 20 Johann Hermann Schein, German composer of the early Baroque era (d. 1630)",
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1,
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13,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 29 Louis Frederick, Duke of Württemberg-Montbéliard (1617–1631) (d. 1631)",
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1,
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13,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 8 Jacob Praetorius, German Baroque composer and organist (d. 1651)",
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36373
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1,
11
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13,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 15 Jacques de Bela, French writer (d. 1667)",
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1,
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14,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 20 Hachisuka Yoshishige, Japanese daimyō of the Edo period (d. 1620)",
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1,
12
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14,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 24 Matthias Faber, German Jesuit priest, writer (d. 1653)",
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1,
12
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14,
28
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63,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 Niccolò Cabeo, Italian Jesuit writer, theologian (d. 1657)",
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1,
12
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14,
27
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67,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 12 Jean Dolbeau, French missionary (d. 1652)",
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1,
9
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11,
23
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47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 28 Domenico Massenzio, Italian baroque composer (d. 1657)",
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1,
9
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11,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 29 Ludwig Crocius, German Calvinist minister (d. 1653)",
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1,
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11,
25
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57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Pietro Della Valle, Italian composer (d. 1652)",
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1,
8
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10,
28
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 4 Richard Saltonstall, English diplomat (d. 1661)",
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1,
8
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10,
29
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 5 Christopher Levett, English explorer (d. 1630)",
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35078
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1,
8
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10,
28
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 9 Julius Henry, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1665)",
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1,
8
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10,
46
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 12 (bapt.) John Ford, English dramatist and poet (d. c. 1639)",
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1,
9
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19,
28
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64,
68
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 20 Saint Rose of Lima, Spanish colonist in Lima (d. 1617)",
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2195,
355422,
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1,
9
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17,
29
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60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 23 Martin Rinkart, German clergyman and hymnist (d. 1649)",
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1827,
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1,
9
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11,
25
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60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 24 Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, English noble (d. 1643)",
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1,
9
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11,
49
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69,
73
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 2 Étienne de Courcelles, French scholar (d. 1659)",
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19349,
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[
1,
6
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[
8,
29
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 7 Francesco IV Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat (d. 1612)",
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35098
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1,
6
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8,
44
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64,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 9 Tsugaru Nobuhira, Japanese daimyō (d. 1631)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19524,
15814446,
35161
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[
1,
6
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8,
24
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 11 Angelo Giori, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1662)",
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34688
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1,
7
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9,
21
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53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 23 Paul Siefert, German composer and organist (d. 1666)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19655,
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36223
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1,
7
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[
9,
21
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 24 George John II, Count Palatine of Lützelstein-Guttenberg, German noble (d. 1654)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15812,
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36224
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
66
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[
85,
89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 Claudio Saracini, Italian composer (d. 1630)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15844,
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35078
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
25
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 5 Thomas Hooker, prominent Puritan colonial leader (d. 1647)",
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15861,
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38608
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1,
7
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9,
22
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62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 6 Thomas Trevor, English politician and judge (d. 1656)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
7
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9,
22
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57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, English courtier (d. 1646)",
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[
1,
7
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9,
44
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67,
71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 26 Diego de Colmenares, Spanish historian (d. 1651)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15892,
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36373
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1,
8
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10,
29
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53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 William Hutchinson, founder of Rhode Island (d. 1642)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1417,
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1,
10
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12,
30
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60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 Johann Valentin Andrea, German theologian (d. 1654)",
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1,
10
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12,
34
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58,
62
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 Antoon Sanders, Dutch priest, historian (d. 1664)",
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1,
13
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15,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 29 William Lytton, English Member of Parliament (d. 1660)",
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1,
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15,
29
],
[
64,
68
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},
{
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19700653,
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
23
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[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 9 Leopold V, Archduke of Austria, regent of Tyrol (d. 1632)",
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22549,
1213349,
34990
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
42
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 20 Luke Foxe, English explorer (d. 1635)",
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22442,
2812746,
35192
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
22
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 28 Francis West, Deputy Governor of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia (d. 1634)",
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22341,
3195905,
35191
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
25
],
[
86,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 Polykarp Leyser II, German theologian (d. 1633)",
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21575,
32272873,
35162
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
32
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 22 Walter Erle, English politician (d. 1665)",
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21526,
27806875,
35095
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
25
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 23 Juan Bautista de Lezana, Spanish theologian (d. 1659)",
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21806,
15985243,
38617
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
37
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 Sir John Wray, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1655)",
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21448,
27529806,
36177
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
40
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 28 Sir Thomas Bowyer, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1650)",
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21579,
12813875,
34974
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
44
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
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8352,
1615152,
35082
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
27
],
[
66,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 Georg Calixtus, German Lutheran theologian who looked to reconcile all Christendom (d. 1656)",
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8851,
2970778,
38613
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
101,
105
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 31 Duchess Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia, Electress of Saxony (d. 1659)",
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8204,
24947979,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
50
],
[
76,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown John Mason, English explorer (d. 1635)",
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519137,
35192
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[
15,
25
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown Kocc Barma Fall, Senegambian philosopher (d. 1655)",
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[
15,
30
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},
{
"plaintext": "probable",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giles Fletcher, English poet (d. 1623)",
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[
1,
15
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34,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " David HaLevi Segal, Polish Jewish rabbi (d. 1667)",
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1,
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49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 18 Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands (b. 1522)",
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1,
11
],
[
13,
32
],
[
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68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 25 Lucas Cranach the Younger, German painter (b. 1515)",
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1,
11
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63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 11 Augustus, Elector of Saxony (b. 1526)",
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1,
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14,
41
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[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 1 Amalia of Cleves, German princess and writer (b. 1517)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 25 Margaret Clitherow, English Roman Catholic nun, saint and martyr (b. 1556)",
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1,
9
],
[
11,
29
],
[
39,
53
],
[
80,
84
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 30 Anna of Veldenz, Margrave of Baden (b. 1540)",
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1,
9
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11,
26
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 8 Martin Chemnitz, Lutheran reformer (b. 1522)",
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1,
8
],
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10,
25
],
[
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 5 Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1529)",
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1,
6
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20
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 7 George II of Brieg, Duke of Brieg (1547–1586) (b. 1523)",
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
26
],
[
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62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 9 Luis de Morales, Spanish religious painter (b. 1510)",
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1,
6
],
[
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23
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 29 Adam Lonicer, German botanist (b. 1528)",
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1,
7
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[
9,
21
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[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian and economist (b. 1491)",
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1,
7
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9,
29
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[
68,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 5 Matthew Wesenbeck, Belgian jurist (b. 1531)",
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1,
7
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9,
26
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[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 9 Filippo Boncompagni, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1548)",
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1,
7
],
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9,
28
],
[
60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 28 Primož Trubar, Carniolan Protestant reformer (b. 1508)",
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1,
8
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10,
23
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63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 5 Ludwig Lavater, Swiss Reformed theologian (b. 1527)",
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1,
7
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9,
23
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55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 12 Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley (b. 1525)",
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1,
8
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10,
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50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 1 Richard Maitland, Scottish statesman and historian (b. 1496)",
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11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 7 Prince Masahito, member of the Japanese imperial family (b. 1552)",
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1,
12
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14,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1521)",
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1,
13
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15,
45
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[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 20",
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28148
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sir Anthony Babington, English Catholic conspirator (executed) (b. 1561)",
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5,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chidiock Tichborne, English conspirator and poet (executed) (b. 1558)",
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850303,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 21 Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, French Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1517)",
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1,
13
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15,
44
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[
53,
67
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[
81,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 1 Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (b. 1526)",
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1,
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12,
43
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52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 15 Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Danish princess (b. 1524)",
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1,
11
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13,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 17 Philip Sidney, English poet, courtier and soldier (b. 1554)",
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[
1,
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13,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 28 John Günther I, Count of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (b. 1532)",
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1,
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13,
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68,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 6 Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (b. 1537)",
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1,
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13,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 6 Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt (b. 1536)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 12 Stefan Batory, King of Poland (b. 1533)",
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Luigi d'Este, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1538",
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1,
12
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14,
26
],
[
58,
62
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]
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] | [
"1586"
] | 6,739 | 347 | 110 | 239 | 0 | 0 | 1586 | year | [] |
38,594 | 1,107,837,479 | 1584 | [
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{
"plaintext": " January 1 Charles de Lorme, French physician (d. 1678)",
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"plaintext": " February 18 Philippe de Carteret II, son of Philippe de Carteret I (1552 (d. 1643)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 19 Angelo Nardi, Italian painter (d. 1664)",
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},
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},
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},
{
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},
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{
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{
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 29 Melchior Teschner, German cantor, composer and theologian (d. 1635)",
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{
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1,
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},
{
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]
},
{
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1,
7
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26
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52
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]
},
{
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},
{
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31
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59
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},
{
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],
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10,
38
],
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]
},
{
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10,
24
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53
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},
{
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{
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1,
8
],
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10,
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[
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94
]
]
},
{
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1,
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],
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10,
32
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60
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},
{
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1,
9
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11,
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72
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},
{
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71
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]
},
{
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1,
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12,
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77
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 13 Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, English politician (d. 1640)",
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},
{
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},
{
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1,
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12,
25
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54
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},
{
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1,
13
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15,
30
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73
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},
{
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1,
13
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15,
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64
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 Georg Rudolf Weckherlin, German poet (d. 1653)",
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1,
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15,
38
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60
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 16 Giulio Roma, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1652)",
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1,
13
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26
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62
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]
},
{
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1,
13
],
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42
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66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 10 Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke (d. 1650)",
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11
],
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58
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},
{
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1,
11
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[
13,
30
],
[
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63
]
]
},
{
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
64
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73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 16 Barbara Sophie of Brandenburg, duchess consort and later regent of Württemberg (d. 1636)",
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1,
12
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14,
43
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[
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101
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 18 Gaspar de Crayer, Flemish painter (d. 1669)",
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12
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14,
30
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56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 15 Queen Inmok, Korean royal consort (d. 1632)",
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1,
12
],
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14,
25
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 16 John Selden, English jurist (d. 1654)",
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12
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14,
25
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 25 Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611)",
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12
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14,
49
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58
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 27 Philipp Julius, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1625)",
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1,
12
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14,
47
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56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 28 Juan de Dicastillo, Spanish theologian (d. 1653)",
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12
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[
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": "William Baffin, English explorer (d. 1622)",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Beaumont, English dramatist (d. 1616)",
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1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Antonio Cifra, Italian composer (d. 1629)",
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " Miyamoto Musashi, Japanese samurai, artist, philosopher (d. 1645)",
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17
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Hales, English theologian (d. 1656)",
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[
1,
11
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hu Zhengyan, Chinese artist, printmaker, calligrapher and publisher (d. 1674)",
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12
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull (d. 1643)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mathieu Molé, French statesman (d. 1656)",
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1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Herman Wrangel, Swedish soldier and politician (d. 1643)",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chiara Varotari, Italian Baroque painter (d. 1663)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 4 Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter and drawer (b. 1539)",
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10
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12,
26
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 11 Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Spanish constiquador (b. 1496)",
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1,
11
],
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13,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 15 Martha Leijonhufvud, politically active Swedish noble (b. 1520)",
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1,
11
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13,
32
],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 18 Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Italian writer (b. 1503)",
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1,
12
],
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14,
40
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65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 19 Anna de' Medici, Tuscan princess (b. 1569)",
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1,
12
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14,
29
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 10 Thomas Norton, English politician and writer (b. 1532)",
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1,
9
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11,
24
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]
},
{
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1,
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16,
33
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38,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 10 Luigi Cornaro, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1517)",
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1,
7
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22
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54,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 12 Kasper Franck, German theologian (b. 1543)",
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11,
24
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 13 Jan Borukowski, royal secretary of Poland (b. 1524)",
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1,
9
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11,
25
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 18 Ikeda Tsuneoki, Japanese daimyō and military commander (in battle) (b. 1536)",
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1,
7
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[
9,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 25 Prospero Spani, Italian sculptor (b. 1516)",
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23
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46,
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]
},
{
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10,
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38,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 János Zsámboky, Hungarian scholar (b. 1531)",
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1,
8
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[
10,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 ",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Throckmorton, conspirator against Queen Elizabeth I of England (executed; b. 1554)",
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},
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"plaintext": " William the Silent, Prince of Orange (assassinated) (b. 1533)",
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 14 Balthasar Gérard, French assassin of William I of Orange (executed; b. 1557)",
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10,
26
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[
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[
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},
{
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16181,
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] | [
"1584",
"Leap_years_in_the_Gregorian_calendar"
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38,595 | 1,072,612,665 | 1583 | [
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"plaintext": " Denis Pétau, French Jesuit theologian (d. 1652)",
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"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"plaintext": " Hendrick Jacobszoon Lucifer, Dutch pirate and buccaneer (d. 1627)",
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"plaintext": " Bonaventura Elzevir, Dutch printer (d. 1652)",
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"plaintext": " December 31 Thomas Erastus, Swiss theologian (b. 1524)",
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{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"plaintext": " Giocangga, chieftain of the Jurchens (b. 1526)",
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"plaintext": " Andrey Kurbsky, Russian writer (b. 1528)",
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"plaintext": " Oda Nobutaka, Japanese samurai (b. 1558)",
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] | [
"1583"
] | 6,726 | 348 | 111 | 223 | 0 | 0 | 1583 | year | [] |
38,596 | 1,071,197,732 | 1581 | [
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"plaintext": "1581 (MDLXXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) in the Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " January 6 Countess Palatine Dorothea of Simmern, Princess consort of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1631)",
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"plaintext": " January 30 Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1603–1655) (d. 1655)",
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56
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56
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14,
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79
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14,
53
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74
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52
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{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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{
"plaintext": " Gasparo Aselli, Italian physician (d. 1626)",
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15
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{
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " Choghtu Khong Tayiji, ruler of the Khalkha Mongols (d. 1637)",
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican dramatist (d. 1639)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sisto Badalocchio, Italian painter and engraver (d. 1647)",
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},
{
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1,
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[
51,
55
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},
{
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1,
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31
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81,
85
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]
},
{
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30629938,
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25
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49,
53
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]
},
{
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49,
53
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]
},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 25 Okabe Motonobu, Japanese warrior",
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2733,
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[
1,
9
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11,
25
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},
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]
},
{
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42
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71
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]
},
{
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8
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10,
25
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52
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]
},
{
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8
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10,
21
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[
60,
64
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]
},
{
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52
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},
{
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 Duchess Sabine of Württemberg, by marriage Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel (b. 1549)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 20 Katharina of Hanau, Countess of Wied, German noblewoman (b. 1525)",
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1,
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76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August King Mayadunne of Sitawaka (b. 1501)",
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40,
44
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]
},
{
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 16 Peter Niers, notorious German bandit (date of birth unknown)",
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]
},
{
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61
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},
{
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59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 30 Hubert Languet, French diplomat and reformer (b. 1518)",
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},
{
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]
},
{
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]
},
{
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[
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[
101,
105
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 10 King Bayinnaung of Burma (b. 1516)",
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 4 Mathurin Romegas, French rival Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. c.1525)",
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29
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63,
82
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[
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93
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 7 Richard Davies, Welsh bishop and scholar (b. c. 1505)",
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11
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13,
27
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]
},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 1",
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11
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Martyrs and executed of Tyburn",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander Briant, English Jesuit priest and saint (b. 1556)",
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1,
17
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27,
33
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edmund Campion, English Jesuit priest and saint (b. 1540)",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph Sherwin, English Roman Catholic priest and saint (b. 1550)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 11 Maria of Austria, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I (b. 1531)",
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1,
12
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[
14,
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103
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 21 Jean de la Cassière, French-born Maltese 51st Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1502) ",
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12
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[
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107
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Christopher Báthory, prince of Transylvania (b. 1530)",
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guillaume Postel, French linguist (b. 1510)",
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1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Agatha Streicher, German physician (b. 1520)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nicholas Sanders, English Catholic propagandist (b. 1530)",
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] | [
"1581"
] | 6,717 | 329 | 95 | 222 | 0 | 0 | 1581 | year | [] |
38,597 | 1,089,497,009 | 1580 | [
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"plaintext": " January 8 Jens Hermansson Juel, Stattholder of Norway (d. 1634)",
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},
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"plaintext": " January 30 Gundakar, Prince of Liechtenstein, court official in Vienna (d. 1658)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " January John Smith, English explorer and Virginia settler (d. 1631)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February John Digby, 1st Earl of Bristol, English diplomat (d. 1653)",
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},
{
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 22 Charles de l'Aubespine, marquis de Châteauneuf, French diplomat and government official (d. 1653)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 24 Matthias Hoe von Hoenegg, German theologian (d. 1645)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 28",
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12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Orazio Giustiniani, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1649)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Srofenaur, Italian musician (d. 1634)",
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},
{
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4138399,
35195
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[
1,
19
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73,
77
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, English noble, courtier and patron of the arts (d. 1630)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2402670,
35078
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
],
[
91,
95
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 18 (baptism) Thomas Middleton, English playwright (d. 1627)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1826,
63428,
35141
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
21,
37
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 24 Miguel Avellán, Spanish Catholic prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Toledo from 1633 (d. 1650)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2734,
49077292,
34974
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
25
],
[
94,
98
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 5",
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19352
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Faulhaber, German mathematician (d. 1635)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
9768822,
35192
],
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[
1,
17
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Webb, English settler in America (d. 1665)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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39641552,
35095
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[
1,
13
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 6 Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, French noble (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19514,
9697766,
35193
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
54
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 14 Bassam Al-Soukaria, Lebanese army commander (d. 1667)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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19676,
25777884,
38623
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
27
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 30 Fadrique de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Villanueva de Valdueza, Spanish noble and admiral (d. 1634)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19654,
24568616,
35191
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
66
],
[
98,
102
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 6 Godefroy Wendelin, Flemish astronomer (d. 1667)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15794,
30873747,
38623
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
26
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 9 Daniel Heinsius, Dutch scholar (d. 1655)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15865,
311717,
36177
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
24
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 12 Adriaan van Stalbemt, Flemish Baroque painter (d. 1662)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15806,
24640884,
34688
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
30
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 14 Elisabeth Magdalena of Pomerania, German duchess (d. 1649)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15797,
29235915,
36176
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
42
],
[
63,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 26 ",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15800
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gaspar de Borja y Velasco, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1645)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21938899,
38607
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Claver, Spanish Jesuit priest (d. 1654)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
63733,
36224
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 5 Carlo Contarini, Doge of Venice (d. 1656)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15861,
23610770,
38613
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
24
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 6 Johann Stobäus, German composer (d. 1646)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15862,
29899054,
35060
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
23
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 Humphrey Chetham, English merchant (d. 1653)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15809,
1457370,
38610
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 18 Giovanni Giacomo Semenza, Italian painter (d. 1638)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16090,
11775233,
35146
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
34
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Francesco Mochi, Italian early-Baroque sculptor (d. 1654)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15968,
3216197,
36224
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
25
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 2 Prince Jeongwon, Korean prince (d. 1619)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1154,
33808390,
35108
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
26
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 19 Pierre Vernier, French mathematician (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1497,
754249,
35193
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 4 George Percy, English explorer (d. 1632)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27765,
1300667,
34990
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
26
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 14",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27947
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish writer (d. 1645)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
291311,
38607
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Gordon of Straloch, Scottish cartographer (d. 1661)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2774834,
34588
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 15",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28145
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Annibal Fabrot, French lawyer (d. 1659)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
165665,
38617
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Fanshawe, English politician (d. 1631)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27530639,
35161
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Countess Charlotte Brabantina of Nassau, Belgian noble (d. 1631)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27993,
11929956,
35161
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
54
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Elisabeth of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg, Duchess consort of Pomerania (d. 1653)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
28202,
36305855,
38610
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
57
],
[
92,
96
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 8 Gábor Esterházy (1580–1626), Hungarian noble (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22543,
37118345,
34586
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
39
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 12 Hortensio Félix Paravicino, Spanish preacher and poet from the noble house of Pallavicini (d. 1633)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22530,
217367,
35162
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
39
],
[
107,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 20 Peter Crüger, German astronomer and mathematician (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22442,
4297192,
35195
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
25
],
[
67,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 30 Armand-Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force, Marshal of France (d. 1675)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22436,
8087696,
38657
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
54
],
[
78,
82
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 9 Johannes Narssius, Dutch physician and poet (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21446,
33966499,
35193
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
30
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 1 Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8357,
624700,
35193
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
44
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
8354
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
770464,
34586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nabeshima Katsushige, Japanese daimyō (d. 1657)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10844561,
84512,
34962
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
32,
38
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Philipp Clüver, German geographer and historian (d. 1623)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1525009,
34687
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francesco Fontana, Italian lawyer and astronomer (d. 1656)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
834413,
38613
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dirk Hartog, Dutch ship's captain and explorer (d. 1621)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
318138,
35110
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean Jannon, Swiss-born typefounder (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
46385908,
38614
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Killigrew, English courtier, politician, ambassador and knight (d. 1633)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1238561,
35162
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Willebrord Snellius, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
213858,
34586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raphael Sobiehrd-Mnishovsky, Bohemian lawyer and writer (d. 1644)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
523200,
34860
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pierre Vernier, French mathematician and instrument inventor (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
754249,
35193
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
66,
70
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Krzysztof Zbaraski, Polish nobleman (d. 1627)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1340578,
35141
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician and colonizer (d. 1623)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
555656,
34687
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
],
[
75,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " probable",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " William Brabazon, 1st Earl of Meath, English noble (d. 1651)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
42639559,
36373
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edward Fairfax, English translator (d. 1635)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1002163,
35192
],
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[
1,
15
],
[
40,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Frans Hals, Dutch painter (d. 1666)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
46089,
36223
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
31,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Scottish soldier (d. 1661)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
234219,
34588
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
],
[
59,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Benjamin, Duke of Soubise, French Huguenot leader (d. 1642)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
293266,
34587
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adriana Basile, Italian composer (d. 1640)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7793406,
34893
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 5 Anna Sibylle of Hanau-Lichtenberg, German noblewoman (b. 1542)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19279054,
36774589,
34782
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
45
],
[
69,
73
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 18 ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16202
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Antonio Scandello, Italian composer (b. 1517)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
922813,
38691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Archangelo de' Bianchi, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1516)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
37491053,
38692
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 31 King Henry of Portugal (b. 1512)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15793,
253972,
34887
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
18,
35
],
[
40,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 2 Bessho Nagaharu, Japanese retainer (b. 1558)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11322,
1190523,
38664
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 24 Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, English nobleman (b. 1511)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11007,
421009,
38696
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
50
],
[
73,
77
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 20 Francesco Alciati, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1522)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2195,
19899562,
34995
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
28
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 3 Thomas Tusser, English poet and farmer (b. c. 1524)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19350,
262283,
38688
],
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
21
],
[
54,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 31 Dorothea of Denmark, Electress Palatine, Princess of Denmark, Sweden and Norway (b. 1520)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19653,
20631712,
34888
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
48
],
[
93,
97
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]
},
{
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},
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"plaintext": " September Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly, French royal mistress and cultural patron (b. 1508)",
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},
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"plaintext": " October 5 Matsudaira Shigeyoshi, Japanese general (b. 1493)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 8 Hieronymus Wolf, German historian (b. 1516)",
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12,
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},
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"plaintext": " October 26 Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain (b. 1549)",
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},
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"plaintext": " November 3 Jerónimo Zurita y Castro, Spanish historian (b. 1512)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 16 Marie of Baden-Sponheim, German noblewoman (b. 1507",
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1,
12
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14,
37
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61,
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 30 Richard Farrant, English composer (b. 1530)",
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1,
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14,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 1 Giovanni Morone, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1509)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia, Italian anatomist (b. 1545)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ruy López de Segura, Spanish priest and writer on chess (b. 1530)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Inés de Suárez, Spanish conquistadora (b. 1507)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Lucrezia Galletta, Italian courtesan and banker",
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19
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},
{
"plaintext": " possible date",
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Heywood, English dramatist (b. 1497)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, Scottish chronicler (b. c. 1532)",
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] | [
"1580"
] | 6,712 | 506 | 143 | 278 | 0 | 0 | 1580 | year | [] |
38,598 | 1,036,435,813 | 1579 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1579 (MDLXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Monday of the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " January 7 Juan Manuel Pérez de Guzmán, 8th Duke of Medina Sidonia, Spanish nobleman, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (d. 1636)",
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"plaintext": " January 27 Antonio Tornielli, Italian Catholic prelate who served as Bishop of Novara (1636–1650) (d. 1650)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 9 Johannes Meursius, Dutch classical scholar and antiquary (d. 1639)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 24 Johann Jacob Grasser, Swiss poet, historian and theologian (d. 1627)",
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},
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},
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"plaintext": " April 12 François de Bassompierre, French courtier (d. 1646)",
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11,
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61
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"plaintext": " April 25 García de Toledo Osorio, 6th Marquis of Villafranca, Spanish noble and politician (d. 1649)",
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1,
9
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11,
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97,
101
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},
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"plaintext": " May 1 Wolphert Gerretse, Dutch founder of the New Netherland Colony (d. 1662)",
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1,
6
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},
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"plaintext": " May 2 Tokugawa Hidetada, Japanese shōgun (d. 1632)",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " June 17 Louis I, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, German prince (d. 1650)",
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15798,
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34974
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1,
8
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10,
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},
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"plaintext": " June 18 Afonso Mendes, Patriarch of Ethiopia (d. 1659)",
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1,
8
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10,
23
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55
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 Janusz Radziwiłł, Lithuanian and Polish nobleman (d. 1620)",
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35109
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62,
66
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"plaintext": " July 6",
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15862
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bernardino de Almansa Carrión, Spanish Catholic prelate and Archbishop (d. 1633)",
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48748397,
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1,
30
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76,
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{
"plaintext": " Francis Norris, 1st Earl of Berkshire, English noble (d. 1622)",
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27591526,
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62
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8
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10,
20
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58,
62
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},
{
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1254,
1303528,
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1,
9
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11,
32
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73
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},
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1,
10
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12,
50
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59
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 21 Henri, Duke of Rohan (d. 1638)",
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1,
10
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12,
32
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37,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 23 Thomas Dempster, Scottish scholar and historian (d. 1625)",
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1,
10
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12,
27
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64,
68
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 ",
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27530
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1,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince-Bishop, German Catholic archbishop (d. 1634)",
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35191
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1,
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83,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel Coster, Dutch writer (d. 1665)",
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35095
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1,
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37
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},
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"plaintext": " September 3 Louis I, Count of Erbach-Erbach (1606–1643) (d. 1643)",
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1,
12
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14,
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62,
66
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"plaintext": " September 17 Charles Howard, 2nd Earl of Nottingham, English noble (d. 1642)",
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1,
13
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15,
53
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[
73,
77
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},
{
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10
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12,
29
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[
52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 Anthony Abdy, English merchant (d. 1640)",
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22545,
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11
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13,
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48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 7 Juan de Peñalosa, Spanish painter (d. 1633)",
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11
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13,
29
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55
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 11 Frans Snyders, Flemish painter (d. 1657)",
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1,
12
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14,
27
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49,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 12 Albrecht of Hanau-Münzenberg, German nobleman (d. 1635)",
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1,
12
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14,
42
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68
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},
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14,
52
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},
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35195
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{
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jacob Astley, 1st Baron Astley of Reading, royalist commander in the English Civil War (d. 1652)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Arthur Johnston, Scottish physician and poet (d. 1641)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Ogilvie, Scottish Jesuit, Roman Catholic saint (martyred 1615)",
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1656243,
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 5 Countess Palatine Helena of Simmern, Countess consort of Hanau-Münzenberg (1551-1561) (b. 1532)",
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103,
107
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 16 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, Spanish explorer (b. 1509)",
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},
{
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1,
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14,
28
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]
},
{
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1,
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11,
33
],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 25 John Stuart, 4th Earl of Atholl",
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1,
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11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 6 François de Montmorency, French nobleman (b. 1530)",
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]
},
{
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52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 17 Johannes Stadius, German astronomer, astrologer, mathematician (b. 1527)",
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10,
26
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77,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 25 Hatano Hideharu, Japanese samurai (b. 1541)",
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10,
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48,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 3 Edward Fitton, the elder, Irish politician (b. 1527)",
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33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 5 Stanislaus Hosius, Polish Catholic cardinal (b. 1504)",
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11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 12 Domenico Bollani, Bishop of Milan (b. 1514)",
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1,
10
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12,
28
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50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 11 Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Turkish Janissary and Grand Vizier (b. 1505)",
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1,
11
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13,
33
],
[
74,
78
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 13 William Drury, English politician (b. 1527)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
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13,
26
],
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51,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 21 Tanegashima Tokitaka, Japanese Daimyo (b. 1528)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
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13,
33
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[
55,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 24 Albert V, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1528)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
],
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13,
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],
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 9 Philip VI, Count of Waldeck (1567–1579) (b. 1551)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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13,
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[
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 Francis David, Hungarian religious reformer (b. 1510)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
12
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14,
27
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 21 Thomas Gresham, English merchant and financier (b. 1519)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
12
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14,
28
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65,
69
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Battista Adriani, Italian historian (b. c. 1512)",
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[
1,
26
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[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diego de Landa, Spanish Bishop of the Yucatán (b. 1524)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hieronim Jarosz Sieniawski, Polish noble (b. 1516)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
27
],
[
46,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Whittingham, English Biblical scholar and religious reformer (b. 1524)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Voravongsa I, Laotian king of Lan Xang",
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1,
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "probable - Hans Staden, German adventurer (b. 1525)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
}
] | [
"1579"
] | 6,709 | 301 | 103 | 182 | 0 | 0 | 1579 | year | [] |
38,599 | 1,100,083,429 | 1578 | [
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{
"plaintext": "Year 1578 (MDLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
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"plaintext": " January 7 Agnes of Solms-Laubach, Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1602)",
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"plaintext": " January 10 Christopher Clitherow, Lord Mayor of London and Member of Parliament (d. 1641)",
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},
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"plaintext": " January 28 Cornelius Haga, Dutch diplomat (d. 1654)",
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},
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"plaintext": " March 18 Adam Elsheimer, German artist working in Rome, who died at only thirty-two (d. 1610)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 1 William Harvey, English physician (d. 1657)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 14 King Philip III of Spain (d. 1621)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 17 Maximilian van der Sandt, Dutch theologian (d. 1656)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 11 Christian Günther I, Count of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (1601–1642) (d. 1642)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 5 Claude, Duke of Chevreuse (d. 1657)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 Thomas Finch, 2nd Earl of Winchilsea, Member of Parliament (d. 1639)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 9 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1637)",
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 21 Philipp Hainhofer, German merchant, banker, diplomat and art collector (d. 1647)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Frances Howard, Duchess of Richmond, British duchess (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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8
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10,
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[
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 31 Countess Catharina Belgica of Nassau, regent of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1648)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
8
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[
10,
46
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 5 Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, first duke of Chaulnes (d. 1621)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 10 Matteo Rosselli, Italian painter (d. 1650)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2315,
9056335,
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1,
10
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[
12,
27
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francesco Albani, Italian painter (d. 1660)",
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38618
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[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, first prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (d. 1638)",
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1,
43
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90,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 24 John Taylor, English poet who dubbed himself The Water Poet (d. 1653)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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38610
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[
1,
10
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12,
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 11 Vincenzo Maculani, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1667)",
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1,
13
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15,
32
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[
64,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 John Prideaux, English academic administrator and Anglican bishop (d. 1650)",
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27993,
12342168,
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1,
13
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[
15,
28
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[
85,
89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 4 Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1641)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
45
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[
77,
81
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 12 Baldassare Aloisi, Italian painter (d. 1638)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22530,
7087596,
35146
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
30
],
[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 19 Christine of Hesse-Kassel, Duchess of Saxe-Eisenach and Saxe-Coburg (d. 1658)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22568,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
38
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85,
89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 4 Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg, Duke of Jülich and Berg (1614–1635) (d. 1653)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
56
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[
98,
102
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 6 Maximilian of Liechtenstein, Austrian nobleman and Imperial General (d. 1645)",
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21758,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
40
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[
85,
89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 2 Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and music theorist (d. 1640)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
30
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[
72,
76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 7 Okaji no Kata, Japanese concubine of Tokugawa Ieyasu (d. 1642)",
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8144,
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31183,
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1,
11
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[
13,
26
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[
50,
65
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[
70,
74
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 20 Henry of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne, French noble (d. 1621)",
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
48
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[
67,
71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 28 Henry Bulstrode, English Member of Parliament (d. 1643)",
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1,
12
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14,
29
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[
64,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Ulrik of Denmark, Danish prince-bishop (d. 1624)",
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1,
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " approx. date Fede Galizia, Italian painter",
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7679418
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[
15,
27
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giambattista Andreini, Italian actor and playwright (d. 1650)",
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1171181,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yamada Arinaga, Japanese retainer of the Shimazu clan (d. 1668)",
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1190439,
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{
"plaintext": " Benedetto Castelli, Italian scientist (d. 1643)",
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1,
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{
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},
{
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738989,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel Jordan, American colonial legislator (d. 1623)",
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1345426,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Grzegorz IV Radziwiłł, Polish magnate (d. 1613)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " François Ravaillac, killer of Henry IV of France (d. 1610)",
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175204,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ambrose Rookwood, English Gunpowder Plot conspirator (d. 1606)",
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1107648,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Manners, 6th Earl of Rutland (d. 1632)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Horio Tadauji, Japanese daimyō (d. 1604)",
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1744564,
35084
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1,
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40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Everard Digby, English conspirator (d. 1606)",
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1107662,
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 5 Giulio Clovio, Dalmatian painter (b. 1498)",
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53
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 6 Queen Inseong, Korean royal consort (b. 1514)",
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1,
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25
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[
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56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 25 Mihrimah Sultan, Sultan Suleiman's daughter (b. 1522)",
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15845,
30576657,
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[
1,
11
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[
14,
29
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[
62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 5 or 1579 Giovanni Battista Moroni, Italian painter (b. 1510)",
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[
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19
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[
22,
46
],
[
68,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 12 Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal (b. 1507)",
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1785319,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
53
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 3 ",
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19633
],
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sebastiano Venier, Doge of Venice (b. 1496)",
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[
1,
18
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[
39,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Kantakouzenos Şeytanoğlu, Ottoman Greek magnate (b. 1510)",
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},
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"plaintext": " March 7 Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (b. 1515)",
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1,
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[
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26
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 29 ",
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20586
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[
1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arthur Champernowne, English admiral (b. 1524)",
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38688
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[
1,
20
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[
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46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louis I, Cardinal of Guise, French cardinal (b. 1527)",
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1,
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Marie Elisabeth of France, French princess (b. 1572)",
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8
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[
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35
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61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 11 Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Austrian Archduchess (b. 1547)",
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9
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[
11,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 14 James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, consort of Mary, Queen of Scots (b. 1535)",
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9
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[
11,
46
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[
59,
79
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[
84,
88
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 15 Wolrad II, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (b. 1509)",
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1,
9
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[
11,
48
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[
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 19 Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1530)",
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38683
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1,
9
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11,
25
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[
60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 4 Martin Eisengrein, German theologian (b. 1535)",
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[
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 16 Ioan Potcoavă, Russian Cossack ataman",
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1,
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23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 Thomas Doughty, English explorer (executed)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 5 Cristoforo Madruzzo, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1512)",
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28
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64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Jane Lumley, English translator (b. 1537)",
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15922,
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10,
21
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50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 4",
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2418
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " King Sebastian of Portugal (b. 1554)",
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34972
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Stukley, English adventurer (b. 1525)",
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1718319,
38687
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[
1,
15
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},
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"plaintext": " Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi, King of Morocco",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Abdallah Mohammed II Saadi, King of Morocco",
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19291
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1,
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 8 Amago Katsuhisa, Japanese nobleman (b. 1553)",
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1,
9
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11,
26
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54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 11 Pedro Nunes, Portuguese mathematician (b. 1502)",
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38705
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1,
10
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12,
23
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 16 Andrew Corbet, English landowner and politician (b. 1522)",
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1,
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12,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 20 Yamanaka Yukimori, Japanese samurai (b. 1545) ",
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1,
10
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12,
29
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September Pierre Lescot, French architect (b. 1510)",
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27529,
934307,
38697
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[
1,
10
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12,
25
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 3 Giulio della Rovere, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1533)",
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27989,
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12
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14,
33
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65,
69
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 22 Archduke Wenceslaus of Austria (b. 1561)",
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15,
45
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54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 1 Don John of Austria, military leader (b. 1547)",
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514090,
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1,
10
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[
16,
31
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 12 Cornelius Gemma, Dutch astronomer and astrologer (b. 1535)",
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22530,
20964019,
34958
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1,
11
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[
13,
28
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[
66,
70
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, Spanish prince (b. 1571)",
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22545,
7750534,
35079
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
42
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[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 3 Gonzalo II Fernández de Córdoba, Governor of the Duchy of Milan (b. 1520)",
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8355,
27889267,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
44
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81,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December Nicholas Heath, Archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1501)",
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314827,
226197,
38706
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1,
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11,
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50,
65
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[
81,
85
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown Sabina, Duchess of Bavaria (b. 1528)",
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] | [
"1578"
] | 6,707 | 387 | 107 | 228 | 0 | 0 | 1578 | year | [] |
38,600 | 1,100,083,441 | 1577 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1577 (MDLXXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
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"plaintext": " January 9 Anthony Irby, English politician (d. 1610)",
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{
"plaintext": " January 12 Francesco Stelluti, Italian mathematician (d. 1652)",
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},
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"plaintext": " January 13 Hugh Audley, English moneylender/lawyer/philosopher (d. 1662)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 5 Johann Baptist Grossschedel, German noble, alchemist and esoteric author (d. 1630)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 6 Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman who conspired to kill her father (d. 1599)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 7 Francis Walsingham, English Jesuit (d. 1647)",
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},
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"plaintext": " February 8 Robert Burton, English scholar at Oxford University (d. 1640)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 15 Jean Riolan the Younger, French anatomist (d. 1657)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 17 Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, German noble (d. 1656)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 18 Roger North, English politician (d. 1651)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 22 Pieter Huyssens, Flemish architect (d. 1637)",
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},
{
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},
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},
{
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{
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},
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},
{
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},
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},
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14,
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96
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},
{
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26
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79
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]
},
{
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},
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1,
12
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14,
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Christoph Besold, German jurist (d. 1638)",
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1,
17
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41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Giacomo Cavedone, Italian painter (d. 1660)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Cushman, English Plymouth Colony settler (d. 1625)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Kobayakawa Hideaki, Japanese samurai and warlord (d. 1602)",
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},
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"plaintext": " William Noy, English lawyer and politician (d. 1634)",
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},
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{
"plaintext": " Meletius Smotrytsky, Ruthenian religious activist and author, who developed Church Slavonic grammar (d. 1633)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gerhard Johann Vossius, German classical scholar and theologian (d. 1649)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February Adam von Bodenstein, Swiss alchemist and physician (b. 1528)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 26 King Eric XIV of Sweden (b. 1533)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 23 Charles II, Margrave of Baden-Durlach (b. 1529)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 13 Konrad Hubert, German theologian and hymnwriter (b. 1507)",
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11,
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},
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"plaintext": " May Richard Aertsz, Dutch painter (b. 1482)",
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6,
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"plaintext": " May 5 Viglius, Dutch statesman (b. 1507)",
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"plaintext": " May 31 García Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Marquis of Villafranca, Spanish noble and admiral (b. 1514)",
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"plaintext": " June 12 Orazio Samacchini, Italian painter (b. 1532)",
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10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 23 Scipione Rebiba, Italian cardinal (b. 1504)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 26 Blaise de Lasseran-Massencôme, seigneur de Montluc, Marshal of France (b. 1502)",
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 27 Diego de Covarubias y Leyva, Spanish jurist and archbishop of Cuenca (b. 1512)",
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{
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{
"plaintext": " November 19 Matsunaga Hisahide, Japanese warlord (b. 1508)",
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14,
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 Cuthbert Mayne, English saint (b. 1543)",
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12
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] | [
"1577"
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38,601 | 1,100,083,459 | 1576 | [
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},
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},
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},
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},
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{
"plaintext": " December 20 Saint John Sarkander, Moravian priest (d. 1620)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " William Ames, English Protestant philosopher (d. 1633)",
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"plaintext": " Giulio Cesare la Galla, professor of philosophy at the Collegio Romano in Italy (d. 1624)",
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"plaintext": " probable Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby, Swedish soldier and politician (d. 1622)",
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{
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{
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},
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"plaintext": " October 26 Frederick III, Elector Palatine, ruler from the house of Wittelsbach (b. 1515)",
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"plaintext": " November 9 Chamaraja Wodeyar IV, King of Mysore (b. 1507)",
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{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"plaintext": " Paula Vicente, Portuguese artist, musician and writer (b. 1519)",
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"plaintext": " probable",
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},
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"plaintext": " Anthony More, Dutch portrait painter (b. 1512)",
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"plaintext": " Nicola Vicentino, Italian music theorist and composer (b. 1511)",
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"1576"
] | 6,700 | 460 | 98 | 158 | 0 | 0 | 1576 | year | [] |
38,603 | 1,090,253,701 | 1575 | [
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[
4,
14
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[
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[
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]
},
{
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},
{
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
37
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[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
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11362,
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[
1,
12
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[
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31
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[
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71
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 Marten Pepijn, Flemish painter (d. 1643)",
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[
1,
12
],
[
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27
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[
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53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 27",
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11310
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[
1,
12
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1590–1616) (d. 1616)",
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[
1,
37
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anna of Holstein-Gottorp, countess consort of East Frisia (d. 1610)",
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4169872,
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[
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[
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67
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},
{
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[
1,
9
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[
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[
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75
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 21 Francesco Molin, Doge of Venice (d. 1655)",
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23519269,
36177
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
26
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 26 Marie de' Medici, queen of Henry IV of France (d. 1642)",
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57876,
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
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],
[
38,
56
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
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1603787,
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[
1,
7
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[
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21
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 30 Diego Salcedo, Spanish bishop (d. 1644)",
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19654,
3245611,
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[
1,
7
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[
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22
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[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 15 Lelio Biscia, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1638)",
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15936,
25218687,
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
22
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 24 William Petre, 2nd Baron Petre, English peer and MP (d. 1637)",
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
40
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[
66,
70
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]
},
{
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4068483,
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
39
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[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 2 Elizabeth de Vere, Countess of Derby (d. 1627)",
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25476186,
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[
1,
7
],
[
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45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 11 Thomas Berkeley, English politician (d. 1611)",
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15873,
33584514,
34992
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
25
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 14 Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau, German prince (d. 1653)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
45
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 28 Fernando de Valdés y Llanos, Spanish Catholic archbishop (d. 1639)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16040,
32005647,
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
37
],
[
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75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 31 Simon Steward, English politician (d. 1632)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
23
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 Robert Hayman, English-born poet (d. 1629)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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520575,
35143
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
25
],
[
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53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 15 Diego, Prince of Asturias, Portuguese prince (d. 1582)",
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
37
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[
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65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 18 Countess Palatine Anna Maria of Neuburg, Duchess of Saxe-Altenburg (d. 1643)",
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35220
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
51
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[
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87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 24 William Burton, British antiquarian (d. 1645)",
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26079271,
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 4 Guido Reni, Italian painter (d. 1642)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
23
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[
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49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 26 John Augustus, Count Palatine of Lützelstein, German count (d. 1611)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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21445950,
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],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
58
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[
77,
81
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4 The Nun of Monza, Italian nun (d. 1650)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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8354,
41147196,
34974
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 18 Michelagnolo Galilei, Italian lutenist and composer (d. 1631)",
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"target_page_ids": [
8334,
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35161
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
34
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[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jakob Böhme, German mystic (d. 1624)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
27
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[
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36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " David Calderwood, Scottish divine and historian (d. 1650)",
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[
1,
17
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[
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Concino Concini, 3rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1617)",
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1,
16
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46
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[
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55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anna Kostka, Polish noblewoman (d. 1635)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
12
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[
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40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, successful London merchant (d. 1645)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1799721,
38607
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[
1,
40
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[
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77
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},
{
"plaintext": " William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle (d. 1622)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
36
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[
41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arbella Stuart, Duchess of Somerset (d. 1615)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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79240,
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],
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[
1,
15
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[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cyril Tourneur, English dramatist (d. 1626)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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277323,
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[
1,
15
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[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell (d. 1608)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
39
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " probable",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Vittoria Aleotti, Italian composer (d. c. 1620)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4084689,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
43,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Giambattista Basile, Italian poet (d. 1632)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
859175,
34990
],
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[
1,
20
],
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edmund Bolton, English historian and poet (d. 1633)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
302959,
35162
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[
1,
14
],
[
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51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clemente Tabone, Maltese landowner and militia member (d. 1665)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
16
],
[
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63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 4 Sidonie of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Calenberg (b. 1518)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15982,
31636287,
38690
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
29
],
[
66,
70
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 14 Barbara Uthmann, German businessperson (b. 1514)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16192,
14225192,
38694
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 22 James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault (b. 1516)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 29 Hernando de Aragón, Spanish Roman Catholic archbishop (b. 1498)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15814,
31515126,
606848,
35500
],
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
31
],
[
41,
55
],
[
71,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Karl Friedrich of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, heir apparent of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (b. 1555)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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36175
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
49
],
[
91,
95
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 20 Maria of Jever, last ruler of the Lordship of Jever (b. 1500)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11025,
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35019
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
],
[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 Claude of Valois, Duchess consort of Lorraine and French princess (b. 1547)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11010,
989727,
38671
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
30
],
[
84,
88
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 11 Matthias Flacius, Croatian Protestant reformer (b. 1520)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19530,
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34888
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
27
],
[
38,
48
],
[
62,
66
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 15 Annibale Padovano, Italian composer and organist (b. 1527)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19635,
1344533,
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38685
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
28
],
[
30,
37
],
[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 Georg Cracow, German lawyer and politician (b. 1525)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20223,
32475162,
38687
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
11,
23
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 24 Yosef Karo, Spanish-born Jewish rabbi. Author of the book \"Shulchan Aruch\" (b. 1488)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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20209,
149173,
149176,
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],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
21
],
[
70,
84
],
[
90,
94
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 17 Matthew Parker, English Roman Catholic archbishop (b. 1504)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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153638,
606848,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
23
],
[
33,
47
],
[
63,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 28 Sophia Jagiellon, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1522)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19672,
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],
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[
1,
7
],
[
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56
],
[
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65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 3 Francisco de Ibarra, Spanish explorer and colonial governor in Mexico (b. c. 1539)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
28
],
[
86,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 7 Sir George Heron, English politician",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15795,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
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25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 28 Yonekura Shigetsugu, Japanese samurai",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15802,
13735436
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 29",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15842
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baba Nobuharu, Japanese samurai",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hara Masatane, Japanese samurai (b. 1531)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15432567,
34944
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
37,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Naito Masatoyo, Japanese samurai (b. 1522)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
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42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sanada Nobutsuna, Japanese samurai (b. 1537)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
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[
40,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Takeda Nobuzane, Japanese daimyō",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yamagata Masakage, Japanese samurai (b. 1524)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " July 29 Jon Simonssøn, Norwegian humanist (b. 1512)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Heinrich Bullinger, Swiss religious reformer (b. 1504)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Anna of Oldenburg, Regent of East Frisia (b. 1501)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 17 Gaspar Cervantes de Gaeta, Spanish Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1511)",
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1,
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13,
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48,
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[
76,
80
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 20 Kaspar Eberhard, German theologian (b. 1523)",
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52,
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 24 Peder Oxe, Danish finance minister (b. 1520)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 2 Sabina of Brandenburg-Ansbach, German princess (b. 1529)",
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13,
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64,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 1 Diego Andrada de Payva, Portuguese theologian (b. 1528)",
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1,
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13,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 23 Akiyama Nobutomo, Japanese retainer (b. 1531)",
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1,
12
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14,
30
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54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 31 Pierino Belli, Italian soldier and jurist (b. 1502)",
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1,
12
],
[
14,
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[
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64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Constantio Varoli, Italian anatomist (b. 1543)",
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17867588,
34943
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[
1,
18
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42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Isabel de Josa, Catalan writer (b. 1508)",
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[
1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The conclusion of the events of the film Kagemusha by Akira Kurosawa takes place in this year.",
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] | [
"1575"
] | 6,688 | 344 | 111 | 226 | 0 | 0 | 1575 | year | [] |
38,604 | 1,100,083,465 | 1570 | [
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{
"plaintext": "Year 1570 (MDLXX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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{
"plaintext": " Dorothea of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Spouse of Charles I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld (d. 1649)",
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{
"plaintext": " John Dackombe, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (d. 1618)",
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"plaintext": " January 19 Wolfgang Hirschbach, German legal scholar (d. 1620)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 22 Robert Bruce Cotton, English politician (d. 1631)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " February Henry Balnaves, Scottish politician and religious reformer (b. 1512)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 25 Henry Lennard, 12th Baron Dacre, English baron and politician (d. 1616)",
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{
"plaintext": " April 13 Guy Fawkes, English conspirator (d. 1606)",
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},
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"plaintext": " May 8 Tamás Esterházy, Hungarian writer (d. 1616)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 22 Johann II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, German duke (d. 1605)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 7 Sultan Murad Mirza, Mughal prince (d. 1599)",
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27
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51
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 Paul Peuerl, German organist (d. 1625)",
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[
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47
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 10 Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1587–1590) (d. 1590)",
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10
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 21 Christopher, Duke of Brunswick-Harburg, co-ruler of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Harburg (1603–1606) (d. 1606)",
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},
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"plaintext": " August 22 Franz von Dietrichstein, German Catholic bishop (d. 1636)",
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1,
10
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35
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 Gustav of Saxe-Lauenburg, German noble (d. 1597)",
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1,
10
],
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12,
36
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[
55,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 28 Sir Richard Hoghton, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1630)",
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1,
13
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15,
47
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[
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76
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 3 George Coke, British bishop (d. 1646)",
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1,
10
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12,
23
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48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 4 Péter Pázmány, Hungarian cardinal and statesman (d. 1637)",
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2818597,
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1,
10
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[
12,
25
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[
64,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 7",
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"section_name": "Births",
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22446
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Volkert Overlander, Dutch mayor (d. 1630)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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31179008,
35078
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[
1,
19
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[
37,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean Richardot the Younger, Belgian politician (d. 1614)",
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[
1,
27
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 1 Phineas Pett, English shipwright and member of the Pett Dynasty (d. 1647)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
11
],
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13,
25
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[
81,
85
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 15 Francesco Curradi, Italian painter (d. 1661)",
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 Giovanni Battista Agucchi, Italian churchman, papal diplomat, and writer on art theory (d. 1632)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21575,
38607505,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
39
],
[
105,
109
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 26 Christian, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Ærø (1622–1633) (d. 1633)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
66
],
[
83,
87
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 28 James Whitelocke, English judge (d. 1632)",
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
30
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[
50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 7 Richard Cecil, English politician (d. 1633)",
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33595229,
35162
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
26
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 29 Wilhelm Lamormaini, Luxembourgian theologian (d. 1648)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
32
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[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Diego Aduarte, Prior of Manila (d. 1637)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
288707,
35193
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[
1,
14
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Aytoun, Scottish poet (d. 1638)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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[
1,
14
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38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ebba Bielke, Swedish baroness and conspirator (d. 1618) ",
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1,
12
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Cooper, English composer and lutenist (d. 1626)",
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[
1,
12
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52
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Farmer, English composer (d. c.1601)",
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[
1,
12
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},
{
"plaintext": " Simon Grahame, Scottish-born adventurer (d. 1614)",
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1078538,
35102
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[
1,
14
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45,
49
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nakagawa Hidenari, Japanese daimyō (d. 1612)",
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35098
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[
1,
18
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40,
44
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hans Lippershey, Dutch lensmaker (d. 1619)",
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198147,
35108
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[
1,
16
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38,
42
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},
{
"plaintext": " Asprilio Pacelli, Italian Baroque composer (d. 1623)",
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[
1,
17
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52
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},
{
"plaintext": " Girolamo Rainaldi, Italian architect (d. 1655)",
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36177
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[
1,
18
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42,
46
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},
{
"plaintext": " Salamone Rossi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1630)",
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356098,
35078
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[
1,
15
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Smyth, English Baptist minister (d. 1612)",
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35098
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[
1,
11
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42,
46
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chief Powhatan, Algonquin chief (d. 1620)",
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35109
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[
1,
15
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37,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " Claudia Sessa, Italian composer (d. 1617/19)",
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[
1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Katharina Henot, German General Postmaster and alleged witch (d. 1627)",
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14693441,
35141
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[
1,
16
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66,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Urszula Meyerin, politically influential Polish courtier (d. 1635)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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13197247,
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[
1,
16
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62,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Christina Rauscher, German official and critic of witchcraft persecutions (d. 1618)",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " January 8 Philibert de l'Orme, French architect (b. 1510)",
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1,
10
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12,
31
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54,
58
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 23 James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, regent of Scotland (assassinated) (b. c.1531)",
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1,
11
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13,
45
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87,
91
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 13 Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino, politically active Italian duchess (b. 1493)",
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"plaintext": " February 20 Johannes Scheubel, German mathematician (b. 1494)",
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"plaintext": " March 1 Bernhard VII, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (b. 1540)",
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"plaintext": " March 16 Ippolita Gonzaga, Italian nun (b. 1503)",
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"plaintext": " April 13 Daniele Barbaro, Italian architect (b. 1514)",
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"plaintext": " July 3 Aonio Paleario, Italian humanist and reformer (executed) (b. c. 1500)",
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"plaintext": " July 25 Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovatyi, Russian diplomat",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 11 Johannes Brenz, German theologian and Protestant Reformer (b. 1499)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 1 Frans Floris, Flemish painter (b. 1520)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 18 Manuel da Nóbrega, Portuguese Jesuit missionary in Brazil (b. 1517)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 20 ",
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22442
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " João de Barros, Portuguese historian (b. 1496)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Francesco Laparelli, Italian architect (b. 1521)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November Jacques Grévin, French dramatist (b. 1539)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 21 Ruxandra Lăpușneanu, Moldavian regent (b. 1538)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 Jacopo Sansovino, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1486)",
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21448,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 15 Frederick III of Legnica, Duke of Legnica (b. 1520)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " François Bonivard, Swiss patriot and historian (b. 1496)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Francesco Primaticcio, Italian painter, architect, and sculptor (b. 1504)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tomás de Santa María, Spanish music theorist",
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] | [
"1570"
] | 6,659 | 395 | 91 | 178 | 0 | 0 | 1570 | year | [] |
38,605 | 1,100,083,454 | 1569 | [
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"plaintext": " January 11–May 6 – The first recorded lottery in England is performed nonstop, at the west door of St Paul's Cathedral. Each share costs ten shillings, and proceeds are used to repair harbours, and for other public works.",
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"plaintext": " March 13 – Battle of Jarnac: Royalist troops under Marshal Gaspard de Tavannes surprise and defeat the Huguenots under the Prince of Condé, who is captured and murdered. A substantial proportion of the Huguenot army manages to escape, under Gaspard de Coligny.",
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"plaintext": " June 10 – German Protestant troops reinforce Coligny, near Limoges.",
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"plaintext": " July 1 – The Union of Lublin unites the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, following votes in the Assemblies of three Lithuanian provinces (Volhynia, Ukraine and Podlasie) in favour of the incorporation.",
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"plaintext": " July–September – Huguenot forces under Coligny and 15-year-old Prince Henry of Navarre besiege Poitiers.",
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"plaintext": " August 2 – Burma invades Siam and captures Ayutthaya. Siam becomes a vassal of Burma.",
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"plaintext": " August 24 – Battle of Orthez: Huguenot forces under Gabriel, comte de Montgomery defeat Royalist forces under General Terride, in French Navarre. Catholics surrender under the condition that their lives will be spared. Huguenots agree, but then massacre the Catholics anyway.",
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"plaintext": " September – A Royalist army under the Duc d'Anjou and Marshal Tavannes forces Coligny to abandon the siege of Poitiers.",
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"plaintext": " September 28 – First complete printed Bible in Spanish translation (La Biblia), made by Casiodoro de Reina, published in Basel.",
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"plaintext": " October 3 – Battle of Moncontour: The Royalist forces of Tavannaes and Anjou defeat Coligny's Huguenots.",
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"plaintext": " November–December – Rising of the North in England: Three northern earls lead a rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I, in an attempt to place the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, on the English throne, but are driven out of the country.",
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"plaintext": " The Mercator projection is first used in Gerardus Mercator's world map, Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigantium Emendata.",
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"plaintext": " A conspiracy with the intent to depose John III of Sweden and reinstate the imprisoned Eric XIV of Sweden on the Swedish throne is exposed in Sweden. ",
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{
"plaintext": " The trade compact of 1536 is renewed, exempting French merchants from Ottoman law, and allowing them to travel, buy and sell throughout the sultan's dominions, and to pay low customs duties on French imports and exports.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Akbar founds Fatehpur Sikri, to honor the Muslim holy man Shaikh Salim Chisti, who has foretold the birth of Akbar's son and heir, Jahangir.",
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"plaintext": " January 20 – Heribert Rosweyde, Jesuit hagiographer (d. 1629)",
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"plaintext": " January 22 – Lucio Massari, Italian painter (d. 1633)",
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"plaintext": " February 13 – Johann Reinhard I, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1625)",
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"plaintext": " March 28 – Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma (d. 1622)",
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"plaintext": " April 10 – Countess Emilia of Nassau, German countess (d. 1629)",
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"plaintext": " April 15 – Joan Shakespeare, William Shakespeare's sister (d. 1646)",
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"plaintext": " April 16 – John Davies, English poet and lawyer (d. 1626)",
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},
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"plaintext": " May 20 – Juan de la Cerda, 6th Duke of Medinaceli, Spanish noble (d. 1607)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 – Sophia of Holstein-Gottorp, Regent of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1603–1608) (d. 1634)",
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1,
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10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 30 – Hedwig of Hesse-Kassel, countess consort of Schaumburg (d. 1644)",
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1,
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11,
33
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},
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"plaintext": " July 3 – Thomas Richardson, English politician and judge (d. 1635)",
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15848,
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},
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"plaintext": " July 19 – Conrad Vorstius, Dutch theologian (d. 1622)",
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},
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"plaintext": " July 30 – Karl I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1627)",
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11,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 – Jahangir, Mughal emperor (d. 1627)",
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1711,
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13,
21
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},
{
"plaintext": " September – Arthur Lake, English bishop, a translator of the King James Bible (d. 1626)",
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27529,
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1,
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24
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},
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"plaintext": " September 5 – Georg Friedrich of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Weikersheim, officer and amateur poet (d. 1645)",
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12
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},
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"plaintext": " September 9 – Joachim Andreas von Schlick, Czech leader (d. 1621)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 23 – Tachibana Ginchiyo, female samurai leader of the Tachibana clan in Japan (d. 1602)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 – Ernst of Schaumburg, Count of Holstein-Pinneberg and Schaumburg (1601–1622) (d. 1622)",
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"plaintext": " September 27 – John Percy, English priest (d. 1641)",
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{
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 15 – Muzio Oddi, Italian mathematician (d. 1639)",
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{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
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"plaintext": " Guillén de Castro y Bellvis, Spanish dramatist (d. 1631)",
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 26 – Vidus Vidius, Italian surgeon and anatomist (b. 1509)",
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{
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"plaintext": " Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London (b. c. 1500)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Bernardo Tasso, Italian courtier and poet (b. 1493)",
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{
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},
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{
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 – António Ferreira, Portuguese poet (b. 1528)",
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},
{
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"plaintext": " December 15 – Ludowika Margaretha of Zweibrücken-Bitsch, spouse of Count Philip V of Hanau-Lichtenberg (b. 1540)",
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"plaintext": " date unknown – Janet Beaton, Scottish noble (b. 1519)",
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"plaintext": " Elin Andersdotter, Swedish lady-in-waiting and political conspirator",
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] | [
"1569"
] | 6,653 | 336 | 91 | 237 | 0 | 0 | 1569 | year | [] |
38,606 | 1,100,083,448 | 1567 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 1567 (MDLXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " January A Spanish force under the command of Captain Juan Pardo establishes Fort San Juan, in the Native American settlement of Joara. The fort is the first European settlement in present-day North Carolina.",
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"plaintext": " January 20 Battle of Rio de Janeiro: Portuguese forces under the command of Estácio de Sá definitively drive the French out of Rio de Janeiro.",
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"plaintext": " January 23 After 45 years' reign, the Jiajing Emperor dies in the Forbidden City of China.",
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"plaintext": " February 4 The Longqing Emperor ascends the throne of the Ming Dynasty.",
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"plaintext": " March 13 Battle of Oosterweel: A Spanish mercenary army surprises and kills a band of rebels near Antwerp in the Habsburg Netherlands, beginning the Eighty Years' War.",
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"plaintext": " May 15 Mary, Queen of Scots, marries James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell.",
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"plaintext": " May 24 Sture Murders: The mentally unstable King Erik XIV of Sweden and his guards murder five incarcerated nobles at Uppsala Castle.",
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"plaintext": " June 15 Battle of Carberry Hill: Mary, Queen of Scots, is defeated by the Scottish nobles and imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle.",
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"plaintext": " August 22 The Duke of Alba is sent to the Netherlands with a strong Spanish force, to suppress unrest there. He replaces Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands. Prince William of Orange is outlawed, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont imprisoned.",
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"plaintext": " September 9 At a dinner, the Duke of Alba arrests Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn for treason.",
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"plaintext": " November 16 Anna of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1613)",
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"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 2 Shane O'Neill, Irish chieftain (b. 1530)",
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1,
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 19 Anna of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (b. 1507)",
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 18 Enea Vico, Italian engraver (b. 1523)",
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1,
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12,
21
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44,
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},
{
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30
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53,
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},
{
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1,
11
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13,
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116,
120
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 12 Anne de Montmorency, Constable of France (b. 1493)",
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21631,
381834,
1689336,
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1,
12
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14,
33
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35,
54
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59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 13 Pedro de la Gasca, viceroy of Peru (b. 1485)",
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21761,
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
31
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53,
57
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 19 Takeda Yoshinobu, Japanese daimyō (b. 1538)",
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1461485,
38679
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
30
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas Beccon, English Protestant reformer (b. 1511)",
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38696
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[
1,
14
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Péter Erdődy, ban of Croatia (b. 1504)",
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3957420,
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[
1,
13
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34,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shahghali, khan of Qasim (b. 1505)",
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1044367,
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[
1,
10
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30,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lawrence Sheriff, English gentleman and grocer to Elizabeth I (b. 1510)",
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339601,
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1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Akagawa Motoyasu, Japanese samurai",
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10984123
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[
1,
17
]
]
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] | [
"1567"
] | 6,642 | 352 | 112 | 289 | 0 | 0 | 1567 | year | [] |
38,607 | 1,090,665,848 | 1645 | [
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1,
10
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12,
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},
{
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104,
108
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},
{
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13,
31
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57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 9 Johann Aegidius Bach, German organist, father of Johann Bernhard Bach (d. 1716)",
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11
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13,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 16 John Sharp, English Archbishop of York (d. 1714)",
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1,
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24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 13 Vere Fane, 4th Earl of Westmorland, England (d. 1693)",
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1,
12
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[
14,
48
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[
62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 22",
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11009
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12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Ambrosius Bach, German musician (d. 1695)",
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3263884,
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[
1,
22
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (d. 1693)",
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18680791,
38647
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[
1,
22
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48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 24 Francis I Rákóczi, Hungarian prince of Transylvania (d. 1676)",
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
],
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70,
74
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 17 Peter Du Cane, the elder, British noble Huguenot refugee (d. 1714)",
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25280501,
38550
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
35
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[
72,
76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 20 Arthur Brownlow, Anglo-Irish politician (d. 1711)",
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49553208,
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1,
9
],
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11,
26
],
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55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 25 Marco Battaglini, Italian Catholic bishop (d. 1717)",
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18090674,
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1,
9
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11,
27
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61
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 3 François Vachon de Belmont, French Catholic bishop (d. 1732)",
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
36
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65,
69
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 11 Juan del Valle y Caviedes, Spanish-born Peruvian poet (d. 1697)",
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8535073,
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1,
9
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[
11,
36
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73
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 17 James Olmsted, Connecticut politician (d. 1731)",
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42640733,
35852
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
24
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53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 22 Christine of Baden-Durlach, German noblewoman (d. 1705)",
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1710,
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38638
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
37
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[
61,
65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 3 Thomas Maule, prominent Quaker in colonial Salem (d. 1724)",
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19350,
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
20
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 4 Thomas Alvey, English physician (d. 1704)",
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19351,
28107082,
38640
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[
1,
6
],
[
8,
20
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[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 14 François de Callières, French writer and diplomat (d. 1717)",
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6925439,
38629
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
30
],
[
63,
67
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 15 George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, British judge (d. 1689)",
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19674,
147239,
36185
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
44
],
[
64,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 Giacomo Cantelmo, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1702)",
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15816,
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
26
],
[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 14 Haquin Spegel, Swedish bishop (d. 1714)",
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15797,
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1,
8
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10,
23
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44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 15 Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, English politician (d. 1712)",
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38633
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
49
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[
74,
78
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 11 Michael Wening, German engraver (d. 1718)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15873,
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38630
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
24
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Frederik Johan van Baer, Dutch army commander (d. 1713)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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15922,
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38632
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
33
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 28 Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, French princess (d. 1721)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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16040,
14604247,
35859
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
37
],
[
59,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August Charles Louis Simonneau, French engraver (d. 1728)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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37923364,
34766
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[
9,
32
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 3 August Kühnel, German composer and violist (d. 1700)",
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38642
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
24
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 5 Charles Schomberg, 2nd Duke of Schomberg, English general (d. 1693)",
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10186660,
38647
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1,
9
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[
11,
51
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73,
77
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 6 Joseph Herrick, principal law enforcement officer in Salem, Massachusetts (d. 1710)",
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1019,
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35945
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
25
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[
89,
93
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 10 Eusebio Kino, Italian Catholic missionary (d. 1711)",
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1340309,
35542
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
24
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[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 14 Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Mexican academic (d. 1700)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1417,
5009348,
38642
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
40
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[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 16 Jean de La Bruyère, French writer (d. 1696)",
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1448,
164927,
38645
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
30
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[
50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 25 Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam, Dutch general (d. 1714)",
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1519,
10184869,
38550
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
37
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 30 Giuseppe Avanzi, Italian painter (d. 1718)",
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10087410,
38630
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
27
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 4",
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"target_page_ids": [
27765
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johannes Jakob Buxtorf, Swiss Hebraist (d. 1705)",
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21059534,
38638
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[
1,
23
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[
44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " John North, 5th of fourteen children of Sir Dudley North (d. 1683)",
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12037078,
38651
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[
1,
11
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[
62,
66
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 10 Romeyn de Hooghe, Dutch Golden Age painter, engraver, and sculptor (d. 1708)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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28020,
2510595,
38634
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
31
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[
86,
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 21 Louis Jolliet, French Canadian explorer known for his discoveries in North America (d. 1700)",
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27532,
125317,
38642
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
28
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[
102,
106
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 22 Chikka Devaraja, Ruler of Mysore (d. 1704)",
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27889,
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38640
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
30
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52,
56
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 25 Naitō Kiyokazu, Japanese daimyō who ruled the Takatō Domain (d. 1714)",
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28203,
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1,
13
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15,
29
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{
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},
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 16 Tobias Hume, English composer (b. 1559)",
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49
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},
{
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},
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38
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 20 Shi Kefa, Chinese Ming Dynasty official (b. 1601)",
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},
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"plaintext": " May 21 Crown Prince Sohyeon, Korean crown prince (b. 1612)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 26 Mariana de Jesús de Paredes, Ecuadorian Roman Catholic hermit and saint (b. 1618)",
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89
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 29 Adam Christian Agricola, German Evangelical preacher (b. 1593)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 13 Miyamoto Musashi, Japanese swordsman (b. c. 1584)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Georg Friedrich of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Weikersheim, officer and amateur poet (b. 1569)",
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},
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"plaintext": " July 13 Marie de Gournay, French writer (b. 1565)",
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},
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"plaintext": " July 22 Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish statesman (b. 1587)",
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"plaintext": " August 6 Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant (b. 1575)",
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"plaintext": " August 18 Eudoxia Streshneva, Tsaritsa of Russia (b. 1608)",
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30
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},
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"plaintext": " September 8 Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish writer (b. 1580)",
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12
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34
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40
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35837
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78
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"plaintext": " September 16 John Macias, Spanish Dominican friar and saint (b. 1585)",
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35837
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26
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36,
45
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70
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"plaintext": " October 2 Francesco Cennini de' Salamandri, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1566)",
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{
"plaintext": " November 21 William Helyar, English chaplain (b. 1559)",
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28
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"plaintext": " December 7 Philip Dietrich, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1640–1645) (b. 1614)",
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11
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"plaintext": " December 12 Giovanni Bernardino Azzolini or Mazzolini or Asoleni, Italian painter (b. c. 1572)",
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12
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14,
42
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"plaintext": " December 17 Nur Jahan, empress consort of the Mughal Empire (b. 1577)",
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12
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23
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70
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{
"plaintext": " December 28 Gaspar de Borja y Velasco, Spanish Catholic cardinal (b. 1580)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " date unknown",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Françoise-Marie Jacquelin, Acadian heroine (b. 1621)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " William Lithgow, Scottish traveller (b. c. 1585)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sultan Agung, third Sultan of Mataram (b. 1593)",
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1,
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}
] | [
"1645"
] | 6,925 | 559 | 137 | 314 | 0 | 0 | 1645 | year | [] |
38,608 | 1,093,296,037 | 1647 | [
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{
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1,
10
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},
{
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1,
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74,
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},
{
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1,
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},
{
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1,
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},
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1,
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},
{
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11164
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
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1,
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49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philipp Reinhard Vitriarius, German lawyer (d. 1720)",
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43998863,
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[
1,
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48,
52
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]
},
{
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1,
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14,
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},
{
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1,
8
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10,
23
],
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73
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]
},
{
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1,
9
],
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11,
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80
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]
},
{
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34945
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
32
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
44
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[
91,
95
]
]
},
{
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1,
9
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[
11,
31
],
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62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 1 John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier of King Charles II's Restoration court (d. 1680)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
44
],
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115,
119
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Maria Sibylla Merian, German-born naturalist and scientific illustrator (d. 1717)",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
30
],
[
86,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 3 Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd Baronet, English statesman (d. 1709)",
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1,
8
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[
10,
43
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[
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71
]
]
},
{
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1,
9
],
[
11,
26
],
[
46,
50
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]
},
{
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1,
9
],
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11,
24
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45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 26 William Ashhurst, Lord Mayor of London (1693–1694) (d. 1720)",
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],
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1,
9
],
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11,
27
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66,
70
]
]
},
{
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],
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1,
7
],
[
9,
25
],
[
63,
67
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]
},
{
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1,
7
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50
],
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115,
119
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]
},
{
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],
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1,
8
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10,
23
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
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15817,
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35859
],
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1,
8
],
[
10,
20
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
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15818,
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],
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1,
8
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10,
44
],
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49,
53
]
]
},
{
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15857,
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1,
8
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10,
21
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71
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]
},
{
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
45
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[
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80
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]
},
{
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1,
7
],
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9,
45
],
[
157,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 22 Margaret Mary Alacoque, French Catholic nun, mystic and saint (d. 1690)",
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1,
8
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10,
32
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[
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80
]
]
},
{
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38655
],
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1,
8
],
[
10,
39
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 29 Carl Piper, Swedish politician (d. 1716)",
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15968,
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],
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
20
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 4 Giovanni II Cornaro, Venetian nobleman and statesman (d. 1722)",
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2418,
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35858
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
30
],
[
68,
72
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 12",
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1491
],
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Heinrich Acker, German writer (d. 1719)",
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822708,
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],
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[
1,
22
],
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42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eberhard Werner Happel, German author (d. 1690)",
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],
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[
1,
23
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[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 22 Denis Papin, French inventor (d. 1713)",
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],
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[
1,
10
],
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12,
23
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 28 Erik Carlsson Sjöblad, Swedish governor, admiral, and baron (d. 1725)",
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1781,
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],
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
33
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[
76,
80
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 Mary Scott, 3rd Countess of Buccleuch, young Scottish peeress (d. 1661)",
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1711,
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1,
10
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12,
49
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82
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark, daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark (d. 1717)",
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27530,
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38629
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1,
12
],
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14,
45
],
[
93,
97
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 4 Gerhard Noodt, Dutch jurist (d. 1725)",
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],
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1,
12
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[
14,
27
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 23",
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27651
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph Dudley, colonial Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1720)",
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577001,
34945
],
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[
1,
14
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[
55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Frederick VII, Margrave of Baden-Durlach from 1677 until his death (d. 1709)",
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24073408,
38635
],
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1,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 3 Johannes Voet, Dutch legal scholar (d. 1713)",
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22347,
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38632
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1,
10
],
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12,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 11",
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21447
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johann Wilhelm Baier, German theologian (d. 1695)",
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34896
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1,
21
],
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45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johannes Voorhout, Dutch painter (d. 1723)",
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24241802,
35808
],
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1,
18
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38,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 18 Pierre Bayle, French philosopher (d. 1706)",
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1,
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14,
26
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 20 Huchtenburg, Dutch painter (d. 1733)",
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1,
12
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14,
25
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49
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},
{
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34927
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1,
12
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14,
45
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101
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 27 Badr-un-Nissa, daughter of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and Nawab Bai (d. 1670)",
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1,
12
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14,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 28 Constantin Marselis, Danish baron (d. 1699)",
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1,
12
],
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14,
33
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 4 Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715)",
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38627
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1,
11
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[
13,
27
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[
49,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 7",
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8144
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[
1,
11
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Ceva, Italian mathematician (d. 1734)",
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1,
14
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46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Francesco del Giudice, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1725)",
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1,
22
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54,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 11",
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8396
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jacob Johan Hastfer, Swedish officer, governor of Livonia (d. 1695)",
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34896
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1,
20
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},
{
"plaintext": " David van der Plas, Dutch painter (d. 1704)",
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38640
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 22 Nicholas Noyes, Massachusetts colonial minister, during the time of the Salem witch trials (d. 1717)",
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28
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 30 Jean Martianay, French Benedictine scholar (d. 1717)",
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{
"plaintext": " Henry Aldrich, English theologian and philosopher (d. 1710)",
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1,
14
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55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constantine Phaulkon, Greek adventurer (d. 1688)",
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646879,
34733
],
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[
1,
21
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44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elisabeth Hevelius, Polish astronomer (d. 1693)",
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[
1,
19
],
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 2 Zhang Xianzhong, Chinese rebel (b. 1606)",
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],
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
27
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51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 6 Francisco Ximénez de Urrea, Spanish historian (b. 1589)",
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15986,
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[
1,
10
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12,
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62,
66
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 14 François L’Anglois, French artist (b. 1589)",
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38591
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1,
11
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13,
31
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[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 29 Francis Meres, English writer (b. 1565)",
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15814,
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1,
11
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[
13,
26
],
[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 6 Juan Alfonso Enríquez de Cabrera, Viceroy of Sicily and Viceroy of Naples (b. 1599)",
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11021,
28119221,
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
45
],
[
91,
95
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 17 Johann Heermann, German poet, hymn-writer (b. 1585)",
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11164,
8182298,
35837
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
29
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60,
64
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 2 Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar, by marriage Princess of Anhalt-Harzgerode (b. 1619)",
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19516,
36891326,
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1,
8
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[
10,
45
],
[
93,
97
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 14 Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (b. 1584)",
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20199,
293322,
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],
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1,
9
],
[
11,
44
],
[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 29 Charles Butler, English beekeeper and philologist (b. 1560)",
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20586,
13052409,
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],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
25
],
[
65,
69
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 20 Sir John Hobart, 2nd Baronet, English politician (b. 1593)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2195,
8691728,
35051
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
39
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[
64,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 21 Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch poet and historian (b. 1581)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19684,
73720,
38596
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
34
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 2 Christian, Prince-Elect of Denmark (b. 1603)",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [
15855,
25120747,
34891
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
43
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 9 Leonard Calvert, Colonial governor of Maryland (b. 1606)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15865,
1125358,
13504538,
35086
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
24
],
[
26,
55
],
[
60,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 12 Thomas Farnaby, English grammarian (b. c. 1575)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15806,
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],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
24
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 Francis Walsingham, English Jesuit (b. 1577)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15844,
31643882,
38600
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
27
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Thomas Hooker, Connecticut colonist (b. 1586)",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [
15863,
268425,
38593
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
22
],
[
49,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 12 Francesco Maria Farnese, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1619)",
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15971,
30594360,
35108
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
33
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 16 Masaniello, Italian rebel (b. 1622)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15947,
238308,
34973
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
20
],
[
40,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 24 Nicholas Stone, English sculptor and architect (b. 1586)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1629,
21189812,
38593
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
],
[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 27 Pietro Novelli, Italian painter (b. 1603)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1013,
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
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[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 9 Sir Edward Osborne, 1st Baronet, English politician (b. 1596)",
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28544,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
45
],
[
70,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Pietro Carrera, Italian chess player (b. 1573)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28146,
712460,
34757
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
15,
29
],
[
56,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 8 Christian Sørensen Longomontanus, Danish astronomer (b. 1562)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22543,
491567,
38662
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
44
],
[
68,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 9 Anselm Casimir Wambold von Umstadt, Archbishop of Mainz (b. 1582)",
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"target_page_ids": [
22549,
31537331,
34868
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
46
],
[
72,
76
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 15 Bartholda van Swieten, Dutch diplomat (b. 1566)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22555,
29437186,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
34
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 25 Evangelista Torricelli, Italian mathematician and physicist (b. 1608)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22333,
210413,
34591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
35
],
[
77,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 5 Vincentio Reinieri, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1606)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21565,
7039052,
35086
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
31
],
[
74,
78
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 25 George Albert I, Count of Erbach-Schönberg (b. 1597)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
21580,
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34718
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
56
],
[
61,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 30 ",
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"target_page_ids": [
21577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bonaventura Cavalieri, Italian mathematician (b. 1598)",
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"target_page_ids": [
412561,
34928
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Lanfranco, Italian painter (b. 1582)",
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"target_page_ids": [
2499692,
34868
],
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[
1,
19
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[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 1 Joseph Gaultier de la Vallette, French astronomer (b. 1564)",
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8357,
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34660
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
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[
13,
43
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[
67,
71
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]
}
] | [
"1647"
] | 6,935 | 569 | 117 | 257 | 0 | 0 | 1647 | year | [] |
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